67 evaluation of kosovo primary education programs in terms of cultural diversity serdan kervan university of prizren “ukshin hoti” serdan.kervan@gmail.com abstract communities that have lived together for a long time have used the same language and created a number of common values. all of these common values constitute the cult of that community. culture is a complex phenomenon that reflects the ways in which a nation solves its problems, the ways in which it interacts with each other and with others, and the way they think (naylor, 1996). this research was conducted by teachers 1-5. the structure of the class curricula and their impact on student achievement is determined by a semi-structured interview form, so it is a qualitative research based on the cause-and-effect relationship. the universe of this research is the class teachers who work in the primary schools in the cities where different mother-tongue education is provided in kosovo. according to the teachers 'views, the influences of the programs applied for different cultures on the students' success were determined as meaningful differences in the age, education level, teaching language of the teachers and whether or not they were educated in different mother tongues in the same school. keywords: primary education, cultural diversity, teacher, evaluation, kosovo. 1. introduction communities that have lived together for a long time have used the same language and created a number of common values. all of these common values constitute the cult of that community. culture is a complex phenomenon that reflects the ways in which a nation solves its problems, 68 the ways in which it interacts with each other and with others, and the way they think (naylor, 1996). culture; it consists of abstract thoughts, values, and perceptions of the world that inform us about the behaviour of people and come to life in these behaviours. multiculturalism is to be aware of language, religion, race, gender, age, social class, ethnicity, disability and other cultural values. education should earn, protect and develop the values of the cultures in which the individual lives. the development of these values is possible with training programs, teachers and managers. culture is literally inherently societal. multiculturalism in sociology studies means that many cultures co-exist in the same country. (ipl, 2013). the concept of multiculturalism in the world was first used in switzerland in 1957, and at the end of the 1960s the common sense developed in canada. the concept rapidly spread to other english-speaking countries and began to be discussed here (sengstock, 2009). hence multiculturalism in modern sense is a concept emerging in north america. people in the us and canada who speak a different language and live in the lands they think belong to themselves want to be recognized for their cultural identity. the concept of multiculturalism can be said to have emerged as a response to this recognition claim. the fact that a society is multicultural, only traditions, customs, values, etc. among the members of that society. but also, because they are members of different cultures, they have a difference between the ethical values they feel attached to and obey, and therefore the understanding of justice they wish to achieve in accordance with these beliefs (jai, 2012). multicultural education refers to ideas and approaches advocating the inclusion of multicultural policies in education. for example, according to hidalgo et al. (1996), multicultural education is based on the principles of democracy, equality and justice based on pluralism and the principle of difference. more particularly, multicultural education is the idea of equality of opportunity and opportunity in democratic-based education. this idea is based on the fact that cultural elements do not give all students the opportunity to benefit from the same equality. in this sense, the aim of multicultural education is not the most inequality. trip (1981) notes that there are five main approaches to multicultural education. these include training that focuses on helping to cultivate the educational opportunities of culturally diverse students; education aiming to understand cultural differences; education aimed at protecting cultural pluralism; 69 training to help students to work in different cultures and training to develop competence in multiple systems. the language in intercultural education, which is defined as the education of people who speak different languages in a country in their mother tongue, is seen as an important phenomenon. language does not agree with words or signs to tell people what they think and hear. in other words, language is any means of expression for reporting thoughts and feelings (tdk, 2011). in many countries there are several languages spoken by small communities besides the vast majority of spoken languages. the mother tongue of a majority is often used as the official language of that country. however, in some countries, such as switzerland, belgium, the netherlands and kosovo, more than one official language can be used. in some countries, the majority language is used as official language, while minorities are allowed to study in their mother tongue through international agreements or by constitutional and legislative arrangements (tdk, 2011). the concept of minority is used by groups of four different characteristics by the united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization (unesco): first, indigenous peoples who are native to the country or from where they come from. second, regional minorities and groups that have a deep-rooted tradition. third, regional minorities or nonimmigrant or non-affiliated groups (immigrants). the fourth is immigrants. such situations lead to different languages being spoken in the respective countries, and sometimes different cultures are developed and experienced. communities that speak different languages in their own language are also looking for opportunities to study in their own language. multicultural education is a topic when it comes to providing more than one level of education in countries with more than one spoken communities (unesco, 2006). article 1 of the constitution of kosovo states that "the republic of kosovo is an independent, democratic, indivisible sovereign state". article 5 of the same constitution states that "official languages in the republic of kosovo are albanian and serbian, with the law having the official language status of turkish, bosnian and roman languages at all levels at municipal level or official use" (constitution of the republic of kosovo, 15). kosovo republic according to article 3.2. of the primary and secondary education act, every child of a kosovo citizen has 70 the right to receive education in his own mother tongue (mest, 2002). kosovo community rights and protection act 2.1. the protection of the identities is guaranteed. this law recognizes the right to protection of cultures, transfer to new generations, and the use of their language guarantees that the turkish, bosnian and roma communities use their languages at the official and municipal level, as well as albanian and serbian, which are in official language status in kosovo (republic of kosovo assembly, 2008, law no: 03 / l-047). examine the impact of the multicultural structure of kosovo on educational programs; it shows the importance reveal similar and different aspects of education in the decisions to be taken for students from different cultural managers and policy guidance to practitioners in education and training programs in turkey by comparing the multicultural nature of the program. the purpose of this study is; how do different cultures in kosovo respond to primary education programs? and to determine the effects of these differences on student achievement. 2. method model research (pattern) this research was conducted by teachers 1-5. the structure of the classroom curricula and the impact on student achievement is determined by a semi-structured interview form, so it is a qualitative research based on the cause-effect relationship. the universe of this research is the class teachers who work in the primary schools in the cities where different mother-tongue education is provided in kosovo. the sample consists of teachers who are trained in 50 albanian, 30 turkish and 30 bosnian languages to be selected from classroom teachers in schools in the cities of prizren and mamusha. by examining different educational arrangements, reflecting the cultural diversity in the programs and assessing the relevant programs, the data on the impact of the programs on student success were collected from the teachers in a semi-structured interview form. 3. results teachers were asked the following questions during a semi-structured interview to study the educational programs of kosovo's culture and the impact on student achievement. how are 71 cultural differences reflected in the educational program in kosovo? are there programs for different cultures in kosovo? what kinds of problems are encountered in the implementation of programs for different cultures in kosovo? is there a meaningful difference between the achievements of students in a school where there are different cultures according to teachers' views? teacher views on the impact of the structure and implementation of educational programs of different cultures on the success of students; is there a meaningful difference in terms of teaching language, gender, seniority, whether or not there is different parental education in the same school, level of education, level of education done, age change? the findings show that there is a multicultural education structure in kosovo and, accordingly, the programs have been adapted to a multicultural structure. it has been observed that there is a significant difference between the effect of the students on the success of the students who are educated in different mother tongue and the students in the school where the monoculture education is given. according to the teachers 'views, the influences of the programs applied for different cultures on the students' success were determined as meaningful differences in the age, education level, teaching language of the teachers and whether or not they were educated in different mother tongues in the same school. 4. results and suggesti̇ons "multicultural education programs are being put into practice in multinational and multicultural countries such as the usa, canada, australia, germany, and uk, starting with preschool classes" (guven, 2005, akt, cirik, 2008,). the fact that our country has a multicultural character, it is seen that the trainings made in the schools cover different cultures and that some regions, including albanian turkish and bosnian, have serbian education. the existence of this work sometimes seems to be positive, but at times it brings with it some negatives. it has been seen that a multicultural education structure has emerged from the path of discovery and the programs have been prepared accordingly to a multicultural structure. students in different mother-tongue-educated schools have a higher success than students in universal-educated schools. this is mainly due to recognizing different cultures, knowing more about the responsibilities of being a social individual, and learning to respect rights. 72 for example, from the answers given by the teachers; m1 "pupils are among the far-flung cultures since the early childhood and learn to share or fight from time to time. this situation affects their achievements positively. he also teaches struggle in his life ". according to another finding from the teachers, it was seen that the teachers had a significant difference according to the age variable. they point out that elderly teachers have adopted and cared more quickly by different cultures, and they have also been able to overcome them in their students. another finding is that the schooling language variable is also important for schools, while the majority communities recognize minority communities by adopting them, but minority communities are more concerned with the majority societies and will have an impact on their success. it is determined that there are significant differences in whether or not there are different mother tongue education in the same school, and the fact that the students are not educated in different mother tongue influences the success of the students not to recognize other cultures and to express their opinions. this situation negatively affects the effect of students on worldview and school achievement. references başbay, a., bektaş, y. (2009). çokkültürlülük bağlamında öğretim ortamı ve öğretmen yeterlikleri. eğitim ve bilim, 34, s.30-43 cirik, m. (2016). uzaktan eğitimin üstün zekalı öğrencilerin eğitimindeki yeri. açıköğretim uygulamaları ve araştırmaları dergisi, 2(3), 170-187. naylor, l. (1996). cultura and change, bergin&garvey, wesport, connecticut, london. t.d.k. (2011). büyük türkçe sözlük, http://www.tdkterim.gov.tr/ bts/ (29.01.2011). i̇nternational periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume 8/3, winter 2013 i̇ncelemeler dergisi (journal of academic inquiries) cilt/ volume:7, sayı/number:1 yıl/year:2012. 73 polat i̇. & kılıç e. (2013). yyü eğitim fakültesi dergisi (yyu journal of education faculty),2013,cilt:x, sayı:i,352-372, http://efdergi.yyu.edu.tr özensel, e. (2012). çokkültürlülük uygulaması olarak kanada çokkültürlülüğü. akademik i̇ncelemeler dergisi, 7(1). republic of kosovo assembly, 2008, law no: 03 / l-047, constitution of the republic of kosovo, 1-5. http://efdergi.yyu.edu.tr/ 74 legal status of flat unit ownership certificate (strata title) in indonesia i made herman susanto ¹* ibrahim r. ² ¹ udayana university, faculty of law, doctoral study program (s3) on science of law, made.herman.fh@gmail.com, *correspondent author ² udayana university, faculty of law, study program (s3) on science of law, mrprof.ibrahim@gmail.com article history: accepted 29 july 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: legal status, flat unit ownership certificate, legal research, conflict. a b s t r a c t this study seeks to examine the legal status of flat unit ownership rights between law number 5 of 1960 and law number 20 of 2011; by using normative legal research (statute approach and concept approach), this research concludes: the legal status of flat unit ownership certificate as stipulated in the law number 5 of 1960 and law number 20 of 2011 cannot be said to have a conflict of legal norms. the difference in interpretation of those laws can be resolved by: (1) the principle of lex specialis derogat lex generale, means specific laws (in this case is law number 20 of 2011 concerning flats) overrides general laws (in this case is law number 5 of 1960 concerning basic agrarian law); (2) article 16 paragraph (1) letter h of law number 5 of 1960 concerning basic agrarian law provides: other rights not included in the previously mentioned rights will be stipulated in the law, as well as the temporary rights as referred to in article 53; thus, the term flat unit ownership certificate can be accepted because it does not conflict with applicable laws and regulations. 1. introduction based on article 17 of law number 20 of 2011 concerning flats, flat can be built on: a. rights of ownership; b. rights to build or utilize on state’s land; and c. rights to build or utilize on land with management rights. for land with management rights, the law provides specific arrangements. the developer must clarify the status of the land before selling the flat units. article 17 of the law states that flat can be built on: a. rights of ownership; b. rights to build or utilize on state’s land; c. rights to build or utilize on land with management rights. article 18 provides that in addition to being built on land categories as mentioned in article 17, public and/or special flats can also be built with: a. the utilization of state’s/regional property in form of land; b. the utilization of waqf (endowment) land. article 19 paragraph (1) concerning the utilization of state’s/regional property in the form of land for the construction of flat as referred to in article 18 letter a is carried out by way of lease or utilization cooperation. paragraph (2) stated that the land referred in paragraph (1) must prove to have been registered with a certificate of land rights in accordance with statutory provisions. in paragraph (3), the execution of leasing or utilization cooperation as referred in paragraph (1) shall be carried out in accordance with statutory regulations. article 20 paragraph (1) provided that the utilization of waqf land for the construction of flat as referred to in article 18 letter b shall be carried out by way of lease or utilization cooperation according to the endowment pledge. as in paragraph (2), if the use of waqf land as referred to in paragraph (1) is not in accordance with the endowment pledge, the designation may be changed after obtaining approval and/or written permission from the indonesian waqf board in accordance with the provisions of the legislation. further regulated in paragraph (3), the change of the designation http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 mailto:made.herman.fh@gmail.com http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0083-7110 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5308-6491 75 as intended in paragraph (2) can only be done for the construction of public flats. in paragraph (4) gives condition that the implementation of lease or utilization cooperation as referred to in paragraph (1) is carried out in accordance with sharia principles and legislation. at last, paragraph (5) states that further provisions concerning the utilization of waqf land for public flats are regulated by government regulations. based on the description above, using the normative research method, the question being asked is whether the legal status of flat unit ownership specified in law number 20 of 2011 conflict with article 16 of law no. 5 of 1960 or not? 2. research method the type of research chosen is normative legal research or doctrinal legal research, namely legal research that conceptualizes law as the norm (wignyosoebroto, 2002), because this research is normative legal research, so as to solve or answer the proposed problems (legal issues), conceptual approach, case approach and historical approach are used (marzuki, 2011). the legal material from normative research can be divided into three namely, 1. primary legal material, is the main legal material in this study, consists of laws and regulations relating to land. 2. secondary legal law, includes library materials that provide explanations about primary legal materials31 such as books, works from the legal community, literature, magazines, newspapers, electronic media as well as other data references relating to the issue of compensation for land acquisition for development in the public interest (hermansyah, 2009). the technique of searching primary and secondary legal materials is done by studying literature and internet searching (rahardjo, 2000). the processing of legal materials is carried out by systematizing written legal materials. analysis of the materials that have been collected must be done according to methods of analysis or interpretation (interpretation) of known law, such as authentic interpretation, interpretation according to grammar (grammatical), interpretation based on the history of the law (historical wets) or based on the history of law (historical rechtshistoris), systematic interpretation, sociological interpretation, theological interpretation, functional interpretation or futuristic interpretation (as an estimate). of the several ways of analysis or interpretation (interpretation) the authors choose analysis using systematic interpretation, grammatical (grammatical), teleological interpretation (abdlatif & ali, 2010). 3. results and discussion flat unit ownership rights (fuor) is a new rights institution which introduced through the law on flats (lof). according to the lof, fuor is individual and separated. in addition to ownership of flats unit, fuor also includes joint ownership rights called "shared parts", "shared land", and "shared objects", which all constituting an integral part of flats unit; since the ownership of flats unit includes the shared land, the flats unit can only be owned by an individual/legal entity who meet the requirements of holding the shared land rights. article 46 of law number 20 year 2011 stipulates: (1). flat unit ownership rights is an ownership rights to an individual flats unit which separated from the shared rights over the shared parts, shared objects, and shared land. (2). the right to shared unit and shared land as referred to in paragraph (1) shall be calculated based on the proportional comparison value (pcv). shared parts are the parts of a flat block which owned separately for shared use in one unitary function. for example: columns, stairs, roof, in-out access of the flats, public rooms, foundations and so on. the shared parts cannot be used by the owner of flat unit because it is a joint right of all the flat unit owners. shared land is a piece of land that used on the basis of separate joint rights on which flats are built and the boundaries of the building are determined with the permit conditions. article 17 of lof determines that flats can only be built on rights of ownership, rights to build or utilize on state’s land, and rights to build or utilize on land with management rights. the rights to shared land determine whether or not a person/legal entity to possess a flat unit. shared objects are objects that not part of the flat but are shared and inseparable for shared use, for example: parks, sports and recreation facilities, fire extinguishers, clean water networks, electricity, gas, telephones, sewerage, drain, garbage bin, elevator/escalator, and others. according to imam kuswahyono (2004), the ownership system for multi-story building units is divided into 2 (two): 1. single ownership 2. multi ownership single ownership can be seen from the ownership of the land where the high rise building stands, so that the certificate holder is also the owner of the building. the shared ownership system is divided into two, by looking at whether or not there is a legal 76 binding that previously exists between high rise buildings, as follows: 1. bound joint ownership, the main basis is the existence of legal binding between the owners. the rules are based on the regulation of the minister of internal affairs number 14 of 1975. 2. free joint ownership, i.e. between owners there is no prior legal relationship other than the joint rights to be the owner for shared utilizations. the basic rule is the lof jo. government regulation no. 4 of 1988 concerning flats. this free joint ownership system is known as condominium. referring to the above description, land ownership rights on a flats unit in the perspective of law on objects refers to condominium system as regulated in book ii of the civil code, where individual owners of a flats unit are the occupants' rights. beside that, there are common ownership rights over the land where the building is located (common areas) and common property rights over the building facilities (common elements). in article 6 and article 77 of the government regulation no. 4 of 1988 concerning flats, it is stipulated: flat units can be on the surface of the land, above the ground, below the surface of the land, partly below and partly above the ground level. flat units must have a direct connection to the exit or have access to public roads. in article 47 of law no. 20 of 2011 concerning flats: (1). proofs of flat unit ownership on land with rights of ownership, rights to build or utilize on state’s land, or rights to build or utilize on land with management rights, are issued in form of certificates of flat unit ownership rights (fuor). (2). fuor as referred to in paragraph (1) is issued to every person who qualifies as a holder of land rights. (3). fuor as referred to in paragraph (1) constitutes an inseparable unit consisting of: a. a copy of land book and the measurement letter on the shared land in accordance with statutory regulations; b. draw on the floor plan at the level of the related flats which shows the owned flat unit; c. explanation regarding the portion of the right on the shared parts, shared objects, and shared land for the person concerned. (4). fuor as referred to in paragraph (1) shall be issued by the district/municipal land registration office. (5). fuor can be used as collateral for a loan by being burdened with mortgages according to the provisions of the legislation. when compared with other countries abroad, according to arie s. hutagalung (2003), the term "strata title" is more likely to have horizontal joint ownership in addition to vertical ownership. furthermore, according to maria sw sumardjono (2008), strata title is a system that allows the distribution of land and buildings in units called parcels, each of which is a separate right. in addition to individual ownership, it is also known the terms land, objects, and parts, which are common property. in the housing and settlement law, common property is referred as social and public facilities. based on the regulation of the minister of internal affair no. 1 of 1987 concerning the submission of environmental infrastructure, public facilities, and social housing facilities to local governments, the composition is 60% (buildings): 40% (social facilities and public facilities). the concept of strata title can be applied to buildings such as highrise, residential, town houses, factories, offices and retail. according to djuhaendah hasan (2008), in several countries including australia, new zealand, singapore, malaysia and hong kong, the problem of providing land ownership for horizontal housing construction was replaced with vertical housing construction using the strata title system, that is a system that regulates the portion of land consisting of layers (strata), namely: the lower and upper layers. strata is a plural form of stratum which is defined as the following: “stratum means any part of land consisting of a space of any shape below on or above the surface of the land, dimensions of which are delineated”. in order to guarantee legal certainty and legal order in the matter of someone's ownership, it must be within the legal framework of property. one's ownership on a flat unit must have proof on its land rights. according to arie s. hutagalung (2003), as proof of ownership rights to a flat unit, a powerful evidential tool is provided in the form of a certificate of ownership rights over the flat units. the form and procedure for the registration of land books and the issuance of fuor certificates are regulated in the regulation of the head of national land agency no. 4 of 1989. the administration of fuor and the issuance of certificates are based on the information/data contained in the deed of the split which has been approved by the regional government. government regulation no. 4 year 1988 concerning flats establishes that fuor is one of the products of a series of licensing processes in the flat system that highly dependent on the previous/upstream licensing products, including location permits and building construction permits (imb). the licensing sequence to the certification process must include, among others: location permit, land acquisition, building permit, ratification, livable permit, ratification of the deed of the split for the flats into flat units, registration of the deed of split, and issuance of the fuor certificate. 77 the certificate is a proof that acts as a strong evident of the physical data and juridical data contained therein, as long as the physical data and the juridical data are in accordance with the data contained in the measuring certificate and land book of the relevant rights. for flats that stand on leased land which status is the state’s land, or an endowments/waqf land, it will issue a certificate of building ownership (skbg). unlike the land title certificate, the fuor certificate and the skbg which used as collateral will be encumbered with the mortgage right, instead of the land. therefore, the security rights imposed in the fuor and skbg are the status of ownership on which the shared parts, the shared objects, and the shared land. based on article 16 of law number 5 of 1960 concerning basic agrarian principles, the types of existing rights are: rights of ownership, rights to function, rights to utilize, rights to use, rights to lease, rights for land opening, and rights to collect forest products. other rights not included above will be determined by law (setiawan, 2010). 4. conclusions based on the above description, law number 16 of 1985 concerning flats has been replaced by law number 20 of 2011 concerning flats; it cannot be said that there is conflict of norms between law number 5 of 1960 on basic agrarian principles in article 16, and law number 20 of 2011 concerning flats. the difference in interpretation of the above law can be resolved by, first: the principle of lex specialis derogate lex generale, means specific laws (in this case is law number 20 of 2011 concerning flats) overriding the general laws (in this case is the law number 5 of 1960 on basic agrarian principles); secondly: article 16 paragraph (1) letter h of law number 5 of 1960 concerning basic agrarian principles provided: other rights not included in the rights mentioned above will be determined by the law, as well as the temporary rights mentioned in article 53; thus the term certificate of ownership over a flat unit is accepted because it does not conflict with applicable laws and regulations. references 1. abdlatif and hasbi ali. (2010). perihal kaedah hukum. bandung: citra aditya bakti. 2. hasan, d. (2008). fungsi hukum dalam perkembangan ekonomi global. bandung, faculty of law padjajaran university. 3. hermansyah, n. (2009). metodologi penelitian dan penulisan hukum, banjarmasin, stih-sa press. 4. hutagalung, a.s. (2003). condominium dan permasalahannya. third print. depok, the agency of publishing faculty of law indonesia university. 5. ibrahim, j. (2006). teori & metodologi penelitian hukum normatif, malang: penerbit bayumedia publishing. 6. kuswahyono, i. (2004). hukum rumah susun. malang, bayumedia publishing. 7. marzuki,p.m. (2011). penelitian hukum, jakarta: kencana prenada media group. 8. rahadjo, s. (2000). ilmu hukum. bandung: citra aditya bhakti. 9. setiawan, y. (2010). hukum pertanahan dan praktik. malang, banyumedia publishing. 10. soekanto, s. dan mamudji, s. (2004). penelitian hukum normatif, jakarta: cetakan ke-8 pt. raja grafindo persada. 11. sumardjono, m.s.w. (2008). tanah dalam perspektif hak ekonomi, sosial, dan budaya. jakarta, kompas. 12. wignyosoebroto, s. (2002). metodologi penelitian hukum; keragaman dalam konsep tipe kajian dan metode penelitiannya, surabaya, universitas airlangga. references 99 the reform of public administration in kosovo msc. milot krasniqi ¹* msc. laura tahiri ² azem kolloni, phd. c ³ ¹ south east european university, faculty of contemporary social sciences, governance and public administration department, milot.krasniqi1997@gmail.com, *correspondent author ² south east european university, faculty of contemporary social sciences, governance and public administration department, tahiiri.laura@gmail.com ³ south east european university, faculty of contemporary social sciences, governance and public administration department, azemkolloni@live.com article history: accepted 21 july 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: reform, public administration, electronic government. a b s t r a c t the reform of public administration in kosovo is an essential part of the state-building process. by the administrative reform, the government aims to modernize the public administration, to strengthen its capacities and to make it more efficient and accountable. the post-conflict period in kosovo from 1999 when the building of the new public administration in kosovo began until the beginning of the administrative reform is a relatively difficult period for kosovo. the reform of the public administration in kosovo is manifested in two ways: first, in relation to its own development structure and, secondly, in relation to the functions it performs, the effects which are realized and the services provided to institutions and citizens. the implementation of e-government in public administration in kosovo enables all efficient categories of government services, at any time and from any distance, in order to meet daily needs of citizens. e-government modernizes the administration and enables the creation of an efficient and accountable management at all levels of administration. through the provision of electronic services to citizens, kosova will be part of europe. 1. introduction the state is functional and efficient only with a developed, professional and accountable public administration. in modern times, when the use of technology, especially information, has become a necessary part of life and work, the changes created have prompted new developments and reforms in many areas, including public administration (waldo, 1972). public administration has become an instrument of central government to deal with general social problems. the term public administration means "the implementation of government policies (random house unabridged dictionary) and an academic discipline that studies this implementation and prepares civil servants for work." some of the various definitions that have been offered regarding the term public administration refer to meanings such as: "management of public programs'', (robert & denhardt, 2009)" translation of politics into the reality that citizens experience every day", (donald & fessler, 2009) " the study of government decision-making, analysis of policies themselves, various inputs that have created them, and the inputs needed to produce alternative policies” (mckinney & howard, 1998). the public administration is an organizational structure that represents the basis for decision-making and implementation of decisions, rules according to which public services are carried out." public administration is one of the main segments through which the relations between the state, civil society and the private sector are realized. in this regard, supporting innovations in public administration enables the realization of development objectives, in particular the economic advantages, poverty reduction, harmony and institutional stability (stavileci, 2005). http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 mailto:milot.krasniqi1997@gmail.com mailto:tahiiri.laura@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8460-9144 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8066-7056 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9049-7775 100 2. intention such objectives require the participation of the company in defining, directing, monitoring and evaluating intergovernmental management and establishing direct consultations, strengthening coordination mechanisms to assess the quality of public management, efficiency and results, and establishing close relationships between civil employees, in order to promote a professional civil service through various fields of specialization. 3. general aspects related to development of public administration in kosovo the public administration in kosovo is relatively new since the post-conflict period beginning in 1999 when the building of a new system and a new social order began, which preceded a new system of public administration in kosovo. although it is known that its functioning was early, especially after the second world war, the public administration in kosovo did not maintain the continuity of action after the establishment of the civil and military mission (unmik and kfor). the resolution of the united nations (un) security council 1244 also laid the foundations for the functioning of public administration in kosovo. the resolution designated unmik as responsible for the functioning of the public administration. by the resolution, the international civil mission was entrusted with tasks and responsibilities in the political and administrative area at three levels: a) the kosovo interim administration; b) the establishment of institutions of democratic self-government, their supervision including the electoral process; and c) transferring responsibilities to kosovo institutions. the resolution defined the stages of gradual transfer of competencies in the administration of the presidential administration and other areas that passed to the success of the creation of kosovo. the interim joint administrative structures (ijas) as interim organs established in may 2000 were replaced by the provisional institutions of self-government (pisg) following general elections for the new institutions. during the first five years of the post-conflict period in kosovo, the construction of public administration went through three main phases: the establishment of the united nations (un) interim administration, the establishment of the provisional institutions of self-government (pisg) and the launch of implementation plan "standards for kosovo". the constitutional framework for provisional self-government in kosovo, adopted in may 2001 by the special representative of the secretary-general (srsg), sets out the role of the pisg and the sharing of their responsibilities with unmik (law in force in kosovo, regulation no.2000 / 45 on self-government of kosovo municipalities). in this direction, the establishment of kosovo institutions with three main pillars: the legislature, the executive and the judiciary played an important role, although some competencies still remain reserved for unmik. the pisg strongly supported the idea that kosovo's future was linked to europe, therefore they are committed to ensure that all legislation, especially in the field of education, economy and health, is in line with european union standards. this process of capacity building in public administration required great political commitment, patience, careful planning and long-term vision as well as effective implementation of eu rules. the main strength of the pisg reflected the will of kosovars to establish a functioning administration, where as a temporary stabilizing factor was the international presence and the great technical assistance that was granted to kosovo with various projects, in order to create a functioning administration, responsible and reform-oriented. the adoption of european values and norms in every system of administration has promoted the coherent development of institutions. the legal, institutional and administrative framework for civil service management was set up, both at the local and central level. 4. strategies for public administration reform given the inefficiency of public administration in providing services to citizens, institutions, businesses and civil society and the high cost of this administration, the government of kosovo with decision no. 4/172 dated 25.10.2005, has approved the initiative of the ministry of public services (mps) for drafting the "strategy for public administration reform in kosovo" (par). this ministry was entrusted by the government with the management and implementation of this project, the formation and supervision of the work of the inter-ministerial group and the group of experts for public administration reform in macroeconomical kosovo regarding the trends of the main economic and financial indicators; regulation and institutional arrangements for macroeconomic policy coordination (annual work report of the ministry of public services for 2006). as a result of this, many recommendations have been made which can be used by the government of kosovo in general or by individual institutions within the administration to improve structure and functionality. however, these recommendations represent only the first step in the public administration reform process. the fridom project has also supported the ministry of public administration in preparing a new legal framework for public administration. the fridom functional review project 101 was completed at the end of june 2010 and the kosovo government is continuing to implement the set recommendations. as a continuation of this progress, government email services, file management services and posting of government institutions websites have been provided to government staff. several databases have been created, which serve the staff of special ministries such as: payment system, budget system, register of cadastral transactions, register of vehicles and driver's licenses, electronic voting in the assembly of kosovo, kosgiro that enables payment of various invoices through the internet, etc. the kosovo government in january 2010 approved the "strategic development plan 2009-2013" for the ministry of public administration. this plan includes the reforms proposed by the fridom project approved by the government in 2008 and aimed at reforming the public administration at the central level. (fridom reports-ministry of public administration, kosovo). 5. literature review from the basic documents of the reform of the public administration in kosovo it can be concluded that the public administration reform in kosovo is of the type of administration modernization. this way of public administration reform is typical for countries in transition (unlike the models of "revolutionization of administration" and "new public management", models characteristic of different countries of the world, especially for developed countries) (batalli, 2012). in all central and local institutions, to be obliged (recommended) to hold training on ethics in administration as a measure to prevent abuse of office by officials of central administration and local administration. to form disciplinary commissions in each institution where they have not been formed, while where they are to be functionalized and to be more effective, the members of the commission to be nominated distinguished officials who have been evaluated with high etiquette and principle in work. the interface for running the show is aimed at organizing and holding a political party, you can publish its assessment for communities, if you want to become a democrat in kosovo. also, (communities) have the opportunity to further manage their service, where they can look at communities, how to provide representatives and integrate into the government of kosovo, participate in the central ones. whereas, in those locals this number has been exceeded, show this opportunity for more than the albanian community (shala, 2015). while kosovo law provides an adequate normative framework governing the enforcement of detention during criminal proceedings and is largely in line with applicable international standards, various problems regarding the enforcement of detention in practice still remain. detention requests filed by prosecutors and pre-trial detention decisions approved by pretrial judges often contain insufficient reasoning (abazi, 2018). preserving and respecting fundamental human rights and freedoms is and remains the main priority of modern societies, given the fact that they have been achieved and embedded in the consciousness of western societies at very high human and historical costs. as a joke world history presents us with new challenges demanding the need to find a new balance between respect (gashi, 2015). 6. challenges towards the process of public administration reform in kosovo kosovo has gone towards a difficult but very important process in the area of functioning of public administration. public administration reforms at the level required in kosovo, required time, demand and perseverance, but also a clear vision, precise direction, leadership, conviction and stability as well as sufficient resources (stavileci, sokoli & batalli, 2010). this process required a series of administrative actions, rules, drafting of a strategic plan, creation of a technologically designed infrastructure as well as identification of instruments, to achieve certain objectives. due to the conflict in kosovo at the end of 1999, the public administration faced many problems. the common feature of the public sector governance and management system was the requirement to transform the previous model of administration into a modern model of administration. initially, there was a lack of efficient institutional capacity to formulate, coordinate and evaluate strategic civil service policies in kosovo. therefore, the professionalism of civil servants was considered a priority in public administration reforms. the concept of transparency, accountability and efficiency in public management needed to be better understood by managers, staff, municipalities and agencies. the implementation of information technology (it) in kosovo started with a delay compared to other countries in the region, due to the situation in kosovo. governance and capacity management in the public sector in post-war kosovo had to be viewed from a slightly broader perspective. the goals, priorities and achievement objectives of an organization could not be set outside the local and central policy agenda as well as the macroeconomic framework. 102 the three levels of capacity building, focused on creating the environment, building institutions and developing human resources, assessed the weaknesses and strengths of the public administration in kosovo. a more comprehensive reform process was hampered by the fact that the administration was divided into "reserved" and "transferred" powers, that is, powers that were transferred to the pisg and the functions that remained reserved for the unmik administration. 7. conclusions from the basic documents of the public administration reform in kosovo it can be concluded that the public administration reform in kosovo is of the type modernizing the administration. this way of public administration reform is typical for countries in transition (unlike the models of "revolutionization of administration" and "new public management", models that are characteristic for different countries of the world, especially for developed countries). the type of modernizing the administration is understood more as a form of reform in terms of new structuring of the administration in line with systemic changes or as a way of increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of the work of administration. according to this type of reform, there is no radical change in the role and function of the administration as it remains a public sector that is managed according to public sector rules. the essence of public administration reform, according to the type of modernization, lies in the changes in the work of the administration in relation to the citizens, the efficiency and effectiveness of the administration, as well as the reduction of administrative costs. the reform of public administration in kosovo as a change and development is influenced by many factors related to the administration itself and its development, as well as the general development of the state. public administration reforms in kosovo have brought important changes, because they are part of comprehensive developments. a functioning and transparent public administration is also an important contributor to state legitimacy and credibility. today in kosovo, all central institutions have access to the internet, which is provided through the it system center managed by the ministry of public administration. internet access by these institutions is based on their needs and in accordance with applicable administrative instructions. however, the organization and structure of the administration are still problems faced by the public administration at the central and local levels. codification of administrative procedures is one of the most powerful and effective mechanisms for public administration reform in kosovo and the decision-making process. appropriate advancements in the area of governance initiatives and processes depend heavily on the role of government in ensuring an appropriate legal framework. references 1. denhard r. and janet p. (2009). administration: an action orientation. 6th ed. thomson wadsworth, belmont ca. 2. dwigh w. (1972). developments in public administration: the annals of the american academy of political and social science. 3. donald k. and james f. (2009). the politics of the administrative process. washington d.c. 4. mirlinda b. (2011). impact of public administration: innovations on enhancing the citizens’ expectations, international journal of ereforma e administratës publike në kosovë thesis, vol.2. 5. mirlinda b. (2008). osnovne crte kompjuterizovane javne uprave, hrvatska javna uprava, journal no. 2. 6. mirlinda b. (2011). simplification of public administration through use of ict and other tools, european journal of epractice. vol.12. 7. mark. b. (2004). zhvillimi i demokracisë së pushtetit vendor në kosovë, për idea-nndërkombëtare. available: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315337450_refo rm_of_public_administration_in_kosovo https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315337450_reform_of_public_administration_in_kosovo https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315337450_reform_of_public_administration_in_kosovo 91 the influence of parenting styles on social behavior and competence in function of student learning success valbona uka, mr. sc.* hanife berisha, mr. sc. correspondent author: *universi college, faculty of nursing, vuka5@live.com article history: accepted 31 august 2019 available online 31 december 2019 keywords: parenting styles social competence students social behavior success a b s t r a c t styles of parenting create different social environments in the lives of children inside the home. the main purpose of this research is to find out the existence of a relationship between parenting, emotional control, prosocial behavior, and student success in learning. the study included a sample of 200 subjects from two low public secondary schools in kaçanik, 51% female and 49% male. participants were 15 years of age (28 teenagers), 16 (51 teenagers), 17 (21 teenagers). the tests used in this research are: a question about parenting styles that is standardized for use in our country and a question about social competence. the results showed an authoritative parental stature with 50% of the parents, followed by the indifferent style of 27%, the authoritative style with 14%, and the liberal style with 9% of the polled ones. regarding social competence, dominates the average level of social maturity by 62%, followed by high social maturity by 24% and low social maturity by 14% of adolescent sample. the feminine gender of adolescents exhibits higher emotional control versus the male gender of adolescents with less emotional control than that of the female gender. there is a significant difference in the appearance of prosocial behaviors according to the level of success. it was also found that there is a statistically significant difference between the level of emergence of social competence deriving from the sex of the subject in this research, then the feminine gender of the adolescents exhibits higher emotional control in spite of the age-old gender, there is a significant difference in the appearance of prosocial behaviors according to the level of success, as well as the 16-year-old show higher levels of prosocial behavior despite 15 and 17 year-olds in this research. this study puts emphasis on parents awareness and psycho-education on positive parenting strategies for the growth of healthy children with a sense of autonomy and confidence. introduction being a parent is one of the most difficult tasks we have, it is a never-ending responsibility to be a parent, that is, to carefully build the character of a child and give him or her a solid foundation upon which he or she will orient in life. so, starting from this fact and the need to enrich my professional experiences as a psychologist and the actuality and treatment of such topics in finding relevant patterns of parenting and thereby achieving the structuring of a healthy childhood development especially in our albanian lands was the main motive for dealing with this problem. also, the other reason i decided to address this topic is the lack of information about the importance of parenting style and the effect that parenting types can have on a child's character development and personality. also, the other reason i decided to address this topic is the lack of information about the importance of parenting style and the effect that parenting types can have on a child's character development and personality. 92 given the scant research and studies so far in our albanian lands, more studies on parenting styles are needed to uncover the potential interplay between parenting styles and other psychosocial traits in adolescent life. parenting is the process of fostering and supporting the physical, emotional, social and intellectual development of a child from childhood to adulthood. parenting refers to the activities of raising a child rather than biological relationships. the goals of human parenting are highly debated, usually the parental figure providing the child with physical needs, protecting him or her, and learning cultural skills and values until they reach adulthood, usually adolescence. the main goal of good parenting is to maximize the potential of the child so that as he or she grows up he becomes a productive and active participant of society. although parenting is one of the most studied fields in the world, raising a happy and healthy child is one of the most thoughtprovoking tasks a period can have (davies, martin, 2000). 1. literature review when we talk about research in the field of parenting we know that it is a new phenomenon of research that has begun to be partially explored in our country as well. some foreign and domestic authors have dealt with this topic which has been of great importance since it is useful to recommend an adequate parenting style, social behavior, and student success in the learning process. the literature review focuses on the type of parenting style, social competence, and learning outcomes achieved by students. in essence, this research deals with the analysis of psychological factors acting on the type of parenting style and on the achievements of students in their educational processes as well as in their daily lives, based on the theories and results of previous research to who presume that parenting style has a potential association with social competence and academic achievement in adolescent learning 2. research methods subject of research in essence, this research deals with the analysis of psychological factors that influence students' achievements in educational processes as well as their daily lives, based on the theories and results of prior research on the basic notions of this research that are presented. as psychological factors in this case that are supposed to have a potential link with academic achievement in adolescent learning. research problem the problematic of the present research is to find a possible association between the three psychosocial variables (parental styles and social competence with the latter's special preexisting subscales of emotional control and prosocial behavior) with students' academic achievement (adolescents). ) in school. as a consequence of the research problems the following research questions are structured: q.1 how is the distribution or distribution of variables (academic achievement, parenting styles, social competence and social maturity in general) in research! q.2 is there a link between parenting style, emotional control, and prosocial behavior with students' academic achievement! q.3 is there a link between parenting style and students' social competences? q4 is there a link between parenting style and students' academic achievement! q.5 is there a link between social competence in general and students' academic achievement! q6 are there any statistical differences between sociodemographic characteristics (gender, residence, academic achievement and age) and level of social competence! q7 are there any statistical differences between sociodemographic characteristics (gender, residence, academic achievement and age) and level of prosocial behavior! purpose and objectives of the research the main purpose of this study is to determine whether parental styles, emotional control, and prosocial behaviors (emotional control and prosocial behaviors are the two sub-variables of the social competence variable) are positively correlated with adolescents' academic achievement at school. the following are the basic objectives of the research: 1. finding a possible link between parental style, prosocial behaviors with academic achievement. 2. finding a potential statistical difference between sociodemographic characteristics by parenting style, prosocial behaviors, and academic achievement. 2.1. research hypotheses h1: research variables (success, parenting styles, social competence and social maturity in general) have normal distribution or distribution to adolescents. h2: there is a link between parenting style, prosocial behaviors in academic achievement (success) h 2.2: there is a positive relationship between parenting style and academic achievement of students in this research, ie academic 93 achievement is related to indifferent and liberal parenting style and is not related to authoritarian and authoritative style. h 2.3: there is a positive relationship between the level of success and social competence in this research, thus, with the increase of social competence, academic achievement in adolescent learning increases. h3: there are differences in students' social competences depending on the characteristics of sociodemographic characteristics (gender, place of residence, academic achievement and age) research variables the main variables of the research in question are divided into two groups, which according to the research questions may eventually be related to each other in this research, including: prind parental style and sociale social competence. research methods and techniques the basic research technique for collecting data from the subjects is their survey based on two standard research questionnaires, the parenting style questionnaire and the social competence questionnaire (emotional control and prosocial behaviors). research questionnaires a). questionnaire on parenting styles created by robinson, c., mandleco, b., olsen, s. f., and hart,c.h.(1995).,authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting practices: developmentof a new measure. psychological reports ,, consists of 30 items, the questionnaire consists of only one section and includes demographic data of subjects with the following categorization: gender, place of residence, success. b). the social competence questionnaire consists of 19 items or assertions, the questions are formulated to be as comprehensible as possible by the respondent choosing the answer that by summing the total points (95) three levels of social maturity are determined, namely, low social maturity, average maturity and high social maturity, but also as an integral part of social competence are its two sub-variables such as emotional control and prosocial behaviors. population and sample the research population includes high school students ie young people as well as their parents, and a sample of them was selected from among them 100 adolescents surveyed. the research was conducted in two lower secondary schools: “skanderbeg” and “feriz guri and the çaka brothers” in kacanik municipality. the adolescents are 15, 16 years old. 3. results so, in the part of the statistical analysis of the results, from this paper we came to some very relevant findings, based on preliminary research in this field. from the obtained results, in detecting parenting styles according to the representative sample reporting, it was found that authoritative parenting style dominates with 50% of parents which according to relevant researches mentioned above in the theoretical part of research that authoritative parenting style, characterized by a high level of acceptance and involvement, as well as an average level of rigor and supervision, indicating a high level of life satisfaction and self-esteem, as well as a low level of depression for adolescents, the results also showed that adolescents with parents authoritarians were more often associated with values-oriented crowds of adults. whereas the liberal style in this research appears to 9% of respondents, which according to relevant research was characterized as parents who set rules and boundaries very little and are reluctant to apply the rules. these parents are warm and gentle, but they do not like to say anything or disappoint their children. children of liberal parenting: cannot follow the rules, have worse self-control, possess egocentric tendencies, encounter more problems in relationships and social interactions. so all this shows that the average level of social maturity is due to the dominance of authoritative style with 50% of this research, which style empowers the child to average and not high social maturity. regarding the social maturity of the respondents, the average level of social maturity is dominated by 62%, followed by high social maturity with 24% and low social maturity with 14% of the adolescent sample in this survey. so all this shows that the average level of social maturity is due to the dominance of authoritative style with 50% of this research, which style empowers the child to average and not high social maturity. in addition, it is worth pointing out that higher success in adolescents results in higher levels of social maturity in general than in adolescents, so with increased school success, adolescents exhibit higher levels of social maturity. it is emphasized that this situation is related to a lower percentage of the subjects surveyed and this may be closely related to the fact that the authoritarian style with a frequency of 14% in this research, according to relevant research, shows high levels of sensitivity in children as well as high success in lessons, recalling a study that analyzed children's emotional control and their externalizing behavior, they found that parents exhibiting elements of empathy as more warmth and less punishment towards children between the ages 94 of seven and twelve, they had children who had more difficult control and less externalizing problems. pearson's correlation coefficient indicates that the highest level of social maturity (adolescence) in adolescents results in the highest level of emotional control and prosocial behaviors in adolescents, or as adolescence increases social control also increased emotional control and prosocial behaviors among adolescents in this study (high positive correlation between social competence and emotional control (r = 0.703; p <0.01) as well as social competencies and prosocial behavior (r = 0.719; p <0.01). the above finding resulted that we can observe that positive pearson correlation coefficients result only between the variables success and social competence (r = 0.208; p <0.05) thus significant for the second limit. of reliability, ie, low significant correlation, once again in other words we can say that higher success in adolescents results in higher level of social maturity in general than in adolescents, thus increasing success in school the adolescent exhibits a higher level of social maturity and vice versa. in addition, it is worth noting the comparison between the sexes in terms of prosocial behaviors, based on the results that the occurrence of prosocial behaviors is not different depending on the adolescent gender (female adolescents exhibit higher emotional control in spite of male adolescent sex with adolescents). lower emotional control versus female gender (21.39> 18.63; p <0.01). regarding age differences, it appears that 16-year-olds exhibit higher levels of prosocial behaviors compared to 15and 17-yearolds in this study (see table 25), more precisely significant difference (p <0.05) depending on their age, ie, there is a significant difference between the two groups by age in the occurrence of prosocial behaviors and the significant difference between the two groups and that in group 1 (first) 17 years old with a mean of 17.14 and 15 years old with a mean of 17.86 and group 2 (second) with a mean age of 16 years 18.84, or in other words, 16-year-olds exhibit higher levels of prosocial behaviors than 15and 17-year-olds in this study. so far, according to our analysis, we have not been able to find and compare this finding of our research with relevant research and findings where 16 year olds are differentiated as “most self-conscious” about the level of occurrence of prosocial behaviors, but analyzes of this research that was more than necessary to make such a detail in terms of age, let them be the starting point for other research in this area, especially in this segment. regarding the type and type of residence of the respondents, the level of emotional control and the level of occurrence of prosocial behaviors did not depend on the type or type of adolescent residence in this research (see tables 19 and 20). also for this conclusion in this research would be worth the high suggestion noted for a field or segment where it is worth exploring especially its habitat and characteristics as a research base. 4. conclusion and recommendations in conclusion, it was found that the success of students adolescents in this research was in a low positive relationship with social competence in general, or in other words, the higher the social maturity of adolescents the higher the level of success of yes to those teens in lessons. however, this correlation does not result when separately correlating analyzes of emotional control and prosocial behavior as sub-variables of social competence with adolescent success. also in this context, as noted above, it did not appear that any relevant research emphasizes such a relationship separately for these two sub-variables, but only the relationship between social competence in general and success, ie social maturity with success. on the other hand we can say that this sample consisting of 200 subjects where 100 were students and 100 parents of respondents, think it is insignificant and low to determine a high objectivity of the results even though the instruments have high reliability, but the randomly selected sample had features and characteristics of an asymmetric or abnormal distribution or distribution that i thought should approach a normal distribution according to the traits of psychosocial phenomena. with the increase in the number of subjects in the sample as well as the distribution of the sample at the state level, including other municipalities at the state level, we can achieve more relevant and significant results in terms of the interrelation of the parenting style variable, emotional control, prosocial behavior and academic success of students at school. 1. ministry of education to organize community outreach and counseling programs to raise awareness, educate and empower parents on various parenting issues. for example, teach parents to set boundaries and control for their children while still maintaining a warm and supportive relationship; neglected parents becoming more engaged in their children's lives, permissive parents setting more rules for their children, and authoritative parents becoming more flexible with their children. 2. psychosocial counseling to assist parents in their relationships with children in order to gain a better 95 understanding of their parenting style and then treat each child according to the parenting style applied. this would help them control children's emotional behaviors, as well as prosocial behaviors that would help adolescents perform well in academic success. parents should embrace the authoritarian style of parenting, which will improve the proper communication between parents and their children. references 1. aldao, a., nolen-houseman, schweitzer, s. (2010).emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: a meta-analytic review". clinical psychology review 30, 217e237. 2. alegre, a. (2011). parenting styles and children’s emotional intelligence: what do we know? the family journal, 19, 56.doi: 10. 1177/1066480710387486. 3. ainsworth, m.(1979) infant mother attachment. american psychologist, 34(10), 932937.http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.34.10.932 4. baumrind, d.(1991).effective parenting during the early adolescent transition. family transitions. advanced in family research series: new york: erlbaum. 5. baumrind, d. (1978). parental disciplinary patterns and social competence in children. the journal youth and society, 9, 239-276. 6. baumrind, d. (1991).the influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. the journal of early adolescence, 11,56-95. 7. berzonsky, m.(1992). self-construction over the life span: a process perspective on identity formation. advances in personal construct psychology. 8. bornstein.m..(2002).handbook of parenting, children and parenting. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum. 9. barber, b.(1996).parental psychological control: revisiting a neglected construct. child development,32963319. 10. borntein, b. (1990).hand book of parenting, practical issues in parenting, mahwah, ny: erlbaum, vol. 5, fq. 407437. 11. berzonsky, m. d.(1992).a process perspective on identity and stress management, in g. r. adams, t. p. gullet, & r. montemayor (eds.), adolescent identity formation (advances in adolescent development), newbury park, ca: sage, vol. 4, 193-215. 12. cooper, c ,grievant, h., condon, w. r.(1983).individuality and connectedness in the family as a context for adolescent identity formation, in h. d. grievant, & c. cooper (eds.), adolescent development in the family: new directions in child development, san francisco: josses-bass, fq. 43-59. 13. crick, n.r.; dodge, k.a. (1994).a review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment". psychological bulletin. 115:74–101. 14. cavell.(1990).social adjustment, social performance and social skills. journal of clinic cild psychology. 15. davies, martin, (2000). analysis of parenting styles and interpersonal relationship among adolescents. journal of youth adolescence. 16. semrudclikeman, m. (2007). social competence in children. new york, ny:springer science business media. 17. weiss, l.h.; schwarz, j.c. (1996)."the relationship between parenting types and older adolescents' personality, academic achievement, adjustment, and substance use". child development. introduction references 103 the importance of oral language proficiency in efl online teaching setting flora amiti, phd. c. south east european university, faculty of languages, cultures and communication, english department, amitiflora@gmail.com article history: accepted 12 july 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: oral proficiency, speaking skills, e-learning, online teaching, lesson plan.. a b s t r a c t english language, as an international language has been used in north macedonia as a foreign language in schools for a considerable amount of time now. english teachers have tried to convey new ways of teaching this language, furthermore adapting to the main four skills in a meticulous manner. however recently, all of the teachers, were confronted with a worldwide pandemic situation which shaped a different scenario of teaching. a different mechanism that all of the teachers are getting used to, which is online education. the purpose of this study is to analyze how effective was teaching english online for the pupils oral proficiency, whilst communication in english language was limited. videoconferencing and converting lessons into videos and send them as documented evidence, were two of the main tools mostly used from teachers in schools in gostivar. the methodology used for this research was qualitative, and it uses two instruments, an observation, and an interview. the overall study results show that, even though pupils showed improvement in efl (english as a foreign language) oral proficiency, since the materials used to lecture online where persuasive; some students also had difficulties learning autonomously, without depending on the teachers help. furthermore, according to the interview responses, the appropriate and detailed lesson planning, helps in combining activities which would emphasize speaking more in online teaching classes. 1. introduction depending on the student’s background knowledge, some students in eflclasses are better in speaking english language. in other words, speaking, writing, listening and reading are the four skills which used correctly in combination by students, make a fluent conversation in english language. the teachers in the online classrooms should work hard to teach the four skills appropriately, but also apply different teaching methods which could help in improving student’s oral proficiency. according to vilar (2000): teachers have two major roles in the classroom: to create the conditions under which learning can take place: the social side of teaching; to impart, by a variety of means, knowledge to their learners: the task-oriented side of teaching. the first is known as the ‘enabling’ or managerial function, the search for the proper conditions and means for teaching, and the second the instructional function with the teacher as the so-called “instructor”. (p. 4) however, since all of the teachers in gostivar, were only and exclusively prepared to teach in classrooms confronted by students, hence the traditional method of teaching in the classroom, it was a real struggle to begin with the online teaching method which interrupted the face to face encounters with the students. as noted by barrera et al (n.d.): instead of following traditional paradigms that have the instructor firmly in control, we should adopt entrepreneurial and innovative approaches to learning. such approaches would http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8568-1703 104 permit students to become independent learners, and, at the same time, give the teacher the important role of guide throughout the learning process. (p.7) moreover, the communication in english language continued in the online teaching tool named google classroom. the face to face communication had dropped unexpectedly, since the methods used were mostly by sending different materials, such as: power point presentations, a summarized daily lesson converted into videos, or videoconferencing. however, the students were asked to send videos while speaking in english language, performing different oral activities. in addition, one of the most used tools for teaching online classes has been google classroom. as shaharanee, jamil and rodzi (2016) mentioned “google classroom can help in changing the focus of the classroom from one that is teacher-centered and controlled to one that is learner-centered and open to inquiry, dialogue, and creative thinking on the part of learners as active participants’’. (p.2) finally, since the speaking skill is the most important one which needs to be mastered, according to bouzar (2019) “speaking as a skill constitutes a real hurdle to overcome by the teacher and the learner, the teacher has to find appropriate procedures to help the learner with, while the latter has to find a way to master the language”. (p.70) primarily, students need awareness on the significance of learning an international language, in this case, the teachers should state the importance of speaking english as a foreign language, its advantage for their future education in gostivar and abroad but also encourage them to find ways to be in touch with each other in this period of pandemic, and communicate outside the class session too. 1.1. leson planing according to anderson (2015) “the lesson plan pro forma plays a central role in teacher education. it is a necessary component for the assessment of teaching during initial training, advanced qualifications, quality assurance inspections, and in-service teacher development.” (p.228) in a lesson plan a teacher transcribes the aims and objectives of the lesson, methods of teaching, teaching techniques, evaluation methods etc., afterwards explains the class session approach in three parts: 1. introduction 2. activities 3. summary and evaluation of the lesson effectiveness the online classes, undergo the same procedure. whilst the fact that videoconferencing is important to present the lesson to the students, importance should be given to all of the skills, but mostly ‘speaking’ since the amount of time they will incorporate speaking english in their everyday life is lower. the speaking activities should be incorporated a lot, at their spare time e.g. students are sent a song, and they should record a video while they sing it, students read a text in the book and record themselves while reading it, the teacher poses questions and expects students to reply by recording themselves while answering them. accoording to albrahim (2020) online instructors must pay attention to what they need to create, develop, and manage their online courses and how to effectively communicate with the learners in the absence of physical presence and interaction. (p.12) the needs of students should be taken into consideration, but also the teachers viewpoint on the level of students oral proficiency. figure 1. 9 steps of student guided e-learning (taken by schneider and meirovich, 2020). online teaching is a real process, where it’s shown that the online setting should be a student oriented teaching environment, in that way the student will be able to use the speaking skill the most. it should also incorporate group work, group reflection and decision-making in the group (see figure 1). an increasing amount of critical analysis and evidence have undermined that the “online instructors must be able to do the following: • expressing and mastering extensive knowledge of the content; • stating learning goals and objectives that coincide with learners’ levels and characteristics; • drafting and developing learning and assessment activities that align with learning goals and objectives; • developing a course outline that includes all course components and elements; • designing a teaching proposal at the general level and identify each of its phases or elements; 105 • developing and selecting appropriate and varied learning resources that accommodate different learning styles and preferences; • linking the subject and content with scientific, social, cultural, and any other relevant phenomena; and • developing an inventory of existing content and resources and any additional content and resources that will be needed (abdous, 2011; bailie, 2011; bailey & card, 2009; bawane& spector, 2009; munoz carril et al., 2013)” (albrahim, 2020). 2. literature review learning a new language brings its benefits in life, but it happens that some people are better at languages, some try harder to learn a new language, and others are motivated by external or internal factors. as mentioned by marcum (2017) “potential development is what a learner can do with the assistance of others. actual development is what a learner can do on their own. learning is the social process that helps a learner move through zones of proximal development, turning potential development into actual development”. furthermore, it is important to stress the strategies used to learn a new language. if previously a student would depend on the teacher, in the traditional classroom setting; now it’s the opposite. the students changed, as much as the way of teaching. the students gained their independence and try to use different strategies in learning. however, the speaking skill should be encouraged mostly by the teacher. as stated by rao (2018): the teacher should create interaction by exchanging information and expressing ideas with utmost care about the correct grammar (accuracy), adequate vocabulary, a good pronunciation as well as acceptable fluency to convey a meaningful speech that sounds like a native speakers’ own by following the classroom activities such as role-pays, simulation, talking circles, discussions, debates, role cards, information gap activities, storytelling-based activities and so on. (p. 289) now more than ever the resourcefulness and the creativity of teachers is needed. even though the teachers are not native speakers it’s important to try to say the words correctly and try an accent too. it follows the idea of prabavathi and nagrasubamani (2018) who said that “there are many benefits of oral communication. this form of communication is a quick and direct method of communication. be it a criticism or praise or information, it helps to convey the message immediately to the receiver. this method of communication enables in obtaining immediate feedback and hence is a form in which two-way communication can be enabled. (p. 30) moreover, even though students go into a transition process, where they are alone looking at a computer screen, and there is no teacher presence to explain the instruction or read the text, the students are obliged to find out how certain words are read, find the proper pronunciation on their own by using different pronunciation tools online. definitely there should be a teacher’s feedback as noted by moore (1989) that the instructor is especially valuable in responding to the learners' application of new knowledge. whatever self-directed learners can do alone for self-motivation and interaction with content presented, they are vulnerable at the point of application. (para. 8) the oral proficiency is gained by repetition of words and sentences, so in an online setting if students have the recording of a text, and they hear it several times it benefits them. according to moore (1989): while the students and their instructor are attending to a common piece of presentation (usually in a set text, but quite likely on audioor videotape), each student's response to the presentation is different, and so the response to each student is different. to some a misunderstanding is explained, to others elaborations are given, to others simplifications; for one analogies are drawn, for another supplementary readings suggested. (para. 7) 3. research methodology the present study investigates the importance of speaking english on an e-learning environment and its benefits. the particular research techniques used are asynchronous observation and an interview. 3.1. research question 1. does online teaching help in efl oral proficiency improvement? 2. is using the appropriate lesson plans helpful in e-learning classes? 3.2. instruments two instruments were used for this study, an interview to the teachers which helped in regards to understanding the benefits of oral proficiency in efl online teaching classes. it was important to recognize if the students were capable of making a progress in speaking the english language, even with inferior communication than the period there was tradition efl teaching in the classroom. the second instrument was an asynchronous observation, in two different classes with 19 students in the fourth grade. during this research method the students were observed for a month. the communication in english language was taken into consideration while in videoconference, but also there was documented student participation also written feedback from the teacher. hence, they 106 were also given the opportunity to prepare videos individually e.g. songs, reading texts, prepare role plays etc. thus speaking in english could be incorporated. furthermore the students had time to answer whenever they were free to, there wasn’t an attendance time limit. 3.3. participants the participants of the study were three english teachers from the primary school ‘faik konica” in debresh, gostivar. furthermore, 19 students from the same school were observed, they were in fourth grade and it should be taken in consideration that they have been learning english as a foreign language since 1st grade. they were between the ages 10-11, 14 female students and 5 male students. 3.4. research results 3.4.1. results from the interview the first method used for this study was the interview. three teachers tried to bring a closer look to the importance of speaking in an online teaching environment. there were 10 questions in this interview and the interviews were performed individually. r=researcher p=participant q1: what effect does online learning have on students? p1: online learning for students was difficult in the beginning since they weren’t used to learning with computers in front of them, the technology part was difficult in the beginning too. p2: online learning has received much attention lately, for some students it was difficult since they didn’t have the discipline to learn without a teacher as an authority. q3: which one, of the four skills (speaking, writing, reading, and listening) was mostly used by the students while teaching online? p1: all of them. p3: i believe reading, since the materials we sent them had a lot of instructions. q4: how difficult was it incorporating speaking skill during the online classes? p1: it was difficult. videoconferencing was thought to be the only way to communicate live, but since the time was limited we teachers needed the time to mostly lecture the new lesson. p2: speaking skill was mostly incorporated when the student had revision, so it was difficult to find ways to incorporate speaking the most. q7: do you think students improved their oral proficiency while learning online? p1: depends on the student and the circumstances. p2: the students had an interesting period of learning online, and i believe since we sent them different videos, songs etc. the repetitive listening of the language helped them in learning to combine words in the correct order, also speaking it properly. p3: some students really liked this kind of learning, so i believe it helped most of them. q8: what changes can be made in the lesson plan in order to stimulate students to use speaking more during the online teaching class sessions? p1: we could add more discussions, simulations, storytelling and interviews. p2: it should be a student oriented classroom, where we could send the lecture beforehand and afterwards they would explain it to use on a videoconferencing tool. p3: the lesson plans guide teachers into having better classes, more interactive and interesting. hence, preparing the lesson effectively and including speaking activities is crucial. 3.4.2. results from the observation the second method used for this study was the asynchronous observation. it was crucial to perceive the use of the speaking skill while having online classes, and how everything proceeded in a recent however modernized way of teaching. the students were motivated to send different materials where they would express themselves in english language. the interaction between the teacher and the student was great, the dialogues in videoconferencing were productive and essential for the student’s oral proficiency. some students were having difficulties communicating in english language, even though they were urged to do so. although, the asynchronous way of online teaching did help student have the time to prepare at least for the video presentations provided, and they were asked to be livelier. the observation was done through the specific observation protocol (appendix 2). 4. conclusions using english language for communication is really important. in this paper, an attempt was made to emphasize the importance of efl oral proficiency in schools in gostivar. since it is not known how long the pandemic will last, we can still believe that we might return to online teaching in september. in this case it is important to foresee the mistakes we could be making and make a difference in the future. additionally, based on the interview results we could see that the speaking skills were incorporated in the online teaching lessons, but there were several difficulties with students discipline, also it was the first time the students were facing online classes. furthermore, it was agreed that there should be incorporated more speaking activities and make a students oriented online classes. 107 finally, the observation showed that when students received the appropriate materials, e.g. a recording of a text, and were asked to memorize it and record themselves while saying the words; the students had difficulties in pronouncing some words, some couldn’t connect the words and make a correct sentence. however, there were students who were motivated by the online teaching method, and had the urge to express themselves in english language as much as possible. the autonomous learning experience helped them give great results. all things considered, as communication skills have an enormous importance in personal and professional lives, the students should be stimulated to speak and to express themselves. this research was solely done with the intent to influence and encourage teachers to help their students communicate, express themselves orally when having online teaching classes. the aim is to always think of the student’s growth. references 1. albrahim, f. (2020). online teaching skills and competencies. the turkish online journal of educational technology, 19(1), 9-20. retrieved july 28, 2020, from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1239983.pdf 2. anderson, j. (2015, july). affordance, learning opportunities,and the lesson plan pro forma. elt journal, 69(3), 228-238. retrieved july 29, 2020, from https://academic.oup.com/eltj/article/69/3/228/464325 3. barrera, a., ho, c., garcia, i., traphagan, t., & chang, y.-f. (n.d.). online vs. face-to-face learning. retrieved june 31, 2020, from https://www.academia.edu/1576750/online_vs_face_to_f ace_learning 4. bouzar, s. (2019). issues in teaching speaking to efl learners. education and linguistics research, 5(23771356), 70-79. retrieved august 01, 2020, from https://doi.org/10.5296/elr.v5i1.14705 5. marcum , j. (2017). language proficiency and cultural intelligence in distance. all graduate theses and dissertations. retrieved august 2, 2020, from https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article =7897&context=etd 6. moore , m. (1989). editorial: three types of interaction. american journal of distance education, 3(2), 1-7. retrieved july 30, 2020, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237404371_thre e_types_of_interaction 7. prabavathi, r., & nagasubramani, p. (2018). effective oral and written communication. journal of applied and advanced research, s29 s32. 8. rao, p. s. (2018). developing speaking skills in esl or efl settings. international journal of english language, literature, 5(2), 286-293. retrieved june 15, 2020, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331825661_dev eloping_speaking_skills_in_esl_or_efl_settings 9. schneider, l. n., & meirovich, a. (2020). student guided learning from teaching to e learning. revista românească pentru educaţie multidimensională, 12(1), 115-121. retrieved june 18, 2020, from https://doi.org/10.18662/rrem/12.1sup2/254 10. shaharanee, i. n., jamil, j. m., & rodzi, s. s. (2016, august). google classroom as a tool for active learning. proceedings of the international conference on applied science and technology. retrieved june 5, 2020, from https://aip.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1063/1.4960909 11. vilar , e. b. (2000). roles of teachers a case study based on: diary of a language teacher (joachim appel 1995). retrieved july 25, 2020, from https://core.ac.uk/reader/61427370 appendix 1 interview 1. what effect does online learning have on students? 2. what benefits are obtained of online teaching for you as a teacher? 3. which one, of the four skills (speaking, writing, reading, and listening) was mostly used by the students while teaching online? 4. how difficult was it incorporating speaking skill during the online classes? 5. was it difficult to manage time while teaching online and why? 6. which tool should be used more, videoconferencing or converting the lecture into a video, in order to enrich the student’s oral proficiency and why? 7. do you think students improved their oral proficiency while learning online? 8. what changes can be made in the lesson plan in order to stimulate students to use speaking more during the online teaching class sessions? 9. can learning online benefit the students in the future and how? 10. what kind of activities do you suggest should be used in online classes, in order to implement the speaking skill more? https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1239983.pdf https://academic.oup.com/eltj/article/69/3/228/464325 https://www.academia.edu/1576750/online_vs_face_to_face_learning https://www.academia.edu/1576750/online_vs_face_to_face_learning https://doi.org/10.5296/elr.v5i1.14705 https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7897&context=etd https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7897&context=etd https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237404371_three_types_of_interaction https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237404371_three_types_of_interaction https://doi.org/10.18662/rrem/12.1sup2/254 https://aip.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1063/1.4960909 https://core.ac.uk/reader/61427370 108 appendix 2 – online class observation online class observation sheet teacher: number of students: online class tool: title of lesson: date: navigation observation  the instructions given to the students are apprehensible, and online assignments are instructed clearly. course design observation  the aims and objectives of the online class are included  different learning styles are combined, and speaking as a skill is mostly implemented communication and interaction observation  the teacher replies to emails within 24 hours or less  students interact with the teacher in videoconferences  for the period that the online teaching is asynchronous the students communicate with the teacher with commenting, and the teacher gives feedback. content observation  the content and the assignments are is suitable to class level. 88 an analysis on government’s organizational culture at the kisaran barat sub-district office, asahan regency, north sumatera province, indonesia muhammad ikhsan badaruddin * humaizi *universitas sumatera utara, master of development studies, badaruddin131@gmail.com article history: accepted 23 june 2019 available online 17 august 2019 keywords: organizational culture service employees’ performance a b s t r a c t the objective of the study was to find out organizational culture in the kisaran barat sub-district office, asahan regency, north sumatera. the study used qualitative method, and the data were gathered by conducting interviews with 8 informants who worked at the sub-district office. the result of the study showed that organizational culture at this office was in good category even though there was the decrease in achievement and performance. the employees’ service was also in good category since they have applied a principle that people who need their service are “the king” who has to be humbly served. on the other hand, it can be noted that their capacity to comply with the rules applied at the office is bad. this is due to the many obstacles faced in creating a good work culture, one of which is inconsistent regulations and reward and punishment system is not performed well. introduction from its definition, it can be known that organizational culture is how the members of an organization appreciate work values and reflect them in their daily life in order to achieve the highest work performance (yogaswara, 2015) (sambali, 2015). it also constitutes an important element which development in an organization should be heeded since it can influence work performance (ahmed & shafiq, 2014) (kumar, 2016). this is because organizational culture contains values, norms, experience, confidence, and habit which are united by a mutual perception among employees and which are eventually shared to each other to achieve the goal (janicijevic, 2012) (ahmadi, salamzadeh, daraei, & akbari, 2012) (ehtesham, muhammad, & muhammad, 2011) (meško štok, markič, bertoncelj, & meško, 2010). there are three important organizational culture – organizational culture which is provided for new employees through socialization, organizational culture which influences behavior at a working place, and organizational culture which exists in a different level. organizational culture can also be used as a binding chain to equate the sub-district employees’ perception or viewpoint on a certain problem so that it can be a power to achieve the goal. through an organization, organizational culture is able to yield innovations in providing services, the employees will work with high morale, there will be a sense of togetherness and comfortable condition in providing services, they will emphasize on result rather than process, they will have good discipline and each of them will understand what he has to do according to his task and obligation. in other words, organizational culture conveys a sense of identity for the members of an organization, makes it easy to gain member commitment to something bigger than the self, enhances system stability and serves as a sense-making tool that can guide and shape members’ behavior (goromonzi, 2016). 89 when this culture has been established, service quality will be good, too; therefore, good human resources (employees and apparatus) are needed to establish the organizational culture. in this case, good organizational culture will be created in the government’s organization. the data from the sub-district office of kisaran barat revealed that there was the decrease in the achievement and performance of the employees who work in the office. the data in 2016 revealed that kisaran barat sub-district got achievement as the best sub-district in asahan regency. however, after a few years had passed, there was the decrease in achievement and performance which caused the decrease in its rank although it had the 3rd (third) contender of the best sub-district in asahan regency as it was announced on august 17, 2016. this condition made me interested in doing a research in kisaran barat subdistrict since there was the decrease from the champion in 2016 to become the third contender in 2018. the decrease in achievement and performance cannot be separated from the influence of organizational culture at the kisaran barat sub-district office. organizational structure constitutes the government’s organizational commitment in the sub-district office which is closely related to the behavior in getting through the work. the behavior itself is the reflection of working attitude based on values and norms owned by every employee. when they join with a government’s organization, they will adjust themselves to a pattern of behavior, attitude, and communication as well as the work method wanted by the government’s organization in order to achieve its goal. changing organizational culture means attempting to instilling new work values and method into the organization. this was what was intended by this study, to find out what organizational structure found in this work organization and what obstacles existed in realizing good organizational culture in the employees’ work environment. 1. methodology the study used descriptive qualitative method which became the basis for observing and analyzing the government’s organizational culture at one of the government’s offices. the data were obtained from the kisaran barat sub-district office, asahan regency, north sumatera province and gathered by conducting interviews, observation, and documentation so that the research problems could be solved. the interviews were conducted with the sub-district head of kisaran barat, the secretary, two sub-section heads, two staffs, and two people who resided in kisaran barat with the expectation that the informants could inform organizational culture and mechanism at the kisaran barat sub-district office. 2. analysis on organizational culture 2.1. understanding the meaning of work: as obligation and source of earnings the informants’ fundamental reason for working is to get earnings since they are the heads of families. looking on working as the source of earnings can cause their professional attitude. they will accept what they are disserved to be their own rights and what they have done toward the organization they are working at. on the other hand, when the reward is beyond what they have been long for being expected, their work motivation will definitely decrease or disappear. for the employees at the kisaran barat sub-district office, working is not only considered as the source of earnings but is also considered as the tasks which have existed since they were recruited to be new government employees. as government employees they are bound to norms, whether it is in a written form or not. they are ready to be imposed by sanction when they violate against the regulations stipulated in the legal provisions. this will have positive sad negative impact. the positive one is that they will not be dismissed easily since it takes a long procedure and legal provisions while the negative one is that the awareness of a sense of belonging toward the organization will diminish since it does not come from their own self; it comes from the system. they only work for what they are asked to without thinking about innovation or developing the organization to be better. nevertheless, they always do their job since they think that they are government employees because the first time they are hired as government employees they are committed to work for their organization as an obligation. besides that, they are also aware of their position in which they get payroll from the government. 2.2. attitude toward job and what should be done: positive attitude toward work without discriminating it. the employees of kisaran barat sub-district office, in accomplishing their work, have had positive attitude. they do as well as possible what their superiors ask them to do according to their capacity. they always do the tasks ordered by the subdistrict head without any objection or denial. in this case, the sub-district head will not, of course, give them any tasks which are not in accordance with their own tupoksi (acronym of task, primary, and function). the sub-district head also ask his subordinates or employees to do and to get through their work 90 according to their capacity. when he finds that some of his employees or staffs are not able to do their job, he will give guidance and direction toward the solution in order to accomplish the work properly. he never disclaims his responsibility for his staffs and employees in doing their job. this policy creates good relationship between superiors and subordinates; besides that, any task can be carried out successfully. 2.3. attitude toward time: flexibility, it is adjusted to the types of activity and other conditions the working hours for the government employees at the kisaran barat sub-district office, starting from 8:00 am to 4:00 pm west indonesian time with 5 (five) work days, from monday through friday, except national holidays or joint holidays as they are determined by the central government. attendance list signed by the employees is divided into two parts: morning attendance list and afternoon attendance list. it is aimed to keep the employees’ attendance stable and they will always be ready at the office. the result of the interviews with informants showed that office hours applied in the sub-district offices are flexible or adjusted to the activities and to the other specific conditions. based on the result of the researcher’s observation in the research location, it was found that the employees did their routine activities such as electronic resident’s identity cards, family cards, land certificates, bpjs recommendation letters, recommendation letters for the poor, and the other residential administration. these activities do not take a long time. it was also found that after 2:30 pm west indonesian time only a few people or even no more people who came to the office to ask for services. the employees’ attitude toward working hours can also be seen from the roll call activities in the morning and in the afternoon. it was found that not all of the employees at the kisaran barat subdistrict office did the roll calls, especially in the afternoon roll calls, because of some obstacles in the field such as some of them participated in the activities organized by the government agencies of the asahan district administration so that the subdistrict staffs who were related to the job had to be present or to accompany the sub-district head. however, some employees did not show up in the afternoon roll calls because they did not go back to the office after the took a break, and some of them did not feel comfortable at the office when they had nothing to do and they though that it was better for them to go home early from the office even though s few of them still remain in the office although there was no work to be done. 2.4. attitude toward work environment: safeguarding environmental preservation for providing work comfort and prioritizing comradeship in working relationship between the employees of the kisaran barat subdistrict office and internal social environment and the surrounding people is relatively good. viewed from the office internal relationship, the type of relationship among the employees and between subordinates and superiors at the kisaran barat sub-district office is usually used kinship of comradeship relationship rather than a formal one between superiors and subordinates. work interaction created by the sub-district head prioritizes kinship or comradeship relationship rather than a formal one. the employees who violate the rules or indiscipline will be imposed with sanction in written form. he usually would rather use persuasive warning and person-to-person approach. this attitude prioritizes the tendency to partiality in human relationship approach which will, of course, have good and bad effect on the organization. its good effect of prioritizing human values is that the employees will have the feeling of secure and comfortable in working since they are supported by a favorable work environment. its bad effect is that if the employees feel secure and comfortable, they tend to neglect their tasks and responsibility. in consequence, it is difficult for them to have the willingness to change the organization toward the better one while norms and rules become the lips service or are written on the walls. in this case, the firmness of superiors in enforcing the prevailing regulations and sanctions are highly needed. human relationship and formal relationship should be balanced so that they can share to each other. as civil servants, direct interaction between the employees of the kisaran barat sub-district office and the community automatically occurs. in this interaction, the employees always attempt to make good relationship with the communities as the acceptors of the services provided by the government. in providing services for the community, they consider the clients as the kings. therefore, it is not ethical if the clients are not served well. in this case, it is obvious that there is the shift of paradigm in the sub-district in which the government employees used to be considered as the kings that were served by the people, but today it is shifted to a better organization: it is the employees who serve people. they are really good civil service that humbly serve people. 91 2.5. attitude toward devices used for working: indifferent and reluctant to use available technological devices due to the incapacity to use them it seems that the employees of the kisaran barat sub-district office are indifferent and reluctant to optimize the available devices as well as possible. the fact is that using these devices can make the work easier and speedier to do. their indifference is often caused by their limitations such as the factor of age since the older a person is, the weaker his mind in catching up current information. old-aged employees will feel awkward to learn modern technology. technological advancement should be used as well as possible so that organizational vision and mission can be achieved properly. the factor of age is not a serious obstacle in learning something well if it will make the work easier to do. the result of the observation done in the kisaran barat sub-district office concerning the use of devices in working showed that many employees had no capacity to learn how to operate technological devices such as using computer. many of them are not able to operate computer well so that many of them use those who are hired on a contract basis in operating technological devices. there are some people who are recruited to be hired as computer operators for helping employees work; for example, typing letters. even though the new recruited hired employees have helped cover the shortage, the side-effect is the decrease in the interest of the government employees in learning to master current technology so that mastering science and technology in the future will be decreased, too. 2.6. work ethic: trusteeship which has to be maintained in the kisaran barat sub-district office, work ethic or morale which becomes the basis for the employees in working means that they consider that working is trusteeship. the status as s government employee is a trusteeship by indonesian people and by government to do his job well. as government employees, the employees in the kisaran barat sub-district office consider their job as trusteeship which has to be carried out and accounted for because the first time they are hired as government employees they have to take a vow to be good and trustworthy government employees. therefore, they always consider their job as trusteeship given to him. when they violate their vows, they will, of course, be shameful so that the vow becomes the trigger to increase their work motivation and liability for the work which has been trusted to them. 2.7. behavior in working and making decision: waiting for order in providing services for people, the employees of the kisaran barat sub-district office are very hospitable. “clients are the kings” – this motto has been instilled well in their mind as the government employees. every client who comes to the office will be received and served politely with smiles. unfortunately, they usually wait for the order from their superiors; they only do their job when their superiors ask them to do it, but when there is no order, they only keep sitting, chatting with their co-workers, going to the office cafés, or doing any unproductive activities, without thinking about the benefit of the organization. from the researcher’s observation in the research location concerning the employees’ behavior in working and in making decision, it was found that the employees of the kisaran barat sub-district office were good and hospitable in serving people. however, in the office hours they usually wait for order from their superiors and do not dare to make decision without the consent of their superiors although sometimes the sub-district head is not in the office. consequently, the work is impeded and cannot be completed on time. this indicates that they are not initiative and have no courage to make any decision quickly in any problems which have to be solved immediately. 3. some obstacles in creating good organization culture organizational culture should be developed in order to adjust to environment. developing organizational culture in the kisaran barat sub-district office is aimed to create an organizational culture which is able to support the implementation of all assignments and tasks which must be done. however, problems and obstacles usually exist in implementing the assignments and tasks which will be impeded or delayed. if they not completed properly, they will influence the organizational culture. bad organizational culture can also occur in the kisaran barat sub-district office. therefore, in order to create good organizational culture the employees, especially those who work at the kisaran barat sub-district office, have to know what obstacles they are facing. in this case, the researcher identifies some obstacles which exist in developing organizational culture: a) no local government regulation on developing organizational culture. so far, the asahan district administration has not issued any regulation on developing organizational culture in the asahan district administration in following up the decree of the minister of the efficient use of state apparatus and bureaucratic 92 reformation no. 39/20012 on developing organizational culture in which it is stated that there are 3 (three) types of mechanism of selection in formulating the values (which have advantages and disadvantages) as the basis for working: 1. top management and echelon 1 in each ministry/institution and local government work together in stipulating organizational values, regulations, and policies or legal provisions; 2. top management and echelon 1 in each ministry/institution and local government work together with official representatives (echelon ii, iii, and iv) and staff representatives work together in formulating organizational values. each participant has the right to present personal values or the values which are in accordance with vision, mission, primary mission/task, organizational functions, rules, and policies or legal provisions; 3. top management and echelon 1 in each ministry/institution and local government invite all officials and staffs to work together in formulating organizational values. each participant has the right to present personal values or the values which are in accordance with vision, mission, primary mission/task, organizational functions, rules, and policies or legal provisions; the availability of clear norms, the development of organizational culture can be accomplished well. there will be no ambiguity among the employees and their mindset can be equalized. they will know clearly what work pattern wanted by the government for achieving and accelerating the organization’s goal. b) lack of the number of employees the shortage of employees in the kisaran barat sub-district office has significant influence on their work performance. for example, some officials have difficulty in doing their work because almost all employees who have the positions of the section heads in the office do not have staffs or subordinates who can do their tasks. consequently, the section heads have to do them themselves. there are only 2 (two) staffs in the kisaran barat sub-district office, and this condition influences the acceleration and the effectiveness in completing the work and, of course, influences the quality of the work itself. c) management changes the values without mature planning in january, 2017, the sub-district head of kisaran barat subdistrict was changed. in the previous tenure, the sub-district head was darwinsyah lubis, s.stp who was transferred to a new post as the head of protocol department of the secretariat of asahan regency. he was replaced by agus jaka putra ginting, s.h., who is still in his position as the kisaran barat sub-district head. in this case, the employees had difficulties in accepting new values dome by the new sub-district head, especially in the aspect of discipline. the previous sub-district head used to emphasize on strict discipline such as in punctuality. the employees were required to get to office at exactly 7:30 am and the roll call in the morning and to return from office at exactly 4:00 pm. the new sub-district head more emphasized on the output or work result. punctuality is not much emphasized; the important thing is the job has to be completed properly. the change in this policy would certainly make great effect on the employees’ performance. they would be confused in adjusting to the new policy and leadership style of the new top management, and it takes time and long process. relevant cultures should be well kept and maintained, and the instilled culture should be adjusted to the existing culture. d) reward dan punishment are not optimal the implementation of reward and punishment in the kisaran barat sub-district office is not optimal. the employees believe that there is no difference between those who work hard and seriously get the same treatment from their superiors as those who are lazy and sluggish. besides that, it is very difficult to impose punishment in a written form or normative punishment such as legal provisions upon subordinates since employment is based on family relationship in the local government or in public organizations. besides that, many employees have close relationship or even kinship with political figures so that they will be backed up when they get problems. this condition will eventually have the significant effect on the work atmosphere in this sub-district office. conclusion based on the data above, it was found that organizational culture in the kisaran barat sub-district office was in good category although there was the decrease in the work achievement and performance. there were some obstacles in creating good organizational culture in this office: 1) there was no normative regulation issued by the asahan district administration on developing organizational culture, 2) there was the shortage of qualified and quantified human resources in the kisaran barat sub-district office, 3) the superiors could not maintain the consistency of the available positive values and tended to change them without socializing to their subordinates, and 4) reward and punishment system was not optimal. improving organization culture toward a better one will take years; therefore, the improvement should begin with the changes in the attitude and behavior of the superiors or the top officials 93 which will be followed by their subordinates. the establishment of organizational culture begins with superiors’ awareness of the relationship between superiors and subordinates in determining their own method in the work units. problems occur because of the viewpoints and the behavior of the government apparatus is not good enough since they are influenced by bed organizational culture. the development of good organizational culture will be very beneficial for the employees themselves and for their work environment which give them opportunities to play their role, to perform, to do self-actualization, to get recognition, to get reward, to get work pride, to have a sense of belonging, to take responsibility, to increase the capacity to lead, and to be able to solve any problems. the implementation of organizational culture is needed because government employees’ condition is alarming since they ignore moral values and organizational culture in doing their job. references 1. ahmadi, s., salamzadeh, y., daraei, m., & akbari, j. (2012). relationship between organizational culture and strategy implementation: typologies and dimensions. global business and management research: an international journal. 2. ahmed, m., & shafiq, s. (2014). the impact of organizational culture on organizational performance: a case study of telecom sector the impact of organizational culture on organizational performance: a case study of telecom sector. global journal of management and business research: a administration and management. 3. ehtesham, u. m., muhammad, t. m., & muhammad, s. a. (2011). relationship between organizational culture and performance management practices: a case of university in pakistan. journal of competitiveness. 4. goromonzi, w. o. (2016). organizational culture, strategy implementation and commercial bank performance in zimbabwe. international review of management and marketing. 5. janicijevic, n. (2012). organizational culture and strategy. ekonomika preduzeca. https://doi.org/10.5937/ekopre1204127j 6. kumar, a. (2016). redefined and importance of organizational culture. global journal of management and business research: a administration and management, 16(4). retrieved from https://globaljournals.org/gjmbr_volume16/3-redefinedand-importance.pdf 7. meško štok, z., markič, m., bertoncelj, a., & meško, m. (2010). elements of organizational culture leading to. zb. rad. ekon. fak. rij. 8. sambali, novayanti prameta. (2015). pengaruh kompetensi, budaya kerja dan fasilitas kerja terhadap kinerja pegawai perwakilan badan kependudukan dan keluarga berencana nasional provinsi sulawesi tengah. 3, 157–166. 9. yogaswara, y. (2015). pengaruh budaya organisasi dan kedisiplinan kerja terhadap kinerja karyawan bagian penjualan pada pt. altrak 78 cabang pekanbaru. jom fekom, 2(1), 1–15. 47 the use of contracted forms of albanian language in electronic media texts prof. asoc. dr. flamur shala ¹* prof. ass. dr. xhafer beqiraj ² ¹ university “ukshin hoti” prizren, faculty of philology, flamur.shala@uni-prizren.com *correspondent author. ² university “ukshin hoti” prizren, faculty of philology, xhafer.beqiraj@uni-prizren.com article history: submission 19 august 2020 revision 28 september 2020 revision 02 november 2020 accepted 25 november 2020 available online 31 december 2020 keywords: contracted forms, misuse of the contracted forms, written media, correct use, connected contracted forms. a b s t r a c t the contracted forms of literary albanian are of dative case of all person’s singular and plural and of the accusative case in the third person singular and plural. in certain syntactic constructions they merge and thus form connected contracted forms. when used near each other, the first is dative, while the second is accusative. their use according to the norm are correct. their topic in the sentence is arranged and a linguist or a lecturer should not miss the omissions in texts with short, separate, or connected forms. on the contrary, we encounter misuses of short forms of albanian in texts of published and electronic media. they are incorrectly used in some syntactic constructions, marked by case in case, one by one. contracted form locations and their referral to a different pronoun or name as a repetition of an object appear to be harmonized with the respective forms as an object or its repetition. they are placed in front of the verb forms of each tense. except in imperative they have a double topic. the contracted forms during usage in the dative and accusative cases directly mark direct or indirect object. the contracted forms of the first and second person singular and plural, in the dative case, are often used to mark directly the indirect object. the misuse of the contracted forms is more common in the third person of the dative case when i.e. singular (i) is used instead of plural (u). we also encounter the incorrect use of the contracted forms of the second person plural of the dative case (juve) you instead of (atyre u). this research reveals the wrong use of contracted forms in the texts of some electronic media (portals) in pristina and tirana. 1. introduction the contracted forms of literary albanian are of dative case of all person’s singular and plural and of the accusative case in the third person singular and plural (agalliu, f., angoni e., demiraj, sh., dhrimo, a., hysa, e., lafe, e., likaj, e. 2002). in certain syntactic constructions they merge and thus form connected contracted forms. when used near each other, the first is dative, while the second is accusative. the connected contracted forms we encounter even in the cases of joining the dative case ( i, u), and the particle of the subjunctive, future tense, infinitive or participle, i.e. t’i bëhen, t’u bëhen dhe t’ju them, për t’i bërë, për t’u bërë, t'ia thuash; do t'ia tregoja; do ta njoftoj; për t'ia dalë në krye; me t'ia treguar; etj.” (kostallari, a., domi, m., ҫabej, e., lafe, e., 1973). these connected contracted forms are also present in the cases of joining the form of dative (ty të) and the particle (u) of the past simple of passive voice u (u duk), i.e.: “nuk m'a dha; m'u bë zemra mal; në m'u dhëntë rasti etj.; si t'u duk ; mos t'u ndaftë e mira!; t'u bëftë pushka top!” etj.” (kostallari, a., domi, m., ҫabej, e., lafe, e., 1973). they are placed in front of the verb forms of each tense. their topic in the sentence is arranged and a linguist or a lecturer should not miss the omissions in texts with short, separate, or connected forms. their use according to the norm is no doubt correct. on the contrary, we encounter misuses of short forms of albanian in texts of published and electronic media. they are incorrectly http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2607-6428 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9295-7357 48 used in some syntactic constructions, marked by case in case, one by one. contracted form locations and their referral to a different pronoun or name as a repetition of an object appear to be harmonized with the respective forms as an object or its repetition. they are placed in front of the verb forms of each tense. except in imperative they have a double topic (agalliu, f., angoni e., demiraj, sh., dhrimo, a., hysa, e., lafe, e., likaj, e.2002). placing before or after a verb, as an inseparable part of it, has made the short forms to be treated as "pre-placed, afterplaced, sub-placed agglutinative elements" ... and "brought to the verb almost as so-called prefixes" (pernaska 2012). although they are no longer personal pronouns, they have retained their person marking ability. by preserving this ability, they preserve the person of the object and play the role of "verbal clauses" (pёrnaska 2012). short forms retain this ability and mark the object’s person for each case, as the datum (mua më, ty të, atijasaj i, neve na, juve ju, aryre u) in all the singular and plural ones, as well as the accusative case in the third singular person (that ‘e’) and the plural (ata-ato i). the merging of the short forms and the datum, for each person of personal pronoun, with the short form of the singular and plural third person of the accusative case (agalliu, f., angoni e., demiraj, sh., dhrimo, a., hysa, e., lafe, e., likaj, e., 2002), is done based on their own preservation (the singular of the datum and the singular of the accusative: më+e=ma; ty+e=ta; i+e=ia, the plural of datum and the singular of the accusative: na+e=na e; ju+e=jua; u+e=ua, and the singular of datum and the plural of the accusative: më+i=m’i; të+i=t’i; i+i=ia; plural of datum and plural of the accusative: na+i=na i; ju+i=jua; u+i=ua). the contracted forms during usage in the dative and accusative cases directly mark direct or indirect object. the contracted forms of the first and second person singular and plural, in the dative case, are often used to mark directly the indirect object (agalliu, f., angoni e., demiraj, sh., dhrimo, a., hysa, e., lafe, e., likaj, e.2002). this research reveals the wrong use of contracted forms in the texts of some electronic media (portals) in pristina and tirana. as it is said, the short (contracted) formations of the albanian language are in most cases a repetition of the direct and indirect object, and they are also a union of two cases, of the dative in all persons and of the accusative in the third person. using them incorrectly in the texts of some portals induces the curiosity of handling these uses. their avoidance is not essentially spelling or purely morphological, they are also syntactic. we will extract the examples, extracted from the texts, to make the analysis more interesting. 2. materials and methods in the texts of some electronic media in pristina and tirana we have occasionally encountered some misuses of some short forms of pronouns. these forms have been found in certain syntactic constructs, identified in texts of a lot of portals or albanian newspapers, as in: zëri.info, gazeta: express, indeksonline, koha.net, telegrafi.com, bota sot, botapress, gazeta shekulli, gazeta tema, panorama online, etc. the curiosity to research about these uses was spurred more by the repetition of the same uses of short (contracted) forms in the above-mentioned electronic media texts. the most incorrectly used short (contracted) forms that we encounter are: the form ju (juve ju) instead of u, i.e. …atyre më pas ju bëhej e qartë…. (gazeta tema, 5.09.2018.), form i instead of u, i.e. ….kjo i (duhet, u ndodh, v.j.) ndodh kosovarëve që e mashtrojnë zvicrën...(gazeta: express 31.10.2017); me këtë mendim dhe qëndrim i rikthehet (duhet, u rikthehet, v.j.) shteteve në linja etnike... (gazetaexpress 31 oktober 2017); connected form t’i instead of t’u, i.e. para se të jetonte në fshehtësi për t’i shpëtuar (duhet, t’u shpëtuar, v.j.) internimeve të hebrenjve (indeksonline 21.09.2018); connected form iu instead of u, mbyllja që iu (duhet u është bërë, v.j.) është bërë dhjetëra institucioneve arsimore në mbarë vendin (gazeta shekulli 5.09.2018); connected form ia instead of ua, i.e. një qeveri që shkurton buxhetin e arsimit dhe ia shpërndan atë kriminelëve (gazeta shekulli 5.09.2018); unnecessary form e, i.e. shqipëria socialiste e arriti përsëri lumturinë: gjithcka falas…,(gazeta shekulli 5.09.2018); the lack of short form i or e in certain formations, p.sh. “në vitin 2017, autoritetet e kosovës arrestuan 5 individë të tjerë nën të njëjtat akuza (panorama, sep 19, 2018); ia instead of i, (i arrestuan 5 individë…) stylistically likable, p.sh. heshtur apo hapur atij ia kanë dhënë mandatin për të negociuar…….” (zëri.info 25 august 2018); it should be, i kanë dhënë mandatin për të negociuar, without the forms e of accusative, connected with the i of the dative in ia. 3. results the contracted forms of literary albanian are of dative case of all persons singular and plural and of the accusative case in the third person singular and plural. when used near each other, the first is dative, while the second is accusative. the connected contracted forms are encountered in cases of joining the dative i, u, and particle të subjunctive, of the future tense, infinitive and participle, i.e: t’i bëhen, t’u bëhen dhe t’ju them, për t’i bërë, për t’u bërë, t'ia thuash; do t'ia tregoja; do ta njoftoj etj.” these connected contracted forms are also present in the cases of joining 49 the form of dative (ty të) and the particle (u) of the past simple of passive voice u (u duk), i.e.: “nuk m'a dha; m'u bë zemra mal; në m'u dhëntë rasti etj.; si t'u duk ; mos t'u ndaftë e mira!; t'u bëftë pushka top!” etc. they are placed in front of the verb forms of each tense. their topic in the sentence is arranged and a linguist or a lecturer should not miss the omissions in texts with short, separate, or connected forms. on the contrary, we encounter misuses of short forms of albanian in texts of published and electronic media. this research expounds the misuse of connected short forms found in the texts of some electronic media in pristina and tirana. these forms have been found in certain syntactic constructs, identified in texts of a lot of portals or albanian newspapers, as in: zëri.info, gazeta express, indeksonline, koha.net, telegrafi.com, bota sot, botapress, gazeta shekulli, gazeta tema, panorama online, etc. the curiosity to research about these uses was spurred more by the repetition of the same uses of short (contracted) forms in the above-mentioned electronic media texts. the most incorrectly used short (contracted) forms that we encounter are: the form ju (juve ju) instead of u, i.e. …atyre më pas ju bëhej e qartë…., form i instead of u, i.e. ….kjo i (duhet u ndodh, v.j.) ndodh kosovarëve që e mashtrojnë zvicrën...; me këtë mendim dhe qëndrim i rikthehet (duhet u rikthehet, v.j.) shteteve në linja etnike...; connected form t’i instead of t’u, i.e. para se të jetonte në fshehtësi për t’i shpëtuar (duhet për t’u shpëtuar, v.j.) internimeve të hebrenjve.; connected form iu instead of u, mbyllja që iu (duhet u është bërë, v.j.) është bërë dhjetëra institucioneve arsimore në mbarë vendin.; connected form ia instead of ua, i.e. një qeveri që shkurton buxhetin e arsimit dhe ia shpërndan atë kriminelëve.; unnecessary form e, i.e. shqipëria socialiste e arriti përsëri lumturinë: gjithcka falas…, the lack of short form i or e in certain formations, p.sh. “në vitin 2017, autoritetet e kosovës arrestuan 5 individë të tjerë nën të njëjtat akuza. ia instead of i, (i arrestuan 5 individë…) stylistically likable, p.sh. heshtur apo hapur atij ia kanë dhënë mandatin për të negociuar…….”. it should be, i kanë dhënë mandatin për të negociuar, without the forms e of accusative, connected with the i of the dative in ia. 4. discussion of findings it is common to wrongly use the contracted forms, as in the third person of dative case, when the singular of the (i) (atyre i) form is used instead of the plural u (atyre u). also, the incorrect use of the contracted form of the second-person plural of the dative case ju (juve ju) instead of (atyre u) is often encountered. for misuse of short texts we often find in the texts of albanian portals, in prestigious newspapers like the newspaper tema, i.e. “….pasi njoftoheshin për pozicionin e punës atyre më pas ju (në vend të u bëhej) bëhej e qartë puna që duhet të bënin. in the telegrafi.com, i.e. e gjithë kjo bëhet në kuadër të platformës “të rëndësishëm janë njerëzit”, me të cilën njerëzve ju jepet rëndësi më shumë (gazeta tema, 5.09.2018). as we mentioned above, in these sentences the contracted form ju second person plural of the dative case instead of u third person dative (it should be: atyre më pas u bëhej…, dhe njerëzve u jepet rëndësi…). there are frequent misused of the contracted forms such as singular dative, which is used instead of plural dative. at least a few daily electronic newspapers encounter these uses, the frequency of which makes us believe that such misuses are more than an avoidance. for example: kjo i ndodh kosovarëve që e mashtrojnë zvicrën (gazetaexpress 31 oktober 2017). instead of se kjo u ndodh kosovarëve që e mashtronjë zvicrën; ai ka shprehur mirënjohje për administratën e donald trump rreth mbështetjes që po i bën negociatave kosovë-serbi, të ndërmjetësuara nga bashkimi evropian (koha net, 20 shtator 2018), në vend se …për administratën e donald trump rreth mbështetjes që po u bën negociatave kosovë-serbi… in another use, in a line with the example above, we do not only make use of the wrong short form, but also the verb bashkohen instead of bashkohet, extract from the context. i.e. ai ka bërë me dije se ldk në të ardhmen….. thotë se edhe protestave të tjera të vv’së mund t’i bashkohen (gazetaexpress 18 september 2018), në vend se të shkruhet: protestave të tjera të vv’së mund t’u bashkohet, ldk. we also have cases when the short form t’i joins the form i të-së (likaj 2015, p. 30, 31). of the subjunctive and i of dative (asaj i, protestës i, v.j.), where i is used instead of u (atyre u, protestave u). when it comes to singular nouns like ldk (bashkohet v.j.) and the noun in plural protestave, it should be “thotë se edhe protestave të tjera të vv’së mund t’u bashkohet (ldk, v.j.)” (likaj 2015, p. 30, 31). also in the next sentence t’u (sulejmani 1984, p. 72, 73.) is used instead of t’i, i.e.…në amsterdam, para se të jetonte në fshehtësi për t’i shpëtuar (t’u shpëtuar v.j.) internimeve të hebrenjve në kampet famëkeqe naziste në evropën lindore (indeksonline 21.09.2018). another use that we often encounter in electronic printed media is the misuse of short connected form iu, i.e. deputetja … tha se braktisja masive e shkollave nga plot 133 mijë nxënës dhe mbyllja që iu është bërë dhjetëra institucioneve arsimore në mbarë vendin, është një rezultat shkatërrimtar… (gazeta shekulli 5.09.2018). in the above mentioned sentence, the use of the form iu (…iu është bërë dhjetëra institucioneve) is wrong because the short form u is a repetition of the indirect object expressed by atyre u, (sulejmani 1984, p. 72, 73.), u është bërë dhjetëra institucioneve, 50 meanwhile i is unnecessary and wrong. if we would have the sentence “… mbyllja që i është bërë institucionit, clearly i is short form and repetition of the indirect object atij i (institucionit i). it is known that i is singular (atij i është bërë…) and u is plural (atyre u është bërë). the form iu reveals that iis wrongly used instead of u-, and u should not be the particle u e of the passive in the past simple. let us remind that the short form iu is used when dealing with the short form of dative i (asaj, atij i) and the particle u in the passive of past simple, (u bë) si, ,,mbyllja që iu bë institucionit…”, a “mbyllja që iu bë institucioneve…”,when i (atij i) is the short form of dative and u (u bë) is a particle in the passive of the past tense. said in other words, the use of the short form iu është bërë is very unnecessary and wrong. it is është bërë in the past simple of the passive makes that the u (në iu bë) to be u = është, so it is not iu është, but “u është bërë institucioneve. another misuse of the connected short forms is ia in particular sentences, i.e. gjendjen në arsim nuk mund ta ndryshojë një qeveri që shkurton buxhetin e arsimit dhe ia shpërndan atë kriminelëve të lidhur me pushtetin dhe klientëve të….”, tha vokshi ndër të tjera (sulejmani 1984, p. 72, 73.). it is known that ia refers to the singular of dative case, (ia shpërndan kriminelit, v.j.). buxhten ia shpërndan kriminelit (jo kriminelëve), should be: “….buxhetin e arsimit ua shpërndan atë kriminelëve.” in the next example the short form i of the dative singular is wrongly used instead of u (demiraj 2015. p. 175, 176.) of dative plural: ai synon të rikthejë ‘serbinë e madhe” duke përfshirë gjithë pakicat serbe brenda kufijve politikë të shtetit amë, pa marrë parasysh se me këtë mendim dhe qëndrim i rikthehet shteteve në linja etnike, pra në thelb konflikteve dhe luftërave historike (shekulli 5.09.2018). ka gjithashtu kritika të forta brenda kosovës, veçanërisht nga kryeministri…, i cili të premten i referohej diskutimeve si “ide katastrofike” (gazeta shekulli 5.09.2018). ne i kemi premtuar qytetarëve dhe do jemi pranë qytetarëve (gazeta tema, 4.09.2018). “…pa marrë parasysh se me këtë mendim dhe qëndrim i rikthehet shteteve në linja etnike” (zëri.info 04.9.2018). another misuse of the short forms id noticed in the below mentioned sentence where ju (veta e dytë, juve ju dhashë (demiraj 2015. p. 175, 176.) dhe ju ju pashë (shkurtaj 2006, p. 154.) is used instead of iu (veta e tretë i+u=iu). it was said earlier the short form i of the dative is joined with u in the passive of past simple (u bë), i.e. gazetarja klodiana lala ka thyer heshtjen dhe ka folur për herë të parë publikisht për sulmin që ju bë asaj 6 ditë më parё (gazeta shekulli 5.09.2018). the wrong use of the short form ju (instead of iu) in also noticed in this example: ky tipi është akoma gjyqtar dhe atë vit ju shtua pasuria (gazeta tema 5.09.2018). so, instead of iu which is a formation of i+u (atij i dhe u shtua, iu shtua) is used ju shtua, i.e. “...dhe të gjithë votuan kundër sepse ashtu ju tha berisha” (gazeta tema 5.09.2018), në vend se të gjithë votuan kundër sepse ashtu iu tha berisha. it is to be noticed the wrong use of iu instead of ju in the example: meqenëse jeni ambasador kaq i qetë, për thënien se jeni ndjerë sikur iu kishin goditur me thikë pas shpine (bota sot, 21 september 2018). the short form iu (iu tha asaj, nga asaj i dhe u tha), is different form ju (juve ju kishin goditur). this wrong usage has a controversial side: what are the causes that lead to constant misuse of short forms. i will try to avoid thinking that these are technical, spelling or lecture lacks. in the cases of the misuse of the short forms of the pronoun: ne jemi të hapur gjatë gjithë kohës, unë pasi e mora veten nga kjo tronditje, mora vendimin që të reagoja, pasi si gazetare nuk isha e frikësuar (gazeta shekulli 5.09.2018), the short form e is repetition of the object atë e, which comes in the phrase e mora veten, a highly used phrase. stylistically speaking the use of e lowers the stylistic expression that gives the phrase e mora veten (fjalori i gjuhës së sotme shqipe 1980, p. 1063.). even in the sentence: shqipëria socialiste e arriti përsëri lumturinë: gjithҫka falas…, (gazeta shekulli 5.09.2018) the short form e (e arriti lumturinë) it is unnecessarily used for two reasons, stylistic and consequently arriti complements the subject than the object lumturinë. arriti lumturinë is more like a phrase. so with the short form e arriti the verb refers to the word lumturinë because of the repeated object e, ku arriti është qëllimi i kumtimit. in the sentence: “në vitin 2017, autoritetet e kosovës arrestuan 5 individë të tjerë nën të njëjtat akuza (panorama sep 19, 2018). is necessary the use of the short form i (i arrestuan 5 individë), as a repetition of the direct object (5 individë i). the repetition of the object is a phenomenon that has evolved with the albanian language and is characterized as a balkan language phenomenon (demiraj 2015. p. 175, 176., 1988. p. 568., përnaska, 2012. p. 397-398). in the sentence: “vetë klasa politike e kosovës, parlamenti, partitë politike me apo pa vetëdije, heshtur apo hapur atij ia kanë dhënë mandatin për të negociuar me serbinë pa vija te kuqe, pa limite.” (zëri.info 25 august 2018), the short form ia (atij i, atë e=i+e=ia, ia kanë dhënë mandatin) does not respond completely to the syntactic construction and it is unnecessary the repetition of the short form i=e (atë e, mandatin e=a, atij i kanë dhënë mandatin). we can encounter the usage of the short for, t’ia in the sentence, votën e tyre për t’ia ndryshuar emrin maqedonisë shqiptarët 51 duhet ta shohin si hapje të një kapitulli të ri (koha.net 6.09.2018), where të +i+e = t’ia. references 1. agalliu, f., angoni e., demiraj, sh., dhrimo, a., hysa, e., lafe, e., likaj, e., (2002). gramatika e gjuhës shqipe 1, akademia e shkencave tё shqipёrisё, tiranë. 2. përnaska, r., (2012). bashkësia e të ashtuquajturave trajta të shkurtra të përemrave vetorë dhe zgjedhimi nënanor-kundranor (subjektor-objektor) sui generis në gjuhën e sotme shqipe (f.397-410). shqipja dhe gjuhët e ballkanit, akademia e shkencave dhe arteve të kosovës-akademia e shkencave të shqipërisë, prishtinё. 3. demiraj, sh., (1988). gramatika historike e gjuhës shqipe, rilindja, prishtinë. 4. demiraj, sh., (2004). gjuhësi ballkanike, akademia e shkencave tё shqipёrisё, tiranë. 5. demiraj, sh., (2015). gramatikë historike e gjuhës shqipe, akademia e shkencave tё shqipёrisё, tiranë. 6. dhrimo, a., angoni, e., hysa, e., lafe, e., likaj, e., agalliu, f., demiraj, sh., (1985). gramatika e gjuhës së sotme shqipe, rilindja, prishtinë. 7. ethem, l., (2015). zhvillime të mjeteve gramatikore të shqipes, akademia e shkencave tё shqipёrisё, tiranë. 8. fadil, s., (1984). praktikumi i gjuhës shqipe, enti i teksteve dhe i mjeteve mёsimore i kosovёs, prishtinë. 9. gjovalin, sh., (2006). kultura e gjuhës, shtёpia botuese e librit universitar, tiranë. 10. kostallari, a., domi, m., ҫabej e., lafe, e., (1973). drejtshkrimi i gjuhës shqipe, akademia e shkencave tё rp tё shqipёrisё, instituti i gjuhёsisё dhe ltёrsisё, tiranë. 11. topalli, k., (2011). bazat e gramatikës historike të gjuhës shqipe, shtёpia botuese e librit universitar, tiranë. 12. miklosich, f. (1856). die sprache der bulgaren in sierbenburgen, denkschriften der wiener akademie der wissenschaften, phil.-hist., kl., bd. vii, viena. 13. buchholz, o. (1968). zur frage der verdoppelten der objekte im albanischen, aktes du i-congres international des etudes balkaniques et sud-est eropeennes, sofia. 49 child refugees in europe seda yazgan hadzibulic, phd. c. northeastern illinois university, faculty of political science, sedayazgan87@gmail.com article history: accepted 20 april 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: refugees, children refugees, eu, udhr, european union refugee policies. a b s t r a c t this paper provides an overview of the literature on the current refugee crisis in europe, which primarily focuses on the situation of refugees that are children. due to its magnitude, the world is currently facing one of the biggest humanitarian crises it has ever witnessed. millions of people and young children have fled their home countries and became refugees the horror of wars and conflicts has affected all of the refugees while undoubtedly, it has had a more profound and significant impact on the children refugees. the rights of these refugee children are paramount, and one of these rights is that they are provided with safety and resources that will help them cope with the crisis while also ensuring they are provided a chance to a brighter future. the united nations declaration of human rights. the european union and the whole world have a direct responsibility to provide basic necessities such as food, shelter, education, health which can help and alleviate the mental and emotional suffering which the refugee children face. my research will focus on three important aspects of the child refugee’s crisis in europe the general conditions of the children refugees, the conditions of camps especially in italy, greece, and spain, and how the crisis has affected their daily lives and mental health. in the end, my conclusion will focus on the question of, what are the policies which europe has to change which are designed to help and lead the refugee children which to a better future. the aim of this paper to have a better understanding of children refugees in europe and to raise global awareness about their conditions and the humanitarian crisis at hand. research will consist of information from academic articles, published books, various websites, data from previous studies, and resources. 1. introduction in 2016, global forced displacement hit record-high numbers the highest in recorded human history of 63.5 million people. (edwards 2016). according to the global trends released by the un refugee agency (2016), on average, 24 people were forced to flee their homes every minute in 2015 four times more than it was reported a decade earlier. the numbers are staggering; and among millions of uprooted are hundreds of thousands of unaccompanied children traveling to europe hoping to find the promise of safety, security and sanctuary. currently, the vast majority of child refugees coming to europe are from war-torn countries. overall, the number of asylum applications from these countries began to rise, especially after 2012 when, in lieu of the syrian war, and the ongoing conflicts in somalia and iraq, the taliban resurfaced in afghanistan. (mortimer 2016, as cited in chak, 2017). there are more refugees coming out of syria than any other nation (amnesty international ltd. 2014, as cited in sirin, rogers 2015). approximately half of the syrian refugees are under the age of 18, and around 40 percent are under the age of 12 (sirin and rogers, 2015). more than one in five of over 870,000 refugees and migrants who have crossed the mediterranean sea to europe is a child. children are among the most at risk of the refugee migrants. for some children, the difficulties begin with perilous border crossings and rough seas. all are at risk of being exposed to sickness, injury, violence, exploitation and trafficking violations of their rights and threats to their lives and well-being while some tragically never arrive at their destination. (global migration data center 2015) http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7194-4805 50 according to the latest statistics reported by unicef (2019), by the end of 2018 an estimated 27,000 children were present in greece. in italy it was reported that 10,787 children were present in shelters for unaccompanied and separated children (uasc), run by state authorities and non-profit entities, and spain accounted for a total of 13,000 unaccompanied and separated children. this literature review will examine, in four parts, the many difficulties child refugee face once they have arrived to europe. the first part of the literature review will focus on welcoming the refugee and how it may cause conflict with the host countries’ citizens and their domestic policies. the second part of the literature review will cover the conditions of the refugees’ camps in different european countries. the third will cover the refugees’ access to health care. the fourth will review the education that is offered to the refugees. 2. refugee’s welcome? when thousands of migrants left budapest to march on a motorway towards austria – and germany – the german chancellor, angela merkel, and her austrian counterpart, werner faymann, took a far-reaching decision. bypassing the ordinary rules of the eu’s shared asylum system, both leaders agreed to permit asylum seekers entry into their countries. she appeared on talk shows to explain that germany was under an obligation to help. simultaneously, enthusiastic forms of civil society engagement in villages, towns and cities sprang up to provide assistance (bock and mcdonald 2019). on the ground, germany’s willkommenskultur (welcoming culture) manifested through the considerable number of volunteers that reinforced early settlement and integration efforts. the barometer of public opinion on refugees conducted as part of the 2016 wave of the socio-economic panel of the german institute for economic research (deutscher intistut für witschaftsforschung, diw) indicated that an approximate 10% of the german population, amounting to over 8 million people, had helped refugees on site by accompanying them to appointments with the government or volunteering for language instruction (stoyanova 2017). the welcome of the austrian chancellor was not long lived as the austrian government quickly turned their attention on to protect austria's borders and were debating on building a fence or a wall. these heated debates amongst austrian government parties led to the resignation of werner faymann as austria chancellor on may 9, 2016. (rheindorf and wodak 2017) countries such as greece were dealing with their own domestic and economic issues, immediately felt the pressure of the migration waves which became so great that the situation in greece was described by the unhcr (2017) as resembling a humanitarian crisis. in greece refugees are often viewed in negative and hostile terms (giannopoulos and gill 2018). they are seen to represent a burden on the host country, and a particular source of discontent arises when refugees are perceived to have a better life than some of the greeks themselves. according to ellinas (2013) the economic crisis has brought a massive realignment of the greek electorate away from mainstream parties, giving rise to antisystem and anti-immigrant sentiments. the asylum information database (aida 2019) on greece, reported that in september of 2018, two unaccompanied children living in a shelter in oreokastro, thessaloniki were attacked by a group of ten people and in march 2019, in samos, the parents’ association has kept their children out of a primary school in order to protest against the participation of refugee children in classes. the immigrants also fear the local authorities as (keith and levoy 2015) the policies which task police with enforcing migration regulations mean that undocumented migrants, including children, are unable to report violence to the police safely. they are unable to seek protection and redress without risk of detention and deportation, and regularly face immigration enforcement – or the threat of immigration enforcement rather than protection and appropriate steps towards prosecution. this makes them ‘zero risk’ victims, and breeds a culture of impunity for violence. greece is not the only country that has unwelcomed the refugee’s as the prime minister of hungary viktor orban, built a wall against refugees and triggered a collapse on the balkans’ borders. prime minister miro cerar of slovenia said that his country will only accept christian refugees and that europe is going to drown. norbert hofer, the far-right leader in austria that promised he will protect austrian borders against the refugees. they all have a palpable enemy: the refugee (postelnicescu 2016). 3. camp conditions according to the unhcr (2018) reporting on the conditions of the reception identification center (ric) in samos, despite having capacity for 650 people, the centre and its surrounding area are currently hosting around 4,000 people – six times its design. by any measure, things are in crisis. food and water supply is reportedly insufficient, sanitation is poor and security highly problematic. many of the asylum-seekers arrive in greece in a vulnerable state, but even those who turn up at the ric in good condition soon find themselves suffering from health problems (aida 2019), the low number of staff under the ministry of health, particularly doctors and cultural staff mediators, are not sufficient to help refugees with medical and psychological needs. (unhcr 2019) in contrast to the overcrowding conditions for refugees in greece, the asylum information database (aida 2019) on germany 51 reports that most initial reception centres have a policy to accommodate single women and families in separate buildings or separate wings of their buildings, but in situations of overcrowding this policy could not be put into practice in many facilities in recent years. the anker centre in manching/ingolstadt for example provides separate rooms for vulnerable persons. the anker centre of bamberg in bavaria has a capacity of 3,400 places, for example, although it has never accommodated more than 1,500 persons at one time. it also reported that the facilities are often isolated or in remote locations. in general, two or more menus are on offer for lunch and the management of the catering facilities tries to ensure that specific food is provided with regard to religious sentiments. because different policies are pursued on regional and local level, it is impossible to make general statements on the standards of living in the follow-up accommodation facilities. the aida (2019) also reported on the conditions in hungary where all refugees are placed in detention camps such as nyirbatov. the detainees said the facilities were infested with bedbugs, and human rights watch researchers observed rashes and bites on detainees. staff said that eradicating the problem would be too costly. though the temperature was cold, around 5 degrees, many people were without sweaters and were wrapped in bedsheets. staff said detainees are expected to buy their own clothes. there are no programmes organised for teenage unaccompanied children, who often complain of boredom. their pens and pencils are also taken away because of security risk. 4. health care according to the united nations office of the high commissioner on human rights, the convention on the rights of the child (ohchr 1989) states parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health. states parties shall strive to ensure that no child is deprived of his or her right of access to such health care services. european countries such as france, italy, spain, portugal and norway stand out because they have explicit policies that aim to provide care on equal terms to the host population for all categories of migrant children. in contrast, germany and slovakia stand out as the european countries with the most restrictive policies. twelve european countries have limited entitlements to health care for asylum seeking children, including germany that stands out as the country with the most restrictive health care policy for children.(ostergaard et al., 2017) accessing medical care in germany can be a gamble as keith and levoy (2015) state that according to one law, undocumented migrants should have the same access to health services as asylum seekers in cases of acute illness and pain, and maternity care there is another law that requires social welfare offices to report undocumented migrants to the immigration authorities in all but emergency care situations. these contradictory laws mean that undocumented migrants, including children, are only able to access emergency treatment free of charge from public health facilities and would be at risk of denunciation and deportation if they were to try to access any other health services. therefore, in effect, the legal framework only entitles undocumented migrants to emergency care, and there are at times difficulties in accessing even this care. in france, the european migration network (2014) reports that, as soon as the unaccompanied minor (uam) enters the shelter phase, the young person benefits from universal health cover (couverture maladie universelle) (cmu). after this, the young person under the care of the social child and youth care services (ase) has access to health care under common law. a health check is systematically carried out on admission to the ase services. uams who do not come under the protection of the ase, can benefit from state medical aid (ame), as irregularly staying foreign nationals. this access to state medical aid is not conditioned on the presence of three months on the french territory for minors, unlike for irregularly staying adults (european migration network 2014). 5. education sirin, rogers (2015) writes that during the 2014-2015 school year, 51 percent of all syrian children did not attend school, and in the hardest -hit areas up to 74 percent of children were not enrolled. as of 2014 syria's net primary education enrollment rate was the second -lowest in the world. many children arrive in refugee camps are already at an educational disadvantage. most of the time refugee children are behind in all subjects and will need to catch up while simultaneously learning a new language and adjust to an entirely new cultural and social environment. the acquisition of a second language is particularly challenging for children who have fallen behind in academic skills due to interruptions in their schooling. additionally, the emotional trauma experienced by many refugee children may affect their cognitive, emotional, and social development. the eu member states have been facing challenges in providing decent opportunities in education for newly arrived refugees and integrating them into mainstream education. these challenges have intensified since 2015 with the arrival of larger numbers of refugees and asylum seekers (thomas et al. 2018). administrative procedures and legal restrictions represent barriers for migrants’ inclusion into education when access to schooling is dependent on their legal status or the stage in the asylum process (koehler et al. 2018). the education across europe is different by reception centers as countries such as austria, belgium, germany, italy and sweden amongst others, offer limited education classes such as language while they are in reception centers. the uk, spain, slovakia, bulgaria and greece 52 do not have reception classes and are directly enrolled in mainstream education classes (koehler et al. 2018). some municipalities in germany, such as hamburg, have installed ‘learning groups’ in reception centres (classes of up to 15 children and adolescents, roughly divided into age groups, who receive german language lessons and partly alphabetization in latin writing). in principle, attendance at the learning groups is obligatory for all young people under age 18, but absenteeism is high (thomas et al. 2018). in some cases, children receive language education for a few hours a day in the asylum seeker centres, rather than going to a regular school and have regular school hours. in greece, education is compulsory for all children irrespective of their legal status; the non-enrolment of minors is penalised, and sanctions can be imposed on parents and guardians who do not register their children or neglect school attendance. however, this is rarely applied to vulnerable groups such as refugee parents (crul et al. 2019). according to the aida (2019) report on access to education in greece, children aged between 6-15 years, living in dispersed urban settings (such as unhcr accommodation, squats, apartments, hotels, and reception centres for asylum seekers and unaccompanied children), may go to schools near their place of residence, to enroll in the morning classes alongside greek children, at schools that will be identified by the ministry. in both sweden and germany there is no obligation to attend school for those still in the process of status definition, who therefore do not yet have a residence permit (bourgonje, 2010; rydin et al., 2012, as cited in crul 2019), although in theory, german language courses are obligatory in germany in the reception centres. in some cases, children receive language education for a few hours a day in the asylum seeker centres, rather than going to a regular school and have regular school hours. for the refugees in italy, the italian legislation provides that all children until the age of 16, both nationals and foreigners, have the right and the obligation to take part in the national education system. under the reception decree, unaccompanied asylum-seeking children and children of asylum seekers exercise these rights and are also admitted to the courses of italian language. the reception decree makes reference to article 38 tui, which states that foreign children present on italian territory are subject to compulsory education, emphasizing that all provisions concerning the right to education and the access to education services apply to foreign children as well (aida italy 2019). 6. conclusions the european union as a whole has in many ways failed the refugees but also the european member countries that were struggling prior to the drastic mass migration at the start of the middle east turmoil. europe has always had to deal with legal and illegal migration from those same countries in the middle east and as far as asia. it is hard to place blame on a country as greece with their abysmal record of camp conditions and their access to health care when they have their own domestic and economic issues to deal with. greece being the first point of entry into europe through many of their islands in the mediterranean was in no position to take on such a disaster even only as if it was a transit point for the refugees. countries as germany were able to manage and avoid being overwhelmed due to their strong economy. the european union was built to take on a collective role as a whole but has shown their inability to organize and be prepared for disasters such as the refugee crisis and has failed miserably. with all its power, the european union and its 28 members were unable to coordinate and provide in some cases the basics needs for the refugees. in doing so, it seems that they allowed each country to fend for themselves which gave a voice to the nationalist movements that led to the violence that the children and all other migrants face. countries like hungary and austria amongst others, closed their borders and were in discussions of building fences and walls on their borders. if we are to call it the european “union”, why should some of the member countries have no issues providing at least the basics of hum a dignity, such as the right to health care and housing, while others are denied health care and are locked up in detention centers with overflowing sanitation problems which lead to more health issues. the european union should not have conflicting policies, rather it should be a collective and organized effort by all of its members that are in “union” with its goals. one of its unquestionable and undeniable goals was for the eu and its member states is to protect the lives of the more than 200,000 unaccompanied and minor child refugees with their borders. 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(november 2, 2019). 26. unicef. 2019. “latest statistics and graphics on refugee and migrant children.” unicef. https://www.unicef.org/eca/emergencies/latest-statisticsand-graphics-refugee-and-migrant-children (november 2, 2019). https://www.unhcr.org/576408cd7.pdf https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/news/briefing/2018/11/5be15c454/unhcr-urges-greece-accelerate-emergency-measures-address-conditions-samos.html https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/news/briefing/2018/11/5be15c454/unhcr-urges-greece-accelerate-emergency-measures-address-conditions-samos.html https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/news/briefing/2018/11/5be15c454/unhcr-urges-greece-accelerate-emergency-measures-address-conditions-samos.html https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/news/briefing/2018/11/5be15c454/unhcr-urges-greece-accelerate-emergency-measures-address-conditions-samos.html http://www.refworld.org/docid/5a3cec6b4.html. https://www.unicef.org/eca/emergencies/latest-statistics-and-graphics-refugee-and-migrant-children https://www.unicef.org/eca/emergencies/latest-statistics-and-graphics-refugee-and-migrant-children 57 education policies in pre-university education of the republic of kosovo for non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian maliqe mulolli – jahmurataj, phd. c. ¹ ¹ south east european university, faculty of education, governance and public administration department, maliqem@gmail.com article history: accepted 20 march 2020 available online 31 april 2020 keywords: inclusion, children from non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian, education policy, pre-university education. a b s t r a c t the republic of kosovo is a country that observes all the rights and obligations of its subjects with no discrimination in national, racial, linguistic sense. even though we have these rights in place, in practice the situation is different and not very positive. this is since the non-majority communities roma, ashkali and egyptian in kosovo face several problems in different areas, especially when it comes to their right on integration to education. this paper will address and evaluate current policies and legislation of kosovo for inclusion in education as a condition for completion of the education system. this paper will be developed by considering the assessment of the constitution and relevant legislation referring to the right to education for non-majority communities. given all this legislation, it will be assessed in harmony with the practical problems that exist regarding access to the education system for non-majority communities. therefore, this paper aims to bring innovation in this field of research aiming to identify how much the republic of kosovo is keeping a pace with the standards for inclusion in the education system, what are the reasons that in current state of play we do not have a satisfactory inclusion in the education by category of children from non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in pre-university education. 1. inclusion of children from non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in education system as a constitutional right with the republic of kosovo the republic of kosovo is oriented towards the highest universal values of the democratic world, being a direct implementor of international mechanisms that enable the observance of human rights, equality, non-discrimination and inclusion in public and social life for all citizens of republic of kosovo. to prove this orientation, the republic of kosovo, starting with the constitution, laws and other international instruments, has envisaged an equal treatment for all its citizens irrespective of their nation, nationality, religion or other issues that make them different from others. the constitution of the republic of kosovo stipulates that: “the republic of kosovo is a state of its citizens. the republic of kosovo exercises its authority based on the respect for human rights and freedoms of its citizens and all other individuals within its borders" (constitution of the republic of kosovo, article 1, paragraph 2). as provided in the constitution, every citizen of the republic of kosovo is provided with a constitutional assurance that the republic of kosovo is their state and the exercise of authority is based on the highest values of the civilized world based on human rights and freedoms. this is where it stems out interrelation of every citizen with the republic of kosovo and the mutual obligations, they have towards each other in terms of functioning of the state and establishing of a better living conditions and well-being for all its citizens. the republic of kosovo is a state where the form of governance and power sharing is stipulated in its constitution and it: "kosovo is a democratic republic based on the principle of separation of powers and the checks and balances among them as provided in https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6911-1508 58 this constitution. "( constitution of the republic of kosovo, article 4, paragraph 1 ). this clearly defines the form of government and that of the separation of powers that is in place for the state to be functional and accountable. what is related to the establishing of better living conditions and well-being, including the education system in kosovo, is the responsibility of the government pillar which stipulates that: “the government of the republic of kosovo is responsible for implementation of laws and state policies and is subject to parliamentarian control.” ( constitution of the republic of kosovo, article 4, paragraph 4 ). from the mandate vested by constitution, the government is the authority that is initially responsible for drafting and proposing policies through draft laws, which are then approved by the assembly of the republic of kosovo. the government of the republic of kosovo is also responsible for the development, reform of the education system in the republic of kosovo, initially assessing the situation followed by creation of policies and legal infrastructure that governs, reforms and steers the education system in the republic of kosovo. the right to education is a constitutional right for every citizen of the republic of kosovo, as envisaged in the constitution: “every person enjoys the right to free basic education. mandatory education is regulated by law and funded by public funds. public institutions shall ensure equal opportunities to education for everyone in accordance with her/his specific abilities and needs.” ( constitution of the republic of kosovo, article 47, paragraph 1 and 2). this constitution provides for the assurance of every citizen in the republic of kosovo who enjoys the right to education by providing them equal opportunities for education. this assurance for the right to education is also a constitutional and legal assurance for the citizens of the republic of kosovo who belong to non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian. by establishing this legal assurance about the right to education for every citizen, the republic of kosovo has proven to be a state that within its legal system has incorporated universal human rights values and proves that it is on the right track also with regards in respecting the international mechanisms for which it is obliged to implement and incorporate in the framework of its national policymaking and education legislation. the state of the republic of kosovo, in order to keep a pace with the universal values of the democratic world, within its constitution has determined the direct implementation of international agreements and instruments such as the "universal declaration of human rights; the european convention for the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms and its protocols; the international covenant on civil and political rights and its protocols; council of europe framework convention for the protection of national minorities; convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination; convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women; convention on the rights of the child; convention against torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment" ( constitution of the republic of kosovo, article 22 ). all these international instruments are directly applicable in the republic of kosovo and have priority over the domestic legislation, which shows the orientation and values that the state of the republic of kosovo aims to meet in the future. these international mechanisms apply to every area as well as in education, and specifically to the rights of the citizens of the republic of kosovo from non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian for their undeniable right to education. the right to education and inclusion in the education system of the republic of kosovo is also guaranteed under these mechanisms that are directly embedded into the constitution of the country and ensure that every citizen is equal in every respect as well as in education. non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in the republic of kosovo have rights that provide them with equal treatment without being discriminated against and impeding their identity, in addition to being equal, they also enjoy special rights. these rights are also enshrined in the constitution of the republic of kosovo, which stipulates that “residents belonging to the same national or ethnic, linguistic, or religious group traditionally present on the territory of the republic of kosovo (communities) shall have specific rights as set forth in this constitution in addition to the human rights and fundamental freedoms provided in chapter ii of this constitution." ( constitution of the republic of kosovo, article 57, paragraph 1 ). the will for equal and special treatment of roma, ashkali and egyptian non-majority communities has materialized as constitutional category, so this is the value that the state of kosovo possesses in terms of the rights of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian. when referring specifically to the right to education of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian, the constitution provides for a good position and that :"members of communities shall have the right, individually or in community, to: express, maintain and develop their culture and preserve the essential elements of their identity, namely their religion, language, traditions and culture; receive public education in one of the official languages of the republic of kosovo of their choice at all levels; receive pre-school, primary and secondary public education, in their own language to the extent prescribed by law, with the thresholds for establishing specific classes or schools for this purpose being lower than normally stipulated for educational institutions; establish and manage their own private educational and training establishments for which public financial assistance 59 may be granted, in accordance with the law and international standards; use their language and alphabet freely in private and in public; use their language and alphabet in their relations with the municipal authorities or local offices of central authorities in areas where they represent a sufficient share of the population in accordance with the law. the costs incurred by the use of an interpreter or a translator shall be borne by the competent authorities " ( constitution of the republic of kosovo, article 59, paragraph 1,2,3,4,5,6). from the stipulation of these rights, it can be concluded that there is no discrimination against members of non-majority communities roma, ashkali and egyptian in kosovo but they are very good positioned in constitutional and legal area, so this is a value that the the republic of kosovo holds and considers it to be competitive with the most democratic countries in the world. 2. legislation stipulating the rights to education and inclusion of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in the republic of kosovo the area of education, as one of the most important areas of the country is specifically governed by the relevant legislation, which aims to establish an education system that will serve the education and preparation of future generations for the labor market and development of society. communities in the republic of kosovo are protected and promoted for equal opportunities, as stipulated in the following: “all persons belonging to communities shall have the right to receive public education at all levels in one of the official languages of kosovo of their choice. persons belonging to communities are entitled to pre-school, primary, secondary public education in their own language, even if it is not an official language. the government of kosovo shall establish reasonable and viable thresholds for establishing specific classes or schools operating in community languages. the minimum threshold for such classes or schools shall be lower than thresholds normally stipulated for educational institutions and classes. the maximum thresholds shall correspond with the established thresholds normally stipulated for school classes. this shall be regulated by law." ( law no. 03 / l-047 on the protection and promotion of the rights of communities and their members in the republic of kosovo, article 8, paragraph). this is an assurance that is governed by law and guarantees communities the education in their language as their fundamental right. in case in point we are entitled to the right to education as a right in principle, while it is regulated in detail with relevant legislation in force which will be addressed in the following of this paper. within the framework of the regulation of the education system through relevant legislation, the regulation of the education and training of members of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in kosovo has not been overlooked. their rights to education are specified and regulated in the field of education as constitutional and legal rights. therefore, the right to education starting from preschool is stipulated: " in the places of mixed population, preschools institutions shall provide education in minorities language as well, conform constitutional framework and special laws." ( law no. 02 / l-52 on preschool education, article 5, paragraph 2). the non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian through this right are entitled to have access to pre-school education in their language as a legal category constituting best evidence manifesting the rights of non-majority communities roma, ashkali and egyptian to education in their language. the right of non-majority communities roma, ashkali and egyptian to education is a legal category since pre-school and on. this fact shows that the rights of non-majority roma, ashkali and egyptian communities in the republic of kosovo from their definition in the constitution of the country, through relevant legislation, are specified and operationalized in detail in order to be observed as their fundamental rights. this proves once again the commitment of the state of the republic of kosovo, in terms of defining their rights and their norm in detail within the relevant legislation in force. in addition to the rights to education, non-majority communities roma, ashkali and egyptian are also part of the mechanisms related to the education system in the republic of kosovo, being in the function of protecting the rights of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian. the non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian communities within the education system are also part of the kosovo parents council, where , and this is stipulated in “the ministry issues a by-law on the work of the kpc, the procedures for appointing and electing its members, always involving members of non-majority communities” ( law no. 04 / l-032 on pre-university education in the republic of kosovo, article 16, paragraph 3). even in this mechanism that is part of the education system, non-majority communities roma, ashkali and egyptian are represented and are part of decision-making which is in function of capacity building and rights in the education system for non-majority roma, ashkali and egyptian communities. being part of this mechanism, non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian are also part of those mechanisms that have the political scope to make, monitor and develop the education system in kosovo. in addition to this mechanism at the national level, this right also belongs to the lower one that is the governing council of the public education and training institution stipulating that 60 "three (3) representatives of parents, including at least one representative of non-majority communities in the municipality if there are any students from those communities in that institution" ( law no. 04 / l-032 on pre-university education in the republic of kosovo, article 17, paragraph 2, subparagraph 2.1 ). this mechanism also provides for the representation of non-majority roma, ashkali and egyptian to each public education institution, enabling them to be part of the governance of the public education institution. the importance and the stipulation of the right to education of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in kosovo is also envisaged with the competences and responsibilities of the ministry on provision of higher education, where: "in the exercise of its responsibilities and duties under this law, the ministry respects and promotes the rights of communities and their members, as set forth in the law on the protection and promotion of the rights of communities and their members in kosovo." ( law no. 04 / l-037 on preuniversity education in the republic of kosovo, article 6, paragraph 2). regarding inclusion in the education system for non-majority communities roma, ashkali and egyptian communities, the republic of kosovo through its education system also governs the aspect of the national qualification, which is based on the national qualifications framework, governed by the national qualifications authority. this is stipulated in: "the national qualifications authority established under the provisions of this law shall establish and maintain a comprehensive framework of qualifications." ( law no. 03 / l-060 on preschool education, article 3, paragraph 2 ). even in course of governing the specific areas of education, the concept of the republic of kosovo is to have inclusiveness, as for the specific part of the education system of qualifications which is also addressed from the perspective of inclusiveness. in terms of its importance, inclusiveness is also defined in terms of defining competencies within institutions for the education system in kosovo. we find such stipulations within the competences of the ministry of education, science and technology, which among other things discharges the following responsibilities: "to develop a comprehensive library system, which will include university and and school libraries;" ( law no. 03 / l-068 on pre-university education in the republic of kosovo, article 3, item 1; ). the importance of inclusion as a right is also demonstrated by the serious approach of the state of the republic of kosovo towards inclusion. we also have this concept regarding vocational training as a legal category regulated by the relevant legislation in force. the concept of inclusion is also intertwined with regard to vocational training in the republic of kosovo, namely the principles of vocational education and training, where, among other, it is clearly defined as follows: 1. the principles of vocational education and training (hereinafter vet) are: 1.1. inclusiveness; ... " ( law no. 04 / l138 on vocational education and training, article 3, paragraph 1, sub-paragraph 1.1). in addition to the fact that inclusion takes up sufficient space in the relevant constitutional and legal imperative provisions, we also have importance and determination in the part of the principles that are the correct directions and orientations that the educational system of the republic of kosovo and the aspect of inclusiveness is heading to. 3. the current state of play in the education system in terms of inclusion of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian the non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in kosovo face several problems in different areas, especially when it comes to their integration into the right to education. challenges and difficulties for non-majority communities roma, ashkali and egyptian are present s of the census stage, language and acceptance by majority communities and it continues with the large socio-economic differences between majority and non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian. the non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in southeast europe also have problems of this nature. however, the developments in the early 1990s in kosovo have left the access to education of these non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian even more disadvantaged. the position of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in kosovo has become more difficult due to the recent war in the country where the population was displaced abroad. approximate estimates from the un indicate that after the 1999 conflict, the share of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in the population of kosovo decreased from 100,000 to 35-40,000 members, which significantly affected the inclusion of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in the education system. although some time has elapsed since, the non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian still face numerous problems such as their socioeconomic status, the phenomena of marginalization, discrimination and segregation. according to the latest data from the education information management system (emis) of year 2005/06, from pre-school to upper secondary level, the number of children of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian involved is 4527, or 1.1% visa-vis majority community, while according to data from the ministry of public services of may 2007 the number of teaching staff from non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian employed in education is 140 in total or 0.53%, visa-vis the majority 61 community. “overall, if we take the data from the "roma decade" and by comparing it with neighboring countries, the number of children who have completed upper secondary level of education is 4.5%, while in albania is 4.3%, in serbia 9%, in macedonia 11.6 % and in montenegro it is 3.7%.implementation of this document will mobilize all relevant structures to pave the way for non-majority communities o roma, ashkali and egyptian for full integration, which will enable non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian to inclusion, preservation and integration, promotion, development and promotion of their identity, tradition and culture. current state of education of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian as well as partial integration of nonmajority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian into education during analyzes of the position of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in kosovo the main factors that have influenced the partial integration of these communities into society were identified. inadequate mobilization of government bodies, limited government and donor funding, scarce campaigns on the importance of education, lack of initiatives to advocate and lobby for the rights of nonmajority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian are among the key factors that have influenced the partial inclusion of members of the non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in kosovo. despite the fact that after the conflict in kosovo, several initiatives have been taken to create a positive climate in the classroom and at school, then programs to motivate students to attend school regularly, such as programs to eliminate illiteracy, fast-paced learning, non-formal education programs and quotas for increasing enrollment in secondary and university education, bringing back to school those who have dropped out of school, concerning remains the fact the number of children involved in pre-university and university education such as and the number of children dropping out and not finishing school is very high. disadvantaged socio-economic status, low number of educators and teachers from non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian, lack of education in the roma language, difficulties in mastering the official language at the beginning of schooling, as well as prejudices and stereotypes towards these communities present some of the other barriers that have made the inclusion of members of these communities in education continue to be at a very low level. unsatisfactory participation of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in education in kosovo in the last 7-8 years resulted that children of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in some settlements non-majority communities feel unsafe to continue their education within the regular full-time education system. this has led to the creation of an improvisational education service, which continues to operate in camps like gjilan and plemetin camps, which operate in poor working conditions, in some communities with unqualified teachers and in very difficult conditions. the level of teaching and learning at those school has been very low and often not in line with the regular education system, which has prevented students from transferring to regular education. insufficient cooperation between the ministry of education, science and technology and non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian civic society organizations dealing with education issues has made the education authorities unaware of the difficulties and problems they face, which has led to a lack of transparency in making decisions of interest to these communities. poverty levels, concepts and low levels of education of their parents, inadequate involvement in preschool education, lack of alternative education programs for members of the non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian are other factors for non-inclusion of these communities in education. the number of children from non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian who are not enrolled on time, and those who drop out of school is high. the ministry of education, science and technology and the osce for several years have been providing intensive learning programs for students who have dropped out of school. this type of teaching is offered as an alternative to continuing and completing compulsory education. many children, due to their difficult economic situation, are forced to drop out of school to work for their parents. the prejudices and stereotypes towards members of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian are also evident in the education system, which reflects discrimination against students and parents of these communities. given that education is a necessary condition for competition in the labor market, it is an imperative for members of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian to complete at least primary and secondary education. in order to achieve this, the strategy envisages the development of supportive policies such as: scholarships, quotas for children of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian, in order to continue their studies in various fields. competition in the labor market requires that members of the non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian be educated and professionally prepared to get a job. although kosovo has specific anti-discrimination legislation while education legislation prohibits all forms of discrimination and segregation, there are still cases of discrimination and segregation in practice against members of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian.” ( strategy for the integration of roma, ashkali and egyptian communities in kosovo, education component 2007-2017, ministry of education, science and technology). 4. conclusions 62 the republic of kosovo is an exemplary state in terms of embedding international mechanisms for the protection of human rights and freedoms, embedding these mechanisms directly into the constitution of the republic of kosovo and giving them priority over domestic legislation. the rights of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian are advanced with no distinction from the rights of majority population of the country, where these rights are also constitutional and legal categories, which set out in detail the rights of communities and the obligations of the state of the republic of kosovo to exercise these rights. for non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian in the republic of kosovo, the right to education in the language of communities constitutes a legal category which provides them with the opportunity to use their language and alphabet as fundamental and rights for the development and emancipation of a community subject to their culture and tradition. the republic of kosovo allocates adequate budget for the member’s non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian so they can exercise their fundamental right to education. the use of native language is of a great interest to non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian, as provided by the constitution and legislation of the republic of kosovo, that the use of native languages is a fundamental right of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian. as far as the participation of non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian c in educational mechanisms in the republic of kosovo, they are represented in every mechanism that enables them to present and defend their rights in the field of education. notwithstanding the fact that the rights of non-majority community of roma, ashkali and egyptian and in particular that of education, are stipulated by the constitution and the relevant legislation in force, there are challenges and problems in practice with regard to the overall implementation of the legislation, as a result of the lack of full cooperation of the communities, and in particular of the serbian community with the institutions of the republic of kosovo. regarding the right to education for non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian, this also poses some challenges in terms of dropout rates, which is a high figure, for students from non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian. the right and access to the education system is also related to the economic and social conditions of the non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian, which for some communities the economic conditions are poor and these have an impact on access to education as a fundamental right to their development. the non-majority communities of roma, ashkali and egyptian must get it right that the republic of kosovo is their country, therefore they should feel equal in being active in planning and exercising their rights to education and community development. references 1. constitution of the republic of kosovo, https://gzk.rks.gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=3 702; 2. law no. 03 / l-047 on the protection and promotion of the rights of communities and their members in the republic of kosovo, https://gzk.rksgov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2531; 3. law no. 02 / l-52 on preschool education, https://gzk.rksgov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2401; 4. law no. 04 / l-032 on pre-university education in the republic of kosovo, https://gzk.rksgov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2770; 5. law no. 04 / l-037 on pre-university education in the republic of kosovo, https://gzk.rksgov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2761; 6. law no. 03 / l-060 for national qualifications, https://gzk.rksgov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2606; 7. law no. 03 / l-068 on pre-university education in the republic of kosovo, https://gzk.rksgov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2543; 8. law no. 04 / l-138 on vocational education and training, https://gzk.rksgov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=8676; 9. strategy for the integration of roma, ashkali and egyptian communities in kosovo, education component 2007-2017, ministry of education, science and technology, https://masht.rksgov.net/uploads/2015/05/strategjia-shqip-07017.pdf. 71 the unsolved problem of traffic accidents worldwide agim nuhiu, phd* ajten ramadani, phd** *ministry of the interior, republic of north macedonia, agimnuhiu@hotmail.com **correspondent author: ministry of the interior, republic of north macedonia, ajtenramadani@gmail.com article history: accepted 01 august 2019 available online 19 november 2019 keywords: traffic accidents policing democracy liberty culture civilization a b s t r a c t the problem of traffic accidents is not generally discussed as an issue with any political, philosophical, psychological, or cultural implications. what might such implications be? in terms of policing, countries and nations worldwide generally have quite a narrow focus on prophylaxis (road safety education, awareness campaigns, warning signs about speed limits, dangerous corners, etc.) and punishment (fines, trials, sometimes prison sentences for those who cause accidents). this paper argues that a broader and deeper analysis of the issue is needed, in order to understand (principally) and possibly pre-empt or at least remediate (secondarily) the harm and damage of traffic accidents. methodology: systemic analysis and culture-critical analysis combined with perspectives from public policy, philosophy, democratic and libertarian political theory, and psychology. conclusions will promote improved clarity and refreshed thinking about this important but misunderstood issue on the part of researchers and practitioners alike. introduction in 2015 the united nations promulgated its seventeen sustainable development goals (sdgs). goal number 3, which is headed 'good health and well-being', includes a 'target 3.6', as follows: "by 2020, halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents." (united nations 2015) at the time of writing, 2020 is two months away. how is the world progressing in its pursuit of sdg target 3.6? in a word, badly. the report from the world health organization (who) titled 'global status report on road safety 2018', published on 7 december 2018, concludes its 'summary of progress to date' with these words: the number of road traffic deaths continues to climb, reaching 1.35 million in 2016, while the rate of death relative to the size of the world’s population has stabilized in recent years. the progress that has been achieved has not occurred at a pace fast enough to compensate for the rising population and rapid motorization of transport taking place in many parts of the world. at this rate, the sdg target 3.6 to halve road traffic deaths by 2020 will not be met. (who 2018a, 94) in addition to the 1.35 million annual death-rate, over 50 million people suffer serious injury from car crash events worldwide every year, according to the same who report. the growth-rate of road traffic deaths and injuries is constant, in line with population growth. it is reasonable, based on these data, to conclude that the problem remains unsolved. but is it ultimately and definitively unsolvable? what if it is not? and how would we know whether it is or not? is there a logic and a pragmatics to this issue which might allow us to venture a more dynamic answer other than merely "wait and see" or "only time will tell"? because if we can reason our way to a fuller understanding of all its roots, branches and implications, we ought to be much better able to achieve pre-emption and remediation, as is assumed by all involved to be the goal. hence, this paper sets out to answer these questions using rational analysis, logic, and critical philosophical reasoning. 1. efforts to reduce car crash events mailto:agimnuhiu@hotmail.com 72 there have been massive efforts, stretching far back in time, almost all the way back to the first appearance of motor vehicles equipped with fossil-fuel-powered internal combustion engines in significant numbers on roads, to address the problem of traffic accidents in the world. there were three countries where the mass motorization of society first got going: germany, france, and great britain. the usa was not far behind. in germany, prior to 1900, there were only individual german states' efforts to manage the problems of road accident events. (niemann & hermann 2006) the consistent and concerted efforts in imperial germany to legislate, regulate, police and educate motor vehicle users – which continued through two world wars, the 'two germanies' era during the cold war, the great reunification and right up to the present day – began 113 years ago in 1906 with the polizei-verordnung über den verkehr mit kraftfahrzeugen. (fack 2000, 167) in britain, the uk's royal society for the prevention of accidents (rospa) was founded in 1916, at a time when there were only about 100,000 cars in the country, whereas today there are over 37.9 million licensed vehicles in great britain. (gov.uk. 2018) the rospa has been running campaigns to prevent or reduce road accidents for over a hundred years, non-stop. in france, another pioneer country in the development of automobiles, the laws and campaigns for road safety pre-dated the automobile itself. (government of france 2019) france is the most extreme case. in france, there are more than twenty different bodies – "organismes intervenant sur la sécurité routière" – dedicated to stopping the road traffic carnage. these bodies, and those in germany and the uk, have all been working hard for well over 100 years to solve the problem, yet the problem has everywhere only grown bigger. this is a strange outcome. a full and exhaustive list of all the present-day groups, bodies, campaigns and conferences for cutting the road accident statistics would be far too long to include here, because apart from the un's various bodies and other transnational agencies such as the european transport safety council (etsc) in the eu, almost every country has its own ngo or charitable foundation or government agency dedicated to preventing car crashes. just to mention at random a few examples: 1. the road traffic injury research network (rtirn) is an international body founded in 1999 and based at makerere university in kampala, uganda; the rtirn focuses its efforts on investigating traffic accidents in developing countries, nowadays more commonly referred to as lics or lmics, low and middle income countries. (world bank data team 2019) all the evidence shows that there are more deaths and injuries in lmics than in the affluent member states of the oecd. (nantulya & reich 2002) as the who's "road safety factsheet" states, "the risk of dying in a road traffic crash is more than 3 times higher in lowincome countries than in high-income countries. (who 2018b) 2. the australasian college of road safety (acrs), founded in 1988, acts as "the peak regional body [in australia and new zealand] for road safety professionals, advocates, and members of the public who are focused on saving lives and serious injuries on our roads". as such, it works to support the canberra government's long-established national road safety strategy 2011–2020, and the un's decade of action for road safety 2011-2020. (acrs 2019) (australian federal government transport and infrastructure council 2019) (who 2010) 3. interestingly, and somewhat curiously, the who's main page on the united nations road safety collaboration presently (august 2019) contains a link to a now-defunct website called "www.decadeofaction.org". this link yields a redirect to a branch of none other than the fia website. the fia is the fédération internationale de l'automobile, the motor vehicle industry's global advocacy and promotional body, whose sub-branch, the fia foundation, is a charity dedicated to road safety. the fiaf describes itself as undertaking "[...] research into public policy issues relating to the automobileʼs interaction with society". so, even the world's carmakers are investing in efforts to reduce car-crash deaths and injuries. (unrsc 2019) (fiaf 2019) this move is logical enough. after all, if a company's product is causing 1.35 million deaths and 50 million injuries every year, it would be only sensible for that company to make a public relations effort to appear concerned. but why would the un let its high-minded 'decade of action' be linked to the fia, an agent of commerce? from the un's standpoint, however, this is not so strange. where the mitigation of traffic accidents is concerned, all comers are welcome at the table, and vehicle manufacturers are certainly interested in showing that they are working constantly to make their products safer. in view of all the massive worldwide efforts mentioned above, and so many others too numerous even to mention here, why has nothing been achieved? this is an evident puzzle, and a mystery: 73 there has to be some better explanation than just to shrug and say, "well, we tried our best, but the problem is bigger than our available resources could deal with." the implication of this excuse is clearly, "let us throw even more money at the problem." what is it about the problem of car crashes that makes it so intractably difficult – or indeed, apparently impossible – to solve? is there perchance some unconscious, undisclosed or unacknowledged element deep in the human psyche or inherent in the culture of the automobile age that blocks or defies all treatment? what is the logic, what is the psychology, of car crashes? 2. the car crash mystery: two lines of reasoning let us now seek to shine some light on the problem by analyzing the political issues behind it and the psychocultural dimensions around it. the political issues connect it with a particular understanding of democracy, individual liberty, and the sempiternal tension between the individual and the collective or, as it increasingly presents itself in the modern age, the 'system'. the psychological and cultural analysis pertains to a certain theory of 'civilization' itself, best represented in the works of freud and his successors. usefully, these two lines of thought are convergent in the case of the car crash problem. 2.1. freudian theory of civilization the argument presented in this paper starts with a psychocultural critique because politics and laws and rights and freedoms and societal institutions like a parliament or a police force arise upon the foundation of culture, which has its basis in the structure of the human psyche, not the other way around. the answer to the conundrum of car-crash prevalence and intractability can partially be found by relating this conundrum to the seminal essay by sigmund freud, 'civilization and its discontents' (das unbehagen in der kultur, 1930). let us sum up, briefly, the picture painted in das unbehagen in der kultur. civilized behavior is merely an epiphenomenon of the unconscious, both the individual and the collective unconscious, in their privileged co-determining relation to each other. civilized norms arise only as the resultant or product of repression of the destructive urges, drives, instincts and desires which inhabit and power the unconscious mind. the instance or mechanism of this repression is like a moral conscience – again, both individual and collective, with both of these dimensions crucially codetermining each other. freud's key insight is that this repression is never strong enough to hold out for very long against the underlying – and more powerful – forces of violence and destructiveness in the unconscious. there is always going to be the proverbial 'return of the repressed'. hence, civilization itself is perpetually fragile, and destined inevitably to break down sooner or later, as seen in minor and major destructive outbreaks of violent 'uncivilized' behavior such as the great war. what has all this got to do with the intractability of car crash fatalities and injuries? it would seem evident enough that the whole vast global apparatus of car-accident prevention corresponds to the mechanism of censorship and repression in freud's model. in this regard, it resembles certain strictures of religious discourses such as the judaeo-christian 'thou shalt not kill', a 'commandment' which, in more than two millennia, has never proved effectual in the least. just like all the preaching in the last 120 years about 'thou shalt not crash thy car', such preaching was always doomed to fail in its pious wish to repress destructive and self-destructive tendencies – including freud's other discovery, which is also quite relevant in the present context, that of the unconscious death-wish, a concept first defined in an earlier work of freud's, beyond the pleasure principle (german: jenseits des lustprinzips, 1920). 2.1.1. counter-arguments a possible counter-argument is that car crashes do not happen as a result of any will to do damage: they are, precisely, 'accidents', which nobody actually intended to cause, and therefore freud's model does not fit them. the answer to this objection is that the human individual or collective will is a conscious entity, not part of the unconscious mind, and therefore the model does not require the presence or action of any conscious will-to-crash in order to be applicable. it may be objected that the statistics on vehicular traffic accidents would likely be much worse if there had not been all this quixotic effort to curb them, and therefore it is not a case of the failure of repression to prevent destructive behavior: rather, it is a case of commendable partial success. the answer to this objection is that it belongs in the realm of pure untested speculation: we have only the results that we actually have, and not other, imaginary results. what would or could or might have happened in the absence of all these repressive measures remains unknown. 2.2. the politics of car crashes in a world where state encroachment on individual liberties is self-evidently rampant, it can be argued that such liberties urgently require to be protected and defended. in a world where inequality of wealth and of individual rights is worse than ever 74 and constantly worsening further, it can be argued that any effort to make people more equal must be welcomed, encouraged and supported. at the same time, it seems fairly clear that state power over the individual has increased in this century out of all proportion, whereby the great paradox is that the more powerful the state becomes, the less able it is to solve the large problems of the world we all live in, such as global warming, climate change, species extinction, deforestation and desertification, environmental collapse, and – yes, indeed – world poverty. in such an alarming, dire and threatening context, what can be said or done politically about the topic under discussion here, cars and car crashes? not every country in the world is democratic: far from it. also, the levels of 'democraticness' in the world are becoming less and less. freedom house, which measures such levels, concludes in its 2019 report that: freedom in the world has recorded global declines in political rights and civil liberties for an alarming 13 consecutive years, from 2005 to 2018. the global average score has declined each year, and countries with net score declines have consistently outnumbered those with net improvements. (freedom house 2019) however, for the purposes of this paper, the discussion will focus on the ideal model of democracy, which still to a greater or lesser degree is instantiated in many countries. in a representative or parliamentary system of democracy, the state is supposed to serve the interests of 'the people', and be accountable to them. the state is the collective, it is the 'people' but attired in the garb and trappings of power. however, the relation between any given individual and his/her collective is never harmonious, because it is never a one-to-one relation. the individual and the collective are almost always in conflict with each other, generally to the harm and detriment of the former. the relationship is not symmetrical, since the collective, acting through the agency of its state apparatuses, always constrains and coerces the individual, whereas the individual is less and less able to constrain or coerce the collective, through traditional means such as voting, petitioning, lobbying, protesting, demonstrating, and indeed even revolution. it can scarcely be argued that this situation is a good thing: it is simply an inevitability. short of a worldwide dystopian disintegration of the social fabric and its established machinery of social order, which anarchists have imagined but which few others desire, nothing can arrest or reverse the onward march of state power over the citizen. on the positive side of the individual liberty balance sheet, the advent of 'automobilism' (from automobilismus, as the germans call it) has been hailed as a great leap forward for individual freedom, and this is most assuredly the case. in the united states, libertarian thinkers like randal o'toole have made this case most plausibly: ... [private car] mobility is really important because mobility gives people access to more economic resources, more social resources, more recreation opportunities. mobility of course has completely transformed in the 20th century. before 1800, hardly anybody in the world had ever traveled faster than a horse could run and lived to tell about it. (o'toole 2019) according to spencerian libertarianism, individual freedom – understood as the right to maximum and equal but negative liberty – is the highest value. by 'negative' liberty, the followers of herbert spencer mean 'the absence of forcible interference from other agents'. (narveson 1988) if one can afford to own and run a car, one can certainly gain a large measure of such freedom, even today: one can drive around all over the map quite freely as long as one pays one's car registration and insurance, and abides by certain simple 'rules of the road'. up to now, spencer's proverbial 'other agents' did not substantially interfere with this liberty. now, however, the rising hyper-dominance of state power in our de-democratizing world order threatens this individual right. few would argue that individual freedom should include the right to crash one's car and hurt or kill another individual, and certainly no genuine libertarian would espouse such a view, which would contradict the principle of equal negative liberty. however, the history of the ever more pervasive and intrusive road safety campaigns, laws, and regulations, accompanied by the mass deployment of high surveillance technologies, would suggest that things are moving inexorably in the direction of greater restrictions on citizens. this inexorable progression looks like culminating ultimately – but in a relatively near future – in the conquest of the roads by autonomous vehicles, or 'self-driving cars'. opinions diverge widely on the foreseeable timeline for this to happen. 2.3. self-driving cars some of the prominent advocates of individual freedom, including randal o'toole, cited above, are hailing the autonomous vehicle revolution as another great step forward because it is claimed to solve the problems of congestion and road safety: pretty soon you will be able to drive a car – buy a car that will drive itself everywhere and they won’t even have steering wheels. [...] if we can use the existing infrastructure, our four million miles of [us] roads and streets that we already have without any 75 changes to them, self-driving cars can totally transform how we use that, make it a lot more effective, faster, cheaper, safer and more convenient than the transportation system we have today. (o'toole 2019) there is some scope and reason to disagree. while there are a hundred different views on the autonomous vehicle (av) revolution, no-one really knows yet what to expect. the recent book by transport industry expert sam schwartz (no one at the wheel: driverless cars and the road of the future, november 2018) amply demonstrates this, by quoting a dozen different conflicting sources and citing five mutually contradictory yet still plausible scenarios. in the us at least, elaine chao, the trump administration's secretary of transportation at the time of writing, is trying to mollify the libertarian supporters of the regime by promising that americans will always have the joys of driving their cars on their beloved 'open road' even when avs have taken over. the national highway traffic safety administration (nhtsa), an executive agency of the department of transportation (dot) published its policy document 'preparing for the future of transportation: automated vehicles 3.0', on october 4, 2018, wherein the last of the six stated u.s. dot 'automation principles' reads as follows: we will protect and enhance the freedoms enjoyed by americans. u.s. dot embraces the freedom of the open road, which includes the freedom for americans to drive their own vehicles. we envision an environment in which automated vehicles operate alongside conventional, manually-driven vehicles and other road users. we will protect the ability of consumers to make the mobility choices that best suit their needs. we will support automation technologies that enhance individual freedom by expanding access to safe and independent mobility to people with disabilities and older americans. until the autonomous driving systems (ads) revolution actually happens, no-one can tell whether this grand promise will ever be kept. but where the typically mendacious political rhetoric of a chaotic administration is concerned, it would no doubt be prudent to maintain a strict policy of caveat emptor. there is one scenario that is often invoked, and which is at least as plausible as any of the others: that human drivers in nonautomated vehicles will sooner or later be banned entirely from using the roads, and where is the 'enhanced individual freedom' then? why should the rest of the world worry about the us federal government's ads policy and whether it will ever be implemented? because whatever else may be said about it, the us is still a very influential country: where the us leads, many will follow. 3. conclusions staggering and incalculable amounts of money are spent every year on paying people to jet around the planet and congregate in lavish hotels and conference centers to talk and think about ways to save lives on the world's roads, but the upward spiral of deaths and injuries continues unabated. little or nothing has been achieved, and this seems unlikely to change. this paper has argued that all or most of that expenditure is wasted and all (or most of) those efforts are in vain because those experts and officials in their costly global get-togethers are all missing the point. as long as the citizens of the world have any liberty left, they will in some degree be free to go astray and kill or maim themselves or others. road traffic and motor vehicles are merely the modern mode of expression of the ancient two-edged sword called 'human freedom'. to err is human, as the old proverb goes, and if all chance of human error is one day eliminated, so is our fundamental humanity. until the day comes when we have handed over all agency and responsibility to the ultimate great other of technology and are all riding around in 'autonomous vehicles' that make all the decisions for us – in other words, until we become totally enslaved to a machine intelligence that is not our own – there will continue to be car crashes, fatalities and injuries. those who love liberty must be prepared to take that on board. this paper thus concludes, as befits its topic, with an open question: given what is well known about the history of the human mind, even if it were possible to 'reprogram' our dna so as to eliminate from the world all forms of error, waste and loss, would we really want such a world? references 1. australasian college of road safety. 2019. 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"decade of action for road safety 2011-2020". accessed 22 august 2019. https://www.who.int/roadsafety/decade_of_action/en/ 19. world health organization [who]. 2018a. “global status report on road safety 2018.” accessed 22 august 2019. https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/road_safe ty_status/2018/en/ 20. world health organization [who]. 2018b. “road safety factsheet.” accessed 22 august 2019. https://www.who.int/news-room/facts-inpictures/detail/road-safety 21 genes involved in both dopaminergic and serotonergic pathways and financial decision making dr. sc. sezen güngör tekirdağ namık kemal university, çorlu vocational school, dr.sezengungor@gmail.com article history: accepted 18 july 2019 available online 23 august 2019 keywords: genoeconomics, financial decision, dopamine, serotonin, maoa gene a b s t r a c t one of the most important assumption of rational choice theory is that individuals are purely selfinterested utility maximizers. however research in economics and other social sciences has found that people can also be irrational and their choices can also be taken with some heuristics and biases. laboratory experiments have documented substantial heterogeneity in irrational preferences, but little is known about the origins of such irrational financial behavior. especially in recent studies, it is seen that the inheritance estimates of these differences are investigated by using quantitative and molecular genetic methods. the main purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of dopamine and serotonin-related genes on financial decisions. for this purpose, genes associated with dopamine and serotonin were identified. some of the studies investigating the effects of these genes on financial decision making process have been examined. introduction the biological basis of financial decisions and heuristics or biases, such as reward dependence, loss aversion, is not yet fully understood. however, the anatomy of choice and financial decisions has been well-studied. in particular, studies on decision making are handled together with psychology, neurology and genetic sciences. the experimental background of these studies consists of personality tests in psychology, brain imaging techniques in neurology and genes, hormones and neurotransmitters in genetics. the current studies from neurofinance, neuroeconomics, psychology and of course neuroscience discussed about three decision-making systems in the human brain, and dopamine and serotonin is the principal neurotransmitter that is involved in these three systems (wargo, baglini and nelson, 2010): 1. an unconscious, intuitive and emotional system, 2. a conscious, rational system or executive function, 3. a system of habitual behavior that is either preprogrammed genetically or developed into habits over time. limbic system the emotional center of the brain – is about some behaviors and some biases in financial decisions such as reward/approach, loss/avoidance, investment behavior or novelty seeking (knutson & cooper, 2005; taylor, 2006). any problems in this system can make you more willing to take risks, greed or dependence. the effects of genes are not expressed directly at the level of behavior, but are mediated by their effects on brain regions responsible for specific cognitive and emotional processes (bigos and weinberger, 2010). on the other hand, hormones and neurotransmitters can have an effect on behaviors by changing an individual´s phenotype (soares et al., 2010), moreover these behaviors can also be influenced by genetic and epigenetic 22 differences (liu et al., 1997; meaney, 2001). empirical findings from genoeconomics and neuroeconomics (benjamin et al., 2007; beauchamp et al., 2011; navarro, 2009) suggest that this holds true for economic behavior as well. some researchers have identified a significant degree of genetic influence on variables such as change in decisions to invest in equity securities (barnea et al. 2010), income (taubman 1976), risk preferences (zhong, chew et al., 2009), cooperativeness in trust games (cesarini et al., 2008), bargaining behavior (wallace et al., 2007), and preferences for giving and taking risks (cesarini et al., 2009). studies in healthy people and diagnosed people with mood disorders or psychiatric disorders have shown that: risk-taking or risk-avoiding behavior is associated with genetic variations in dopaminergic and serotonergic pathways. in addition, the relationship between cognitive and emotional biases and genetic variations in financial decisions has been discussed and proved in other studies. genes such as comt, slc6a4, bdnf and dopamine receptor genes are frequently used in such studies. investigation of the fundamentals of financial decisions using molecular genetic methods has been studied not only with dopamine receptor genes but also with many different genes and polymorphisms. one of the genes discussed in such studies is the maoa gene. 1. dopamine, serotonin and some genes dopamine and serotonin are necessary for normal nervous system function, and changes in the levels of these neurotransmitters contribute to some psychological disorders. both dopamine and serotonin interact with other neuromodulators to influence choice (doya, 2008). dopamine and serotonin, which are chemical messengers that transmit signals between nerve cells (neurotransmitters), are frequently used in such studies, and u.s. national library of medicine has identified 27 gene that associated with dopamine (chrna4, comt, dbh, ddc, dpys, drd2, drd3, drd4, drd5, epb41l1, gba, gch1, gnal, htr1b, maoa, oprm1, park7, prkn, rgs9, slc18a2, slc6a3, snca, spr, taar1, th, tor1a, upb1) and 14 gene that associated with serotonin cc2d1a, ddc, fev, gch1, htr1a, htr1b, htr2a, maoa, slc18a2, slc6a4, snord115-1, spr, taar1, tph2). given that these genes are involved in both the dopaminergic serotonergic pathways, two pathways that play critical roles in emotional processing, this gene may contribute to a series of processes involved in affective processing (gao, liu et al. 2017). the genes that appear to be associated with both serotonin and dopamine are: ddc gene, gch1 gene, htr1b gene, maoa gene, slc18a2 gene, spr gene and tarr1 gene. as seen as, the maoa gene is one of the genes associated with both dopamine and serotonin. johnston (1968) defined two subtypes of mao based on the observation that one form (a) but not the other (b) was sensitive to the irreversible inhibitor, clorgyline. the u.s. national library of medicine describes the maoa gene and its role in the breakdown of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine: “the maoa gene provides instructions for making an enzyme called monoamine oxidase a. specifically, monoamine oxidase a is involved in the breakdown of the neurotransmitters serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine. signals transmitted by serotonin regulate mood, emotion, sleep, and appetite. epinephrine and norepinephrine control the body's response to stress. dopamine transmits signals within the brain to produce smooth physical movements.” monoamine oxidase a (maoa) gene located in xp11.3 spanning 15 exons containing 527 amino acids and codes for maoa protein. the function of maoa enzyme is to degrade monoaminergic neurotransmitters (adrenaline, noradrenaline, serotonin and dopamine) in the brain. these neurotransmitters play an important role in arousal, emotions, mood and even affecting impulse control (ramakrishnan and akram husain, 2017). there are also studies linking the maoa gene with some psychological disorders like schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder. different variants of it regulate transcription, metabolism, and signal transfer between neurons, all of which have an effect on social interactions (craig, 2007; spitzer et al., 2007). the less transcriptionally efficient alleles are called maoa-l, and the more efficient are called maoa-h (sabol et al., 1998). maoa-l has been found to be associated with various kinds of antisocial behavior, including violence and aggression, both in the field (caspi et al., 2002) and in the lab (gallardo-pujol et al., forthcoming). mcdermott et al. (2009) show an association between maoa-l in males and behavioral aggression following provocation. studies revealing the association of variations in the maoa gene with psychological disorders such as aggression and mood disorder have led to the investigation of the relationship between excessive risk-taking behavior and excessive self-esteem bias with the maoa gene in financial decisions. previous literature suggests may be individual variability in genetic alleles (raine, 2008), and this variability can cause some irrational financial decisions, such that individuals with a low activity form of the gene that encodes monoamine oxidase a (maoa-l) will be 23 more likely to react with aggression to challenge, and these aggressive behaviors can cause people to behave in extreme risk. the maoa gene, which is thought to have a close relationship with aggression behavior in studies about neurobiological basis of taking economic risk, is generally considered together with gambling addiction in studies where risk taking behavior is examined in financial decisions. ibanez et al. (2000) studied 68 pathological gambling addicts and 68 control groups and investigated whether there is a relationship between maoa and maob genes and pathological gambling disease. according to results, there were no significant differences between pathological gamblers and healthy volunteers in overall allele distribution at the maoa gene polymorphism, but there was a significant association between allele distribution and the subgroup of severe male gamblers compared to the males in the group of healthy volunteers. pérez de castro et al. (2002) studied the relationship between pathological gambling dependence and maoa (maoa-uvntr polymorphism) in the serotonergic system. at the end of the study, the relationship between pathological gambling addiction and serotonergic system was emphasized. in the experiment, the allelic frequency of the 3-copy allele in maoa-uvntr polymorphism was found to be higher in the experimental group which was gambling dependent and lower in the control group. zhong, israel et al. (2009) examined the effect of the maoa gene on gambling and insurance behaviors. the fact that people exhibit high risk taking behaviors while playing games of chance, but insuring other areas of their lives cannot be explained rationality. they found that subjects with the high activity (4-repeat) allele are characterized by a preference for the longshot lottery and also less insurance purchasing than subjects with the low activity (3repeat) allele. frydman, camerer et al. (2011) combine neuroeconomics and behavioral genetic methods to investigate the effect of monoamine oxidase-a (maoa) on risk attitudes. as a result of the study, in accordance with the previous literature, they concluded that the carriers of maoa-l polymorphism are more likely to take financial risks and can make better financial decisions at risk. when looking at the triad of financial decision making, personality and genetics, it should be noted that they are all closely related. in addition, recent studies have added another variable to this trio: neurology. there are many studies linking maoa uvntr with brain functions that is realized during cognitive, emotional arousal and personality tests (fan, fossella vd, 2003; meyer-linderberg, buckholtz vd., 2006; buckholtz, callicott vd. 2008; cloninger, 1986). additionally, some brain imaging studies have shown an activation of similar brain areas in aggression and cooperation (nelson & trainor, 2007; decety et al., 2004). moreover, brain functions during cognition, emotional arousal, personality test-takings, and working memory activation as well as the function and anatomy of specific brain regions in the limbic system were affected by the maoa vntr (mertins, schote and meyer, 2013). another common gene identified for dopamine and serotonin is the ddc gene. the ddc gene provides instructions for making the aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase (aadc) enzyme, which is important in the brain and nervous system, and this enzyme takes part in the pathway that produces dopamine and serotonin. based on the results of studies showing that the ddc gene is associated with some psychological disorders, such as anxiety (costas et al., 2010) and bipolar disorder (børglum et al., 2003), it can be said that genetic variations in the ddc gene can be a candidate gene for decision making genetic studies. gao, liu et al. (2017) demonstrated that the genetic variations of the ddc gene, gene contributed to individual differences in the susceptibility to framing. the framing effect in behavioral finance refers the tendency to be risk-averse when options are presented positively but be risk-seeking when the same options are presented negatively during decision-making. the gch1 gene provides instructions for making an enzyme called gtp cyclohydrolase 1. this enzyme is involved in the production of a molecule called tetrahydrobiopterin (bh4). tetrahydrobiopterin is involved in reactions that produce chemicals called dopamine and serotonin neurotransmitters, which transmit signals between nerve cells in the brain. the gch1 gene is generally known as a gene with pain sensitivity and potential to develop chronic pain (george, wu et al.). however, mutations in the gch1 gene have been identified in the following 3 clinically different neurometabolic disorders: dystonia, hyperphenylalaninemia and compound heterozygote mutations of the gch1 gene with a neurologic disorder intermediate in severity between the above disorders (hahn, trant and brownstein, 2001). however, in the literature, there is no 24 study showing the direct relationship of this gene to decision making or financial decision making. the htr1b encoded by this intronless gene is a g-protein coupled receptor for serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine). benko et al. (2010) examined the association between the c (1019) g functional polymorphism, regulating the htr1a gene expression, and impulsiveness. the c (-1019) g genotype groups, showed significant differences: gg type subjects showed significantly higher motor and cognitive impulsiveness. according to these findings suggest that the receptor gene, htr1a, expression was involved in a continuum phenotype of impulsiveness. however, in the literature, there is no study examining the relationship between htr1b and decision-making or financial decisions. according to the u.s. national library of medicine, slc18a2 gene encodes a transmembrane protein that functions as an atpdependent transporter of monoamines, such as dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and histamine. polymorphisms in this gene may be associated with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, parkinsonism, and other neurological/psychiatric ailments. however, there is no evidence that the slc18a2 gene directly affects financial behaviors or financial decisions. according to the u.s. national library of medicine, the spr gene provides instructions for making the sepiapterin reductase enzyme. the sepiapterin reductase enzyme converts a molecule called 6-pyruvoyl-tetrahydropterin to tetrahydrobiopterin. tetrahydrobiopterin helps process several building blocks of proteins (amino acids), and is involved in the production of chemicals called neurotransmitters, which transmit signals between nerve cells in the brain. specifically, tetrahydrobiopterin is involved in the production of two neurotransmitters called dopamine and serotonin. although it was associated with dopamine and serotonin, no direct correlation was found between the spr gene and decision-making or financial behavior. like the spr gene, the tarr1 gene has been identified by the u.s. national library of medical. according to this, the protein encoded by this gene is a g-protein coupled receptor activated by trace amines. the encoded protein responds little or not at all to dopamine, serotonin, epinephrine, or histamine, but responds well to beta-phenylethylamine, p-tyramine, octopamine, and tryptamine. while primarily functioning in neurologic systems, there is evidence that this gene is involved in blood cell and immunologic functions as well. there is no evidence that the tarr1 gene affects behaviors or financial decisions. discussion when the genes associated with dopamine and serotonin are examined, it is seen that some of the genes have proven to be related to decision making. in particular, the findings suggest that the maoa gene plays a role in financial behavior and financial decision making. studies examining the effect of the maoa gene on risk-taking behavior in financial decisions are often addressed in conjunction with gambling addiction. in addition to genes commonly used in the field of genoeconomics, such as comt, bdnf, slc6a4, studies on the effect of variations in the maoa gene on the financial decision process are important for genoeconomics and neuroeconomics. references 1. barnea, a., cronqvist, h, and siegel, s. 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(2009). monoamine oxidase a gene (maoa) associated with attitude towards longshot risks. plos one, 4(12), e8516. 44. u.s. national library of medicine https://www.nlm.nih.gov/ 35 reduction of natural disaster risk through contingency plan in cilacap district, central java province, indonesia dr. rudi subiyakto, m.a. ¹ ¹ maritim raja ali haji university, faculty of social and politics sciences, department of public administration, rudisubiyaktodap2015@gmail.com article history: accepted 15 february 2020 available online 31 april 2020 keywords: contingency planning, mitigation, policy. a b s t r a c t cilacap regency is one of the areas that have the highest level of natural disaster vulnerability in central java. various types of disasters have the opportunity to occur and have an impact on the entire region. to anticipate the impact of these potential natural disasters, the district government has issued a contingency plan to reduce the risk of disasters. this study aims to describe how to reduce the risk of natural disasters through contingency planning. the study uses a qualitative approach with the case study method. data and information obtained through focus group discussions (fgd), interviews, and documentation studies. the informants were determined purposively, coming from elements of the government, private sector, and a community of 25 people. the results of the study illustrate that the role of contingency planning is very important to reduce disaster risk. the contingency plan document clearly contains various guidelines and technical steps taken by stakeholders in anticipating natural disasters. the guidelines for the action plan are supported by techniques that can be easily learned so that the stages of the process of how to anticipate natural disasters can be carried out by anyone. the implementation of a natural disaster risk reduction contingency plan in the cilacap regency received support from the implementer, the environment, resources, and disposition. 1. introduction cilacap regency has the highest level of natural disaster vulnerability in the area of central java province. cilacap regency has various types of natural disasters except volcanic eruptions, ranging from natural disasters, landslides, tsunamis, robots, drought / drought, fires and tornadoes which are spread across 24 sub-districts, 15 sub-districts and 269 villages. (national plan for natural disaster management 2014-2019). at the level of the province of central java cilacap regency ranks first as an area that has disaster vulnerability, at the national level the district head of cilacap experienced a change from position 3 to position 17 (irbi 2016), this change occurred because the local regional government and the regional disaster management agency (bpbd) have speed in responding to every disaster that comes. legally formally, the implementation of natural disaster management in ciluapap district has been regulated in cilacap district regulation no. 1 of 2012 concerning the implementation of disaster management. the purpose of these regulations is to provide protection to the community from the threat of disaster, guaranteeing the implementation of planned, integrated, integrated disaster management. coordinated and thorough. article 44 paragraphs 2 and 3 state that in disaster emergency plans, contingency plans and standard operating procedures (sops) can be supplemented which are further stipulated in the regents' regulations. mailto:rudisubiyaktodap2015@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7900-4543 36 contingency plan is one of the important points in the implementation of natural disaster management so that the regional government of cilacap regency has prepared a contingency planning document for all natural disasters that often occur in the cilacap regency. the process of preparing a natural disaster contingency planning document in cilacap district involves stakeholders from government, community and business sectors through a focus group discussion (fgd). the fgd aims to obtain information and input in the form of data to prepare a contingency plan document for each natural disaster. related to the description above, this paper aims to analyze the natural disaster risk reduction by using the contingency planning document. observed phenomena include the role of contingency planning documents and how they are implemented both in context and content in natural disaster risk reduction in cilacap district. 2. literature review 2.1 contingency concept contingencies are a condition that can occur, but not necessarily true (bnpb, 2012). contingency planning is an attempt to plan something event that might occur, but does not rule out the possibility that the event will not occur. because there is an element of uncertainty, we need a plan to reduce the consequences that might occur. based on a literature search it was found that the concept of contingency has several meanings. first, contingencies are interpreted as a guide to act in reducing the impact of disaster risk (knight, 2001; gtzi, 2010). second, contingency is defined as a step in taking action to reduce the impact of disaster risk from training, training, organizing and completing, reviewing plans, early warning, education and public information (choularton, 2007, bnpb, 2010); response and reaction (schneider 2004). third, contingency plans are interpreted as a process of planning ahead, in uncertain circumstances, where scenarios and objectives are agreed upon, managerial and technical actions are determined, and systems for responding to events are structured in order to prevent, or better cope with, the situation or emergency situation encountered. "(khambali, 2017; bnpb, 2010; iasc, 2008). contingency plan is a plan that has been designed in conditions that can be said to be not fixed with the agreed paths or paths, techniques, management and various implementations that have been determined together with various countermeasures. contingency planning is basically a process of identification and various preparation of plans that can be based on existing contingency conditions. according to knight (2001) and choularton (2007) contingency planning is effective when done following the parameters and functional framework of good emergency preparedness. according to fema (2015) emergency preparedness or planning frameworks present important progressive steps to illustrate how levels of government, the private sector, non-governmental organizations and society generally work together to build and maintain the capabilities needed to prevent, protect, mitigate and respond threats and dangers. in gtz-international services (2010: 8), the international strategy for disaster reduction (isdr) sets out the institutions and guidelines for contingency planning: (1). the international accounting standards committee (iasc): as a guideline for contingency planning between agencies for humanitarian assistance as a main reference document for contingency planning between agencies whose members are general in nature. (2). international federation of red cross and red crescent societies (international federation): guidelines that serve as working tools for disaster response staff in international federations at the local, national, regional and global levels. (3). national disaster management agency (bnpb): formulates and publishes policies on disaster management and the handling of refugee populations effectively and coordinates the implementation of planned, integrated and comprehensive disaster management activities. the diversity of definitions confirms the common understanding of planning contingencies must include the initial setup process so that they can make planning or developing strategies and procedures in response to potential crises or emergencies that will occur. this includes developing scenarios (to anticipate crises), determining the responsibilities of all actors who will be involved in identifying roles and resources, the data collection and dissemination process, and organizing each actor so that he is ready when needed, and determining the needs for objectives to be achieved. contingency planning is an integral part of the overall preparedness program and needs to be developed for each type of hazard, then updated and trained regularly (vidiarina, 2010). contingency planning made by the iasc provides a general and comprehensive framework to guide joint action between all partners including each agency and / or organization and sector / 37 group group. the plan does not intend to replace the planning needs of each agency and / or organization with respect to their mandate and responsibilities within the sector / group. however, contingency planning provides focus and integration for the various levels of planning needed to effectively achieve humanitarian response. (gtz-international services, 2010: 8). 3. principles of contingency planning based on workshop reports related to contingency planning between the national disaster management agency (bnpb) and giz is protects, 2012 illustrates that the working group for contingency planning in the regional disaster management agency (bpbd) complements the principles of contingency planning as follows: 1. based on the process of joint compilation & conducted openly 2. valid only for one type of hazard (hazard specific) or collateral 3. has a risk scenario and goals that are mutually agreed upon 4. has a validity period marked by a trigger 5. when is activated (if there is an indication of disaster and or an official statement / early warning) a. when it will be changed into emergency response operation plan. b. when is deactivation done c. when updated or reviewed 6. define the roles and duties of each sector (has a division of tasks, authority and clear responsibilities) 7. list realistic resource components 8. agree on a consensus that has been made together 9. made to deal with emergencies and the impact of disasters 10. must be followed up with: a. a series of actions (training / rehearsal, procurement, arrangements) b. formal adoption c. monitoring and evaluation the third meaning of the contingency plan above aims to increase preparedness in the face of disasters. emergency planning must be based on realistic parameters to respond with detailed planning and preparedness (choularton, 2007). this requires understanding of emergency planning which is very important and relevant to extreme disaster events. from this definition, several important points can be drawn that contingency planning is: 1. done before an emergency in the form of a planning process going forward. 2. more a process than producing a document. 3. is a process of consensus building to agree on scenarios and objectives to be taken. 4. is a preparedness for emergency response by determining the steps and handling system that will be taken before an emergency occurs. 5. includes efforts that are preventive and also limit the consequences that are likely to occur. 4. research methodology the method used in this research is qualitative. the research seeks to see the interrelationship between the phenomena of contingency plans and sub phenomena that include the process of preparing natural disaster contingency plans in cilacap district. creswell (1994: 150-151), in qualitative research conducted through observation, interviews, and document studies. data collection in this study was carried out with focus group discussions. 25 fgd participants were selected through a purposive method. data analysis was performed descriptively qualitatively. 5. research result in accordance with the natural disaster contingency planning document in cilacap district, the person responsible for implementing the natural disaster contingency plan is the regional government of cilacap regency and in its implementation is assisted by the regional natural disaster management agency (bpbd) and regional apparatus organizations, community, business world and there are also parties other private parties. cilacap district government that records and coordinates all parties involved in the implementation of natural disaster contingency plans so that success or failure in the implementation of the natural disasters contingency planning policy lies in the ability of the regional government in recording, coordinating the parties involved. for the cilacap district, in terms of implementing natural disaster contingency plans, so far it has been running well, often the emergence of natural disasters makes the data of parties involved in organizing natural disasters easily obtainable, and the coordination of cilacap district government, regional disaster management agency and organizations regional apparatus, the community, the business world and all those involved are also going well. the scope of the implementation of the cilacap regency disaster contingency plan is a document that contains policies on strategy, management, efforts and aspects of coordination in disaster management in the event of a disaster (during an emergency response) that is implemented just before a disaster occurs, in circumstances that may occur by the disaster cilacap regency government with coverage of disasters in cilacap regency. related to the scope of the implementation of natural disaster management in the district of cilacap which includes strategy, management, efforts and aspects of coordination that this applies when the disaster occurs or does not occur, but this illustrates that for the implementation of natural disaster contingency plans in the district of cilacap , all parties involved are ready if natural disasters really occur. 38 the regional government of cilacap regency is responsible for implementing the natural disaster contingency plan and is assisted by the regional disaster management agency (bpbd). in terms of responsibility in implementing natural disaster contingency plans in cilacap regency, as local government stakeholders assisted by the regional disaster management agency have been implemented well so that in terms of the scope of the implementation of natural disaster contingency plans that include strategy, management, coordination efforts can be carried out optimally. 6. discussion the implementation of mitigation policies and natural disaster contingency plans in cilacap regency is a process that must be carried out continuously by individuals, groups and communities in managing all hazards through efforts to minimize the consequences of disasters that may arise from these hazards (mitigation). mitigation is one of the stages in disaster management. the mitigation phase in its meaning means that preparedness or alertness is an inexpensive way to reduce the effects of the dangers faced by the community compared to other actions, such as evacuation, rehabilitation and reconstruction. therefore mitigation must be carried out jointly through the government's agenda, and individually both at and after the event, and before the event. understanding the interrelated stages in disaster management is done by managing and evaluating so that it does not develop into a disaster. this assessment deals with the physical aspects of the earth better known as geo-risk analysis. law number 24 year 2007 concerning disaster management defines disaster as a series of events that pose threats and disrupt people's lives and livelihoods caused by both natural and / or nonnatural factors as well as human factors, resulting in casualties, damage to the surrounding environment, material loss and psychological impact. the social, cultural, political and legal dimensions are very important and fundamental in the context of environmental management based on sustainable development. with the issuance of law no. 24/2007, a derivative policy and the mainstreaming of planning and funding for disaster relief were born. the bill outlines contains an important understanding that is first, there is a change in the disaster paradigm that is focused on pre-disaster or risk reduction. second, disaster management is no longer reactive but more planned and proactive. third, the position of the government in this new paradigm is no longer dominant but rather promotes community participation (faturahman, 2018), by placing the community as a subject, no longer as an object of disaster management. fourth, the domain of disaster management is no longer an absolute right of the central government but has been decentralized to the regions. in other words, in the context of regional autonomy, the management of disaster management has also become the responsibility of the region, both in the budget and policy areas. the link between vision and mission and regional development programs in disaster management in the regions. the pre-disaster stage, namely prevention and preparedness, is part of disaster mitigation in each district, including service to the community. disaster mitigation is carried out as an increase in the capacity of the regional government apparatus in cilacap regency. cilacap regency emphasizes disaster mitigation on environmental aspects. this shows the setting agenda of disaster management policies in cilacap regency included in the regional development agenda so that the inclusion of the disaster mitigation agenda is a serious concern of all regional stakeholders to realize disasteraware communities. the role of institutions in disaster management itself is a demand from regional autonomy where government administrative authority is needed as an agent of change, but there are values that have been forgotten that in addition to authority, the government also has obligations and responsibilities to the public. if regional autonomy is intended as a gift the authority of local governments to bring development directly to the public, it is also necessary to develop the values of obligations and responsibilities that are the basis of these authorities. disaster management in the regions involves the joint implementation of all elements of society for that good governance in realizing a culture of disaster awareness as part of development has three important aspects: 1. an administrative system that involves many actors, both from government and non-government elements, because the source of legitimacy comes not only from the constitution and regulations but also from the values that develop in the community. 2. conflicts that arise are then developed to respond to problems and public interests as a collective 3. relationship patterns in the environment do not have to be formal and strict institutional structures. disaster mitigation and contingency plans are a series of efforts undertaken to reduce disaster risk, both through physical development and awareness and enhancing the ability of the community to deal with the threat of soehatman ramli's disaster (2010: 32). disaster mitigation is also an attempt to reduce or even prevent the impact caused by a disaster, so it is clear that this mitigation is preventive before a disaster event occurs. mitigation is one of the stages of disaster management carried out by the cilacap regency regional disaster management agency (bpbd) which is the first stage carried out. in the pre-disaster mitigation phase this is a task carried out by field i namely the 39 prevention and preparedness section of the disaster management agency (bpbd) of cilacap regency. in accordance with the predisaster stages of mitigation, it can be seen with the programs and activities carried out by the division i prevention and preparedness of the bpbd cilacap regency are: based on the research results of the meeting, there was an agreement to establish cooperation between stakeholders in disaster management through contingency plans, but due to the long process, it caused the compilation of natural disaster contingency planning documents in cilacap district to be replaced with new ones, waiting for the process from the local government. as a basis for natural disaster mitigation, the government of cilacap regency is still guided by the old documents. besides this, early warning was also carried out in the disaster contingency plan in cilacap. the form of early warning in prevention and preparedness which is subsequently carried out by the regional disaster management agency (bpbd) of cilacap regency is to create a warning system in areas adjacent to the river. the simple disaster warning system is the task of the cilacap regency regional disaster management agency (bpbd) to be able to change the warning system to be even better by using existing technological innovations. connectivity between water level monitoring equipment in rivers connected to bpbd posts using the latest information technology will facilitate the disaster management system in dealing with impending disasters, so the impact will be low. 7. factors that support and inhibit the success of natural disaster contingency plans in cilacap regency is determined by many supporting and inhibiting factors involved in policy implementation. in edwards iii's view, policy implementation is influenced by four factors, namely (1) communication, (2) resources, (3) disposition, and (4) bureaucratic structure. the four factors are also related to one another. communication of a program can only be implemented well if it is clear to implementers. this concerns the process of delivering information, clarity of information and the consistency of the information conveyed. resources, including four components namely sufficient staff (number and quality), information needed for decision making, sufficient authority to carry out the duties or responsibilities and facilities needed in implementation. disposition or the attitude of the executor is the commitment of the implementer of the program. the bureaucratic structure is based on standard operating procedures that govern the flow of work and the implementation of policies. to facilitate the implementation of policies, dissemination needs to be done well. the management requirements for policy dissemination are four, namely: (1) there is respect from community members for government authorities to explain the need to morally comply with laws made by the authorities; (2) there is awareness to accept the policy. awareness and willingness to accept and implement policies manifest when policies are considered logical; (3) the belief that policies are made legally; and (4) initially a policy was considered controversial, but over time the policy was considered as something natural. in setting goals and especially in achieving these goals, there are three important elements of planning that call attention to the need for coordination, there is consistency between the various socioeconomic variables of a community, and setting priorities. 1. supporting factors there is a role for the community in disaster management efforts through awareness of the dangers of natural disasters by creating special community organizations and focusing on disaster in cilacap district. this community organization receives assistance in the form of facilities and infrastructure originating from the private sector in the form of building posts and evacuation equipment. the establishment of this community organization provides the community with information on the status of disasters so that the community can immediately prepare for disaster. 2. inhibiting factors according to edward iii's approach, according to the approach, the implementation of government policy is influenced by four variables, which become a supporting factor if all goes well but if not it will become an inhibiting factor. these variables are communication, resources, disposition and bureaucratic structure. these four factors are interconnected: a. communication the success of the policy requires that the implementation knows what needs to be done. if the goals and objectives of the policy (the target group) will reduce implementation distortion. if the goals and objectives of a policy are unclear or even unknown to the target group, then there is a possibility of resistance from the target group. the implementation of communication on disaster contingency plans in cilacap regency through a work program of socialization and simulation as well as the formation of disaster volunteers is done in a series of events. the formation of disaster volunteers begins with the socialization process first. in the implementation of the socialization and simulation process, the 40 activity implementing committee carried out the planning that had been prepared in the previous stage. in the previous stage, the cilacap regency bpbd as the party who formulated the communication message, prepared all communication components. communicators, messages, media and communicants were prepared by the bpbd of cilacap regency as the organizer of the communication activities for the disaster contingency plan. in communicating, communicating messages are carried out by a communicator prepared by the organizing committee to deliver the communicative message to the communicant, in this case the people of cilacap regency. the process of selecting communicators in each work program of the cilacap regency bpbd was discussed in an internal meeting. the communicator in the work program of socialization and simulation is the person in charge of delivering the communication message that has been prepared in the terms of reference. the communicators in the socialization program and the simulation are the speakers or speakers who have been appointed and prepared by the organizing committee of the activity. while the speakers are chosen based on their capacity and capability as well as the suitability of their work fields. cilacap regency bpbd has not only internal speakers in the cilacap regency bpbd, but also in several other agencies such as the official or regional government in accordance with the theme and topic of the socialization talks. b. resource although the contents of the implementation policy and contingency plan have been clearly and consistently communicated, if the implementer lacks of resources it will implement. implementation will not be effective. these resources can be in the form of human resources, namely competition forementement and financial resources. resources are important factors for implementing policies to be effective. without resources, policies are just left to work and become documents. c. disposition disposition is the character and characteristics or attitudes of the implementor such as commitment, honesty, democratic nature. if the implementor has a good disposition then he will run the policy as well as what the policy maker wants. when an impementor has different characteristics or perspectives from policy makers, the policy implementation process also becomes ineffective. d. bureaucratic structure in charge of implementing the policy has a significant influence on the implementation of the program. one of the important structural aspects of every organization is the existence of standard operating procedures (sop). sop is a guideline for every implementor in acting. an organizational structure that is too long will tend to weaken supervision and lead to red tape, which is a complex and complex bureaucratic procedure. this can in turn cause organizational activity to be inflexible. 8. conclussion based on the results of research and discussion, there are several conclusions. in this research, namely: 1. normatively implementing the natural disaster contingency plan in cilacap regency, all actors can contribute to the mitiation planning process and natural disaster contingency plan in cilacap regency. this makes good mitigation plans and disaster contingency plans are policies that can solve problems related to disaster mitigation and natural disaster contingency plans in cilacap district. 2. the process of preparing a contingency plan is prepared jointly by the office / institution / institution of government and nongovernment and business world related to disaster management in cilacap regency. this contingency plan can be used as material / guidance for cross sectoral agencies / agencies to carry out activities in the context of disaster management and reduce risk / danger. the activation of this contingency plan becomes an operational plan at the time of a disaster and becomes a reference for each sector / element / agency of the relevant agency. contingency plans will be evaluated according to circumstances and changing conditions and will be conducted every 2 (two) years to update data and information. coordination for the preparation, monitoring and updating of the contingency plan is carried out by the cilacap regency bpbd or other institution appointed by the cilacap regent. this contingency plan will also be followed up with socialization and rehearsals or simulations to the public, especially those in risk areas in cilacap regency. references 1. ashkenazi, i., einav, s., olsha, o., turegano-fuentes, f., krausz, m. m., & alfici, r. (2016). the impact of age upon contingency planning for multiple-casualty incidents based on a single center’s experience. prehospital and disaster medicine, 31(05), 492–497. doi:10.1017/s1049023x16000613 2. choularton, r. 2007. contingency planning and humanitarian action: a review of practice, hpn network paper 59 3. creswell, j. w. 1994. research design qualitative and quantitative approaches. sage publications. london. 41 4. edwards iii, george c. 1980, implementing public policy, washington d.c. : congressional quarterly inc 5. faturahman, b. m. (2018). aktualisasi nilai demokrasi dalam perekrutan dan penjaringan perangkat desa. sospol, 4(1), 132–148. 6. khambali, s. m. (2017). manajemen penanggulangan bencana. yogyakarta:cv. andi offset 7. ramli, soehatman. 2010. petunjuk praktis manajemen kebakaran (fire management). jakarta: dian rakyat. 8. vidiarina, h.d. (2010).perencanaan kontinjensi tinjauan tentang beberapa pedoman perencanaan dan rencana kontinjensi.jakarta: gtz-international services. 9. badan nasional penanggulangan bencana (2011). panduan perencanaan kontinjensi menghadapi bencana.jakarta: bnpb. 10. uu nomor 24 tahun 2007. tentang.penanggulangan bencana 118 ellipsis in english and albanian msc. nesrin jahja universum college, department of english language and literature, jahjanesrin@gmail.com article history: submission 17 january 2021 revision 19 march 2021 accepted 10 april 2021 available online 30 april 2021 keywords: cohesion, ellipsis, substitution, fiction, non-fiction, nominal, verbal, clausal. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i1.222 a b s t r a c t this research attempted to conduct an in-depth analysis of the text-forming elements based on the fact that cohesive devices are insufficiently treated in the albanian language, although considerable research and publications have been made in other languages. this study aims to bring evidence in recognizing, determining, and categorizing the structures of ellipsis and substitution which perform in english and albanian. comparing these important elements of grammatical cohesion in two languages will bring light upon the differences and similarities between the two languages. it will also show how frequently they are used in english and albanian. particularly, the aim is to show how these two mechanisms enable the avoidance of repetition, either by choosing other short words, phrases, and clauses or by removal of words, phrases, and clauses. this study involved samples of fiction and non-fiction texts of english and albanian language, consisting of two novels and two daily newspapers. the findings of the research indicate that in fiction texts, ellipsis is used more in the albanian language rather than in english whereas substitution prevails more in english than albanian. ellipsis is used more in the albanian language rather than in english in non-fiction texts too. nevertheless, the frequency of substitution seems to be the same in both languages with a total of 4 items in english and 3 items in albanian. 1. introduction in everyday discourse, written or spoken, we rarely communicate with fully completed sentences. normally, our messages contain many sentences which are structured according to defined linguistic rules. for this reason, in today’s linguistics, there is a unit of language which is being discussed increasingly and it is beyond sentence length. that is the word text which constitutes the primary linguistic tool in discourse. (dibra, 1995) language is a means of communication that requires constant study in both its written and spoken form. generally speaking, it is a system made of gaps in which the speakers and writers operate within the context by omitting and replacing parts of linguistic structures. moreover, the omitted and replaced linguistic structures are understood even though they are not expressed. the study of grammatical devices is a major area of interest within the field of linguistics and that is why we have selected to search two main grammatical cohesive devices: substitution and ellipsis. the usual task of substitution and ellipsis is to eliminate unnecessary repetition of words, phrases, and clauses. in general, non-native speakers of english fail to understand something they read or hear and this is because they do not understand words being used or words which are not being used. in both spoken and written form, there is a great tendency to either leave out words we think are needless or to use another word instead of another phrase. failure to understand them can cause considerable confusion to learners, more specifically while speaking. based on the difficulties that learners are facing, the aim is to determine the structures of these devices in english and albanian by comparing fiction and nonfiction texts. this study may be useful to many students and researchers who are interested to study or analyze further these two languages. 2. literature review the literature review of the present study will try to provide the most relevant published theories on cohesion and the best elaborations of substitution and ellipsis which have attracted the https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:jahjanesrin@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i1.222 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5807-7500 119 attention of many reputable linguists and grammarians. numerous studies about cohesion and coherence in esl/efl writing have been done by using halliday and hasan's (1976) framework. the literature review will explore the area of research to get information from recent articles. linguists have developed a particular interest in the study of cohesion and its devices, and a significant number of analyses of written texts have continued to concentrate on the recognition and features of coherent devices that enable readers to comprehend a text. following halliday and hassan's work on cohesion in english, cohesion has gained popularity in discourse analysis studies. halliday & hassan (1976) classified cohesive devices into grammatical cohesive devices (reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction) and lexical devices (reiteration and collocation). faigly (1981, as cited in yoon hee na, 2011) compared the cohesive devices in poor and good writing of college freshmen and found that well-written essays had twice as many instances of reference, conjunction, and lexical collocation. jabeen et al., (2013) analyzed an act play by chekhov called “the bear”. finally, the study of the text's coherent devices showed that discourse or text can only be meaningful when different fragments are taken together to create a single whole. in another study, azzouz (2009) looked at how grammatical cohesive devices were used in students' writings. a group of 40 secondyear students were asked to compose essays, and a description of their work was performed to see how often they could use grammatical cohesive devices. in conclusion, students demonstrate an ability to use a particular feature in their creative writing. the percentage of less use in substitution was 1.48% and this was explained in terms of avoidance in that, students tended not to use such type because they do not know how, when, and where can be reached, and the percentage of more use in conjunctions was of 54.05% which was explained in terms of awareness. hoang tra my (n.d) in his study examined the frequency of the use of cohesive devices in reading texts in english. the total number of cohesion ties used in sixteen passages was 2385. the use of lexical cohesive devices was much more than grammatical cohesive devices in sixteen passages. according to him, the high frequent use of substitution and ellipsis can make the texts more difficult and complicated to understand and without the knowledge of them, students may misunderstand and misinterpret the text. in another study, coskun (2011) evaluated two groups of students. one is made up of 98 immigrants and the other made up of 103 turkish students. it is concluded that turkish students had higher averages in all of the ellipsis types compared to the immigrant students. problems relating to the use of ellipsis are found more frequently in texts written by the immigrant students. the immigrant and turkish students’ averages for using substitution component are less in number and similar to each other. the difference between group averages is not significant. in the student texts, there were no issues found with the use of substitution elements. 3. research methodology 3.1. research hypotheses through the present study, it is hypothesized that: h1: substitution and ellipsis are used more frequently in fiction than in nonfiction texts. h2: in translated texts from english, substitution changes into ellipsis in albanian. h3: ellipsis occurs more frequently than substitution in both text types. 3.2. research questions 1. how frequently are substitution and ellipsis used in english and albanian texts? 2. what are the differences and similarities of cohesive devices when translated from english to albanian? 3. which elements form the structures of ellipsis and substitution in english and albanian? 3.3. research design and methodology this research is an effort to analyze and compare the structures of substitution and ellipsis in english and albanian. the basic methods used are theoretical, empirical, quantitative and qualitative. based on the findings of the analysis, the text-forming elements and their characteristics will be analyzed in detail. the overall structure of the paper consists of three parts: the first part presents a general overview of cohesion and its types with selected examples. the second part presents the structure of ellipsis and substitution in english and albanian. in this part, the translation method will be used to show the form of ellipsis and substitution in both languages. the third part will present the data analysis and interpretation of the use of substitution and ellipsis in english and albanian. 3.3.1. corpus the realization of our goal, accurate and clear reflection of classification, and analysis of ellipsis & substitution is based on rich literature in both languages. materials used in comparing ellipsis and substitution in english and albanian are divided into corpus a presenting fiction texts and corpus b presenting nonfiction texts. corpus a comprises two novels: one in english and 120 one in the albanian language to analyse the frequency and structures of ellipsis and substitution in fiction texts. we have chosen the novels “animal farm” by orwell (2009) for english and “sikur të isha djalë” by stërmilli (1936) for albanian. on the other hand, corpus b comprises two newspaper articles in english and albanian to analyse the use of ellipsis and substitution in nonfiction texts. we have chosen daily newspapers “kosova sot” (2016) for albanian and “the guardian” (2016) for english. 4. research results in this chapter, the frequency of ellipsis and substitution are analyzed through fiction and non-fiction texts. moreover, the elements which form the structures of ellipsis and substitution in english and albanian are analyzed. the texts chosen for this analysis were: “animal farm and sikur të isha djalë” for corpus a and “the guardian and kosovasot” for corpus b. these two corpora gave the results presented on (tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) and in the paragraphs below. 4.1. results of fiction texts in relation to these two cohesive devices used in fiction texts, the following results are found: table 1 shows that ellipsis is used more in the albanian language rather than in english. the total number of items is 67 in albanian and 46 in english. if we look at the division of ellipsis, we can see that nominal and clausal ellipsis in albanian dominate more than in english. but the predominant one is nominal ellipsis with 34 items in albanian. verbal ellipsis ranking the second takes up 18 items in english and 18 in albanian. clausal ellipsis comes the third with 8 items in english and 15 items in albanian. whereas table 2 shows the number (percentage) of substitution used in both texts where substitution prevails more in english than albanian, with a total of 25 items in english and 5 items in albanian. among the three types of substitution, nominal substitution is the most frequently used device with 11 items in english. secondly, clausal substitution takes up 10 items in english and 2 items in albanian. interestingly, verbal substitution did not occur in albanian whereas in english with 4 items. table 1. the percentage of ellipsis in fiction texts number of ellipsis nominal verbal clausal fiction texts number of items % number of items % number of items % total animal farm 20 43% 18 39% 8 18% 46 sikur të isha djalë 34 51% 18 27% 15 22% 67 table 2. the percentage of substitution in fiction texts number of substitution nominal verbal clausal fiction texts number of items % number of items % number of items % total animal farm 11 44% 4 16% 10 40% 25 sikur të isha djalë 3 60% 0 0% 2 40% 5 4.2. results of non-fiction texts in relation to these two cohesive devices used in non-fiction texts, the following results are found: table 3 shows that ellipsis is used more in the albanian language rather than in english in nonfiction texts too. the total number of items is 22 in albanian and 8 in english. as shown in table 3, among the three types of ellipsis, verbal ellipsis is the most frequently used device with 13 items in albanian. nominal ellipsis comes the second with 8 items in albanian and 2 items in english. clausal ellipsis presents the lowest frequency of use with only 1 item in albanian and 0 items in english. 121 table 3. the percentage of ellipsis in non-fiction texts number of ellipsis nominal verbal clausal non-fiction number of items % number of items % number of items % total the guardian 2 25% 6 75% 0 0% 8 kosova sot 8 36% 13 59% 1 5% 22 the following table (4) shows the number of substitution used in non-fiction texts. the frequency of substitution seems to be the same in both languages with a total of 4 items in english and 3 items in albanian. the number of nominal and clausal substitution remains the same with 2 items in nominal and 1 item in clausal. whereas verbal substitution comes with 1 item in english and 0 items in albanian. based on the results, substitution is rarely used in non-fiction texts. table 4. the percentage of substitution in non-fiction texts number of substitution nominal verbal clausal non-fiction number of items % number of items % number of items % total the guardian 2 50% 1 25% 1 25% 4 kosova sot 2 67% 0 0% 1 33% 3 lastly, the total number of ellipsis in fiction texts is 113 and 30 in non-fiction texts which proves that the highest frequency of ellipsis occurs in fiction texts more rather than in non-fiction ones. as shown in table 5, substitution also occurs more often in fiction texts than non-fiction texts. in other words, fiction ones predominate in the use of ellipsis and substitution in both languages. table 5. the total number of ellipsis and substitution in fiction and non-fiction texts type of text ellipsis substitution fictions text 113 30 non-fiction 30 7 4.3. the differences and similarities of cohesive devices in translation the second research question was about the differences and similarities of cohesive devices when translated from english to albanian. based on the above analysis of grammatical cohesive devices, it is concluded that both english and albanian besides differences, they also show similarities in the use of cohesive devices. in both languages, ellipsis occurs in its nominal, verbal and clausal form. nominal ellipsis seems to be the same in english and albanian in most of the cases. and it can also remain in the same position. sometimes, ellipsis is not appropriate in albanian as it is in english, so, we must use the omitted word of english in albanian translation. for example, in the next sentence, we cannot leave the noun universe in translation. also, in the second sentence, we cannot omit the main verb in albanian simply because the albanian sentence structure does not accept ellipsis. furthermore, 122 in clausal ellipsis, the modal verbs help sentences to be shortened whereas in albanian we do not need modals at all. another important characteristic (similarity) is the use of ellipsis in the question-answer dialogues. clausal ellipsis occurred mostly in yes/no answers in english and albanian. as in english, there are just a few substitution words used in texts. the english nominal substitution words one (for singular) and ones (for plural) are very productive words in the english language and their equivalents in albanian are një/ca which do not have a wide use as substitution devices. for this reason, they turn into ellipsis in translation. on the other hand, the pronoun one/ones can be translated in albanian with the help of other pronouns such as atë, këtë, ato etc. so, the substitution remains as substitution also in albanian. the verbal substitution is also realized through the verb do which is placed at the end of the clause. but in the albanian language the verb bëj is not so fruitful, so we directly use the same main verb rather than substitution with bëj. the verbal substitution do can also become ellipsis in albanian. in this case, you can either translate by using the main verb instead of substitution or you can refer to ellipsis. another typical occasion of substitution is the adverb so (kështu, këtë). generally, it can substitute a clause. in the albanian, language it becomes ashtu/kështu and they have the same use in the clauses. 4.4. elements which from the structures of ellipsis and substitution in english and albanian the last research question was to find out the elements which form the structures of ellipsis and substitution in english and albanian, more specifically in albanian. in the corpus in english, nominal ellipsis appeared with pronouns and nouns, adjectives and determiners. verbal ellipsis is realized through the omission of the main verb, particularly after the modal verb. the verb “to be” was the one which was left out the most in texts. clausal ellipsis is formed through yes/no answers mostly. in clausal ellipsis the relative pronoun “that” can also be left out. moreover, in conditional sentences, we can stop the sentence after the “wh” relative pronoun. it is found out that ellipsis is almost the same in english and albanian, but with a little difference. in the albanian corpus, nominal ellipsis is realized through nouns, adjectives and pronouns and the element which was left out mostly in texts was the personal pronoun. verbal ellipsis is formed with the removal of the verb “to be” most of the time, particularly in newspaper headlines. different from english, modal verbs (will, would, etc) do not function as ellipsis in albanian because they need the main verb attached. but the modal verb “mund” was used to form verbal and clausal ellipsis both. as in english, clausal ellipsis is formed with yes/no answers. sometimes, clausal ellipsis is formed by stopping after the main verb (see example 47 in appendix b). one important characteristic in albanian is the use of quantifiers in verbal and clausal ellipsis (see appendix b). substitution was a device which was used rarely in both text types. in the english language, elements which formed nominal substitution were “one, ones, the same, all, both and the two”. verbal substitution was formed with the auxiliary verb do (does, did, done). clausal substitution was formed with “do and so”. on the other hand, albanian nominal substitution is realized through the words “njëri, tjetri, i pari, i dyti”. verbal substitution did not appear in either of the text types. lastly, clausal substitution is formed with “ashtu, kështu” which is the same as in the english language. conclusively, ellipsis and substitution help in the avoidance of repetition, and they are used more in informal texts than in formal texts. the need to express ideas more accurately and thus avoid confusion, makes us use ellipsis and substitution rarely in formal texts. 5. conclusion generally, the study of text and its components has always been a great need for greater success in the written and spoken form of language usage and it has always raised the interest of linguists. in this research, substitution and ellipsis have been selected as two main grammatical devices in texts. to sum up, h1: the total number of ellipsis in fiction texts is 113 and 30 in non-fiction texts which proves that the highest frequency of ellipsis occurs in fiction texts more rather than in non-fiction ones. substitution also occurs more often in fiction texts (30) than non-fiction texts (7). in other words, fiction ones predominate in the use of ellipsis and substitution in both languages. h3: moreover, the study reveals that ellipsis occurs more frequently than substitution in both text types. based on this, it can be stated that the need to omit words is higher than the need to replace words in linguistic structures. the omitted linguistic structures are easily understood even though they are not expressed in texts. findings of the current study highlighted that h2: in translated texts from english, substitution changes into ellipsis in albanian. the english substitution pronouns one (for singular) and ones (for plural) are very productive words in english language and their equivalents in albanian are një/ca which do not have a wide 123 use as substitution devices. however, they turn into ellipsis in translation. on the whole, based on the analysed data of grammatical cohesive devices, it is concluded that both english and albanian besides differences, they also show similarities in the use of cohesive devices. albanian and english are two languages which belong to different families in the trunk of indo-european languages. yet, the results reveal that there are similar rules which enable the phenomenon of cohesion. consequently, in both languages, ellipsis occurs in its nominal, verbal and clausal form. 5.1. recommendations for further research this study will be a modest contribution in analyzing, comparing and contrasting, and presenting substitution and elliptical structures in the albanian language. this kind of study is also significant for teachers and students in recognizing characteristic features of substitution and ellipsis which lead one in learning and using these two languages accurately and fluently. overall, further research should be done to provide students with the knowledge of cohesion which is considered to be an important means to help them develop their speaking, reading, writing, listening skills. in order to achieve more results in this area, more explorations should be conducted specifically in the albanian language since this approach has been neglected in albanian. references 1. akademia e shkencave. 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https://doi.org/10.2307/356693 28 adolescent pregnancy: occurrence and consequences prof. asoc. dr. makedonka radulovic ¹* prof. asoc. dr. biljana todorova ² prof. ass. dr. irena avirovic bundalevska ³ ¹ university ss. “cyril and methodius”, faculty of philosophy, radulovic@fzf.ukim.edu.mk *corresponding author ² university “goce delcev”, faculty of law, biljana.todorova@ugd.edu.mk ³university ss. “cyril and methodius”, faculty of philosophy, avirovic@fzf.ukim.edu.mk article history: accepted 05 january 2020 available online 31 april 2020 keywords: adolescents, pregnancy, adolescent pregnancy, teenagers, family, contraception.. a b s t r a c t adolescent pregnancy is a problem that societies face, regardless of the level of development. despite the availability of information and the availability of contraception, as well as the right to an abortion that is guaranteed in most of the modern societies, countries face many cases of adolescent pregnancies. pregnancy in the period of adolescence irreversibly changes the lives of minors. it has influence on their health, their education, social life and their future as adults. also, the families of the under-aged parents are directly affected by the consequences, disrupting the functionality of the family. in a wider sense, the health system and social functioning are burdened in their entirety. therefore, it’s important to prevent adolescent pregnancies. contraception is the primary protection against unwanted pregnancy and insufficient and inconsistent application of contraception, as well as the lack of information among young people about the available methods of contraception can be one of the main causes of adolescent pregnancies. integrated sexuality education for adolescents can be great benefit to educate adolescents about risk factors of pregnancy in early life. the influence of parents is crucial in the prevention of adolescent pregnancy. this paper intention is to analyses current situation on this topic, through available indicators on birth rates, maternal and children mortality worldwide. qualitative research conducted between the student (18-22), should give more information about use of contraception between young people, their opinion about importance of contraception… important questions are: are they well informed about contraception; are the contraception products available; are they feel free enough to talk with their parents on those topics...etc. 1. introduction the period of pregnancy, the birth and the care for infants is especially important period that influence woman health. throughout history, many maternal and childhood lives have been lost as a result of ignorance, lack of adequate health protection and care. in the developed countries, the healthy nutrition and better living conditions, good care during pregnancy and childbirth, contribute to reduce maternal mortality. in the least developed countries, maternal mortality is still high, around 1800 per 100,000 newborns, while in industrialized countries it is about 15 per 100,000 (who, 2018). maternity mortality is related to socioeconomic conditions, the general health of the woman, and education. age of conception and the number of previous pregnancies can be a risk factor. healthcare system care is very important as guarantee for good pregnancy outcome. mailto:radulovic@fzf.ukim.edu.mk mailto:avirovic@fzf.ukim.edu.mk https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3753-1521 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5761-907x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1609-000x 29 bed socioeconomic conditions like law income and unemployment have negative influence on health in general. proper nutrition, contagious disease control and education are basic guarantee that women will enter their reproductive age, physically and mentally fit for childbirth and upbringing. according to who, unicef and un, women's literacy affects the survival rate of newborns. a literate mother can use appropriate literature and not just to rely on tradition. the degree of education is proportional to the chances of employment and family income (tulchinsky and varavikova 2014). health issues, in the field of reproduction, refer to the planning and preparation of pregnancy, as well as professional care during pregnancy, delivery and the postpartum period. health education and preventive measures are extremely important. quitting smoking, alcohol, drugs and other risky behavior, at least during pregnancy, is an important step to protect mother and child mortality 2. current conditions reproduction is influenced by social, cultural, religious and other factors, as well as by existing contraceptive techniques. due to the availability of contraception funds, better education, greater chances for women's employment, reproductive trends have changed in the industrialized countries where birth rates are declining, unlike to underdeveloped countries where they have the opposite problem, uncontrolled childbearing, resulting in children they cannot take care of (radulovic, 2018). the global maternal mortality is continuously decreasing. since 1990 it has decreased by 44%, from a total of 385 to 100,000 liveborn at 215 per 100,000. however, in 1997, worldwide, 585,000 women died from complications of pregnancy and childbirth, of which 99% were from underdeveloped countries. between 1990 and 1997, maternal mortality ranged from 1,000 to 100,000 in the less developed countries, from 100 to 500 in the middle-income countries, less than 10 in industrialized countries, and somewhere below 5 to 100,000 (israel, sweden, switzerland). in the republic of north macedonia, in 1990, maternal mortality was 14 per 100,000 lives births, while in 2015 it was 8 per 100,000 liveborn. according to the millennium development goals 2008 national report, "annual fluctuations and the relatively low maternal mortality rate can be due to insufficient or inadequate reporting" (un, 2008). adolescent pregnancy is an important issue for several reasons. for example, there are health risks for the baby. children who are born of adolescent mothers are more likely to suffer from health, social and emotional problems than children born from older mothers. also, women who become pregnant during their teenage years have increased risk of medical complications, such as premature death and social consequences. adolescent pregnancy is a big problem, not only for the underdeveloped countries, but it is a global phenomenon. adolescent pregnancies are a complex social, educational and labor problem that is not easily solvable. this is a growing problem in other industrialized countries. globally about 40% of all pregnancies are unintended. many of these pregnancies occur to be adolescents, as well. in developing countries, the marriage of teenagers and children causes serious health problems to the emotionally immature mothers who have caught up in the trap of life without the possibility of education or employment (tulchinsky and varavikova, 2014). one report on technical guidance on sexuality education from unesco shows that in europe, france the number of adolescent pregnancies has dramatically increased between 2011 and 2013. according to the statistics in france, there were 100,000 students (18-22 age)’ pregnancies in 2013 compared to 81,000 in 2012 and 68,000 in 2011 (unesco, 2018) according to the world health organization (who), about 17 million adolescents gave birth annually. france has an extremely high adolescent pregnancy rate (330 per 1,000) compared to europe (20,000). the united nations says that if the rise of adolescent pregnancies in the world does not stop, the number of mothers under 15 years of the current two million a year, by 2030, would rise to three million (unfpa, 2018). the use of contraception is crucial in the prevention of adolescent pregnancies. in the republic of north macedonia, the use of modern contraceptives is at a very low level with a prevalence rate of contraceptive use of 10%. adolescents and younger adults use family planning services less than other population groups. in 2007, only 1.1% of women under 19 years of age used contraceptives. the number of abortions is continuously declining and in 2007 it was 26.8 per 100 births. however, given the low prevalence of contraceptives as a method for family planning, it may be a serious problem of inadequate reporting in relation to the actual number of abortions. according to the report of the united nations population fund (unfpa) about republic of north macedonia, abortion is a widely used method of contraception and is implemented, among other, in institutions that do not report on these cases (un, 2017). 3. adolescent pregnancy adolescent or teenage pregnancy, also known as juvenile pregnancy, is a pregnancy of women under the age of 20 years. a woman may get pregnant from sexual intercourse after she began ovulating, which may be before her first menstrual cycle (menarche), but usually occurs after the beginning of her periods 30 (who, 2004) for well-nourished women, the menarche usually takes place at the age of 12 or 13 years. pregnant juvenile teenagers face many challenges with pregnancy same as other women. however, there are additional concerns for those under the age of 15 because they are less likely to be enough physically developed to maintain a healthy pregnancy or to give birth (mayor, 2004). for the girls aged 15-19 years, the risks are more related to socioeconomic factors than to the biological effects of age. in the article "the health consequences of teenage fertility". family planning perspectives it is mentioned that the risks of low weight at birth, premature birth, anemia and preeclampsia are associated with the biological era, which is noticeable at adolescent birth even after controlling other risk factors (such as access to prenatal care, etc.) (lotto and ezeci ,2004). in the developed countries, underage pregnancies are associated with social problems, including lower educational levels, poverty, and other negative outcomes in adolescent children. adolescent pregnancy in developed countries is usually out of wedlock, a situation that brings social stigma in many communities and cultures. contrary to this, adolescent parents in developing countries are often married, and their pregnancy is greeted by the family and society. however, in these societies, early pregnancy can be combined with malnutrition and poor health care that will cause medical problem. according to the united nations population fund (unfpa), "pregnancy among girls under the age of 18 has irreparable consequences. it violates the rights of girls with life-threatening consequences in terms of sexual and reproductive health and represents high development costs for communities, especially in encouraging the cycle of poverty.” the health consequences include not yet being physically prepared for pregnancy and childbirth, leading to complications and malnutrition, as most adolescents tend to come from low-income households. the risk of maternal death of girls under 15 years of age in lowand middle-income countries is greater than of women in their twenties years of age. adolescent pregnancy also affects girls' education and income potential, as many are forced to give up school, which ultimately threatens the future possibilities and economic prospects (unfpa, 2018). several studies examined the socioeconomic, medical and psychological impact of pregnancy and adolescent parenting. factors, such as poverty or social support, may be more important than the mother's age at birth. many solutions have been proposed to remove negative consequents. adolescent parents who can rely on family and community support, social services, and childcare support are more likely to continue their education and get higher paid jobs while progressing with their education (stepp, 2009) a holistic approach is needed to address the adolescent pregnancy. this means that it does not focus on changing the behavior of girls, but rather addresses the root causes of adolescent pregnancy, such as poverty, gender inequality, social pressures and compulsion. this approach should include "providing comprehensive sexuality education for all young people, investing in girls' education, preventing marriages from children, sexual violence and compulsion, building gender equitable societies by empowering girls and involving men and boys and securing access to adolescents to information about sexual and reproductive health, as well as services that welcome and facilitate their choice." (who, 2004). dysfunctional families (parents either have little or no time to talk to their children about sex and sexuality or discuss the use of contraceptives), poverty (girls give sex services for money, clothes and other items), lack of information about sex and contraception media (in 2014, 26% of television programs displayed explicit sex scenes) alcohol abuse, which often leads to risky behavior, are all involved as causes of unwanted pregnancy especially among adolescents. 4. inappropriate use of contraception as a cause of adolescent pregnancy contraception is an important part of the overall sexual and reproductive health of young people. it is a very important part of family planning, and therefore it is extremely important to all young people, especially because it represents a way of controlling one’s own life, one’s own health, controlling one’s own future and achieving a family when the person is physically and mentally mature. although contraception is characteristically a way to prevent unwanted and unplanned pregnancies, in all modern societies it is used as a protection against various diseases, as well. however, on daily basis we hear information about the increasing number of abortions, adolescent pregnancy, and an increased number of young people with sexually transmitted diseases. this topic is more present today than in the past twenty years, but statistics show that the current situation in the republic of north macedonia is not at an enviable level. according to the available data, regarding the use of contraceptives, it can be noticed that the republic of north macedonia is on the same level as the african countries (unicef 2008, hera 2018). in the last few years, some progress has been made in this section: various state campaigns for informing young people about the benefits of contraception, greater presence of non-governmental 31 organizations dealing with this issue, etc. but that is not enough; the current situation in the republic of north macedonia can not be compared to the developed countries and their conditions. we continue to face a large number of abortions, illegal abortion, adolescent pregnancies, and sexually transmitted diseases among young people. one of the reasons for inconsistent use of contraception is the big barriers faced by young people. nowadays, in the 21st century in the republic of north macedonia, at a time when the world is working to promote modern contraception, young people still encounter many obstacles every day. these obstacles become more relevant for the young people to use contraception and thus take care of their health. according hera organization, institute of public health and unicef report on sexual health of young people in republic of north macedonia, the most common barriers that become a hurdle to the young people are: closed door, low level of information, high prices, difficult access, condemning views, lack of organizations and centers that would advise young people. (unicef, 2008, institute for public health 2009; hera, 2017) every day, many young people are denied the right to choose precisely because of these reasons. barriers, i.e. obstacles, prevent the access of young people to contraceptives (hera, 2017). such fact is confirmed by jovanovski (2017) director of hera: "about 60 percent of the population does not use any contraception in macedonia, while only 14 percent use modern contraception; every fourth woman in macedonia uses the traditional method of interrupted sexual intercourse." in addition to this conclusion are the results of a research conducted among the students at the faculty of philosophy at the ss. cyril and methodius university in skopje, in which around 200 students aged 18-22 years answered questions related to their habits for the use of contraception. the students were asked if they used contraceptives while having sexual relation. on this question from a total of 200 respondents, 30 of them answered that they used contraceptives, 150 of them did not use them, and also 20 respondents answered that they used contraceptives only at times. as may be noted, most of them responded negatively (150). of those who responded to using contraception, it can be noted that this attitude most dominates among older girls, at the age of 22 years old. while the younger female population either does not use contraceptives or uses them in certain situations. this is most often due to their negligence and thoughtlessness or insufficient information. in terms of gender, according to the obtained results, we can see that the female population uses more contraceptives than the male population. namely, only 30 male respondents reported using contraception. it is important to note that the majority of women respondents who reported using contraceptive methods were older, as a result of their experience and higher level of information. while those boys who declare that they do not use contraceptives, are usually at the age of 18 years old. furthermore, the respondents were asked how well they were informed about the types of available contraceptives. from the results obtained, it can be noted that girls are informed about contraceptives, but only for specific types of them. only a handful of them are informed about all existing types of contraceptives. taking into consideration all of the above it can be noted that young girls are poorly informed about modern contraception, which in fact leads to their low usage. it is positive that the percentage of girls who do not know any of the existing types of contraceptive methods is low. when analyzing the answers, out of 200 respondents, 100 of them were informed with all types of contraceptives, 30 respondents did not know about the types of contraceptives and their purpose at all, while 70 of the respondents heard and were familiar with only some of them. this situation indicates a great risk to the possibility of adolescent pregnancy. considering that contraception is the primary protection against unwanted pregnancy, it is logical that the insufficient and inconsistent application of contraception, as well as the lack of information among young people about the available methods of contraception, is one of the main causes of adolescent pregnancies. 5. adolescents do not talk to their parents about their sexual health in the absence of integrated sexuality education for adolescents, the influence of parents is crucial in the prevention of adolescent pregnancy. but how many of the parents talk to their children and how many of the children feel free to entrust parents with such questions and problems? the research mentioned above, shows a negative picture of this relationship. the question asked of how many students were talking to their parents about sexual relations, possible pregnancy and protection from it, they answered negatively. out of 200 respondents, only 30 answered that they openly and frankly talk to their parents about the topic of sexual relations, 100 respondents that they never talked to their parents about it, while 70 respondents stated that they talk only sometimes, but rarely they talk with their parents. 32 the majority of the respondents said that they never talk about it with their parents, or they do it very rarely. only a small percentage of them said they were frankly discussing it with their parents. it is disastrous to conclude that young people (students that were part of this qualitative research) do not talk to their parents about sexual relations, protection and sexually transmitted diseases. the family has most important educational and socialization function. though, parent is the first person from whom the children learn about all the challenges they will face, and the first one who can notice all the changes in their children. but our results from the conducted research show that there is lack of communication about sexual and reproductive issues in the families. parents deliberately avoid this topic. perhaps, that is so because they are not sufficiently informed about it and how they should properly advise their children. or, simply do not know how to get close to their children and how to start the conversation. it is therefore important to undertake a series of measures through which the parent will become educated more about all aspects of sexual intercourse and complications in the same way, in order to help their children in an appropriate way and direct them to the right path, i.e. to indicate what is a sexual relationship, when there should be relationships, what are the consequences of those relationships, how to act on the prevention. because, if the parent sincerely and openly talks with the children, and if he knows how to get to know the children with the consequences that can occur, there will be no side effects. however, this situation indicates that insufficient communication and trust between parents and children is one of the reasons that can lead to unwanted pregnancy. improving this condition can act as a preventive measure in cases of pregnancy among adolescents. 6. conclusion unfortunately, today the problem of early motherhood is at the top of importance. one of the main reasons for teen pregnancy is that adolescents are not using contraception at all, or they are not using it constantly. the reason can be due to the lack of sexual education, at home or in schools. parents don’t have enough time, or they don’t feel comfortable to talk with their children about sexual education and to explain all the dangers of sexual life in adolescence period. in addition, sexual education in schools doesn’t exist at all or its not implemented well. according to statistics only from adolescents, more than 40% of children were born out of wedlock. about 10 thousand cases of young pregnancy are ended with abortion each year. pregnant teens represent 10-15% of the total number of pregnant women. and they are not just children from poor families. there are cases of early pregnancy in quite rich, well-off families. psychologists attribute this to the fact that teens often experience a lack of attention from parents or want to separate themselves from the crowd, to prove something to others, influence of the hormones, changing of emotions, insecurity etc. based on the previously conducted surveys and the wide range of the used existing literature on the use of contraceptives and methods in the republic of north macedonia, we can conclude that in our country these methods are used insufficiently. this can be due to low incomes (adolescents’ budget), price and availability of contraception, people's views, level of information, etc. regarding the price, although it does not seem to be the main reason that affects the use of contraceptives, it is still a decisive factor, especially for the young population, which in a large percentage is dependent on the financial resources of the parents. it is therefore considered best to have the simplest contraceptives such as condoms and oral contraception at a more accessible price. perhaps young people see the cost of contraception as one of the problems, but it is important to note that it is not an obstacle that cannot be solved. in addition, the fear of condemnation critically affects young people, and in that case, they choose not to protect themselves in sex, in return for not having to endure the condemning views of other people. the most important thing for young people is to get rid of taboos, and to become open and responsible for themselves and their health. the problem seems to be even more difficult and complex when it comes to the lack of contraceptives, or limited stock. it is therefore extremely difficult for young people to lead a healthy sex life. it is therefore considered important that they seek their sexual and reproductive rights. this would include access to contraceptives. these barriers are an obstacle on the way of the youth until they learn the process of application of contraceptives but still more research must be done according to more clear views. on the other hand, timely education and information that are adapted to the appropriate age is a key factor for young people to get to know how important it is to use contraceptives and contraceptives to become part of the everyday life of young people. through the conducted research we can conclude that it is positive that the percentage of young people who do not know any of the existing types of contraceptive methods is lower, which means that work is being done in the field of informing the young population to get acquainted with them, to see their advantages and disadvantages, and start to apply the methods more often. 33 the best way to overcome these barriers is when a relevant person advises young people and helps them in their choice. unfortunately, young people refuse to seek help on time, or simply do not feel comfortable during medical evaluation, so whenever there are some symptoms, they ignore them. however, on the other hand, through the obtained results, we can conclude that medical professionals do not pay enough attention to get close to young people with their advice and to direct them towards the right path when it comes to sexual intercourse and complications that can occur. these professionals are an extremely important segment of the sexual protection of young people, and that is the reason why it is necessary to work with them in several directions. this means that every expert should constantly improve in their area, to learn how to approach the young people, to give the young full counsel and encourage them to take care of their health constantly, etc., it is also important for parents to explain to their children what it means to have sexual relations, when to have sexual relations, what are the consequences, but the most important thing is to act on the prevention. however, it can notice that young people do not talk to their parents about sexual relations, protection, and sexually transmitted diseases. although the parent is the first person from whom the child learns about all the challenges that one will face, and the first one who can notice all the changes in one’s child, however, when it comes to the topic of contraception, we can conclude that parents or deliberately avoid this topic because they are not sufficiently informed how to properly advise their children, or simply do not know how to get close and start talking to them on this topic. it is therefore important that a series of measures should be taken, through which parents will be educated more about all aspects of sexual intercourse. because if the parent sincerely and openly talks with the children, and if the parent knows how to get to know them with the consequences that can occur, there will be no side effects. regarding the obtained results, we also see the need of additional education for the young population. this education is needed for both parents and children and can be part of family education. sexual and reproductive education can take part like separate curricula in the primary and high schools in order to increase the percentage of use of contraceptives. special courses for parents can be conduct like a short-term workshops or trainings, teaching parent’s communication skills, better approach and how to deal with their kid’s problems. all these aspects represent an unbreakable link from the process of sexual health protection to adolescent pregnancy and its consequences. raising awareness of the importance of sexual and reproductive health as well as improving these areas can help young people in our society be prepared for their era of healthy everyday life and to enter the world of parenting physically and mentally mature individuals. it affects this fact and is often an unfavorable family atmosphere. deprived of domestic warmth, teenagers are often looking for attention, care and affection on the side. according to statistics, a large percentage of such situations occur in our country, because there is a great opportunity for obtaining financial benefits after delivery. based on the above mentioned, we can conclude that adolescent pregnancy and its consequences are an urgent problem for our country. it is therefore very important to pay due attention to your children and parents not to hesitate, first to express the consequences and complications of conceiving the child as an adolescent. references 1. radulovic, m. (2018). zdravjeto kako parvo zdravjeto kako obvrska: kultura 2. tulchinsky, t., & varavikova, e. (2014). the new public health: academic press 3. united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization. (2018). international technical guidance on sexuality education. retrieved from: https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/itg se_en.pdf 4. world health organisation. (2004). adolescent pregnancy-issues in adolescent health and development. retrieved from: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42903/924 1591455_eng.pdf;jsessionid=2417ccc4a6920fe5485c3 9ecbdd30659?sequence=1 5. united nations population fund. (2018). adolescent pregnancy-overview. retrieved from: https://www.unfpa.org/adolescent-pregnancy 6. mayor, s. (2004). pregnancy and childbirth are leading causes of death among teenage girls in developing countries. bmj. 328 (7449): 1152. doi: 10.1136 / bmj.328.7449.1152-a. retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc411126/ 7. lotto, o., & ezeci, oc. (2004). poor obstetric performance of teenagers is it ageor quality of care-related. journal of obstetrics and gynecology. 24 (4): p. 395-398 8. bbc. (2014). young mothers face stigma and abuse say charities. retrieved from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/article/26326035/youngmothers-face-stigma-and-abuse-say-charities 34 9. stepp, g. (2009) teen pregnancy: vision.org. retrieved from: https://www.vision.org/familyrelationships-teen-pregnancy-causes-effects-challenges907 10. 11. unicef. (2001). a league table of teenage births in rich nation. retrieved from: https://www.unicefirc.org/publications/328-a-league-table-of-teenage-birthsin-rich-nations.html 12. hera. (2018). seksualno obrazovanie vo evropa i centralna azija: republika makedonija. retrieved from: https://hera.org.mk/bzga-izveshtaj-za-sso-vo-evropa-cazija/ 13. hera. (2017). mgunaroden den na kontracepcija 2017.retrieved from: http://skopjeinfo.mk/mladite-baraatbesplatni-kondomi 1 the effects of political parities on women's organization m.a. dilshad sabri ali university of soran, faculty of arts, department of sociology, dilshad.ali@soran.edu.iq article history: accepted 30 october2019 available online 31 april 2020 keywords: women’s organizations, political parties, radical feminist, liberal feminist. a b s t r a c t the aim of this research is to analyze statistics to understand the effect of political parties on women organizations and the obstacles they create for these organizations as they work for gaining their members’ rights. in the research, the quantitative method was used for collecting data, using a questioner. the research participants were chosen through snowball sampling in erbil governorate. the size of the sampling was 195 persons that their level of education was different. for analyzing the collected data spss software was used. the findings show that politics to a very low extent were obstacles for women’s organization and thus these organizations were unable to effectively operate in obtaining their members’ rights. the results also show that women themselves were unable to play an effective role for gaining their rights. in addition, the findings show that not having their own sources of finance makes women’s organizations depend on political parties. 1. introduction generally, several civil organizations and groups are founded in every community; these groups are usually established by a group of people in order to serve and provide aids to their members in gaining their rights (muhseni, 2002: 194). this viewpoint can also imply for women organizations or the feminist organizations as organizations that aim to achieve rights of equality in the roles and responsibilities between women and men either inside and outside the family. thus, it can be phrased that women organizations strive for achieving equal rights to those of men. abdul (2011) believes that women organizations have become a means for raising the level of public awareness about women’s rights since before such organizations were born and were not entitled to any obvious right or decision in the different political, cultural and socioeconomic aspects in their daily lives in comparison to men. with the appearance of these organizations, they concentrated all their efforts for achieving women’s rights, changing the society and eradicating every type of oppression such as gender discriminations that are noticed in the society’s roles and responsibilities (salih, 2005: 22). therefore, it can be stated that feminism emphasized that women throughout history have been subjected to oppression and violence in the patriarchal societies, for example, such as inequalities in the rights of expression, working markets, political roles and even in marriage choices between women and men (abott et all., 2006: 32). inside kurdish society (including the iraqi kurdistan region), these organizations have come to existence more regularly or systematically following the establishment of the kurdistan regional government in 1991, even though several organizations and individual women already had been striving for the achievement of women’s rights. in this regard, qadir states that several organizations have been founded after the 1991, up-rising to advocate the rights of women. however, qadir believes that without the political parties’ support, particularly in terms of financial supports, these organizations would have not been able to settle a single minor problem for women (2009: 48). based on this perspective, it can be stated that women organizations in the kurdish society are not independent economically, culturally, socially and so far. consequently, this dependency of the organizations creates a challenge ahead of securing their rights as well as the decisions that are to be made within the frame of the political parties, not in favor of for women themselves. through this point of view, it can be noted that women organizations in all societies in general and in the traditional societies in particular have faced several challenges in acquiring their rights equal to that of men. the most noticeable challenge referred to in this research is the impact of mailto:dilshad.ali@soran.edu.iq https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7145-4622 2 the political parties or the politicization of women organizations, especially by men because most of the authorities of the communities, especially in the traditional communities, are in hands of men and these authorities are exploited by the men for their benefits socially and politically. 1.1 research problem feminism as a social movement strives for achieving women’s rights and these strives could be through some institutions such as women organizations. therefore, in the communities, especially the communities with cultural patriarchal superiority, most of the social or political authorities remain under the power of men; this leads them to use most of the rights and responsibilities for their own benefits and to impose impact on the women, especially in making political decisions since the men deem women as compliant personalities committed to fulfil men’s orders and decisions. as a result, women in the patriarchal communities cannot develop their abilities or take part in running the community’s affairs the same as men, because women’s deviations from any of the society’s traditions will negatively impact them and they will become victims of the beliefs the women organizations work for. consequently, women in such communities forcefully choose silence because, otherwise, they will be subject to risks and often fall victim because of their efforts for achieving their rights in the community (hassan, 2010: 41). following the up-rise in 1991 when the political parties founded the kurdistan regional government, it did not last long when a civil war broke out between the two politically dominant parties of the kurdistan region. this left effects on the whole components and institutions of the community. one of these components was that women organizations; too, divided on the region’s political parties. in other words, women organizations were enrolled under the umbrella of the political parties, causing them to totally lose their independency and become a part of the dominant patriarchal culture as these political parties have been run under influence of men. this patriarchal dominance has spread its ideology among the political parties completely, thus bringing women organizations under its control and its manly thinking. it is obvious that the rights of women are limited in patriarchal communities and even these rights are determined by men. this has clearly reflected in the kurdistan region’s women’s organizations. also, qadir believes that in traditional and patriarchal communities, of which the kurdistan region can be an example, women’s organizations fall under the influence of the political parties. in other words, these organizations make integral parts of the political parties run by men. (2009: 48). 1.2 research question • to what extent do political parties hinder women’s organizations from achieving their rights? 1.3 hypothesis of the research there is an important statistical connection between literacy and affiliation to political parties as a challenge in front of women’s organizations in achieving their rights. 1.4 aim of the research the aim of the researcher is to know about the factors and challenges ahead of women’s organizations in their efforts for achieving rights equal with men in daily life roles and responsibilities, such as the obstacle of the political parties in the kurdistan region. 2. literature review 2.1 the background of the feminist movement the essential goal of a feminist organization or a women’s organization is to guarantee civil rights such as removing the obstacles for getting married, education, participation in the work market and in the politics in the community (beasley, 2005: 30). the feminist organizations’ goal is to defend the aforesaid rights for feminism itself. this is an outcome of the differentiations and discriminations witnessed in the different communities; and their essential goal is to insure gender equality between women and men; in other words, women and men culturally are entitled the same rights. though the concept of feminism does not have a long history in the kurdistan region, it has appeared just after 1991, but it dates very long in the western communities. thus, salih thinks this concept sources from the latin word of femina which means “women” (2005: 22). readings of the feminism concept by the counters or the anti-women movements which support conservative concepts of which patriarchy is an element probably is more toward underestimating feminist organizations as they see the feminist organizations threatening the social stability. but in fact, as referred by some references, feminism is meant by the achievement of women’s rights in roles and responsibilities scientifically and equally with men (beasley, 2005). before the establishment of these organizations, particularly in communities as the kurdistan region where patriarchy is dominant, such rights including participations in business and political activities, freedom of expression, etc. are deprived from women to a large extent because of the norms and traditions of the communities where men impose their wills. it is worth mentioning, women’s organizations in such circumstances cannot freely claim their rights as they would face repression and violence once their claims contradicting the will of the political party supporting 3 them or whenever contradicting the kurdish community norms and traditions (qadir, 2009: 62-63). but following the appearance of the feminist movement in the form of organizations, this point of view also changed a great deal as these organizations exerted efforts for raising the awareness of women to defend their rights, to release themselves from under the influence of the political parties in which men are mostly dominant and to dedicate in favor of the women. however, hassan (2010: 24) says whenever women have their own opinions and work for the benefit of their interests, they would face several challenges especially from the political parties. for the same reason, whenever the role of women’s organizations are discussed, most of those who hold opposing interests think that these organizations harm the harmony of the community. in this regard, the feminist suzan antony says: “women will be beheaded if they do not obey men.” she means that if the women express themselves in a way opposing the will of men or beyond the limits determined for them, then they will be silenced and abstracted from power. as it was in the middle age western communities, the women who would claim their rights beyond the common social values and norms, they would have been called as seditious or witches and subjected to the execution of burning by the church authorities (mahmood, 2018). hence, it can be stated that throughout the history whenever women’s organizations have tried to prove that women’s abilities can be invested in the society the same as men, they would have been opposed by the opposing gender. also, it is noticed that the political parties that are mostly run by men direct women’s organizations in favor of their own interests and of their political parties. in another side, salih (2005: 43) believes that the kurdish feminist movements at the current time are inactive movements with no self-determination because if they were under the influence of men in the past, now they are subordinated by the thinking of the political parties and the rulers. 2.2 the political parties and women organizations the impacts of political parties on women’s organizations involve women’s organizations within political parties is a complicated and widespread process involving many of the organizations, groups and centers. women’s organizations can be referred to as an example of being subject to the wave of enrolling them within the political parties especially in the traditional societies. therefore, these organizations cannot manage their affairs regularly and independently, because they are not allowed by the political parties to help women if not in the interest of the party itself. therefore, it can be stated that involvement in the political parties is one of the challenges in front of these organizations, disabling them to defend the rights of their women members. also, salih thinks that the political parties in the kurdistan region have not allowed these organizations to undertake their duties independently and freely because they classify the interests of women within the interests of the political parties and leaders. however, the women’s organizations, because of their loyalty to their subordinator political parties in which the will of men is dominant, have disappointed women in achieving their rights. at first, they started with the slogan that they will work for the benefit of women and for achieving their rights from men, but this turned otherwise (salih, 2005). it might be normal for any political party to have a subordinated women’s organization the same as it is in most of the communities and the same as the political parties in the advanced western countries. at the same time, women do not much commit to the will of their parties since they adhere their own policies and work according to their own interests. though there are women’s organizations in the kurdistan region, yet they act according to the will and program of their political parties; this is because of the few numbers of women in the decision-making positions and consequently the women cannot have noticeable influence and make decisions in favor of women themselves (siddiq, 2005). still, sometimes women themselves can make challenges ahead of these women’s organizations in achieving their rights because of the lesser number of women in comparison to men in the activities of the organizations in the kurdistan region. also, this low rate of women in the political parties and in their activities probably is because of the reticence of the culture and tradition in the kurdistan region since the kurdish culture in a great extent is a patriarch culture that does not allow much opportunities to oppose gender to activate in equal levels. furthermore, siddiq believes that these organizations subordinated to the political parties cannot equally achieve women’s rights, especially in the right of developing a comprehensive program for their own; in another word, they cannot draft their own policies without the interference of men in the political parties (2005: 12). the radical feminists believes that if the patriarch authority collapses in the communities, then women and men can play equal roles in their daily lives. this is because they think that the reason of suppressing women and not allowing them fair and equal opportunities returns to the influence of men in the patriarchal communities (abbott et al., 2006: 35). according to this opinion, in the traditional communities, particularly in the kurdistan region and more particularly in the dominant political parties, the rate of the women’s presence must be equal or even higher than men in order not to allow this absolute authority in the hands of men who often position women 4 under influence of the opposite gender or being oppressed. in another word, this is a must for the vital decisions not only to be made by men under the excuse of political and social interests, but equally be in favor of both genders. thus, women will not be deemed as a week creature by the opposite gender. meanwhile, the liberal feminists believe that reforms must be comprehensively done in all aspects of the community including the legal, social and educational aspects so as equally is fully achieved among the community members and the whole aspects of the community are run equally by women and men (abbott et al., 2006: 32). based on this point of view, this reform is implemented in the community and particularly inside the political parties, then women in general and the women organizations in particular will be able to freely and independently manage their affairs and gain their rights. 3. methodology 3.1 quantitative method for any research, more than one research method can be used. weaknesses and strengths of the methods must be estimated prior in identifying the method appropriate for the research, which the researcher intends to produce. the method used in this research is the quantitative method which is specialized for working based on numbers, tables and images for presenting the research results and for showing their relations with the assumption. through quantitative method, questionnaire tools can be used for collecting the data needed by the researchers for conducting the research (bryman, 2012). the reason behind choosing this method by the researchers returns in one hand to the importance of the study subject and in the other hand it has been attempted to investigate the subject in a value’s quantitative way for the purpose of gaining accurate information. in term of place, the community subject of this research is erbil province and the number of research participants in this study are 195 respondents. 3.2 type of the research sampling in this research, snowball sampling has been used through which the researcher attempts to find the required number of the research participants. as the researcher does not have access to a list of the participants and they cannot be found randomly, this sampling is regarded as non-random (kumar, 2011: 208). in the first hand, the researcher collects information from a small number of participants whom he thinks have knowledge about the subject of the research. then, the participants are asked to introduce more participants on the same subject. it means that the first wave of the participants will lead to a larger number of participants. the researcher, then, will find the participants guided by the previous participants to ask them the same questions and thus introduced to the required number of the participants (omer, 2011:242). 3.3 data collection for obtaining data in this research, the researcher has depended on using questionnaires for which direct meetings are held with the research participants. after gaining the participating samples’ consent for meeting and after explaining the purpose of the research to the participants, the questionnaire was distributed on them as they were volunteer participants. the researcher then has collected the questionnaire forms that have been filled by the participants. the answered and received questionnaires were 195 forms. the questionnaires have been reviewed for making sure about that they answered properly and no questions were missed, and also they have been numbered. after checking the questions one by one, the answers were entered into the spss program for the purpose of analyzing the gained information. spss is a statistics software for quantitative data and the research results are shown in numbers, tables and images (landanu and everitt, 2004). the reason behind using questionnaire tools in this research returns to some advantages such as time and financial efficiency among the methods used for collecting the information, the swiftness of collecting the information and also it is easy for analyzing the similarities and the differences between the outcome variables (bryman, 2012). 3.4 ethical issue in a field research, the researcher must consider a number of issues. for this research, the researcher has tried to gain consent of the participants to voluntarily become research participants and to distribute and receive back the questionnaire in the appropriate time so as not to waste their times. also, the research participants have been assured that the given information will be kept by the researcher until they are used for the research; afterwards the information will be destroyed. opportunity has been given to the participants, if required, to give borrowed private information about themselves if they expect negative impact on their personality. also, it has been tried not to address sensitive questions in the questionnaire in order to avoid leaving negative effects on the participant’s personality, position and thinking while taking part in this study. 4. findings and discussions this research attempts to conduct an analysis about the influence of political parties on women’s organizations as the research samples consist of (195) people from different levels of literacy/education. 5 figure 1. explanation of literacy levels image 1: shows the literacy levels of the research samples which consist of (195) people. a rate of 37.95% are with higher education level, a rate of 34.36% are with high school educational level while intermediate level makes 16.92% and primary level makes 10.77% of the whole samples. the image clarifies that the literacy and education levels of the participants are different. table 1. relations between education levels and the reasons behind failure of achieving women’s rights by the women’s organizations. the main goal of the women’s organizations is to insure the women’s rights and achievement of equality in rights and responsibilities between women and men. henceforward, qadir (2009) thinks that women and organizations defending the women’s rights face persecution whenever they strive for achieving their rights independently and in contrast to the will of the political parties and against the patriarchal norms of the community. as noticed, the participants of this research are from different levels of literacy and education, the levels of primary, intermediate, high school and higher education. nearly 52% of the participants think that patriarchy hinders the achievement of women’s rights. the answers of those who think that it is because of women themselves who cannot play an effective role in the community make a rate of 32% of the total. however, no obvious difference of the answers of the participants of different literacy levels is noticed in regard whether the involvements within the political parties challenge the achievement of women’s rights; their answers make a rate of 20% which is the lowest rate. in this regard, salih (2005) believes that the political parties have not allowed women parties to act independently and away from the parties’ interests. meanwhile, the research participants’ answers mark that political parties have the least effect in hindering the achievement of women’s rights. here, we conclude that the members and supporters who work in these organizations have the same thinking as the thinking and policies of the political parties. the noticeable answers of the research participants in regard of the hindrance of patriarchy ahead of the achievement of women rights by the women organizations makes the highest rate of the answers. this is similar to the thinking of the radical feminists who think that vanishing or weakening patriarchy in the community will become a factor for the accomplishment of balance between women and men in the community; and thus, this will mitigate the possibilities of persecuting women or negatively influencing them. in another side, according to this viewpoint, with the vanishing or weakening of the patriarchal influence, women organizations will be able to act more freely in running their affairs and in achieving the rights of their members since almost the whole part of life in the traditional communities are controlled by the political parties with mostly men dominance. here it becomes clear that the p-value makes (.921) which is more than the expected rate which is (0.05) and also the assumption of none-existence is rejected. in another word, there is no statistical relation between the two variables. see table no. (1) for more information. table 2. relation between literacy levels and decision-making by the organizations as beasley (2005) puts it, the prior goal of women’s organizations emphasize the achievement of the civil rights and removing challenges in front of women’s life areas such as marriage, education, participation in business, and in political life. accordingly, women’s organizations must make decisions in favor of their members. hence, this research asks the participants whether to and what party their decision-making is relevant to. as it is known, the participant samples have different levels of education and their opinions are close to each other. more than 60% think that their organizations make decisions in favor of women’s interests. according to the participants’ answers, which 6 makes the majority, they believe that women’s organizations in the kurdistan region issue decisions in the interest of their members, not in the interest of the political parties. those who answered with that the women’s organizations make decisions in the interest of the political parties which they are affiliated with make nearly 20% of the total answers. this matches with the viewpoint of salih (2005) who thinks that women’s organizations have become followers of the thoughts and mentality of the rulers, and particularly the political parties. even though, this contracts the opinion of the majority who think that women’s organizations act and make decisions in favor of their members. it can be concluded that except for some people in this research like salih who think that women’s organizations have become annexes to the political parties and they cannot significantly act without the will of their political parties, yet the majority of the research participants from the different levels of education have shown the contrary. accordingly, it shows that the women organizations to a good extent have been able to defend the rights of women and make decisions in favor of women. as a result, it can be cleared that the p-value equals (.285) which is higher than the standard level of (0.05); here the assumption of absence is rejected. in another word, there is no statistical relation between the two variables. look at table no. (2) for more information. table 3. the relation between literacy level and lack of independent financial sources as a reason for dependency of women’s organizations on the political parties. sometimes, decision-making by women’s organizations in favor of their members would be challenged because of their dependency on the political parties, especially financial dependency. in this regard, siddiq (2005) and qadir (2009) think that when the organizations follow the decisions of their political parties, then they would not be able to develop a special program for their own in the benefit of themselves and of their members because, as one of the reasons, they financially are dependent on the political parties. to a question whether lack of financial sources for the women’s organizations is a reason for their dependency on the political parties, as shown in table no. (3), the research respondents from the different levels of education have answered by nearly 60% that financial sources to an extent is a reason for their dependency on the political parties. nearly 14% think that financial sources are not a reason for their dependency on the political parties. however, the respondents who answered in (yes) from all education levels make nearly 26%. this shows that the rate of those who think that lack of financial sources is a reason for women’s organizations dependency on politics is more than those who replied by (no) and do not think it as a reason. as a result of the answers of research participants from the different levels of education it can be figured out that if the women’s organizations are dependent on the parties, it is because of lack of independent financial sources. these answers are similar to the opinion of the previous references which state that if the financial sources of the women’s organizations are cut by the political parties, the organizations will not be able to conduct any activities for the benefit of the organization or their members. in the traditional communities where most of the decisions and authorities are in the hands of men, financing is always used as a means for subordinating and exploiting the opposite gender. as a result, it can be cleared that the p-value equals (.160) which is higher than the standard level of (0.05); here the assumption of absence is rejected. in another word, there is no statistical relation between the two variables. look at table no. (3) for more information. table 4. the relation between literacy levels and shortening by women organizations in attaining women rights because of their role in the political parties. as beasley (2005) puts it, the prior goal of the women’s organizations emphasizes on the achievement of the civil rights and removing the challenges in front of the women’s life areas such as removing marriage challenges, education, and participation in business and in political life. through looking at answers of the research participants about the question whether the women’s organizations disregard defending the right of women, nearly a rate of 30% have answered with (no) thinking that the women’s organizations have not neglected their responsibilities in defending the right of women. meanwhile, 7 those who have answered by (yes) make about 18% and they think that the women’s organizations have disregarded their responsibilities in defending the rights of women because of the political parties. this is like the opinion of siddiq (2005); despite that there are women’s organizations in the kurdistan region, they act according to the needs and programs of the political parties and their programs are developed by the parties. however those who have answered by (to an extent) make more than 50%; they make the highest rate among the respondents. this shows that the duties of the political parties are also a factor for the women’s organizations not to fulfil their responsibilities in the interest of their members and women in general because the interests of their political parties come prior the interests of women. as mentioned in the previous references of this research, if the women’s organizations and women in general act in a way opposite to the interests of the political parties, they will face more problems and challenges in their daily life. as a result, it can be cleared that the p-value equals (.009) which is higher than the standard level of (0.05); here the assumption of absence is rejected. in another word, there is no statistical relation between the two variables. look at table no. (4) for more information. 5. conclusion women’s organizations as official organizations have come to existence in the kurdistan region following 1991. these organizations have worked either under the influence of the political parties or independently. therefore, this research attempts to clarify the influence of the political parties on women’s organizations. involvement of the women’s organizations within the political parties makes hinderances ahead of the organizations in achieving the rights of women. the research participant who answered the questionnaire are 195 people of different levels of literacy/education. the results of the research show that the political parties in a low rate leave influence on the women’s organizations in the kurdistan region. however, a major rate of the respondents’ answers return the failure in the achievement of the rights of women by the women’s organizations to patriarchy, which hinders attaining their rights. the results of this research show that the answers of the participants are to an extent similar to the opinion of the aforementioned references as they think that the women’s organizations are dependent on the political parties because of the lack of financial sources. however, in reply to the question whether the women’s organizations in making decisions what aspects do they consider, the majority of the research participants think that the women’s organizations make decisions in favor of women, not only in the interest of the political parties. the results of this research shows that women’s organizations to a fair extent cannot firmly and independently manage their responsibilities for defending the rights of their members because the political parties politically or financially influence these organizations. references 1. abbott, p. wallace, c. tyler, m., (2005), “an introduction to sociology, feminist perspectives”, london and new york: routledge, 3rd edition. 2. abdul, s. (2011), “feminism movement” idea magazine, no. 26 pg 153-158. 3. beasley, c., (2005), “gender & sexuality critical theory, critical thinkers” london and new delhi: sage. 4. bryman, a., (2012), “social research methods”, oxford: oxford university press, 4th edition. 5. hassan, n., (2010), “me and you are equal”, erbil: erbil publication. 6. kumar, r., (2011), “research methodology, a step by step guide for beginner”, los angeles: sage, 3rd edition. 7. landanu, s. and everitt, b., (2004), “a handbook of statistical analyses using spss”, chapman & hall/crc press llc: boca raton. 8. mahmood, h., (2018), a brief meaning of historical violence-based on gender. [online]. “culture magazine” availabe from: http://cultureproject.org.uk/kurdish/genderhouzan-mahmud/ [accessed 05th may 2019]. 9. muhseni, m., (2002), “introduction to sociology”, translated by swayli, r., erbil: mokeryani publication. 10. omer, m., (2011), “research methods of sociology”, translated by rahman, z., erbil: rojhalat publication. 11. qadir, s., (2009), “the problem of woman in the long history”, erbil: rojhalat publication. 12. salih. k., (2005), “cognitive feminism and kurdish society”, erbil: aras publication. 13. siddiq, a., (2005), “woman issues and in the new millennium”, sulaimaniya: ganj publication. 77 how does mass immigration transform the destination societies? dilshad sabri ali, msc universit of soran, faculty of arts, dilshad.ali@soc.soran.edu.krd article history: accepted 01 august 2019 available online 31 december 2019 keywords: mass immigration 11th september national identity globalization content analysis a b s t r a c t the phenomenon of mass migration is explained thoroughly in this paper. it explains how easy global transportation by air and sea in a technological advanced world has made mass migration much easier. mass migration has also been made easier by globalization in that borders and boundaries between countries are being eliminated. mass migration is explained in the sense that it takes into account the immigrants effect on destination countries such as the european union, the united states of america, and also canada. it takes into account how destination countries integrate and absorb these migrants within their economic sectors. it also takes into account how global security has been threatened by mass immigration. this paper also explains how national identity is being maintained in destination countries as mass migration influences the culture and beliefs of a country. the content analysis as methodology was used to discover the issue in this article. introduction over the last few decades mass immigration has become a reality for large parts of the world, particularly in western developed societies. it is argued that mass immigration has created several advantages for host nations. however, at the same time it has also brought considerable difficulties for destination societies. the concept of international migration is defined by the united nations, “as a person who stays outside their usual country of residence for at least one year, which is called an international migrant” (koser, 2007: 4). this definition of international migration will be used as the main point in this article for discussing mass immigration. according to this definition the number of migrations, particularly international migration has increased worldwide, especially in industrialized countries during the second half of the 20th century. it is expected that by 2050 the number of immigrants who live in the western world will increase by approximately 30% (ivlevs and king, 2012: 118). the number of people who live in another country in 2005 was estimated to be 200 million, which at the time was approximately 3% of the world’s population. this is despite increased attempts by several developed countries to restrict immigration in their societies. this is virtually equivalent to the fifth most populous country in the world, brazil. in addition, if this rate of immigration is compared to 1960, it has increased by over twice the amount (polgreen and simpson, 2011: 819; koser, 2007: 4). recently, the voices of several critics of mass immigration can be heard in a number of destination societies. these critics claim that international migration causes several disadvantages for destination societies, for instance, economic recession, unemployment, pressure on health care and the benefits system, and questions with regards to national identity are some of the issues raised. in this essay, the role of globalization in the process of migration in industrialized countries in recent decades will be pointed out. in addition, it will briefly look into the history of migration in western developed societies. further to this, the main objective of the article is to show how mass immigration can transform destination countries. this will be the core part of the essay. the various debates about mass immigration in destination societies will be explored and evaluated. there are many arguments that illustrate which globalization plays a significant role in increasing the number of international immigrants across the world. many social scientists, principally sociologists emphasize the connection between globalization and an increasing international migration to developed societies in 78 recent decades. people can move from one country to another more readily than in the past because of well-developed transportation systems, relatively safer and inexpensive travel and improved communication technologies such as the internet and mobile telecommunications (doyle, 2004: 1). supporters of the migration claim that the world has become a global village and that globalization is a way to accelerate integration and interconnectedness in all dimensions of contemporary social life such as the economy, cultures, national identities and security (held et al., 1999:2; heywood, 2011: 11). 1. methodology this research utilized content analysis in qualitative research to illustrate the range of meanings of phenomena mass migration. the flexibility of utilizing deductive or inductive procedures or a mixture of both approaches in data analysis which is a characteristic of qualitative content analysis. qualitative content analysis allows researchers to interpretation of texts and documents to understand social reality in a subjective, yet scientific way. in another word, the content analysis of qualitative method depends on interpretation and reading texts by researchers (bryman, 2012: 289). 2. a literature review of the history of migration there are different views, which might be utilized to consider international migration. migration has long and important place in history for humankind. it is impossible to illustrate the whole history of international migration in this essay. the history of migration began around 5000bc, when some people separated from the african continent into european countries, and then into other continents (koser, 2007: 1). in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, approximately 12 million people migrated from poorer african countries through slavery to western industrialized societies. subsequently, a period of increased international migration occurred after world war ii. the western developed societies needed to maintain economic growth after the war, as a result, large numbers of north africans immigrated to belgium, france, and turkish workers were employed in germany. most recently in the 1970s and 1990s international migrants increased in industrialized societies such as european countries and the usa (koser, 2007). as mentioned above, globalization has played a considerable role in increasing the number of migrants around the world, especially in western developed states after the second world war (castles and miller, 2009). for example, reports illustrate that at the beginning of this millennium the figures for international migration were increasing and becoming a complication for destination societies. it was stated that approximately 1 in 4 inhabitants in western developed countries such as the usa, switzerland, australia, germany, sweden, canada and new zealand were foreign born. the great number and various origins of international migrants remarkably challenge long held concepts of citizenship within nation-state boundaries (bloemraad, et al., 2008: 154). this increase is not restricted to countries such as australia, the usa or canada, which are called the ‘classic immigration states’. for instance, in western states the ratio of foreign populations is expected to increase to 30% by 2050. thus, it could be argued that such a rapid increase in population may create sizable ethnic minority groups, who remain isolated from their host nations, causing both negative and positive emotions. the negative emotions may emerge because immigrants sometimes create exploitable social instability as they clash with traditional social structures, notions of nationhood, and culture. the positive emotions that appear might be due to immigrants integrating into the employment sector, economic progress and international cooperation (ivlevs and king, 2012: 118). consequently, mass migration has been considered and studied by social scientists, especially sociologists in destination societies from a socioeconomic and social-cultural concept. in addition, international migration has become a considerable issue for destination societies as a threat to security, national identity, especially after the horrific events of 9/11 in new york and 7/7 london (tanrisever, 2007:238; ceccorulli, 2009: 10). some opponents of migration argue that the problems such as economic recession, security and fading national identity are related to and frequently caused by immigrants in destination countries. whilst, advocates of migration refute these arguments and claim that migration has more benefits than detrimental effects on the host countries. 3. the economy and labor market the concerns with respect to the effects of mass immigration on destination societies are one of the most significant contemporary debates. the number of immigrants who are living in developed societies are increasing and at the same time that several of these countries are encountering enormous structural shifts in their labour markets and economies (koser, 2007: 90). it is impossible to ignore the role that globalization is having on developed societies. the changing dimensions in these destination societies, it is argued has negative effects from the perspective of proponents of anti-migration and cultural diversity. from the perspective of advocates of immigration, migration has positive impacts on destination countries by bringing a varied and skilled work force, hard working employees, the opportunity to learn 79 about and experience diverse cultures for the host nations, and furthermore, some people state they bring a return to traditional family values that developed countries are gradually losing. a significant focus for debate in destination societies on mass immigration has recently been the labour market and economy. according to economic theory, migrants decide to migrate having compared their situation in their homeland to life in more developed countries (sjaatad, 1962 cited in polgreen and simpson, 2011: 820). if the destination country’s conditions, especially economic conditions are better than the person’s place of origin, then individuals will decide to move to a host country (ibid). the main factors in increasing numbers in international migration are the economic issues and economic growth in developed countries. however, these days developed countries are placing more restrictions on the free movement of people, especially immigration from parts of the world such as africa, asia and the sub-continent. this is due to increased unrest from some of their citizens to what they see as ‘foreigners’ taking jobs, housing, benefit, and gaining free access to health care. according to standard economic theory, free movement of immigration across borders demonstrates limited evidence of the advantages of immigration due to the economic expense, and the effects of immigrants on welfare and social costs, whilst paying fewer taxes (orcalli, 2007: 1). opponents of migration argue that immigration has a remarkable negative influence on labour markets in destination countries. according to schmidt et al. (1994) immigrants would compete with unskilled domestic labour, in order to obtain the restricted number of occupations, which are available. this causes a decrease in the wages of unskilled workers and can increase social turmoil and raise hostility in destination societies. schmidt et al., asserts that immigration may threaten the economy, the system of unemployment insurance and the welfare system, which is provided in developed countries (1994: 186). in contrast, hijzen and wright (2010) both illustrate that a rise in the rate of unskilled immigrants has a very small negative effect on unskilled domestic employees wages, and that there is even no notable effect on skilled domestic workers (hijzen and wright, 2010:1192). furthermore, there is a global agreement amongst economists, in extensive terms, which states that the economic effect of immigrants on a destination society is affirmative (steiner, 2009: 43). recently, the economic increase in several developed countries has been related to the positive effect of mass migration. for example, around a quarter percent of labourers in the usa are immigrants. according to the president’s council of economic advisers, “on average, u.s. natives benefit from immigration. immigrants tend to complement (not substitute for) natives, raising natives’ productivity and income. careful studies of the long-run fiscal effects of immigration concluded that it is likely to have a modest, positive influence”. an example of the positive benefits can be seen in the remarkable growth of singapore’s economy in recent decades because of immigrant labourers. immigrant workers make up one of third singapore’s population (steiner, 2009: 43). the increase in the economy in both the us and singapore is a positive example of immigration for proimmigration supporters to critics of mass immigration. despite both these positive examples about immigrants in the usa and singapore, the indigenous people might not like to live with migrants in a society, particularly when they realize their job opportunities are being negatively impacted upon (damelang and haas, 2012: 367). whilst, supporters of immigration claim that if immigrants have negative effects on societies, then why do developed countries receive these migrants? as steiner (2009) highlighted, canada attempted to attract high-skilled workers into its labour market, and roughly 59% of the immigrants were from a high-skilled and business background (steiner, 2009: 14). these types of immigrants can contribute to economic growth and investment in developed societies. critics claim that the large numbers of people who immigrate to developed countries are unskilled and from poor societies such as asia and africa. these critics demand that authorities should control borders, in order to decrease the number of immigrants and increase domestic employment (basu, 2009: 878). supporters of immigration in destination societies refer to an example of those who claim that most immigrants are unskilled, cause unemployment to rise, and place pressure on the economy. according to the usa’s census report in 1990, around 63% of people who immigrated to the usa had the minimum of a high school degree. moreover, approximately 21% of all migrants had a college or a further degree (papademetriou, 1997: 20). as altschuler (2013) emphasized in her article, migration can be positive for host societies due to its highly professional background, which can complement local people in all sectors of society (2013: 549). for example, according to a research in 2008, in the usa, the rate of patents designed by immigrants is actually higher than the indigenous population. these patents produce benefits because of the higher average share of different degrees among skilled immigrants (niebuhr, 2010: 564). however, antiimmigration proponents argue that enabling a large number of immigrants of different skills, especially the highly-skilled to enter into industrialized societies leads to a rise in negative influences on the high-skilled residents in all sectors. for 80 instance, a report by the oecd 2007 illustrates that 11% of nurses and 18% doctors employed in oecd countries were foreign born around 2000 (castles and miller, 2009: 64). this is an example, which can be used to illustrate that immigrants have a negative impact and are likely to take jobs from the local population. as opponents of immigration claim that migrants gradually take hold of all sectors, especially the economic and labour markets in destination countries. whilst, others claim that immigrants can share their knowledge with native residents, create new opportunities for work and intellectual property, and boost the economy in host countries (steiner, 2009:44). 4. security and mass immigration globalization has had an extremely important role in introducing different people and cultures to each other across the world. it can be argued that gathering them together in places creates cultural diversity in destination communities. it can also be debated that globalization has had some negative influences on western societies such as contributing to conflict between majority and minority groups, in terms of religion and security. there have been millions of immigrants from asia, latin america and africa into destination societies in the more developed western world, and this can bring a lack of integration into these societies, especially after the well-known terrorist attack on the twin towers in new york in 2001 and also the london bombings in 2005 (castles and miller, 2009: 3). there are several arguments that countries have rights of control to prevent immigrants from crossing their borders because of the threat to public security, rising crime and terrorism, and social disorder (seglow, 2005: 319). recently, mass immigration and security have become the top place on the policy agenda in destination societies especially in the western world. the critic’s voice against migration is increasing. they are demanding governments’ change the migration policy because immigrants are a threat to public security and stability in society (ceccorulli, 2009: 1). it can be noted that politicians and the media play contribute in spreading xenophobia in western communities and claim that migrants are associated with terrorist groups from outside countries such as the al-qaeda. this was due to reports, which documented that a number of immigrants who support islamic extremism were found to have had links with terrorist groups in afghanistan and pakistan (castles & miller, 2009: 4). after the attacks of women during the 11th september in 2001 and the 7th of july 2005 several reports were published of attacks and harassment of minority groups of people who had migrated to western industrialized countries, particularly muslim immigrants. in this case, when the immigrants or minority people found themselves the victims of hostility and suspicion, it was an influential factor in encouraging some individuals and groups to take revenge on people in the host societies (modood and ahmad, 2007: 188). for instance, this comes from anxiety about terrorist groups and networks attracting alienated young immigrants in host countries to become involved in battles outside the country and act like a ‘fifth column’ at home (modood and ahmad, 2007: 188). these arguments by anti-migration followers lead to a spread in xenophobia and hostility between migrants and domestic residents in destination communities (koser, 2007: 61). for instance, it can be mentioned that the riots in may 2001 by pakistani and bangladeshi youths against the white youths was due to inequality and hostility as protesters claimed in the uk, which caused chaos, instability in three cities in northern england. this example supports the claim of anti-immigration adherents, in relation to public security disorder in host countries (vertovec and wessendorf, 2010: 5). a further instance was that the bulk of participants in the riots, which happened in france, in 2005, were young people who were from a migrant background. those young french protesters of an african and north african background expressed anger against the high levels of discrimination and hostility from both the indigenous people and the police (castles and miller, 2009: 1). these examples encourage anti-migration supporters to pressure their governments to change the migration policy and control the borders, in order to protect security. furthermore, critics of immigration and racism in western democratic countries claim that each society and culture requires its own mother country, where the native population can live undisturbed others. commonly, advocates of this viewpoint assert that, like some western people, immigrants can be happier in their homelands and in their natural surroundings as well (lentin, 2005: 390). in contrast, these claims that are against mass immigration and cultural diversity from the supporters of immigration and multiculturalism assert that mass immigration has more advantages for destination communities than negative impacts. as mentioned before, there are a few positive effects of migration in the economic section, for example, “the theories of multiculturalism consequently call for recognition and accommodation of cultural minorities, including immigrants, and require states to create policies or laws that allow minority groups to root their 81 participation in society within their cultural communities” (bloemraad et al., 2008: 160). contrary to the public debate with respect to immigration in most developed countries which claims that immigration is out of control, supporters of immigration revealed this example from the 1990s, where 7 out of 8 immigrants who settled in developed societies, crossed through regulated borders or channels, which serve the needs of the developed countries much more than the immigrants themselves (papademetriou, 1997: 16). 4.1. national identity and mass immigration another point in this article on mass immigration is related to nationality. in the west, destination societies are encountering a disappearance in their own national identity. immigrants who live in destination countries might have a lower standard of life, such as class, language, education, which leads to them separating themselves from the host communities and a denial of integration with the mainstream nationality and society. these points inevitably lead western host countries and their governments to change their migration policies to try and encourage more integration. the integration requirements are based on knowledge of the host society’s culture, history, constitution, language and citizen test (acosta, 2010: 234). in addition, as kymlicka (2010) indicates in his book, opponents of mass immigration worry about these factors, highlighted above, as they lead to the weakening of nationality, identity and culture, and also destroy the structure of society in the host countries (kymlicka, 2010). it can be pointed out that critics of mass immigration in destination countries claim that foreign people who live in their countries come from different societies with different nationalities, cultures and languages, and appear different in their physical appearance such as clothing, hairstyle and so on. these acts and behaviours from immigrants cause xenophobia to spread among domestic people and lead to problems with the future of national identity and coherence in host societies, especially when immigrants attempt to create a community in which members do not try to integrate into mainstream society, have not loyalty to the host nation and deny learning the language and culture (castle& miller, 2009: 14). some politicians and the media have a long history of hostility with mass immigrants. they voice antimigration concerns and encourage western developed governments to change the policy of migration by showing negative aspects about immigrants, in order to maintain the white identity in western countries, e.g. critics of immigration argue that immigrants live in white neighborhoods and have the same right as white people, but that they do not have loyalty towards national identity, and deny integrating into mainstream society. for example, in the last few years, the french parliament voted in favour of a new law, in order to prevent schoolgirls wearing the veil in schools (vertovec and wessendorf, 2010:5). this example highlights where destination countries attempt to prevent immigrants keeping their national identity and indicates to them to integrate into mainstream society. on the contrary, the united nations general assembly via the approval of the statement of the rights of native people in 2007 stated that “the trend towards enhanced land rights, self-government powers and customary law for indigenous peoples remains fully in place across the western democracy” (kymlicka, 2010: 40). nevertheless, most western countries in recent years have attempted to change migration policies and add tough questions into migration tests, as illustrated above, for new migrants who want to enter these countries (e.g. germany, austria, the uk, holland and denmark) (vertovec and wessendorf, 2010: 17). in contrast to critics of immigration, who claim that immigrants in destination countries destroy their new countries’ identity and social order, several supporters of immigration theories assert that a community’s culture and nationality will be richer because of immigrants from different nationalities and cultures (mckinstry, 2013). if we look at some recent surveys amongst immigrants and domestic people about belonging to the host national identity, we can observe that some immigrants answer that they have strong feelings about the host’s national identity. the uk can be seen as an example here because of the large number of immigrants. a survey conducted in 2003 by the ‘home office citizenship survey’ among indians, pakistanis and bangladeshis,and white people,asked, ‘how strongly do you belong to britain?’ as a result, approximately 86% of participants answered that they felt strong about belonging to britain. at the same time, around 86.7% of white participants answered the same (kymlika, 2011: 283). this survey highlights mass immigration does not have significant negative impact on destination countries. 5. conclusions this article has attempted to illustrate the role of mass immigration in altering destination societies, which are chosen by migrants as host countries to live in. in addition, after the second world war globalization had a strong role in accelerating this process and transforming destination societies in terms of socio culture and socioeconomic -economic through mass immigration. in this essay, i have endeavored to show some arguments about the effects of mass immigration in destination societies, particularly in developed western countries. the article has tried to focus on the labour markets and the economy, which opponents 82 of immigration believe have negative impacts on host countries by showing some strong examples. on the other hand, advocates of immigration and cultural diversity disprove these arguments by illustrating positive evidence and claim that immigration has a remarkable effect on destination societies by creating new job opportunities, increasing host countries’ economy through investment and sharing their knowledge with domestic laborers. it can be said that the arguments for immigration, which related to the endangerment of public security, and fading national identity and citizenship in destination countries, mainly in developed societies have risen after the attack on the twin towers in new york in 2001 and the london bombings in 2005. particularly these events lead to the opponent’s orientation in relation to immigration turning towards negative changes in destination societies. they support their claims by giving some examples of the negative effects on destination countries of immigration such as a rise in unemployment, culture diversity and national identity. these criticisms lead governments to review some laws on migration to reduce these negative impacts. in contrast, supporters of mass immigration in destination countries, ask that the western world should not change their laws and policy of migration to tighten levels, in order to limit free movement across borders, especially for immigrants. furthermore, regulations that lead to immigrants being integrated into mainstream society by force, as illustrated in this essay, the most obvious being in france, should not be allowed. references 1. altschuler, j., (2013), “migration, illness and health care” contemporary family therapy, vol. 35, no. 3 pg 546-556. 2. aosta, d., (2010), “a belief in the purity of the nation: the possible dangers of its influence on migration legislation in europe” studies in ethnicity and 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multination states” ethnicities, vol. 11, no. 3 pg 281-302. 17. lentin, a., (2005), “replacing ‘race’, historicizing ‘culture’ in multiculturalism” patterns of prejudice, vol. 39, no. 4 pg 379-396. 18. mckinstry, l. (2013) mass immigration is destroying our once great nation. [online]. available from: https://www.express.co.uk/comment/columnists/leomckinstry/451080/mass-immigration-is-destroyingour-once-great-nation, [accessed 28th september 2019] 19. modood, t. ahmad, f., (2007), “british muslim perspectives on multiculturalism” theory, culture & society, vol. 24, no. 2 pg 187-213. 20. niebuhr, a., (2010), “migration and innovation: does cultural diversity matter for regional r&d activity?” papers in regional science, vol. 89, no. 3 pg 563585. 83 21. orcalli, g., (2007), “constitutional choice and european immigration policy” constitutional political economy, vol. 18, no. 1 pg 1-20. 22. papademetriou, d., (1997), “migration” foreign policy, vol. 109, pg 15-31. 23. polgreen, l. simpson, n., (2011), “happiness and international migration” journal of happiness studies, vol. 12, no. 5 pg 819-840. 24. schmidt, c. stilz, a. zimmermann, k., (1994), “mass migration, unions, and government intervention” journal of public economics, vol. 55 no. 2 pg 185201. 25. seglow, j., (2005), “the ethics of immigration” political studies review, vol. 3 no. 3 pg 317-334. 26. steiner, n., (2009), “international migration and citizenship today”, abingdon: routledge. 27. tanrisever, o., (2007), “review of international migration and security: opportunities and challengesby elspeth guild and joanne van selm. comparative sociology vol. 6, pg 232-245. 28. vertovec, s. wessendorf, s., (2010), “introduction: assessing the backlash against multiculturalism in europe” in s. vertovec, and s. wessendorf (eds) the multiculturalism backlash, abingdon: routledge, pg 1-31. 24 the impact of motivation on organizational commitment: an empirical study with kosovar employees qëndrim bytyqi university of prishtina “hasan prishtina”, faculty of economic, qendrimbytyqi077@gmail.com. article history: submission 10 september 2020 revision 12 november 2020 accepted 17 december 2020 available online 31 december 2020 keywords: motivation, organizational commitment, influence. a b s t r a c t motivation and organizational commitment are determinant factors that directly influence in the success of the organization. work motivation is the process that initiates and maintains goal-directed performance, commitment encourages employees to voluntarily engage in the organization and have an intention to be member of organization for long term. this study investigates the relationship between motivation and organizational commitment. an online survey was conducted with 207 participants across kosovo. the results of regression analysis shows that motivation has a significant effect in organizational commitment. the model summary shows that work motivation explains 36% of change in organizational commitment. the coefficient of work motivation shows that work motivation has a strong and positive effect on organizational commitment. positive and strong correlation is found between work motivation (wm) and organizational commitment (oc). as much the employees are motivated that means they automatically will increase the job performance. 1. introduction recent research in organizational behaviour has paid attention to the concepts that represent a departure from the traditional approach of studying work place behaviour. work motivation has emerged as one of the important organization behavior that affects performance at work (darolia & darolia, 2010). organizational commitment can be inferred from an individual’s degree of association with an organization, as the individual is willing to dedicate significant time and effort to the organization without monetary purposes. affective commitment is an individuals’ emotional or psychological attachment to, identification with, and participation in the organization (bang et al, 2012). organizational commitment and intrinsic motivation are important constructs in the human resources (hr) and organization behavior (ob) field. both constructs share the personal characteristics and contextual characteristics for their antecedents. moreover, they are two of the most frequently used variables for satisfaction, performance, change, and innovation and creativity. although the consequences of organizational commitment and intrinsic motivation are not in the scope of this study, they ultimately influence employee job/career satisfaction and turnover, organizational performance, and employee creativity and innovation (joo & lim, 2009). work motivation is the process that initiates and maintains goal-directed performance. motivation prevents or nudges us to convert intent into action. it also controls our decisions to persist at a specific work goal in the face of distractions and the press of other priorities. (clar, 2003). the purpose of this paper is to identify the factors that effects employee motivation and examining the relationship between motivation and organizational commitment. 2. literature review 2.1. motivation the topic of employee motivation plays a central role in the field of management, both practically and theoretically (steers et al, 2004). within the field of work motivation, as in the broader field of motivated or regulated behavior, much of the work falls within the cognitive tradition that evolved out of the work (gagne & deci, 2005). the question about employee motivation has played a central role in management practice and theory since 20th century (toode et al, 2011). several definitions of motivation are http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7630-3882 25 available in the literature. robbins & judge (2017) define motivation as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. yusof et al, (2013) explained motivation as the willingness of an individual to do something and conditioned by actions to satisfy needs. sherif et al, (2014) define motivation as the strength of the people to make them able to choose specific work, to stay and work hard in the given position. motivation encourages employees internally towards the actions which help them to achieve the goals or specific task which is assigned to him (sohail et al, 2014). motivation is defined as the forces, drives, needs, tension states, or other mechanisms that starts and maintain voluntary activity towards the achievement of personal goals (e.e & abraham, 2013) motivation raises question on why people behave in the way they do it (tella, 2007). motivated people are those who have made a conscious decision to try considerably to achieve something they appreciate (ismajli et al, 2015). 2.2. motivation theories there are many different theories that try and help explain motivation. some of them are: maslow’s hierarchy of needs, herzberg’s two-factor, theory, theory x & y etc. 2.2.1. maslow’s hierarchy of needs in 1954, maslow first published motivation and personality, which introduced his theory about how people satisfy various personal needs in the context of their work. he postulated, based on his observations as a humanistic psychologist, that there is a general pattern of needs recognition and satisfaction that people follow in generally the same sequence (gawel, 1997). maslow proposed that if people grew up in an environment in which their needs are not meet, they would be unlikely to function healthy, well-adjusted individual (kaur, 2013). maslow refused to believe that behavior was predetermined by the environment or subconscious, but he believed it was the consequence of human choices (wilson & madsen, 2006). maslow expressed the importance of elements such as job and play interaction, the discipline of hard work, creativity, and freedom of one’s opinion (shoura & singh, 1999). the theory has influenced the writings of many prominent authors in the field of management and organizational behavior (wahba & bridwell, 1976). maslow’s hierarchy of needs is often used as an example of motivational theory in both practitioner and scholarly journals, yet considerable motivational research is being conducted that is not widely known, nor applied in practical settings (kroth, 2007). 2.2.2. herzberg’s two-factor theory frederick herzberg in a bid to understand question and the issue of employee satisfaction and motivation in the 1950s and 60s set out to determine the effect of attitude on motivation by asking people to describe situations where they felt really good and really bad about their jobs (dartey-baah & amoako, 2011). herzberg’s influential need theory of the 1960’s, the two-factor theory, suggests that humans have two different sets of needs and that the different elements of the work situation satisfies or dissatisfies these needs (lundberg et al, 2009). herzberg made a theoretical departure from the traditional continuum concept by suggesting that job satisfaction was hypothesized to operate on a continuum which ranged from high to no job satisfaction-while job dissatisfaction operated on another continuum which ranged from no to high job dissatisfaction (maidani, 1991). 2.2.3. theory x and y the ‘theory x’ management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can and that they inherently dislike work, theory y is a participative style of management which assumes that people will exercise self-direction and selfcontrol in achieving the organizational goals and objectives (hattangadi, 2015). theory x and y created by mcgregor has been a valid basic principle from which to develop positive management style and techniques. mcgregor's ideas suggest that there are two fundamental approaches to managing people. several managers influenced by theory x, and generally get poor results. on the other hand, liberal managers use theory y, which produces better performance and results, and allows people to grow and develop (mohamed & nor, 2013). theory x managers emphasize the chain of command, reward-or-punishment motivational techniques, and close supervision of subordinate behavior along rigidly defined behavioral parameters, theory y managers attempt to structure the work environment so that employee goals coincide with organizational goals, resulting presumably in greater creativity and productivity (aydin, 2012). 2.3. types of motivation vallerand & o'connor, (1989) mentioned four types of motivation; intrinsic motivation, self-determined extrinsic, nonself-determined extrinsic, and amotivation which are assumed to have a number of consequences for adaptation and well-being. 2.3.1. intrinsic motivation intrinsic motivation is a type of motivation based in people’s natural interest in various activities that provide novelty and challenge. intrinsically motivated behaviors do not require external rewards; rather, they are an expression of a person’s sense of who they are, of what interests them. intrinsically motivated behaviors have what is referred to in attribution theory as an internal perceived locus of causality; people experience the causes of their intrinsically motivated behaviors to be internal to themselves (deci & ryan, 2009). in general, intrinsic motivation (im) refers to engaging in an activity purely for the pleasure and 26 satisfaction derived from doing the activity (pelletier, etj., 1995). according to the theory, intrinsic motivation is based in the organismic needs for competence and self-determination (reeve & l.deci, 1996). 2.3.2. self-determined motivation self-determination theory is a prominent framework used to understand the antecedents and outcomes of pa-related. sdt allows for exploration of not only the amount of motivation towards pe, but also the extent to which motivation is selfdetermined in nature. motivation can be experienced at both the global (i.e., across different life contexts) and situational levels. while global self-determination impacts motivation, we were particularly interested in how situational motivation (specific to a pe lesson) and features of the class environment influenced pa levels. (lonsdale et al, 2009). 2.3.3 non-self-determined extrinsic motivation in the field of organizational behavior, researchers in the tradition of sdt argue outspokenly for the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for two reasons. first, when people are intrinsically motivated, ‘‘the correlates and consequences are more positive in terms of the quality of their behavior as well as their health and well-being”. second, extrinsic motivation is negatively related to intrinsic motivation . therefore, according to sdt, an incentive that actually strengthens extrinsic motivation will, at the same time, undermine intrinsic motivation. furthermore, given how the two types of motivation are defined, it is difficult to explain how and why intrinsic and extrinsic motivation should be positively related. the actions of performing an activity to experience the pleasure and satisfaction inherent in that activity and performing the same activity to procure positive consequences or avoid negative consequences are logically incompatible because this creates a cognitive challenge, and individuals usually concentrate on the more salient cue when acting (kuvaas et al, 2017). 2.3.4 amotivation a last concept posited by self-determination theory is amotivation. amotivation pertains to the lack of intentionalityand therefore refers to the relative absence of motivation (neither intrinsic nor extrinsic). amotivated individuals experience feelings of incompetence and expectancies of uncontrollability (guay, et al, 2015). amotivation is a state of lacking any intention to engage in a behavior and is a completely non-self-determined form of regulation. external regulation involves engaging in a behavior only in order to satisfy external pressures or to achieve externally imposed rewards. introjected regulation involves the internalization of external controls, which are then applied through self-imposed pressures in order to avoid guilt or to maintain self-esteem. identification involves a conscious acceptance of the behavior as being important in order to achieve personally valued outcomes. integrated regulation concerns the assimilation of identified regulation so that engaging in the behavior is fully congruent with one’s sense of self. intrinsic regulation involves taking part in an activity for the enjoyment and satisfaction inherent in engaging in the behavior itself (markland & tobin, 2004). 2.4. organizational commitment organizational commitment is defined as a psychological state that binds the individual to the organization and is a three dimensions concept. first, affective commitment refers to the employee's emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization. second continuance commitment refers to an awareness of the costs associated with leaving the organization. third, normative commitment reflects a feeling of obligation to continue employment (castaing, 2006). organizational commitment and job involvement have been major themes in the organizational literature, especially with regard to the prediction of organizational outcomes, such as turnover (huselid & day, 1991). cohen (2007) argue that concept of commitment represents a component of attitudinal commitment because he emphasized the awareness of the costs associated with leaving the organization. affective commitment reflects commitment based on emotional ties the employee develops with the organization primarily via positive work experiences (jaros, 2007). commitment represents something beyond more passive loyalty to an organization (mowday, steers, & porter, 1979). the attitude theorists view commitment as something of a ‘black box’, the contents of which are determined by a range of organizational and individual factors such as personal characteristics, role-related features, structural characteristics and work experiences (oliver, 1990). indeed, majority organizational commitment studies have been concerned on compensated employee rather than focused on nonprofit worker (rahmawati et al, 2015). 2.5. relationship between motivation and organizational commitment the different authors in their previous paper have found that exist an important relationship between motivation and organizational commitment: pitaloka & sofia (2014) found that organization commitment significantly affect organization behavior of internal auditor. commitment encourages employees to voluntarily engage in the organization and have an intention to be member of organization for long term. this can encourage the emergence of ocb behavior-organization oriented. with the commitment, 27 employees being bound and loyal to the organization. joo & lim (2009) found that when employees perceived that an organization provided a better organizational learning culture, they were more likely to realize job complexity, which in turn affected organizational commitment. altindis (2011) in his finding found that the results indicated that intrinsic motivation of health professionals was explained mostly by affective and normative commitment. also affective and normative commitment impact on intrinsic motivation was more than continuance commitment. the most effective factor on extrinsic motivation was normative commitment. continuance commitment had effect on extrinsic motivation less than normative commitment. also it was seen that the affective commitment had the lowest effect on external motivation. al-madi et al, (2017) after statistical analyses found that the majority of employees choose “tactful discipline” as their best source of motivation with (4.0103) as a mean value, they feel a nice treatment and behavior from their colleagues and they consider that as a big motivation for them. the second preferred factor was “supervisor’s help with personal problems” with (3.1134) as a mean value, which is indicate to the importance of strong relationship between employees for participants and organizational commitment. manzoor (2010) found that an internally satisfied, delighted and motivated worker or employee is actually a productive employee in an organization which contributes in efficiency and effectiveness of organization which leads to maximization of profits. rahim & jam’an (2018) after statistical analyses founds that motivation has a positive and significant effect on employee performance through media and organizational commitment variables with a value of p = 0.00 < 0.05 and a coefficient of 0.453. it coefficient value shows that the better the organizational commitment of an employee, the motivation will also increase, so if employees’ motivation increases it will affect the performance of the employee. if the employees’ performance increases then it will have impact on overall performance of the organization. 3. methodology 3.1. sampling procedure in order to gather data, we have conducted an online survey with employees from kosovo. a questionnaire was developed for this purpose. 207 surveys were found valuable for analysis purposes. 58% of the participants were male and 42% female. 59,9% of the participants belonged to the 20-29 age interval. 49,3% have a bachelor’s degree. 60,4% live in urban area, 59,4% are single, 42% have a 301-600-euro income level. 71% work in private sector and 55,6% have 0-5 years job experience. 3.2. measures work motivation was measured using 13 items adopted from william (2010). sample items include “ my company provide fair promotion opportunities, promotion should be based on performance, my job is beneficial to my career. using a fivepoint likert scale ranging from 1 for ‘strongly disagree’ to 5 for ‘strongly agree’, participants were asked to assess each item. organizational commitment was measured using 5 items adopted from leisink & steijn (2015), saample items include “ i do not really feel as if this department/unit’s problems are my own, i feel emotionally attached to this department/unit, this department/unit has a great deal of personal meaning for me. using a five-point likert scale ranging from 1 for ‘strongly disagree’ to 5 for ‘strongly agree’, participants were asked to assess each item. 4. findings and results before proceeding with hypothesis testing, we have firstly conducted an exploratory factor analysis (efa), since the questionnaire was translated into a different language. table 2 reports the results of efa. as it was expected, two factors were revealed at the end of the efa. kmo value (kmo = ,907) suggested that our data are very suitable to perform efa. the value of total explained variance was 59,635 and this is beyond the accepted threshold ,50. nonetheless, some items from work motivation scale and one item from organizational commitment scale were removed due to low weights. the first factor includes the items of work motivation; therefore, this factor is named as work motivation (wm). the second factor includes the items of organizational commitment, hence, labelled as organizational commitment (oc). after efa, we performed reliability analysis for both factors. the cronbach’s alpha coefficient for work motivation (wm) is ,912 and this value shows that this scale is very reliable. however, the cronbach’s alpha coefficient for organizational commitment (oc) was under ,70 for four items. we deleted the oc1 item from the scale, and then the scale’s reliability increased to ,795. this value shows that the scale of oc is also reliable. the overall cronbach’s alpha coefficient for 12 items is ,917. table 4 reports the means and standard deviations, and correlations among all variables included in the survey. positive and strong correlation (r=.599, p<.01) is found between work motivation (wm) and organizational commitment (oc). wm is positively related to income (r=.239, p<.01). oc is positively associated with age (r=.160, p<.05), income (r=.148, p<.05) and job tenure (r=.169, p<.05), and negatively with sector (r=-.142, p<.05). 28 table 1. sample statistics (n=207) variable frequency percent gender male 120 58.0 female 87 42.0 age 20-29 124 59.9 30-39 52 25.1 40-49 21 10.1 50-59 7 3.4 60+ 3 1.4 education primary school 5 2.4 high school 37 17.9 bachelor 102 49.3 master & phd 63 30.4 settlement urban 125 60.4 rural 82 39.6 status single 123 59.4 married 76 36.7 divorced & widow 8 3.9 income 0-300 euro 70 33.8 301-600 euro 87 42.0 601-900 euro 23 11.1 901-1200 euro 17 8.2 over 1200 euro 10 4.8 sector public 60 29.0 private 147 71.0 job tenure 0-5 years 115 55.6 6-10 years 54 26.1 11-15 years 20 9.7 more than 15 years 18 8.7 table 2 exploratory factor analysis (ea) component total explained variance wm oc kmo wm6 .809 .907 59.635 wm9 .802 wm4 .786 wm1 .781 wm12 .775 wm10 .756 wm13 .715 wm5 .702 wm3 .501 oc3 .778 oc2 .778 oc5 .600 oc1 .526 extraction method: principal component analysis. rotation method: varimax with kaiser normalization. a. rotation converged in 3 iterations. table 3. reliability analysis variable cronbach’s alpha n of items wm .912 9 oc .795 3 total reliability .917 12 29 finally, in table 5, we have reported the results of regression analysis to test the effect of work motivation on organizational commitment. the model summary shows that work motivation explains 36% of change in organizational commitment. the coefficient of work motivation (β=.572, p<.000) shows that work motivation has a strong and positive effect on organizational commitment. this result shows support for our hypothesis. 5. conclusion and discussion this study examined the relationship between motivation and dedication to the organization. the findings showed that motivation has a positive influence on organizational commitment as well as regression analysis showed that motivation has a positive effect on overall organizational involvement. employees that are well motivated are directly involved in the success of the organization. motivation and organization commitmment goes together so an well motivation means automatically well organizational commitment. kim, (2006) found that exist an important relationship between motivation and organiztional commitmment especially an important relationship between job satisfaction and orgnizational commitment. austen & zacny, (2015) also found an possitive relationship between motivation and organizational commitment. ates & buluc, (2017) found that and intrinsic motivation is the best indicator of motivation. table 4. descriptive statistics and correlation analysis mean st. dev. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 wm 3.405 .882 1 2 oc 3.647 .841 .599** 1 3 gender 1.42 .495 -.110 .008 1 4 age 1.61 .906 -.094 .160* .007 1 5 education 3.08 .759 .103 .106 -.009 -.105 1 6 settlement 1.40 .490 -.047 -.044 -.049 .029 -.213** 1 7 status 1.45 .605 -.066 .075 .057 .526** -.204** -.037 1 8 income 2.08 1.101 .239** .148* -.099 .344** .062 -.043 .228** 1 9 sector 1.71 .455 -.070 -.142* -.125 -.309** -.230** .082 -.225** -.185** 1 10 tenure 1.71 .961 -.007 .169* -.053 .810** -.056 -.048 .508** .330** -.223** 1 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). table 5. linear regression results dependent variable independent variables β t p f model (p) r r2 oc constant 1.701 9.065 .000 114.808 .000 .599 .359 wm .572 10.715 .000 5.1 contribution this current study demonstrates the impact of motivation on participation in the organization. the morale of the employee must be taken into account by all the company if they want to accomplish their goals as the findings of this study indicates that the more motivated the workers are, they are more involved in the workplace and that directly implies the success of the organizations. kosovar companies must have in consideration the employee motivation othervise they can lost them and the cost for the company will be high because at least are the employess who makes alive a company. 5.2 limitations and suggestions for future research this research does have some limitations. first, the online survey was completed by research participants, and data collection is limited to the people who could reach the link. the questionnaire was too long and that may have caused a lot of people to start and leave the questionnaire without finishing. second, this study's 30 findings are limited to only the sample. although the survey was attended by different people across kosovo, making a generalisation is not enough. the results may not represent all of kosovo's workforce population. future studies will also concentrate on discrepancies between different employee hierarchies in motivation and organizational engagement, in this type next studies may find other findings that will support other study. references 1. al-madi, f. n., assal, h., shrafat, f., & zeglat, d. 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increasingly, rang-ing from limited use in state institutions to widespread use by private individuals and companies. the increased use of the internet has significantly influenced the nature of applications and the way we communi-cate. data security dictates the use of different cryp-tographic techniques. for this reason, we analyze in detail the various coding techniques by evaluating their performance and efficiency. regarding the new paradigms in cryptography there are also new cryp-tographic schemes whose application requires detailed study and analysis. the classical cryptography algo-rithm is the oldest algorithm that was used long be-fore the cryptographic system was discovered. cur-rently, the system has been widely applied to secure data, and using new methods in a way to improve existing methods. in this thesis the use of crypto-graphic methods using the c # programming lan-guage will be discussed. 1. introduction the purpose of this research is to analyze cryptography techniques in a more convenient way to do more, where you will find more techniques than i teach in theoretical practice, try to introduce them through c # programming languages, and use visual studio. the field of analyzing large amounts of data is current because the number of data is increasing every day. comparing and finding differences in cryptography techniques is also important when analyzing. each of the techniques has its own characteristics, and therefore cryptography is a very broad field of research. it involves algorithms and techniques from different disciplines. first, to make the selection of techniques, it is important to specify the data to be analyzed in order to know how to make the algorithm selection. this study will use comparative methods in order to reach conclusions regarding the performance of cryptography techniques. all the research will be done in a practical way by implementing different code in visual studios c # programming language. the increasing use of the internet has significantly influenced the nature of applications and the way we communicate. data security dictates the use of different cryptographic techniques. for this reason, we analyze in detail the various coding techniques by evaluating their performance and efficiency. to understand the importance of applying cryptographic techniques it is enough to know the wide range of applications and services where we have sensitive data. data storage is one of the basic personal but also operational requirements in ensuring the success of a business initiative such as different banks or companies. the new encryption forms dictated by the computational difficulties of specific schemes consist of data processing without having a private key to the data, including format encoding, symmetric search encryption, functional encryption and homomorphism encryption. regarding the new paradigms in cryptography there are also new cryptographic schemes whose application requires detailed study and analysis. quantum cryptography and turing-complete encryption programs are really new forms and currently have a http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9432-9293 2 good theoretical basis. what poses a challenge in many perfect coding schemes is closely related to the compositionality that is the functional axis of applying a cryptographic algorithm. 2. cryptography today cryptography, in general, is the science of art to preserve the confidentiality of data. furthermore, there is also a sense of understanding the study of mathematical techniques related to information security aspects such as data confidentiality, and data validation and not all aspects of information security are addressed by cryptography. there are four basic purposes of cryptography which is also an aspect of information security, namely: 1. confidentiality is a service used to keep information content from anyone who receives it with a secret key to unlock the information that is encrypted. 2. data integrity in order to maintain data integrity, the system must have the ability to determine data manipulation by parties who are not entitled to do, inter alia, enter, delete and sign data in current data. 3. authentication, which relates to identification as a whole system and to the information itself. the parties must communicate on their own. the information presented through the channel must be verified, the authenticity, the content of the data and the time of delivery. 4. non-repudiation is an attempt to prevent the denial of remittances and the creation of information that transmits or makes. in cryptography, substitution is a type of identification method, in which each character in plaintext replaces the chipper text with the regular system. the recipient of the message can read the message after performing the decoding process on a message using a method identical to the method used by the sender. the replacement method only changes the characters without changing the structure of the message itself, in contrast to the shift method which changed the wording but did not change the character in the message. 3. the use of methods the replacement method is divided into several types, namely: 1. simple substitution is a method of substitution for character. 2. substitute polygraph is a method that replaces two characters or more. 3. mono-alphabetical replacement is a method that uses a fixed pattern (eg: galih password) 4. poly replacement is the method that the pattern was different as long as the message was. 3.1. coding and decoding if we want to keep information confidential, we have two options: to hide the existence of the information or to make the information incomprehensible. coding is nowadays widely used and is one of the most commonly encountered techniques in various applications. in electronic money schemes, encryption is used to protect symbolic transaction data such as account numbers and transaction quantities, digital signatures can replace handwritten signatures or credit card authorizations, and public key encryption can provide confidentiality. there are a large number of systems that cover such applications, from classic transactions to complex bank payment schemes. before we get to the basic coding forms and schemes let's look at a number of concepts that we will come across.  plain text the original or original message to be sent is known as open text.  cipher text the message on which the cipher is applied is known as the cipher text. in cryptography the initial message "hello" can be converted to such incomprehensible form "ajd672 # @ 91uk".  encoding the process of converting an open text into encoded text is known as encoding. cryptography uses encryption techniques to send confidential messages over an unsecured line of communication. the coding process requires two things: a coding algorithm and a key. the encryption algorithm means the technique used and the encryption occurs on the sender side.  decoding an inverse process of decoding is known as decoding, where the encoded text is converted to the original text. cryptography uses decryption techniques on the recipient's side to retrieve the original message from the encoded text.  key a key is an alphanumeric text or can be a special symbol. private keys are used for signature; public keys are used for verification: for example, to sign something digitally, we encrypt it with our private key (usually a hash is created and encrypted). anyone can decode this data (deciphering the hash value and comparing their hash value to the previous value) and verify that since it is signed by our private key then the data belongs to us. key selection in cryptography is quite important as it directly affects the security of the encryption algorithm. for example, if 3 anna uses key 3 to encode the original text "president" we will have the text as follows "suhvlghqw”. 3.2. cryptographic algorithms in use the most commonly used algorithms in data storage are: 3des, rsa, blowfish, two fish and aes. also a trend regarding the use of encryption algorithms is their presence in security certificates, various protocols and public-key infrastructures. des is the first coding standard recommended by nist and operates with a key (56 bits) and a 64-bit data block. des has a festal structure, operates with a bit of bits and is no longer considered a secure algorithm. the 3des is a des upgrade, operating with a 64bit block and 192 bit (168 bit) switch. in this algorithm the cipher is applied three times to increase the level and average security time. it is a known fact that 3des is the slowest method among other block chains. aes (rijndael) is a block chain and usually operates at 256 bits out of three possible 128, 192 or 256-bit key lengths. it encodes 128-bit data block in 10, 12 and 14 rounds depending on the size of the key. encryption in aes is fast and flexible; it can be implemented on different platforms especially on small devices, which is an advantage already. the blowfish algorithm created by schneider and known since 1993, does not turn out to be broken, at least not completely. this algorithm is optimized in hardware applications, though like all other figures it is often used in software applications. it is a 64-bit block and receives a variable length key, from 32 to 448 bits: usually 128 bits. bluefish has a very good performance compared to aes, des and 3des. the rsa is named after its creators (rivets, shamir, and adelman) have some operational limitations. with the most commonly used variant (pkcs # 1 v1.5), with a 1024-bit rsa key size, this algorithm can encode a message up to 117 bytes, and receive a 128-byte encoded message. hash functions are good "randomizers" (the output of a hash function does not display known and expected structures) and this makes it quite suitable for building more complex schemes with good security features and moreover hash functions do not they don't even have keys. sha is a common term for a cryptographic family of hash functions. four sha functions were then added (sha-224, sha-256, sha-384 and sha-512, known as 'sha2'). sha-256 and sha-512 are relatively new and well known functions. sha-256 is used by the dkim (domain keys identified mail) framework for email signatures in controlling spam and phishing phenomena. sha-512 is supported by true crypt software for encrypting disk space and virtual images. also sha-256 and sha-512 are recommended for dnssec (domain name system security extensions) regarding security services that can be added to the dns protocol. also hash functions can be used in ssl / tls technologies that are standard for encrypting connections between servers and web browsers. 3.3. cryptography techniques cryptography is a broad field but we have analyzed some of the classical encryption techniques such as: caesar cipher, monoalphabetic ciphers, playfair cipher, hill cipher, polyalphabetic ciphers, vigenere and rail fence. while some of the analog encryption techniques are: data encryption standard (des) as well advanced encryption standard (aes). 3.4. caesar cipher it is a technique in which the letters of the original text are replaced by letters, numbers or other symbols. we can divide traditional symmetric figures into two broad categories: replacement figures and transposition figures. if the symbols in plain text are alphabetical characters, we replace one character with another. for example, we can replace the letter a with the letter d and the letter t with the letter z. if the symbols are digits (0 to 9), we can replace 3 with 7 and 2 with 6. the implementation of the said algorithm in c # follows: namespace algoritmet { using system; using system.collections.generic; using system.linq; using system.componentmodel.composition; using system.data.common; publicclassceaser : securityalgorithm { readonlyint key; #region constructor public ceaser(int key) { this.key = key; } #endregion #region public methods publicoverridestring encrypt(string plaintext) { return process(plaintext, mode.encrypt); } 4 publicoverridestring decrypt(string cipher) { return process(cipher, mode.decrypt); } #endregion #region private methods privatestring process(string message, mode mode) { string result = string.empty; foreach (char c in message) { var charposition = alphabet[c]; var res = common.getalphabetposition(charposition, key, mode); result += alphabet.keys.elementat(res % 26); } return result; } #endregion } } 3.5. mono alphabetic ciphers in a mono-alphabetic figure, a character (or symbol) that is plaintext is always changed to the same character (or symbol) in the cipher text regardless of its position in the text. for example, if the algorithm says that the letter a in plaintext is changed to letter d, then every letter a is changed to letter d. in other words, the relationship between letters in plaintext and cipher text are one-to-one. the simplest mono-alphabetic figure is the extra digit (or change digit). assume that plaintext consists of lowercase letters (a to z) and that cipher text consists of uppercase letters (from a to z). to be able to apply mathematical operations to plaintext and cipher text, we assign numeric values to each letter. implementing the said algorithm in c # does the following: namespace algoritmet { using system; using system.collections.generic; using system.linq; publicclassmonoalphabetic : securityalgorithm { readonlydictionary<char, char> _alphabetshuffled; readonlydictionary<char, char> _alphabetshuffledreverse; public monoalphabetic() { _alphabetshuffledreverse = newdictionary<char, char>(); _alphabetshuffled = newdictionary<char, char>(); shufflealphabet(); } #region public methods publicoverridestring encrypt(string plaintext) { return process(plaintext, mode.encrypt); } publicoverridestring decrypt(string ciphertext) { return process(ciphertext, mode.decrypt); } #endregion #region private methods privatestring process(string token, mode mode) { string result = ""; for (int i = 0; i < token.length; i++) { switch (mode) { casemode.encrypt: result += _alphabetshuffled[token[i]]; break; casemode.decrypt: result += _alphabetshuffledreverse[token[i]]; break; } } return result; } privatevoid shufflealphabet() { random r = newrandom(datetime.now.millisecond); var alphabetcopy = alphabet.keys.tolist(); foreach (var character in alphabet.keys) { int characterposition = r.next(0, alphabetcopy.count); char randomcharacter = alphabetcopy[characterposition]; _alphabetshuffled.add(character, randomcharacter); _alphabetshuffledreverse.add(randomcharacter, character); alphabetcopy.removeat(characterposition); } } #endregion } 5 3.6. poly alphabetic ciphers in poly alphabetic substitution, each appearance of one character may have another substitution. the relationship between a character in plaintext and a character in cipher text is one-tomany. for example, "a" may be coded as "d" at the beginning of the text, but as "n" in the middle. poly alphabetic figures have the advantage of concealing the frequency of basic language paper. to create a poly alphabetic cipher, we need to make each character cipher text, which depends on both the corresponding plaintext characters and the position of the plaintext in the message. this implies that our key must be a stream of sub keys, in which each sub key depends somewhat on the position of the simple character that that sub key uses for encryption. implementing the said algorithm in c # does the following: publicclassautokey : securityalgorithm { #region member variables string _key; #endregion #region constructor public autokey(string key) { this._key = key; } publicstring getkey() { returnthis._key; } #endregion #region public methods publicoverridestring encrypt(string plaintext) { return process(plaintext, mode.encrypt); } publicoverridestring decrypt(string cipher) { return process(cipher, mode.decrypt); } #endregion #region private methods privatestring process(string message, mode mode) { _key = duplicatekey(message); returncommon.shift(message, _key, mode, alphabet); } privatestring duplicatekey(string message) { if (_key.length < message.length) { int length = message.length _key.length; for (int i = 0; i < length; i++) { _key += message[i]; } } return _key; } #endregion } } 3.7. playfair cipher known as multi-letter cipher. it treats diagrams in the original text as a single unit and translates these units into encoded diagrams. the play fair algorithm is based on using a 5x5 matrix of letters built using a word. now the question is how to fill that 5x5 matrix? to fill it, we need a keyword or a message, after that you fill in the 5x5 word letters from left to right and from top to bottom and then fill in the remaining parts of the matrix with the remaining letters in alphabetical order. the letters i and j are treated as one letter and they are placed in the same matrix box as this i / j. plaintext is encoded two letters at a time, so you must first put together plain text. discovered by british scientist charles wheatstone in 1854, it was used as a standard system by the british army in world war i and the us army and other allied forces during world war ii. implementing the said algorithm in c # does the following: publicclassplayfair : securityalgorithm { string key; public playfair(string key) { this.key = key; } #region public methods publicoverridestring encrypt(string plaintext) { return process(plaintext, mode.encrypt); } publicoverridestring decrypt(string ciphertext) { return process(ciphertext, mode.decrypt); } #endregion #region private methods 6 privatestring process(string message, mode mode) { //key:charcater //value:position dictionary<char, string> characterpositionsinmatrix = newdictionary<char, string>(); //key:position //value:charcater dictionary<string, char> positioncharacterinmatrix = newdictionary<string, char>(); fillmatrix(key.distinct().toarray(), characterpositionsinmatrix, positioncharacterinmatrix); if (mode == mode.encrypt) { message = repairword(message); } string result = ""; for (int i = 0; i < message.length; i += 2) { string substring_of_2 = message.substring(i, 2);//get characters from text by pairs //get row & column of each character string rc1 = characterpositionsinmatrix[substring_of_2[0]]; string rc2 = characterpositionsinmatrix[substring_of_2[1]]; if (rc1[0] == rc2[0])//same row, different column { int newc1 = 0, newc2 = 0; switch (mode) { casemode.encrypt://increment columns newc1 = (int.parse(rc1[1].tostring()) + 1) % 5; newc2 = (int.parse(rc2[1].tostring()) + 1) % 5; break; casemode.decrypt://decrement columns newc1 = (int.parse(rc1[1].tostring()) 1) % 5; newc2 = (int.parse(rc2[1].tostring()) 1) % 5; break; } newc1 = repairnegative(newc1); newc2 = repairnegative(newc2); result += positioncharacterinmatrix[rc1[0].tostring() + newc1.tostring()]; result += positioncharacterinmatrix[rc2[0].tostring() + newc2.tostring()]; } elseif (rc1[1] == rc2[1])//same column, different row { int newr1 = 0, newr2 = 0; switch (mode) { casemode.encrypt://increment rows newr1 = (int.parse(rc1[0].tostring()) + 1) % 5; newr2 = (int.parse(rc2[0].tostring()) + 1) % 5; break; casemode.decrypt://decrement rows newr1 = (int.parse(rc1[0].tostring()) 1) % 5; newr2 = (int.parse(rc2[0].tostring()) 1) % 5; break; } newr1 = repairnegative(newr1); newr2 = repairnegative(newr2); result += positioncharacterinmatrix[newr1.tostring() + rc1[1].tostring()]; result += positioncharacterinmatrix[newr2.tostring() + rc2[1].tostring()]; } else//different row & column { //1st character:row of 1st + col of 2nd //2nd character:row of 2nd + col of 1st result += positioncharacterinmatrix[rc1[0].tostring() + rc2[1].tostring()]; result += positioncharacterinmatrix[rc2[0].tostring() + rc1[1].tostring()]; } } return result; } privatestring repairword(string message) { string trimmed = message.replace(" ", ""); string result = ""; for (int i = 0; i < trimmed.length; i++) { result += trimmed[i]; 7 if (i < trimmed.length 1 && message[i] == message[i + 1]) //check if two consecutive letters are the same { result += 'x'; } } if (result.length % 2 != 0)//check if length is even { result += 'x'; } return result; } privatevoid fillmatrix(ilist<char> key, dictionary<char, string> characterpositionsinmatrix, dictionary<string, char> positioncharacterinmatrix) { char[,] matrix = newchar[5, 5]; int keyposition = 0, charposition = 0; list<char> alphabetpf = alphabet.keys.tolist(); alphabetpf.remove('j'); for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) { for (int j = 0; j < 5; j++) { if (charposition < key.count) { matrix[i, j] = key[charposition];//fill matrix with key alphabetpf.remove(key[charposition]); charposition++; } else//key finished...fill with rest of alphabet { matrix[i, j] = alphabetpf[keyposition]; keyposition++; } string position = i.tostring() + j.tostring(); //store character positions in dictionary to avoid searching everytime characterpositionsinmatrix.add(matrix[i, j], position); positioncharacterinmatrix.add(position, matrix[i, j]); } } } privateint repairnegative(int number) { if (number < 0) { number += 5; } return number; } } 3.8. vigenere cipher improved vernami encryption proposed by a military officer named joseph mauborgne. use a key that is as long as the message so that the key does not need to be repeated. the key is used to encrypt and decrypt the single message and then leave it in use. each new message requires a new key as long as the length of the new message. the schema is invincible produces random output that holds no statistical relation to the original text. because the encrypted text contains no information about anything that is related to the original text, there is no way to break the code. implementing the said algorithm in c # does the following: namespace algoritmet { using system.collections.generic; using system.componentmodel.composition; using system.data.common; publicclassvigenere : securityalgorithm { string key; public vigenere(string key) { this.key = key; } #region public methods publicoverridestring encrypt(string plaintext) { return process(plaintext, mode.encrypt); } publicoverridestring decrypt(string ciphertext) { return process(ciphertext, mode.decrypt); } #endregion #region private methods privatestring process(string message, mode mode) { key = key.tostring().tolower().replace(" ", ""); key = duplicatekey(message, key); returncommon.shift(message, key, mode, alphabet); } privatestring duplicatekey(string message, string key) 8 { if (key.length < message.length) { int length = message.length key.length; for (int i = 0; i < length; i++) { key += key[i % key.length]; } } return key; } #endregion } } 3.9. rail fence simplified displacement coding. plaintext is written as a sequence of diagonals and then read off as a sequence of lines. in this technique, the characters of plain text are written in diagonal form at the beginning. this arrangement forms two rows, which resemble the rail track. that is why it is called rail fence or rail fence. after both rows are produced, the digit text is read consecutively. in the figure of rail fence, the plain text is written down and diagonally on successive rails of a fictional fence. when we reach the bottom rail, we pass upward moving diagonally, once we reach the top rail, the direction is changed again. thus, message alphabets are written in a zigzag manner. after each alphabet is written, the individual rows are combined to obtain the encoding text. implementing the said algorithm in c # does the following: namespace algoritmet { using system; using system.componentmodel.composition; publicclassrailfence : securityalgorithm { readonlyint key; public railfence(int key) { this.key = key; } #region public methods publicoverridestring encrypt(string plaintext) { return process(plaintext, mode.encrypt); } publicoverridestring decrypt(string ciphertext) { return process(ciphertext, mode.decrypt); } #endregion #region private methods privatestring process(string message, mode mode) { int rows = key; int columns = (int)math.ceiling((double)message.length / (double)rows); char[,] matrix = fillarray(message, rows, columns, mode); string result = ""; foreach (char c in matrix) { result += c; } return result; } privatechar[,] fillarray(string message, int rowscount, int columnscount, mode mode) { int charposition = 0; int length = 0, width = 0; char[,] matrix = newchar[rowscount, columnscount]; switch (mode) { casemode.encrypt: length = rowscount; width = columnscount; break; casemode.decrypt: matrix = newchar[columnscount, rowscount]; width = rowscount; length = columnscount; break; } for (int i = 0; i < width; i++) { for (int j = 0; j < length; j++) { if (charposition < message.length) { matrix[j, i] = message[charposition]; } else { matrix[j, i] = '*'; } charposition++; 9 } } return matrix; } } 4. comparison of algorithms and conclusions we will first compare the term cryptography, what it is in a broader sense, comparing it with the term encryption. cryptography and encryption have some differences which we will mention below: cryptography is the study of concepts such as encryption, decryption, used to provide secure communication while encryption is the process of encoding a message with an algorithm. cryptography can be considered a field of study, which incorporates many techniques and technologies, while encryption is more of a mathematical nature and algorithms. cryptography, being a field of study has a broader category and range of techniques, where encryption is one such technique, while encryption is one of the aspects of cryptography that can codify the communication process efficiently. cryptography has a symmetric and asymmetric version, with a concept of a shared rather than a shared key, while encryption follows the same approach with some specific terms such as cipher text, plaintext, and cipher. cryptography involves working with algorithms with basic cryptographic properties while encryption is one of the subcategories of cryptography that uses mathematical algorithms called digits. the areas of cryptography include computer programming, algorithm, mathematics, information theory, transmission technology while encryption is more digitized in nature since the modern age. cryptography includes two major components called encryption and decryption while encryption is a process of storing information to prevent unauthorized and illegal use. 4.1. comparison of mono-alphabetic and poly alphabetic algorithms mon a mono-alphabetical digit is one where each symbol in the input (known as’ plaintext ') is mapped to an output fixed symbol (referred to as the predicted figure). poly alphabetic encoding is any substitution-based cipher using multiple substitution characters. in the mono-alphabetic figure, after a key is selected each alphabetical character of the plaintext is marked with a unique alphabetic character of the cipher text. on the other hand, in the poly alphabetic code, any alphabetical character of the plaintext can be listed in the alphabetical letters '' m '' of a cipher text. in mono alphabetic cipher, the relationship between a plaintext character and characters in cipher text is one-to-one, while in poly alphabetic the relationship between a plaintext character and characters in cipher text is one-to-many. 4.2. creaser’s algorithm a mono-alphabetical cipher is where each plaintext letter is replaced by another letter to form cipher text. it is a simpler form of replacement figure scheme. this cryptosystem is commonly called shift cipher. the concept is to replace each letter of the alphabet with another letter that has been "moved" with a fixed number between 0 and 25. for this type of scheme, both the sender and the receiver agree on a "secret shift number" for the alphabet relocation. this number that is between 0 and 25 becomes the encryption key. caesar cipher is not a secure cryptosystem because there are only 26 possible keys to try. an attacker can perform an exhaustive search of keystrokes with limited computing resources available. 4.3. play fair cipher in the play fair cipher, a master table is first created. the main table is a 5 x 5 alphabet grid table that acts as the key to plaintext encryption. each of the 25 letters of the alphabet must be unique and one alphabet (usually j) is removed from the table as we only need 25 alphabets instead of 26. if simple writing contains j, then it is replaced by i. the sender and receiver decide on a separate key, and in a main table, the first characters (going left to right) place the key, excluding the same letters. the rest of the table will be filled with the remaining letters of the alphabet, in natural order. it is also a replacement cipher and is difficult to break compared to simple replacement cipher. cryptanalysis is also possible in the play fair cipher; however, it would be possible to replace 625 possible letter combinations (25x25 characters) instead of 26 different characters. play the play fair cipher was mainly used to protect important but not critical secrets, as it is fast to use and requires no special equipment. 4.4. vigenere cipher vigenere cipher was created by taking caesar's standard cipher to reduce the effectiveness of cryptanalysis in the cipher text and to make a cryptosystem stronger. certainly this is significantly safer than an ordinary caesar figure. in history, it was regularly used to protect sensitive political and military information. it was referred to as the unbreakable figure because of the difficulty it posed to cryptanalysis. 10 vigenere encryption becomes a cryptosystem of perfect secrecy, called one-time-pad. one-time-pad has several features:  the word length is the same as the plaintext length.  the keyword is a series of randomly generated alphabets.  the keyword is used only once. let's say we encrypt the name "point" with one-time-pad. it is a 5 letter text. to break the meticulous figure with brute force, you have to try all the keys options and calculate for (26 x 26 x 26 x 26 x 26) = 265 = 11881376 times. this is for a message with 5 characters or characters. thus, for a longer message the computation increases exponentially for each additional letter. this makes it logically impossible to break the cipher text with brute force. 5. conclusion cryptography encompasses various techniques and technologies including algorithms, mathematics, information theory, transmission, encryption, and more. information security issues are critical for individuals, institutions and companies worldwide. nowadays it is difficult to consider a computer system completely secure without the encryption technology. cryptographic figures and algorithms are basic mechanisms for protecting data and communications. in this paper we have analyzed cryptographic algorithms, their cryptographic features, and created an application where we can encrypt and decrypt various texts. then we showed each algorithm from an example and how that algorithm works, and finally we compared some of the algorithms in detail. cryptographic technologies are advancing: new attack techniques, designs and implementations of widely studied algorithms. so it is important to analyze their structure, efficiency and scalability metrics depending on what we need. new coding paradigms that are significant in new systems and technologies and have access to computational theory. there is a constant contradiction between efficiency and computing power. for this reason, we need to solve new difficult problems to provide better cryptographic schemes. references 1. albahari, j., albahari, b. (2012). c# 7.0 in a nutshell: isbn: 1491987650 isbn13: 9781491987650 asin: 1491987650. 2. schneier b. (2006), applied cryptog-raphy, second edition: protocols, algo-rithms, and source code in c (cloth) isbn: 0471128457, publication 1996. 3. alfred j. menezes, paul c. van oorschot and scott a. vanston. (1997). handbook of applied cryptography, isbn: 0-8493-8523-7-1996. 4. denning, dorothy e, (1999). information warefare and security, addison-wesly, isbn 0-201-433036.introduction to cyber information warfare. 5. stallings, w. (2006), cryptography and network security principles and practices, fourth edition. pub. november 16, 2005 print isbn-10, 0-13-187316-4 print isbn-13 978-0-13-187316-2. 6. kelsey,j., schneier,b., and hall, c. (1998),"cryptanalytic attacks on pseu-dorandom number generators. "proceed-ings, fast software encryption. http://www.schneier.com/paper-prngs.htm 7. oppliger, r., and rytz, r. (2005), "does trusted computing remedy computer se-curity problems?" ieee, security and priva-cy, march/april 2005. 8. biham, e., and shamir, a. (2000)"power analysis of the key scheduling of the aes candidates" proceedings, second aes can-didate conference, 24 october 2000. 56 the organized crime in western balkans in the age of globalizationtrafficking in narcotics and money laundry fidan haliti, phd. c. university of prishtina, faculty of philosophy, department of history, fidan.haliti@hotmail.com article history: submission 25 march 2020 revision 10 may 2020 accepted 05 julu 2021 available online 31 august 2021 keywords: western balkans, globalization, organized crime, narcotics, money laundry. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.228 a b s t r a c t this research addresses the activity of transnational organized crime in the westerns balkans region, particularly the activity of trafficking in narcotics and money laundry. this problematic phenomenon is treated on the aspect of newly created circumstances in the age of globalization, where the entire world is facing the transformation in the political and economic aspect developments that are impacting the field of security as well. in this period, these countries faced institutional fragility, lack of proper capacities in fight against new forms of organized criminality, lack of inter-state cooperation etc. this situation was used as an opportunity by the criminal organizations with their reach in the entire region, creating the so called balkan road which is used for trafficking of narcotics towards western europe countries. in this research is expressed the amount of narcotics trafficked and illicit profits from this activity, divided by regional countries for the period 2009-2012. this paper argues how transnational organized crime by exploiting the globalization era facilities has adapted to these newly created circumstances and is increasingly exceeding the capabilities of the countries of a traditional organizations and forms of security in responding appropriately. the interstate cooperation aspect and the use of an interactive approach at technical and operational levels is increasingly being considered as a tangible opportunity to deal with this phenomenon. the paper draws conclusions on how the organized crime threats have had influence on security approaches in the western balkans as well as pushing the countries towards an inter-state approach in addressing these threats. security field contemporary literature as well as reports and assessments of various security agencies have been used in drawing research results. 1. introduction this paper addresses challenges posed by transnational organized crime in globalization era to the issue of security for the western balkan countries and the impact of narcotics trafficking through balkan routes on the security of european countries. considering the changes occurring in the era of globalization, such as technology, telecommunications, economic liberalization and political transitions, the organized crime used the opportunities coming from these circumstances to expand its network and change the ways of operating and organizing. nowadays, the organized crime is of a global reach, establishing the features of a transnational cooperation and criminal organizations are increasingly changing the forms of their organization, disregarding the ethnic element which was characteristic of criminal organizations in the past. by using illegally created assets, organized crime is threatening different countries and from this situation, in the international aspect, the state as alone is increasingly being seen as an insufficient actor to face this global threat. these challenges arising in the age of globalization in the field of security require global approach to properly address them, that’s https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:fidan.haliti@hotmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.228 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5621-8354 57 why we are increasingly hearing expressions such as global approach, politics or global governance in the field of security. the threats in the field of security posed by organized crime in the globalization era for the countries of the western balkans are main focus of this paper, specifically addressing the activity of drug trafficking and money laundering in these countries. as a result of such work, important conclusions have been drawn on the amount of narcotics trafficking, the illegal profits of criminal groups in these countries gained from the trafficking of narcotics through the balkan trafficking routes. the research therefore draws conclusions regarding the presence, extent, organization and operation of organized crime in the western balkans. in addition to this, there are presented the threats posed by organized crime in the processes of democratic transition and integration to the societies of these countries. conclusions are also given related to contemporary approach on combating transnational organized crime and the impact that this phenomenon has on changing the security approaches. in compliance with the goals and objectives of the research subject i made the following research questions associated with the hypothesis: the research question how much and in what way are the threats from transnational organized crime impacting the change in security approaches as well as on establishing of an interactive strategy between states? how is the organized crime endangering the security and functioning of the rule of law in the western balkan countries through drug trafficking and other criminal activities? hypothesis posed threats in the security field by the organized crime are exceeding the capabilities of the states to face this phenomenon alone, it is increasingly deemed necessary drafting new strategies that will focus on cooperation and interaction between states. the organized crime in the western balkans is threatening the security and functioning of the rule of law in these countries and the criminal organizations in these countries have turned the balkans into a route of drug trafficking towards european union countries. the methodology used in this research is based on various instruments such as analysis of the literature of various authors dealing with issues of security and organized crime, analysis of government documents, activities and policies, research of international assessment documents, analysis of reports of various organizations. in order to achieve the results on the amount of narcotics trafficked and the amount of illegal profits from this activity for the countries of the western balkans, reports and assessments of europol, interpol, the united nations office on drugs and crime, as well as various governmental and non-governmental organizations were used. structurally this paper consists of five sections. the first section is about an introduction providing data on the importance of the topic, as well as the methodology used to achieve the research results. the second section analyzes the impact of globalization processes in relation to security issues, the challenges arising in the field of security by transnational criminal organizations in this period and the indispensable need to change the security approaches in facing new forms of threats in this period. the theoretical and conceptual views as well as legal definitions on transnational organized crime are provided in the third section of this paper. the fourth section discusses the activity of organized crime in the countries of the western balkans, where important data are presented on the extent, forms of organization of organized crime in the western balkans countries and the balkan trafficking routes. in addition to this, the statistics on the amount of narcotics trafficking and the illegal benefits of this trafficking are provided for each western balkan country for the period 2009-2012. the fifth section presents the conclusions, as well as the sources used. 2. globalization and challenges in the field of security due to the transnational organized crime the globalization is a process of international integration that includes economic, cultural issues, exchange of ideas, goods and services, etc. particularly great technological development has a primary impact on the globalization of contemporary societies, which also has an impact on increasing interdependence between societies and states. (berisha, 2008). according to francis fukuyama, “the phenomenon we label today as globalism is only the latest repetition of a process that has evolved continuously over the past few centuries with the spread of technologies related to transportation, communications and information” (fukuyama, 2012). globalization as a process first of all includes economic processes, international trade, international finance, which is accompanied by increased economic and trade cooperation, 58 which processes then affect cultural issues and other areas, including the field of security. in economic terms, globalization is also characterized by the development of global financial systems, the transfer of capital from one country to another, a process that has an impact on the creation and functioning of multinational corporations (fukuyama, 2012). the processes of globalization today affect all societies and all individuals. global problems or issues are so numerous that it is impossible for them to be addressed by states individually and by this the traditional role of states is increasingly fading. this shows the need for other organizational levels with a transnational character to address the issues and problems faced by society in the era of globalization (berisha, 2008). reduction of the power of the state as well as the determination of how to use left power is a result of globalization is. this transformation is expressed by the selection of new and combined ways of governing, which aims to include many formal and informal actors within the state itself as well as the coordination with state and non-state actors in the international arena such as various international organizations, non-governmental organizations etc (mingst, 2008). in addition to the positive aspects, globalization has brought many various nature problems that nowadays require addressing, among them, organized crime which is increasingly taking on the characteristics of transnational organization. the liberalization of market and removal of border barriers that occurred in the age of globalization were also used for various criminal activities, such as illegal human trafficking, drug trafficking, prostitution, trademark counterfeiting, economic crime, money laundering etc (alan collins, 2014). nowadays, transnational organized crime activities have reached alarming levels, spreading almost all over the globe, with greater concentration in certain parts of the globe especially in those regions where processes of change of political systems are taking place, in countries and regions where various crises of a political or economic nature are taking place. new developments in this period will increasingly expose states and societies to the consequences of transnational organized crime, endangering national security, society and the rule of law. the forms in which the organized crime is manifested today, it will be very difficult for states to deal with this phenomenon only with limited state tools or strategies, to make sure for the proper addressing of this phenomenon, there will be an ever-increasing need for cooperation of state and non-state bodies at the international level (collins, 2014). traditional security theories or concepts that were mainly based on issues of war and peace with state as a key actor will increasingly be insufficient to successfully fight organized crime (collins, 2014). in response to disturbing trends in the spread and organization of organized crime, states and international organizations began to develop almost unified and flexible strategies focusing on the international cooperation of various actors, including non-state actors. thus, in 1996, the united states of america, in the national strategy for the fight against organized crime, envisaged the most intensive international involvement and cooperation to address the threats posed by organized crime. after that, the european union, feeling the danger from the spread and organization of organized crime, manifested in eu countries originating from the countries of the soviet union, eastern europe and the balkans, responded by drafting strategies against organized crime and the focus of these strategies was foreseen strengthened regional cooperation. to successfully deal with the threats of organized crime, the european union established the european police office (europol) in 1994, that reached full operational status in 1999. international financial institutions, which were also the main promoters of market liberalization and globalization as a whole, based on the new threats in the field of finance that came as a result of globalization, new strategies began to develop to cope with the rise of financial crime. the united nations began unifying legislative aspects against transnational organized crime by signing the united nations convention against transnational organized crime, and then the anti-corruption convention in 2005 (collins, 2014). 3. understanding the organized crime and transnational criminal organizations the organized crime as a concept and activity is an illegal activity with typologies of criminal phenomena related to the exercise of criminal organizations. as an activity it extends to different social and economic aspects, while in terms of geographical reach, especially in the era of globalization it has a global expansion. the activities of the organized crime are carried out by professional organized criminal groups, having strict defined hierarchy, discipline and norms of behavior. these organized groups carry out various illegal activities, with the primary purpose of material benefit, cooperating with government representatives at the local, state level and with various non-state actors as well. one of the characteristics of organized crime is the 59 close connection in business relations with representatives from the government, financial institutions, economic companies and political parties (suçeska, 2006). its strength derives from its ability to adapt very flexibly to changes in the conditions in which it operates and to all the repressive measures taken by organized society against it. in fact, the organized crime is a well-organized criminal organization, having its hierarchy, discipline, responsibility, loyalty and clear division of duties. the aim of these criminal groups is the greatest possible benefits and legalizing the accumulated gain. (suçeska, 2006). the key objective of the organized crime carriers are social institutions and legalizing the assets gained illegally, precisely through these institutions. organized crime, especially from the 1990s onwards, where many political and economic transformations took place almost all over the globe, appears as a problem for the entire international community. multinational organized crime means the joint criminal groups of individual states, in such a way that their activity takes place in the largest number of states” (korajlic and muharremi 2009). “organized crime occurs as a system parallel to the state system and can be defined as a social structure which criminally operates outside the control of the public (opinion) and the government” (petroviq and dobovshek, 2007) based on some interpol assessments, organized criminal groups, by taking advantage of the fragility of the political and security system in the countries of eastern europe that once were under the soviet union influence, have managed to spread such influence in these regions by establishing very powerful networks having state features within the state itself (korajlic and muharremi 2009). their organizational structure consists of groups of people belonging to various countries, different ethnicities, no longer united by the same origin, but only by a common interest and operating simultaneously in more than one country. such organized groups with international networks, operate in a very wide area, from the balkan countries and extending throughout central and eastern europe, russia, latin america, asian and african countries. illegal trafficking run by these criminal organizations are drugs, weapons, human trafficking, clandestine, stolen cars, money laundering, strategic goods, such as energy resources and others. according to europol estimates, from the cooperation of criminal organizations of a transnational character, 250 tons of cocaine are transported every year from south american countries by sea or air, and the main points of arrival are found in western europe (spain, netherlands, italy, britain and greater europe), as well as in central and eastern europe and the balkan countries, to be distributed in the countries of the european union (sciacchitano, 2007). considering the complexity of organized crime manifested in contemporary society and the growing tendency for the global reach, the united nations organization began designing strategies and efforts to define transnational organized crime in order to achieve a unique definition for all countries. the first attempt in this direction is the united nations convention against transnational organized crime (untoc), which was adopted in september 2003. 4. the activity of the organized crime in western balkans countries as a challenge for the security, trafficking with narcotics and money laundry after the `90s period, a time when great changes took place globally, such as the fall of the iron curtain which is considered the end of the cold war, an event that gave hope to all mankind and in these new circumstances were created the conditions for a good cooperation in all segments of social life. it is exactly this period in which countries of the western balkans was quite challenging and problematic. the main concern of the region in this period was mainly related to state building (doninovska, 2013). the countries of the western balkans, albania, montenegro, kosovo, macedonia, serbia, bosnia and herzegovina and croatia, have gone through a serious situation after the 1990s. albania faced anarchy for longer period of time dominating the albanian political scene and a difficult democratic transition, then the violent dissolution of yugoslavia proved that the democratic transition in these areas would be very costly and great commitment would be required in this part of europe (paszkiewicz, 2013). the western balkans has so far remained the continent's least integrated and most volatile region. even after overcoming open conflicts and beginning the process of democratic transition, these countries faced a lack of consensus on reforms, limited democratic experience and weak institutions that hindered political and economic progress. the delayed and unimplemented reform program shifted countries from the path of a fully functioning market economy to low economic performance, 60 declining living standards, rising unemployment rate and poverty (paszkiewicz, 2013). due to the specifics and events that the countries of the western balkans went through, these also affected the plan of governance in general, this was reflected especially in the field of security. these countries faced institutional fragility, lack of adequate capacities to fight new forms of organized crime, lack of interstate cooperation in combating crime, etc. this situation was used quite well by criminal organizations which spread their network throughout the region, creating the so-called "balkan road", which was initially used for trafficking narcotics and human beings mainly having western europe as a destination (report on the situation of the organized crime and economic crime in the southeast europe 2005, regional project carpo, european commission). the experience has shown that crime in various forms tends to penetrate first of all in countries with democracies and institutions that are in the process of consolidation as well as in the countries with developed economies. in these countries there is a suitable environment for the development and spread of various criminal acts. in this very same situation are the countries of the western balkans since `90s until today and they are still in a phase of democratic transition having unstable economy, weak rule of law, etc. the balkan route of trafficking with narcotics as well as other organized criminal activities, serves as a transit route between drug producing countries to one of the largest drug consuming markets, such as western europe. various types of drugs are smuggled through this route such as heroin, cocaine, cannabis products, amphetamines. heroin, mostly produced in countries like afghanistan, pakistan and iran. according to the 2005 world drug report, about 410 metric tons of heroin were produced in afghanistan and most of it was transported to europe and russia via balkan routes (undoc world report on drugs, 2006). regarding the trafficking of narcotic substance heroin, it is trafficked from the countries of production in asia largely by turkish criminal groups cooperating with albanian groups that smuggle this substance in europe through italy. another route for heroin trafficking to western and central europe is the turkey-bulgaria-romania-hungary route (international narcotics control board, report of the international narcotics control board for 2013, vienna international centre). the confiscated heroin and opium from the customs authorities in western europe and central one from the year 2011 is 1.4 tons and 3.3 tons in 2012 (international narcotics control board, report of the international narcotics control board for vienna international centre, 2013). the balkan countries, despite becoming a transit country for various drug trafficking to european countries, at the same time a significant amount of narcotics is sold in these there as well and this is stated in the report of the united nations office on drugs and crime as well. according to the united nations office on drugs and crime, the drug type heroin expressed in kg, consumed in the western balkans countries for the period of 2009-2012, it is as follows: albania, lower estimate 331, medium estimate 416, higher estimate 511; bosnia and hercegovina, lower estimate 285, medium estimate 358 higher estimate 439; croatia , lower estimate 362, medium estimate 455, higher estimate 559; kosova, lower estimate 164, medium estimate 206, higher estimate 253; north macedonia, lower estimate 255, medium estimate 321, higher estimate 394; monte negro, lower estimate 53, medium estimate 66, higher estimate 82; serbia, lower estimate 485, medium estimate 609, higher estimate 748 (united nations office on drugs and crime vienna, 2015). from trafficking narcotics, western balkans countries criminal groups manage to secure large material benefits which then, through various economic processes and transactions, they introduce them into normal economic flows, thus committing money laundering. the assessment that emerges from the report of the united nations office results in these benefiting figures for the countries of the western balkans and these benefits are estimated only from the trafficking of heroin and opium. the total of benefits from trafficking of heroin and opium per country for the period of 2009-2012 expressed in million/american dollars: albania, lower estimate 255, medium estimate 320, higher estimate 392; bosnia and hercegovina, lower estimate 32, medium estimate 40, higher estimate 49; croatia , lower estimate 177, medium estimate 223, higher estimate 273; 61 kosova, lower estimate 20, medium estimate 25, higher estimate 31; north macedonia, lower estimate 31, medium estimate 39, higher estimate 47; monte negro, lower estimate 9, medium estimate 11, higher estimate 14; serbia, lower estimate 27, medium estimate 33, higher estimate 41. (drug money the illicit proceeds of opiates trafficked on the balkan route, 2015 united nations office on drugs and crime). cocaine, vastly produced in in latin america countries. (drug use and its consequences in the western balkans, 2006, european monitoring centre for drugs and drug addiction). global production of cocaine in year 2005 is estimated to be 910 metric tons (drug use and its consequences in the western balkans, 2006, european monitoring centre for drugs and drug addiction). the quantity of this drug from the producing countries has two main destinations, one for the south american market and the other for western and central europe. in europe, cocaine is trafficked through two routes: one across the atlantic ocean to the netherlands and spain and the other across the adriatic sea to greece, albania, montenegro and croatia (drug use and its consequences in the western balkans, 2006, european monitoring centre for drugs and drug addiction). another route of cocaine trafficking passing through the balkan countries is the black sea route that goes through bulgaria, romania, hungary, with the main destination being western europe (report of the international narcotics control board for 2013, international narcotics control board). the confiscated amount of cocaine for 2006 in western europe and central one is 120 tons, while in 2008 is 60 tons, in 2011 34.2 tons and in year 2012 is 35.9 tons (report of the international narcotics control board for 2013, international narcotics control board). a great amount of this quantity went through balkan trafficking routes. cannabis products, mainly consisting of three different products: herbal cannabis (marijuana), hashish and cannabis oil, are also trafficked via the balkan route and except being trafficked to western europe, this type of drug has a high consumption in balkan countries as well which in fact produce it as well. the amount of global cannabis production is estimated to be 45,000 metric tons per year (report on the situation of the organized crime and economic crime in the southeast europe 2005, regional project carpo, european commission). the countries with the highest level of cultivation are morocco, followed by afghanistan and pakistan. european countries of its cultivation are considered to be the netherlands and albania (report on the situation of the organized crime and economic crime in the southeast europe 2005, regional project carpo, european commission). the greatest consumption market of this drug europe and that’s why the main artery or trafficking is the balkan path towards europe. marihuana is trafficked mainly through sea, using the ports of italy, albania, croatia, and montenegro not excluding other methods of trafficking. this type of drug has great consumption in the western balkans countries as well delivered mainly through albania and montenegro, serbia, bosna and hercegovina, while albania is present in the european market mainly through two routes, through italy and greece (report on the situation of the organized crime and economic crime in the southeast europe 2007, regional project carpo, european commission). amphetamine type stimulators, at the global level main producers of this type drugs are considered to be china followed by philippines then poland. the production on the global level is considered to be 480 metric tons. (report on the situation of the organized crime and economic crime in the southeast europe 2007, regional project carpo, european commission). this type of drugs based on the evaluations is produced in other central and western europe countries as well and as for the balkan countries, the reports on the level of consumers or smugglers, are in lower numbers. among the balkan countries, serbia is considered as the most important market of these synthetic drugs (report on the situation of the organized crime and economic crime in the southeast europe 2005, regional project carpo, european commission). according to two researches related to balkans, there are two transit roads or narcotic trafficking in balkans, the western road going through albania towards italy the northern road going through balkan countries toward austria. the annual amounts of trafficking with narcotics through balkan roads is estimated to be about 20 milliard dollars (drug use and its consequences in the western balkans 2006 european monitoring centre for drugs and drug addiction). considering the fact that in europe the number of persons having experience with use of drugs is considered to be about 40 million people and this evaluation is for the year 2006 (report on the 62 situation of the organized crime and economic crime in the southeast europe 2007, regional project carpo, european commission). this makes the european narcotics market very lucrative for criminal organizations from the western balkan countries. such groups make good use of the geographical position of these countries, which serve as a connecting bridge of trafficking from asia to europe, through criminal groups of turkey. the activity of organized crime in the countries of the western balkans is quite evident in the economic crime and money laundering. in fact, there is a great and almost inseparable link between organized crime and economic crime and money laundering, because the main purpose of organized crime is to increase profitability and then integrate this profit, i.e. money into the normal flow of economic transactions. as defined in the “international convention”, money laundry means the possession, benefit, exchange, transfer or use of the wealth created by criminal activity (united nations convention against illegal trafficking narcotics and psychotropic substances 1988, the assembly of the united nations). during the money laundering process, organized crime exponents take a number of other illegal actions, setting up fraudulent enterprises, various investments in privatization processes and other economic aspects. in the countries of the western balkans it is considered that there is a very suitable ground for money laundering where criminal organizations do money laundering in various economic sectors such as: banking and financial sectors, tax evasion, customs fraud, fraud in bankruptcy proceedings etc (report on the situation of the organized crime and economic crime in the southeast europe 2007, regional project carpo, european commission). to combat money laundering phenomenon, the countries of the western balkans have signed the international and european conventions related to the prevention of money laundering, and financial intelligence units have been set up as obligations under international conventions on money laundering. regarding the signing of these conventions kosovo is the only country that differs, which is not yet a member of the united nations, but with its “constitution” she takes responsibility for their implementation (assembly of the republic of kosovo, 2008). 5. conclusions the international relations system and the international security system have undergone great changes in the period of globalization. this process of change of a great dynamic was enabled by technological development and the process of globalization. in this relatively short period of time, the world experienced the end of bipolar regulation, an accelerated process of globalization, a general trend of de-territorialization of various political, economic, social and security issues, the development of means of transport and communication, an increased circulation of international finance, goods and persons. these are just some of the factors that greatly influenced the international system in general, as well as the security system in particular. in the new circumstances without the bipolar rivalry, the security settings have changed, so the security of sovereign states no longer represents only the protection of territories from external threats coming from other sovereign states, but it also includes the control of transnational threats coming from various non-state actors and the organized crime is one of them. today’s threats in the security field come from more heterogeneous factors, ranging from changing of the global power structures, collapse of states and regional conflicts, the information technology revolution and national security, economic inequality and energy security, transnational organized crime and terrorism, health, diseases and biosafety, environmental safety etc. the organized crime has been present in society at almost all stages of its development, but new trends in the international system are being used by organized crime as well, manifesting itself in more perfidious forms of organization and spread, for the establishment of transnational criminal undertakings. in the western balkans countries, the organized crime had a momentum of growth in this period, creating balkan trafficking routes and turning the region into a bridge between criminal organizations. these organizations expanded their network to large parts of the globe making it impossible to combat with individual approaches from the states individually. for trafficking of various narcotics from the countries of production to the market of western and central europe are largely used the so-called balkan routes, where according to the un office on drugs report for the period 2009-2012, criminal organizations from the countries of the western balkans managed to benefit millions of dollars. these illicit benefits now are another concern for the security of these countries, as these funds are laundered by these criminal organizations, where the proceeds from drug trafficking and other criminal activities enter the normal course of business and economic transactions. this organized crime activity causes a negative chain effect establishing a parallel economy which affects the inflation 63 process in the national economies, promoting corruption, criminal activities, financial and monetary speculation. the entry of illicit origin money into the legal financial system violates national security by producing corruption in politics and public administration, as well as the introduction of criminal activities into lawful business. referring to these data, it is evident that various organized crime organizations cooperate and have their own network with global reach, challenging the security at the state and international level. to successfully face the risks of organized crime, nowadays the individual states have increased their efforts on cooperation and interaction with various international actors, including other states, international organizations, intergovernmental cooperation etc. strategies and state security institutions are changing, creating cooperation and interaction opportunities in the fight against organized crime. former methods and approaches of security institutions are being increasingly abandoned as a result of insufficiency to face this global phenomenon alone. references 1. berisha s. 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(2007). lufta kundër krimit të organizuar transnacional në hapësirën juridike dhe gjyqësore evropiane (the fight against transnational organized crime in the european legal and judicial area). training course for judges, prosecutors and judicial police officers. unicri tirana. (pdf). 47-57. 21. http://www.unicri.us/services/library_documentation/ publications/unicri_series/manual_albanian.pdf 22. suçeska m. (2006). bazat e kriminalitetit ekonomik (introduction to economic criminality) fsk/s 07/06, prishtinë. (book). 37-45 23. united nations office on drugs and crime (2006), world drugs report. 24. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-andanalysis/wdr-2006.html 25. united nations office on drugs and crime (2005). model legislation on money laundering and financing of terrorism. available at https://www.unodc.org/documents/moneylaundering/ 2005%20unodc%20and%20imf%20model%20l egislation.pdf 26. united nations office on drugs and crime (2015). drug money the illicit proceeds of opiates trafficked on the balkan route, 82. available at https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-andanalysis/studies/iff_report_2015_final_web.pdf https://www.unodc.org/documents/moneylaundering/2005%20unodc%20and%20imf%20model%20legislation.pdf https://www.unodc.org/documents/moneylaundering/2005%20unodc%20and%20imf%20model%20legislation.pdf https://www.unodc.org/documents/moneylaundering/2005%20unodc%20and%20imf%20model%20legislation.pdf https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/studies/iff_report_2015_final_web.pdf https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/studies/iff_report_2015_final_web.pdf 79 appropriate natural disaster management policy in guarantee accuracy of target post disaster assistance widyawati boediningsih, sh, mh, prof. dr. afdol afdol, s.h., m.s, dr. woro winandi, s.h., m.h, dr. suwardi, s.h., m.h narotama university, faculty of law, watiekwidyawati@gmail.com article history: accepted 10 june 2019 available online 21 july april 2019 keywords: policy, disaster relief, on target a b s t r a c t indonesia is a region that disaster-affected which often arise, it is because of indonesia is an equatorial boundary is the line where a slab of earth impact of catastrophes. against such conditions it is with the frequent disasters continue to occur so it is necessary prepared in disaster response. so far it has provided device regulatory disaster management, namely law no. 24 of 2007 which provides a framework for disaster management, including pre-disaster, emergency response and post-disaster. indonesia is a country that is very rich, dazzling beauty of the panorama, so many interesting foreign tourists to come and see the beauty. in addition, indonesia is a country that often mengalmi natural disasters, ranging from floods, volcanoes to the tsunami, indonesia is a disasterprone geographical location. disasters can be caused by natural factors and due to the irresponsible behavior of the use and management of natural resources (sda) and the environment. although the law has outlined a comprehensive disaster management provisions, so far the response is still focused on emergency response issues. further action such as mitigation, rehabilitation and reconstruction seems not be the main priority of disaster management activities. another problem that is still experiencing problems is coordination, speed of relief, aid accuracy and evenness of distribution logistics. institutional: on the mandate of law 24/2007 also institutional been formed national disaster management agency (bnpb) at the regional level throughout and indonesia. bnpb also formed a technical executing unit area (uptd) 12 units. bnpb institution supported by trained human resources (hr) who are ready to be deployed to the hardest terrain even though this certainly must be supported by adequate and measurable funding in the apbn (state budget) and apbd (regional budget). institutional strengthening: grand designs required in order to strengthen institutional capacity and disaster management standard that is fast, responsive, and professional in accordance with international standards. introduction the government should optimize the participatory role of all stakeholders in disaster. one of them with educational institutions such as universities. working together with universities to do in order to approach the disaster with existing knowledge, that can actually be used as a basis for us to improve human resource capabilities in the framework of the planning application handling problems better disaster. capacity building (capacity building) for strengthening institutional capacity and the preparation of the carrying capacity of disaster management should be implemented in a measured planned as an attempt to anticipate the impact of the disaster worse. law 24/2007 clearly confirms the disaster is not just an emergency response action. but also covers a wider 80 process, namely mitigation (pre-disaster) and the reconstruction and rehabilitation (post disaster). various agencies should give priority to disaster management that is proportional to the third stage of disaster management, particularly the mitigation phase, reconstruction, and rehabilitation is often not even clear choked handling. therefore, the role and participation of the college as a working partner to be significant in this context. some things that need attention together in a partnership that, among other things, the importance of mapping of disaster-prone areas, publishing module and information systems in disaster management, training of community-based disaster management and social recovery after the disaster. with synergistic cooperation pattern, the expected role of the government in tackling the disaster is not just to be a 'firefighter' in case of disaster. the government can play a role in the pre-disaster phase and are able to develop a national disaster preparedness, particularly the ability of disaster management. the synergy of government efforts by all stakeholders in disaster can also be directed in the formulation of strategies and programs to anticipate natural disasters and build a network of stakeholders who play a role in the anticipation and disaster education program. this could be followed up by forming a task force (task force) and the anticipation of disaster education in order to accelerate and streamline the implementation of disaster education program, and empower people to adapt to the natural disaster-prone environments. many communities are powerless occur in anticipation of natural disasters resulting in the number of fatalities and economic losses of any natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, floods, and landslides. therefore, a strategy and a natural disaster education program is very urgent to be formulated. it can be further educate the community to be more responsive to disasters. with the right strategy, expected education program to anticipate natural disasters can be done effectively, then it is expected that people can be empowered and anticipatory in dealing with natural disasters. what matters is the number of institutions that deal with disasters can lead to overlap and confusion regarding the domain of duties and responsibilities in disaster management. coordination should also be improved with the institutions of the non-government carries out the task of collecting and distributing disaster with resources and assistance for disaster relief. clearly visible on the ground that the need for synergy among ministries related to needs in various fields. perhaps for this handling is still overlap. bnbp should outline clearly the duties and authorities, be it pre-disaster, during disaster, or after the disaster. for example, the handling of schools and hospitals damaged by natural disasters, it is the task of anyone. even if the ministry of national education, ministry of health or the ministry of social affairs, for example, when they need help. natural disaster management in the region in need of a precise and rapid handling course in accordance with the rules of the applicable law, hence the readiness and responsiveness of local government officials in the face of natural disasters in need of togetherness, and can localize the impact of natural disasters itself. and besides since the fall of the totalitarian dictator suharto era end of the last millennium, the conflict for the sake of conflict arise in the community. not only against the background of different beliefs, competition for land related to the “stomach”, but also to the conflict aimed at secession of a state entity indonesia with the theme of self-determination. more complex, the incidence of conflict is often accompanied by the occurrence of natural disasters, resulting in the need to reference at field level on what legal basis should be resolved first, disaster or conflict management. 1. problems formulation from the description above, it can be identified some problems related to bureaucratic regulation of responsibility for the validity of post-disaster assistance: 1.how is the system so that the assistance is right on target? 2. what changes occurred after the aid to the people affected by the disaster? 2. literature review 2.1. post-disaster mitigation government efforts to synergize with all stakeholders in disaster can be directed in the formulation of strategies and programs to anticipate natural disasters and build a network of stakeholders who play a role in the anticipation and disaster education program. this could be followed up by forming a task force and the anticipation of disaster education in order to accelerate and streamline the implementation of disaster education program, and empower people to adapt to the natural disaster-prone environments. many communities are powerless occur in anticipation of natural disasters resulting in the number of fatalities and economic losses of any natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, floods, and landslides. therefore, a strategy and a natural disaster education program is very urgent to be formulated. it can be further educate the community to be more responsive to disasters. with the right strategy, expected education program to anticipate natural disasters can be done effectively, the community is expected to be powerless and anticipatory in dealing with natural disasters. what matters is the number of institutions that deal with disasters can lead to overlap and confusion regarding the domain of duties 81 and responsibilities in disaster management. coordination should also be improved with non-governmental agencies are also to conduct disaster by collecting and distributing resources and assistance for disaster relief. it must be managed properly and needs to be built format of effective communication and coordination so that is not a new problem in the process of disaster management. clearly visible on the ground that the need for synergy among ministries related to needs in various fields. perhaps for this handling is still overlap. bnbp should outline clearly the duties and authorities, be it pre-disaster, during disaster, or after the disaster. for example, the handling of schools and hospitals damaged by natural disasters, it is the task of anyone. even if the ministry of national education, ministry of health or the ministry of social affairs, for example, when they need help. likewise with other ministries. if they overlap certainly maximum results can not be realized. need support funding so far the budget for disaster at around rp3 trillion 2010 budget, as well as last year (2009). on the other hand, local governments also allocate funds in the budget as a precaution in the event of a disaster. however, facts on the ground disaster management agency (bpbd) district recognizes agencies unprepared for natural disasters which sometimes hit the region. 2.2. post-disaster relief regulations process in connection with the mitigation process, the government should optimize the entire stakeholder participatory role of disaster. one of them with educational institutions such as universities. working together with universities to do in order to approach the disaster with the existing scientific theories, that can actually be used as a basis for us to improve human resource capabilities in planning and application handling problems better disaster. some things that need to get joint attention in cooperation, among others, are the importance of mapping disaster-prone areas, publishing modules and information systems in disaster management, training of social recovery after the disaster. with a synergistic pattern of cooperation, it is expected that the government can play a more important role at the pre-disaster stage and be able to develop national disaster preparedness, in particular the ability of management to the disaster relief fund targeted. natural disaster management in the region in need of a rapid handling precise and of course in conformity with the rule of law in force therefore readiness and responsiveness of the government apparatus of regions in the face of natural disasters in need of togetherness, and can merokalisir impacts of natural disasters itself , and besides since the fall of the totalitarian dictator suharto era end of the last millennium, the conflict for the sake of conflict arise in the community. not only against the background of different beliefs, competition for land associated with the “stomach”, but also to the conflict aimed at secession of a state entity indonesia with the theme of self-determination. more complex, the incidence of conflict is often accompanied by the occurrence of natural disasters, resulting in the situation on the ground need to reference what legal basis should be resolved first, disaster or conflict management. the availability of budget for disaster at approximately 3 trillion 2010 budget, as well as last year (2009). on the other hand, local governments also allocate funds in the budget as a precaution in the event of a disaster. however, facts on the ground regional disaster management agency (bpbd) between the district is not ready to face natural disasters that sometimes hit the region. head of emergency response pbd expressed concern because there is no budget allocation was prepared for natural disaster relief and postdisaster costs. according to him, the absence of budget items to prevent disasters that are plotted through the regional budget (apbd) 2010 fiscal year raised concerns that high if a disaster occurred in this area (abc news, may 18, 2010) even in an emergency situation there is often a relief agencies and grants , but the government should not rely on this uncertain nature of things. because many disasters related to human survival that need the help of fast motion. next in article 5 explained that the government and local authorities responsible for disaster management. following up the provisions of article 5 of law disaster management, the government formed a national disaster management agency (bnpb). this body is a non departmental government institutions (officials), which has the task to assist the president in coordinating the planning and implementation of disaster management and emergency in an integrated manner, and to implement disaster management and emergency from before, during, and after the disaster that includes prevention, preparedness, emergency response, and recovery. national disaster management agency established pursuant to presidential decree no. 8 of 2008. 2.3. guidance and direction of disaster according to article 12 of the law of disaster management, national disaster management agency has the task: 1. against the disaster relief effort that includes disaster prevention, emergency response, rehabilitation, and reconstruction the fair and equitable; 2. establish standardization and needs disaster management operations based on laws and regulations; 3. delivering information to community disaster management activities; 4. disaster management report to the president once a month under normal conditions and at all times in a state of emergency; 82 5. used and accounted contributions / national and international aid; 6. account for the use of the budget received from the state budget; 7. carry out other obligations in accordance with laws and regulations; and 8. develop guidelines for the establishment of the regional disaster management agency. with the establishment nomro act 24 of 2007 on disaster management and all the laws thereof, then outline the scope of disaster management into: a. all disaster relief efforts undertaken during the predisaster, emergency response and post-disaster; b. a focus efforts on pre-disaster preventive; c. granting easy access for disaster response agencies during emergency response; and d. the implementation of the rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts in post-disaster. as the understanding of disaster management, a series of efforts that include the establishment of development policies risk of disaster, disaster prevention activities, emergency response, and rehabilitation. from this sense, disaster management operations are divided into three (3) stages of the process, namely: 1. predisaster in this stage, is still divided into two (2) situations, namely: a. in a disaster situation; and b. the situation there is a potential disaster. in a disaster situation, some of the activities undertaken include: a. disaster planning; b. disaster risk reduction; c. prevention; d. integration into development planning; e. disaster risk analysis requirements; f. implementation and enforcement of spatial planning; g. education and training; and h. disaster management technical standard requirements. i. as well as research and development in the field of disaster. in response activities in this pre-disaster phase, was composed of a disaster plan based on the analysis of disaster risk and disaster reduction efforts outlined in the disaster management program and details of the budget in indonesia coordinated by: a. national disaster management at the national level; b. national provincial disaster management at the provincial level; and c. national disaster management district / city to the district / city. disaster management plans as referred to above are set by the government or regional government in accordance with its authority for a period of 5 (five) years, and periodically reviewed every two (2) years or at any time in case of disaster. this arrangement should refer to the guidelines set by the head of the national disaster management agency. see law no. 24 year 2007 on disaster management and presidential decree no. 8 of 2008 on the national disaster management agency. risk reduction is an activity to reduce the threats and vulnerabilities and to improve the ability of communities to cope with disasters, and some activities that can be done in this process: a. introduction and monitoring of disaster risks; b. participatory planning of disaster management; c. development of a culture of disaster awareness; d. increasing commitment to disaster management actors; and the application of the physical, non-physical, and disaster management arrangements. the action plan disaster or who is often referred to as rpb prepared in a comprehensive and integrated in a forum that includes elements of the government, non-government, community and institutional effort coordinated by the national disaster management agency, while in the area coordinated by the regional disaster management agency , national action plans and a local action plan for disaster risk reduction is set for a period of three (3) years and may be reviewed in accordance with the needs. prevention is the pre-disaster phase is done by reducing disaster threats and vulnerabilities that threatened the disaster through the following activities: a. identification and recognition of a source of danger or hazard; b. monitoring; c. supervising the implementation of spatial planning and environmental management; d. strengthening social resiliency. in accordance with article 35 e of law number 24 of 2007 on disaster management that discusses requirements for disaster risk analysis aimed to determine and assess the level of risk of a condition or activities that could lead to disaster. disaster risk analysis are prepared and determined by the head of national disaster management agency by involving related institutions / organizations. disaster risk analysis used as a basis in the preparation of environmental impact assessment, spatial 83 arrangements and making disaster prevention and mitigation measures, so that future development activities that have a high risk of catastrophic, must be equipped with disaster risk analysis. 2. emergency response disaster management during emergency response: a. quick and accurate assessment of the location, damage, loss, and resources; b. disaster emergency status determination; c. rescue and evacuation of people affected by the disaster; d. fulfillment of basic needs; e. protection of vulnerable groups; and f. immediate restoration of vital infrastructure and facilities. rapid assessment carried out by the rapid assessment team based on the assignment of the head of national disaster management agency or the head of the regional disaster management agency appropriate authority. quick and accurate assessment referred to is conducted through the identification of: a. disaster site coverage; b. the number of victims; c. facilities and infrastructure; d. interfere with the function of public services and governance; and e. the ability of natural and artificial resources.. 3. research methods the research method is basically a scientific way to obtain data for the specific purpose and uses. this study uses qualitative research. qualitative research is to interpret and describe the circumstances in accordance with the reality that has been obtained. in qualitative research, researchers are expected to have more breadth in drafting, describe, and analyze the results of the data entry field subjectively (sugioyo, 2010: 54). based on the formulation of the problem that has been noted, this study includes qualitative research to describe and inventory conception of society or the view of ideas, ideas, actions or measures undertaken in depth about natural disasters and ways to overcome them, in the form of case studies, as said bogdan and biklen (1982: 58) that the case study is a detailed study on a background, or one object, a document storage area, or a particular event. the cases always attached to qualitative research 4. discussion 4.1. definition of natural disasters natural disasters are a consequence of a combination of natural (a physical event, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, landslides, etc.) and human activity. the weakness of humans due to lack of emergency management, causing losses in financial and structural, even until death. natural disasters can also be interpreted as a disaster caused by natural phenomena. symptom nature is a very natural phenomenon and common in the earth. however, only when the natural phenomenon hit human (soul) and all product cultivation (ownership, property and objects), we can only call it a disaster. losses generated depends on the ability to prevent or avoid disasters and their durability. this understanding associated with the statement: "disasters emerged when hazards meet with helplessness". thus, the hazardous nature of activity will not be a natural disaster in areas without human powerlessness, for example earthquakes in uninhabited areas. consequently, the use of the term "natural" is also challenged because the event is not just a danger or calamity without human involvement. the amount of potential losses also depends on the shape of his own danger, starting fires, which threaten individual buildings, to large meteor collision events that could potentially put an end to human civilization. emergency response measures that will be discussed include two broader process, namely mitigation (pre-disaster) and reconstruction, rehabilitation (disaster) measures the synergy of government with all stakeholders in disaster can also be directed in the formulation of strategies and programs to anticipate natural disasters and build a network of stakeholders which plays a role in the anticipation and disaster education program. this could be followed up by forming a task force (task force) and the anticipation of disaster education in order to accelerate and streamline the implementation of disaster education program, and empower people to adapt to the natural disaster-prone environments. many communities are powerless occur in anticipation of natural disasters resulting in the number of fatalities and economic losses of any natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, floods, and landslides. therefore, a strategy and a natural disaster education program is very urgent to be formulated. it can be further educate the community to be more responsive to disasters. with the right strategy, expected education program to anticipate natural disasters can be done effectively, the community is expected to be powerless and anticipatory in dealing with natural disasters. a dynamic process, integrated and sustainable to improve the quality measures associated with the handling, a series of activities that include prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, rehabilitation and rebuilding. what matters is the number of institutions that deal with disasters can lead to overlap and confusion regarding the domain of duties and responsibilities in disaster management. coordination should also be improved with non-governmental agencies are also to conduct disaster by collecting and distributing resources and assistance for 84 disaster relief. it must be managed properly and needs to be built format of effective communication and coordination so that is not a new problem in the process of disaster management. clearly visible on the ground that the need for synergy among ministries related to needs in various fields. perhaps for this handling is still overlap. bnbp should outline clear and wewenannya task, be it pre-disaster, during disaster, or catastrophe. for example, the handling of schools and hospitals damaged by natural disasters, it is the task of anyone. even if the ministry of national disaster management agency, 2012. regulation bnpb no. 02 of 2012 on general guidelines for disaster risk assessment, ministry of national education, ministry of health or the ministry of social affairs, for example, when they need help. likewise with other ministries. if they overlap certainly maximum results can not be realized. need support funding so far the budget for disaster at approximately 3 trillion 2010 budget, as well as last year (2009). on the other hand, local governments also allocate funds in the budget as a precaution in the event of a disaster. however, facts on the ground disaster management agency (bpbd) district recognizes agencies unprepared for natural disasters which sometimes hit the region. the ministry of health or the ministry of social affairs, for example, when they need help. likewise with other ministries. if they overlap certainly maximum results can not be realized. need support funding so far the budget for disaster at approximately 3 trillion 2010 budget, as well as last year (2009). on the other hand, local governments also allocate funds in the budget as a precaution in the event of a disaster. however, facts on the ground disaster management agency (bpbd) district recognizes agencies unprepared for natural disasters which sometimes hit the region. the ministry of health or the ministry of social affairs, for example, when they need help. likewise with other ministries. if they overlap certainly maximum results can not be realized. need support funding so far the budget for disaster at approximately 3 trillion 2010 budget, as well as last year (2009). on the other hand, local governments also allocate funds in the budget as a precaution in the event of a disaster. however, facts on the ground disaster management agency (bpbd) district recognizes agencies unprepared for natural disasters which sometimes hit the region. need support funding so far the budget for disaster at approximately 3 trillion 2010 budget, as well as last year (2009). on the other hand, local governments also allocate funds in the budget as a precaution in the event of a disaster. however, facts on the ground disaster management agency (bpbd) district recognizes agencies unprepared for natural disasters which sometimes hit the region. need support funding so far the budget for disaster at approximately 3 trillion 2010 budget, as well as last year (2009). on the other hand, local governments also allocate funds in the budget as a precaution in the event of a disaster. however, facts on the ground disaster management agency (bpbd) district recognizes agencies unprepared for natural disasters which sometimes hit the region. the purpose of disaster management are: 1. provide protection to the public from the threat of natural disasters; see law no. 24 year 2007 on disaster management and presidential decree no. 8 of 2008 on the national disaster management agency. according to article 12 of the law of disaster management, national disaster management agency has the task: 2. provide guidance and direction to the disaster relief effort that includes disaster prevention, emergency response, rehabilitation, and reconstruction struksi fairly and equitably; 3. establish standardization and implementation of disaster management needs by legislation; 4. delivering information to the community disaster prevention activities; 5. report to the president disaster management every month once in normal conditions and at all times in a state of emergency; 6. use and account for contributions / national and international aid; 7. accounting for the use of the budget received from the state budget and expenditure; 8. carry out other obligations in accordance with laws and regulations; and 9. develop guidelines for the establishment of the regional disaster management agency. with the establishment nomro act 24 of 2007 on disaster management and all the laws thereof, then outline the scope of disaster management into: a. all disaster relief efforts undertaken during the pre-disaster, emergency response and post-disaster; b. a focus efforts on pre-disaster preventive; c. granting easy access for disaster management agency at the time of response emergency; and d. the implementation of the rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts in post-disaster. a. in the event of a disaster situation disaster management planning include: 1) introduction and assessment of hazards. 2) understanding vulnerability. 3) analyze the impact of disasters. 4) choice of disaster risk reduction measures. 5) determination of the mechanism of preparedness and disaster mitigation. 85 6) the allocation of tasks, the authority and the resources available. 7) the preparation of disaster management plans coordinated with: bnpb at national level, bpbd to the provincial level, bpbd for district / city level and set by the government and local government in accordance with its authority for a period of 5 years. 8) plan for disaster management periodically reviewed every 2 years or at any time in the event of a disaster. 9) preparation of disaster management plans is carried out based on guidelines set by the head of bnpb. disaster risk reduction is carried out to reduce threats and vulnerabilities and improve the ability of communities to deal with disasters through activities: a. the introduction and monitoring of disaster risks. b. participatory planning of disaster management. c. development of disaster awareness culture. d. increased commitment to disaster management actors. e. the application of physical and non-physical efforts and disaster management arrangements. f. to perform disaster risk reduction efforts conducted risk reduction action plan, both national and local levels. prevention is accomplished by reducing the threat of disaster threatened dankerentanan parties to perform activities include: 1) identifying and recognizing accurately the a source of danger / hazards 2) control of the acquisition and management of natural resources which suddenly could potentially be a source of disaster. 3) monitoring the use of technology. 4) spatial planning and environmental management. 5) strengthening social resiliency determining the status of emergencies. emergency response implemented by the central government or local governments in accordance with the level of disaster to the national level set by the president, the provincial governor and district / city level oleh regent / mayor. at the time of disaster emergency status is determined bnpb and bpbd have easy access to the field: 1) the deployment of human resources. 2) the deployment of equipment. 3) the deployment logistics. 4) immigration, customs and quarantine. 5) licensing. 6) procurement of goods and services. 7) management and accountability of the money / goods. 8) rescue. 9) command to order the agency / institution. c .. rescue and evacuation victims. at this stage, by providing humanitarian services arising result of the disasters in a region through efforts to: 1. rescue victims 2. emergency relief. 3) evacuate the victim and the victim's funeral who died. 4) fulfilling basic needs. in this stage the government must provide basic needs: a) the need for clean water and sanitation. b) food. c) clothing. d) the health service. e) psychosocial services. f) shelter and shelter. protecting vulnerable groups. done by giving priority to the vulnerable groups in the form of rescue, evacuation, security, health care and psychosocial support. as for the vulnerable groups consisting of: a) infants, toddlers and children. b) women who are pregnant and breastfeeding. c) people with disabilities. d) seniors recovery of vital infrastructure and facilities. recovery of vital infrastructure and facilities aimed at the functioning of vital infrastructure and facilities immediately, so that people's lives will continue, carried out by repairing / replacing disaster damage in handling disaster management in the post-disaster phase rehabilitation and reconstruction activities. a. rehabilitation 1. improvement of environmental disaster areas 2. improving public infrastructure 3. the provision of home improvement community 4. recovery of social psychological 5. health care 6. reconciliation and conflict resolution 7. recovery of social, economical and cultural 8. restore security and order 9. restore functions of government 10. recovery of public service functions 11. other provisions concerning rehabilitation regulated by government regulation. b. reconstruction conducted through better development include: a. the rebuilding of infrastructures b. social reconstruction c. revive the social life d. the application of proper design and use of equipment better and resilient. 86 e. participation and involvement of institutions kemsasyarakatan organization. f. improvement of social, economic, cultural g. increased public service functions. h. improvement of services in the community. i other provisions concerning rekinstruksi regulated by government regulations conclusion the government of the regulations issued has developed disaster management and mitigation that has been set by the government which has to accommodate the interests and responsibilities of the various parties involved drafting process involving various government and non-government and private sector from across the region and provide an opportunity to all parties to contributing to the preparation of disaster management policies. establish community participation and decentralization through the distribution of authority and resources at the local level. policies establish and empower a special area networking forum for disaster risk reduction. policy administration systems that are ready to monitor, archive and disseminate data on potential disaster. policies to strengthen the area of risk assessment documents. policies apply research methods for the study of the disaster. policies to strengthen the economic field production to reduce the vulnerability of the economy. policy applies procedures for assessing the impact of disaster risk on large development projects, especially infrastructure. 1. policy disaster contingency planning, conducting regular exercises to test and develop programs for emergency response. 2. policy for providing relevant procedures for conducting post-disaster reviews during the emergency response period suggestion based on the results of the analysis of disaster management policies, the following are suggested. to improve the effectiveness of disaster management policies, the government needs to strengthen the coordination of fellow governments with the district, city and private regions. the political commitment of regional heads is very necessary to ensure the main influence of land disaster relief. references 1. great. 2012. analysis of damage caused by flood lahara land use post-eruption of merapi volcano in 2010 in subzone kali putih. essay. surakarta: faculty of geography ums. 2. anonymous. 2007. law no. 24 year 2007 on disaster management. gazette of the republic of indonesia in 2007 number 66: jakarta. anonymous. 2007. act no. 4 of 1992 on housing and settlement. : jakarta. 3. anonymous. 2003. decree of the minister of home affairs no. 131 2003: jakarta. anonymous. 1994. article 2 (1) of law no. 12 of 1985 jo. act no. 12 of 1994 on land and building tax: jakarta asdak, c. 2004. hydrology and watershed management. gadjah mada university press, yogyakarta. 4. asian disaster reduction center. 2003. prevention and disaster management. http://socialstudies17.blogspot.com/2012/11/recognizepencegahandisaster-dan.html accessed september 13, 2013. 5. bakornas pbp. 2007. urban disaster mitigation policy manager in indonesia. jakarta: the national coordinating board for disaster management. 6. bemmelen, van. history 1934 eruption of mount tangkuban perahu.http: // www, kotasubang. com / 2013/10/17 / history-eruption-gunungtangkubanparahu / accessed november 15, 2013. 7. bintarto and hadisumarno. 1982. exploring the geography knowledge. jakarta: lp3es. chay, asdak. 2007. hydrology and watershed management sungai.yogyakarta: gadjah mada university perss. 8. coburn, wa, jrs spence, a. 1994. pomonis disaster management training program. undp disaster mitigation module, 2nd edition. 9. dibyosaputro, s. 1998. volcano. yogyakarta: gadjah mada faculty of geography. 10. djauhari noor. 2011. geology for planning. yogyakarta: graha science. 11. hardjowigeno, s. 1993. soil classification and pedogenesis. pressindo academic, jakarta. 12. hartuti, rine, evi. 2009. book smart earthquake. yogyakarta: diva press. 13. hendarsah, haruman. 2012. vulnerability and capacity assessment in the face of danger society lava flood salam subdistrict magelang using 87 participatory gis method. master thesis yogyakarta: fak. geography. 14. spatial dictionary. 1997. definition of settlement: jakarta. 15. kurniasih, sri. enterprises 2007. slum improvement in petukangan northsouth jakarta. research report. jakarta: architecture university budi luhur. 16. lavigne, franck, thouret, jean claude, voight, b., suwa, h., a. sumaryono.2000. lahars at merapi volcano, central java: an overview. journal of volcanology and geothermal research. 100 (4), 423456. 17. lavigne, franck, thouret, jean claude. 2000. lahars: deposits, origins and behavior (les lahars: depots, origines et dynamique). bulletin de la societe geologique de france.171 (5), 545-557. 18. lipi. 2006. development framework for measuring preparedness 19. communities to natural disasters. jakarta: lipiunesco / isdr. 20. maharani, sholawatul and hadmoko, sri danang. 2012. population patterns adaptation and mitigation in regional manager lava flood rain river plate code. journal of the earth indonesia vol. 1 no. 3. yogyakarta: fak. geography. 21. maruyama, y. 1980. applied atudy of geomorphological land classification on debrisflow control planning in the area of mt. merapi, central java, indonesia. 10th international conference of the international cartographic association. 22. munawaroh and widiyanto. 2013. distribution infrastructure damage assessment, resettlement and agricultural land by flood lava rain in 2010 with geomorphology approach. journal of the earth indonesia vol. 1 no. 3.yogyakarta: fak. geography 61 the caesar law for the protection of civilians in syria: objectives and ramifications dr. sl. ali madouni ¹* hichem derradji, phd. c. ² ¹ university of biskraalgeria department of political science, ali.madouni@univ-biskra.dz, * correspondent author ² university of msila – algeria, department of political science, hichem.derradji@univ-msila.dz article history: submission 20 august 2020 revision 21 september 2020 accepted 30 november 2020 available online 31 december 2020 keywords: caesar law, the syrian regime, sanctions, united states of america., the syrian criss. a b s t r a c t this research aims to demonstrate caesar's law to protect civilians in syria and its effect on the social and economic circumstances of millions of syrians stuck in their country because of the state of the siege imposed by the law's sanctions. the question tries to focus on how the law can achieve its human aims under the negative economic consequences it has on civilians, relying on the new political economy approach. it tried to interpret the non-economic activity of politicians under the economy cover. accordingly, the united states continues to tighten its hold on the syrian system to exercise pressure on syria, and to make political compromises and start significant political reforms immediately. still, the direct targeting of syrian economic structures through the lawimposed blockade has isolated the syrian regime and cut off all official economic ties externally. it is encouraging the escalation of dealings with informal mediators, which has led to a sharp collapse in the syrian lira and a significant increase in consumer prices, which has been reflected negatively on the social reality in the light of the marked increase in poverty rates. 1. introduction after the local economy's catastrophic failure, the syrian crisis made its first decade. ten consecutive years of warfare have triggered structural changes in the syrian economy structure that have evolved and exacerbated the trouble of becoming one of the world's largest war economies. however, the last year has affected this collapsed economy more than the number of ramifications left by the consequences of the corona pandemic, the sanctions imposed by the usa administration on the syrian regime, or what is known as the convention of caesar's act. on june 17, 2020, the caesar civil security act formally entered syria and added a new collection of u.s. sanctions against the syrian regime. additionally, to many syrian and overseas persons and institutions selling syrian goods, supplies or military equipment, or even those trying to work in the country's reconstruction. the u.s. administration chose to name caesar regarding the dissident syrian military photographer who revealed more than 55,000 photos from inside the regime's prisons. thus, it draws one of the most critical chapters of documenting the regime's crimes in syria. this act tries to protect civilians from the effects of the conflict in syria. it contributes theoretically to hunger due to its adverse economic impact, especially after the regime resorted to the use of mediators and commercial brokers to make different supply deals. effectively, it means the rise of prices, the persistence of the syrian lira depreciation, and the increase of poverty rates. it is seen as a problem that the act establishes a kind of fear at the international level in dealing with any syrian side, even if it is not a governmental part. in this case, the indirect effect is more severe than the direct impact itself; furthermore, there are other risks addressed by law in the issues of reconstruction and engineering, which means targeting any future attempts to rebuild what the war has destroyed. the act also pushed foreign insurance or transport companies operating in syria to deal with the government through mediators and brokers indirectly, which are reflected negatively on the population (nasr, 2020). http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7575-8607 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1767-6256 62 amid this controversy, this paper focuses on the following problem: how can the caesar act protect the civilians in syria achieve its humanitarian objectives in the light of the negative economic repercussions that it has on the syrian people? this approach investigates the feasibility of the act that got here to defend civilians simultaneously, as its effects are reflected negatively on the syrian people's financial and social situation. 2. methodology theoretically, this paper is based mainly on the entry point of the new political economy, where the entry points out that: " analysis examines the possible linkages between politics and economics based on theories of economics, law, and political and social sciences" (development, 2008). the new political economy is essentially the theoretical approach developed by economists, encompassing social choice views. it has proved to be a real foundation for understanding the neoclassical economists' and political scientists' economically irrational policies. in doing so, he presents a practical theory to respond to robert bates' difficult question: "why should rational men adopt public policies that have severe consequences for the societies they govern? the new political economy seeks to understand the non-economic market for political activity, using the analytical language and tools of economists, and in this context, it examines the state; to explain the decision-making of political and bureaucratic elites” (grindle, 1989). the new political economy is an essential theoretical input used to clarify the relationship between the political-economic sanctions with the caesar act and those sanctions' economic and social implications. both do not recognize the fate of the millions of syrians who have been driven into extremes by the ruling political classes in the united states of america and syria. 3. results and figures the caesar law for the protection of civilian persons in syria opens an extensive debate approximately its targets and its capacity to obtain them on the only hand. its harmful effects on civilians, on the alternative hand, so it could be beneficial to examine the regulation and try and find out the maximum critical bad results it has delivered at the syrian people. additionally, seeing the highest vital viable eventualities in their punishments are roughly the fate. 3.1. reading on the law according to the u.s. official version, the caesar act aims at depriving syrian president bashar el-assad of any chance to turn his military victory on the ground into a political gain through which he devotes his chances of remaining in power indefinitely. the penalties provided for by the act target entities working for assad in four sectors: oil and natural gas, the aeronautics industry, construction, and engineering, which include direct and oblique guide for the regime, including help for militias sponsored with the aid of using iran and russia working in syria. the penalties are both global and local activities that comply with the assad system, keeping it from exceeding such liabilities by circumventing them. any economic activity will also automatically be prolonged, as will any dealings with iran and any regional and international actors if they consider investing or working in syria (al shami, 2020). this means that the caesar act, unlike previous sanctions, puts under its authority actors from other institutions and countries involved in such activities, including cross-border business networks deemed necessary for the regime's survival. the most vulnerable are hezbollah in lebanon, in particular, and the assad regime's allies in russia, china, and iran (heydemann, 2020). the penalties for the caesar act entered into force on wednesday, june 17, 2020. the same day, the state department and the treasury department observed joint action leading to 39 persons and organizations' appointment under direct sanctions. of these 39 targets, the foreign ministry has set 15 targets under executive order no. 13,894, including the renaming of bashar el-assad, iran's militia, general fatimid, and bashar al-assad's wife, asmaa el-assad, and the fourth division of the syrian arab army. the treasury has identified 24 other targets under executive order 13573 that target institutions as owned or controlled by the syrian government, and by executive order 13582 for foreign institutions providing material assistance or support to the government in syria (caroline e. brown, 2020). the u.s. bill attempts to focus on economic sanctions which primarily affect the measures related to the central bank of syria, where all reporting problems have been resolved in terms of the time it takes to issue the report, its form as described in the third item of article i, and the identification of appropriate congressional committees for supervision, which are listed as follows: the foreign affairs committee, the financial services committee, the house appropriations committee, the foreign relations committee, the banking, housing, and urban affairs committee, and the senate appropriations committee (caesar syria civilian protection act of 2019). to extend, focusing on sanctions relating to foreign persons engaged in specific transactions, where sanctions are generally imposed on any unfamiliar person if the president decides to 63 engage with knowledge in one of the following expressed activities: (caesar syria civilian protection act of 2019).  caught providing financial, material or technical support, engaging in a significant deal with the syrian government or any other foreign person, whether a military contractor, mercenary, paramilitary force, acting intentionally in an army capacity inside syria for or on behalf of the syrian government, the government of the russian federation or the government of iran; or any sanctioned foreign person with syria.  involved in selling or supplying essential goods, services, technology, information, support, or other support dramatically. facilitates maintenance or extension of the syrian state's domestic natural gas, petroleum or petroleum products selling or intended provision of aircraft spares or spare parts for military purposes in syria for or on behalf of the syrian government to any foreign person operating in an area under the direct or indirect control of the syrian government or foreign forces associated with the syrian government.  to provide knowingly any essential goods or services associated with the operation of aircraft used for military purposes in syria.  provisiondirectly or indirectlyof significant construction or engineering services to the syrian government. the penalties insert anyone realized to be involved in such defined operations encompass the withholding of assets. the president sports all powers below the international economic emergency law to withhold assets inside the united states of america, further stopping him from getting into american soil. it is inadmissible for obtaining, ineligible for, or now no longer accepting or returning the visa to the united states, with all legitimate access cancelled, with positive exceptions to the united nations headquarters agreement (caesar syria civilian protection act of 2019). humanitarian figures or institutions have been excluded from any follow-up, prosecutions, or sanctions if they are active in syria. this "humanitarian exclusion," reflecting similar humanitarian exceptions in both u.s. and european sanctions against syria, aims to ensure the flow of humanitarian and medical assistance needed to syria and mitigate the unintended economic consequences of sanctions on the syrian people (sjac, 2020). the u.s. secretary of state michael pompeo issued a press statement, in which; he spoke about his country's commitment toward humanitarian aids, expressing that caesar's law was not targeted at it when he said: "the united states remains committed to working with the united nations and international partners to provide life-saving assistance to the syrian people, who are still suffering at the hands of the assad a press release was released by u.s. secretary of state michael pompeo, in which he spoke of his country's dedication to humanitarian aid, claiming that caesar 's law was not targeted when he said: "the united states remains committed to working with the united nations and international partners to provide life-saving assistance to the syrian people who are still suffering at the hands of the united nations and international partners.". we are the largest single humanitarian donor to the syrian people. since the beginning of the conflict, we have provided more than $10.6 billion dollars in humanitarian aid and more than $1.6 billion dollars in non-humanitarian and stability assistance throughout syria, even in areas under assad's control. the caesar law and other u.s. sanctions on syria do not target humanitarian aid to the syrian people or hamper our activities to stabilize northeast syria. we will continue our humanitarian assistance through our various international and syrian partners, even in areas under the control of the regime" (pompeo, 2020). article 302 of the act also permits certain waivers and exemptions, especially those related to activities and transactions subject to reporting requirements under the national security act 1947. alternatively, any transaction necessary to comply with the united states' obligations under the united nations headquarters agreement, the consular relations agreement, or any other international agreement to which the united states is a part. (caesar syria civilian protection act of 2019) 3.2. consequences of the law many observers believe that the caesar law for the protection of civilians in syria has made a negative contribution to the country's social and economic life and has driven many syrians into extreme poverty, especially from the middle and low classes. the law contributed directly to syria's currency crisis as fears of its economic repercussions increased. actually, throughout the past crisis years, the syrian economy has relied on the lebanese banking sector, where it is the gateway to the syrian economy to the external world. lebanon is the place where syrian business people and individuals have deposited their savings and bought dollars. at the same time, its banks issued letters of credit and other payment facilities required by syrian merchants to import goods into their domestic markets. the u.s. currency jumped into the lebanese foreign exchange market, followed by the syrian money, as soon as lebanese banks started to limit dollar sales in august 2019-also, preventing depositors from making their savings in that currency. with the collapse of the lebanese lira, the syrian lira also retreated. at 64 the end of july 2019, the dollar cost was 606 syrian pounds on the black market. it reached 635 syrian lire at the end of august and rose steadily to 1,040 syrian lire at the end of january 2020 (yazigi, 2020). abu hassan from homs, who works in the ministry of oil, said that he was suffering after the decrease in lira's price, adding that i pay about 60 thousand syrian liras (27 dollars). that is now enough for only four meals for my family of seven. fear of starving my kids forced me to sell a piece of land i had for ten years. i consider myself lucky because i had something to sell, and at the same time, there are people who cannot even buy breadcrumbs and have nothing to sell. even this piece of land gave me enough money for just three months, and then i have no idea how to manage to feed my children (qussai jukhadar, 2020). figure 1. the price of the u.s. dollar in the syrian black market (in syp) source: jihad yazigi. (march 2020). syria's growing economic woes: lebanon's crisis, the caesar act and now the coronavirus. arab reform initiative. p 3. as the price of the syrian lira continues to fall into the market, the social and economic conditions of millions of syrians stranded in their country will deteriorate further, and the increasing role of brokers and brokers after the official international authorities’ fear dealing with the syrian regime. these brokers and intermediaries maximize the benefit that syrian citizens are forced to bear. the caesar act additionally explicitly targets "syria's local manufacturing of natural gas, petroleum or petroleum products," and any individual or entity "intentionally, directly or indirectly, presents vital production or engineering offerings to the syrian government. “in practical terms, these new restrictions target the entire syrian economy and reconstruction efforts” (charles a. sills, 2020). therefore, the caesar act is an additional deterrent to any interest in the syrian economy by foreign companies and institutions, thus eliminating the limited possibilities remaining for the large-scale reconstruction of the country (yazigi, 2020). it should be noted here that broad-based sanctions should be differentiated from those targeted at individuals or entities. the role of sanctions (broad-based as opposed to targeted) and efforts to end broad sanctions that have negative consequences for civilians and reconstruction efforts must be studied and clarified (omar dahi, 2020). in the midst of that, the syrian regime has not been much affected, and that it is not interested in the social and economic status of the syrians. therefore, the worsening of economic misery is unlikely to change its calculations, as it should be noted that. despite the heavy burden of sanctions on the regime's leadership and its aides, they are, in turn, offering them attractive opportunities to profit at the expense of the poor in the country. it is an opportunity that refutes the hypothesis that sanctions will affect the coherence and loyalty of the infrastructure of the regime. otherwise, the continuation of these sanctions would be just a form of collective punishment that american policymakers must reconsider before a humanitarian catastrophe occurs (qussai jukhadar, 2020). 3.3. the international reactions while the european countries welcomed the sanctions imposed by the caesar law, russia, china and iran showed their complete refusal of these sanctions, considering them unilateral and coercive sanctions that aim at complicating the situations in syria after the regime is close to settling its battle against the extremist terrorist groups. it is a rejection that has been translated by many official statements and practical steps taken by these parties, which are allied to the syrian regime. over the past nine years, moscow and beijing have spent billions of dollars in support of the syrian regime, hoping for this support to benefit from post-war reconstruction projects, but the caesar act has destroyed all these expectations, especially in the short term, so russia and china are demanding that the u.s. ease sanctions so that they can continue as intended, and they have addressed the united states in individual statements with the need to lift its "unilateral" and "coercive" measures against syria. zhang jun, china's permanent representative to the united nations, said: "the double standards adopted by the united states on humanitarian issues were revealed when the "caesar law" was imposed (vohra, 2020). jun adds: "as vulnerable countries like syria struggle with the scourge of the coronus virus, more sanctions are simply inhumane and could cause additional disasters " (global china daily, 2020). in a statement dated june 17, 2020, the russian foreign ministry confirmed that moscow strongly opposes these sanctions, pointing out that "the caesar law, which aims at protecting 65 civilians, works to harm only ordinary syrians " (ministry of the foreign affairs of federal russia, 2020). on this basis, russia has taken practical steps toward securing reconstruction contracts with the syrian government, in outright defiance of the u.s., as the syrian parliament has approved a series of deals with two russian oil-mining companies from three major oilfields. igor matveev, former head of the russian embassy's trade and economy department in damascus, said russia was considering a $500 million dollars project to redevelop the port of tartus and build a $200 million dollars fertilizer plant in homs (ramani, 2020). the iranian reactions were represented in the iranian foreign ministry spokesman, sayed abbas moussaoui, condemning the imposition of new u.s. sanctions under the so-called caesar law, as a violation of the international law and human principles, moussaoui indicated that: "while the scourge of the virus of corona dominates the world, the imposition of such inhuman sanctions will only increase the suffering and pain of the syrian people," he said. he also declared that this country would not give any credibility to such cruel and unilateral sanctions, which are passed and imposed on the basis of bullying, and considers them economic terrorism against the syrian public and continuing embargoes, so that the ends his talk with his country's intention to continue economic cooperation with the state and the syrian government like the past, and working to strengthen economic relations with syria despite the sanctions" (ministry of foreign affairs, 2020). iran tries to protect the top regime in syria for reasons related mainly to the sectarian dimension of the pro-syrian government, as it has been working for many years to extend its influence in the middle east, especially in iraq, lebanon, and syria. therefore, it may seem very logical that iran rejects these sanctions, despite the damage it may cause, mostly as it also lives at the mercy of many of the previous sanctions related to its nuclear project. the situation did not differ much; with regard to the reactions in lebanon, where hezbollah secretary-general, mr. hassan nasrallah, declared that this law is the last american weapon on syria, and it confirms openly and definitely the victory of the syrian regime in the military, security, political and even moral war. he also confirmed that syria's allies who stood with it in its military conflict during the last years would not abandon it in the face of the economic war, although their circumstances are difficult (hassan nasrallah speech, 2020). 3.4. the future of the sanctions the scenarios of the future of the sanctions of the caesar civil protection act in syria are subject to several indicators, primarily the humanitarian status and the futility or inability of sanctions to achieve their objectives for the long and medium terms, so this work will try to develop two different scenarios or to convey the contrasts:  the continuation of sanctions scenario many reports expect that u.s. policy on syria will become "more effective with the international community" after joe biden's arrival to the u.s. presidency, where a report published in the middle east newspaper indicates that a biden campaign consultant has informed some members of the syrian community in america. his administration, in case of formation, will clarify to russian president vladimir putin that there can be no u.s. or european support for syria reconstruction in the absence of real political reform, and the consultant said that this reform should be meaningful and reliable movement regarding the main human issues and accountability. he stressed the need to release political prisoners while maintaining u.s. sanctions on the regime and its entities, including russia (al-omari, 2020). the united states special representative on syria, ambassador james jeffrey, has said that his country punished about 75 individuals under the caesar act and other laws that it found to be more reasonable under certain circumstances, and according to jeffrey, the current u.s. policy toward syria will continue with bipartisan support, regardless of the winner of the u.s. election. "this is just the beginning of other waves of sanctions," he said at the end of the statement. again, we start with the people closest to assad because we believe it is imperative to focus on the accountability of those who financed him and those who enabled his military " (al-awsat, 2020). thus, the primary objective of sanctions from the american point of view is to bring down the assad regime, as focusing on the people closest to its surroundings is evidence of trying to break down the elite cohesion of the administration, which is the point of strength through which it has continued to govern throughout the previous years of conflict. all the political regimes that have been buffeting the arab spring have not been able to withstand for more than four months at most in the face of waves of protest, while elassad regime has been able to confront the opposition, the street, and international sanctions with the help of the elitist cohesion of the power pyramid, and among the alawite community, and because the united states is well-aware of the secret of this force, it is trying to continue sanctions, and to allocate an essential part of it to people closest to the president, in an attempt to break up that cohesion, which would then indicate the collapse of the regime. 66 in this context, it should be noted that the united states legislator-in article 305 of the act-has set a five-year period for the termination of its validity (caesar syria civilian protection act of 2019). this means that the law is not open, so there may be no reason to reconsider its sanctions as long as the syrian regime shows no real intention to make the required changes. therefore, the scenario of continuity looks like the closest possible scenarios, especially at the moment.  depenalization scenario: the sanctions lifting scenario is subject to article 301 of the lifting index, where the article marked "sanctions suspension" refers to the possibility of the president suspending the penalties in whole or in part for periods not exceeding 180 days if he considers that the following criteria have been met: (caesar syria civilian protection act of 2019).  the syrian government or the russian government cease using syrian airspace to target the civilian population.  the removal of isolation from areas besieged by the syrian regime, russia, iran, or any other foreign person that prevents humanitarian access, freedom of movement, and medical care.  release of all political prisoners, allowing international human rights organizations to carry out appropriate investigations.  stop deliberate targeting by the syrian regime, russia, iran, or any other foreign person of medical facilities, schools, residential areas, and places of civil assembly.  the syrian government has taken severe steps to fulfil its obligations under the convention on the prohibition of the development, production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons and on their destruction and to sign the convention on the prohibition of the development, production and stockpiling of biological and toxin weapons and on their defeat.  the syrian regime allowed the safe, voluntary, and dignified return of syrians displaced by the conflict.  the syrian government has taken serious steps to establish meaningful accountability for the perpetrators of war crimes in syria and justice for the victims of such crimes. the question of reinstatement of sanctions shall cease after the lifting of the sanctions in cases where the president determines that the standards described for lifting are no longer met (caesar syria civilian protection act of 2019). which means that the syrian regime, one of its russian or iranian partners, or any other foreign person found to be working with the administration has been suspended or sanctions have been lifted accordingly. 4. discussion this paper focused on trying to find a relationship between the stated reasons for the adoption by the united states of the caesar act, which is essential to protect syrian civilians, and the consequences of the sanctions imposed by the law on civilians themselves, especially on the social and economic levels. the law contributes negatively to: first: starving syrian civilians, as it pushes them even more toward extreme poverty, most notably after the collapse of the syrian lira and the increase of prices, and the inability of many workers from the middle classes, which have become practically destitute, so there it has been a significant caste shift, according to which the middle class has disappeared, and society is divided between a wealthy class that enjoys all privileges and powers, which is a small, pro-regime class, and a vast type that includes the rest of the syrian civilians, workers, merchants, artisans, etc. second, the act is also undermining russia's reconstruction efforts, building on and promoting its projects among global companies. everyone today has many concerns about the u.s. sanctions, so brokers who mediate between the syrian regime and various foreign companies and institutions have become more active. it is true that the paper did not deal much with the political consequences of the act by focusing on the new political economy, which systematically imposes the economic implications of political events, and on the importance of the humanitarian threat that the act poses to millions of syrians who are stuck in their country, but this does not deny that there are many political consequences of the law. especially on the level of elite cohesion within power in syria as it was notified before which is one of the most dangerous consequences for bashar alassad's regime that managed to resist change thanks to this important one, as targeting those close to el-assad would represent a big blow to the authority on the far level. this is because the system symbols are isolated from their outer surroundings. these results for researchers in the field of political sciences represent a theoretical entry for studying the political economy of the syrian crisis. they are one of the most critical axes in learning the syrian crisis or the current conflict in the middle east, considering what the economic consequences represent in particular for the syrian ocean in lebanon, iran, and turkey. the results for other disciplines, such as law and economics, provide input for understanding the act's political nature. while allowing the public to read, follow, and be interested in syrian affairs. 67 therefore, it will enable the non-political dimensions of political issues to be recognized. 5. conclusion this paper ultimately comes up with a set of objective findings that constitute a preliminary reading of the implications of the caesar civil protection act for the syrian people, and it can summarize these findings according to the following points: the caesar civil protection act in syria has contributed to a new economic reality in syria and its geopolitical surroundings, especially after many economic agents have withdrawn from the scene for fear of u.s. sanctions, which has opened the door widely to the emergence of brokers and intermediaries. the new economic reality has led to a drop in the syrian pound's price against the dollar and a rise in the price of consumer materials, which has contributed directly to increasing poverty rates in syria. the closure of lebanese banks against syrian civilians has also contributed to a further decline in the price of the syrian lira, especially as these banks have been established for many decades, precisely after the syrian crisis, their only external outlet in the world. the caesar act, which protects syrian civilians in a negative and opposite way while trying to protect civilians from aerial bombardment, and the regime's indignation, is, in return contributing to their hunger, forcing them to live at the mercy of insufficient humanitarian aid. the caesar civilian protection act in syria imposes severe penalties on the syrian regime's pillars, targeting, to a greater extent, those close to power and decision-making centers to dismantle the elitist cohesion that has characterized the regime throughout the crisis years. all indications suggest that the sanctions in force in the caesar act will continue to be applied after john biden’s arrival to the u.s. presidency. the law was enacted with the democrats and republicans' approval in congress, so that the lifting of sanctions seems a little distant, particularly when elassad regime does not respond to sanctions. these preliminary findings are a result of biography research. they need to be complemented by future studies, particularly at the specialty field level, so this paper will try to work in the future on another field of study, using appropriate methodological tools such as observation, observation of participation, interviews, and questionnaires. references 1. al shami, i. 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(2020). syria’s growing economic woes: lebanon’s crisis, the caesar act and now the coronavirus. arab reform initiative. https://www.state.gov/syria-caesar-act-designations/ https://www.state.gov/syria-caesar-act-designations/ https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/caesar-act-the-syrian-people-are-sapped-while-assad-grows-stronger https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/caesar-act-the-syrian-people-are-sapped-while-assad-grows-stronger https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/caesar-act-the-syrian-people-are-sapped-while-assad-grows-stronger https://www.mei.edu/publications/how-are-russia-and-china-responding-caesar-act https://www.mei.edu/publications/how-are-russia-and-china-responding-caesar-act https://insidearabia.com/block-aid-russia-and-chinas-response-to-the-caesar-act/ https://insidearabia.com/block-aid-russia-and-chinas-response-to-the-caesar-act/ 1 perception research on developing brand identity for small cities prof. assoc. dr. serpil ünal kestane dokuz eylül university, i̇zmir vocational school, marketing department, serpil.kestane@deu.edu.tr article history: accepted 20 june 2019 available online 20 july 2019 keywords: city marketing, city branding, brand identity, perception research, köprübaşı. a b s t r a c t global competition between countries at the macro level has turned into a competition between cities at micro level. many successful examples across the world have shown local governments and other stakeholders willing to attract more tourists or investment to their cities that more production and consumption, in other words, prosperity is associated with strategic marketing of cities. branding, which is part of marketing of cities willing to use their assets and resources to distinguish themselves from others, is highly popular in both the literature and in practice. the aim of this perception study is to determine the current image of small cities with few marketable resources in order to help them create brand identity and an emotional bond between themselves and their target audience. this study established the structural validity of a city-specific perception scale and determined how the city was perceived both by its inhabitants and foreigners in terms of its concrete and abstract elements. introduction city marketing is defined differently by management (kotler, kravatzis, rufaidah, ograjensek), geography (paddison, boisen), urban planning (asworth & voogd, smyth, braun, hospers), communication (gelders) and engineering and design (jiyoung yoon) experts. for instance, kotler's definition of city marketing is based not only on terminology but also on traditional marketing in terms of concepts and actions while business management studies perceive the city as a product and define city marketing according to product marketing theories. despite numerous definitions, the concepts of “city marketing,” “marketing place” and “city branding” are similar to each other (asnawi, 2016). city marketing is the process of creating and delivering value for the stakeholders of a city or a region to create economic, social and environmental sustainability (noivana & rufaidah, 2012: 1275). short et al. (2000: 318) define city marketing as reappraisal and reintroduction of the city to create and market a new image to strengthen the competitive position of local people in order to attract and retain resources. building a city image and communication activities to that end are an important part of city marketing strategies that allow it to stand out in the war for attention of tourists and investors. research shows that the communication of the city image is carried out not only by promotional activities but also by other elements of marketing mix (ashworth and voogd 1990; ashworth 2001). kavaratzis (2008) argues that city marketing focuses not on the city but on its image and that marketing activities are concerned with managing the city image that distinguishes it from other cities. the objective of city marketing is, therefore, to build an original city image and city brand. a brand occupies a distinct position according to competition and uses its functional properties and symbolic values to distinguish itself from others. successful branding should, therefore, address the symbolic, functional and emotional needs of consumers (hankinson & cowking, 1993, rainisto, 2003). aaker (1996) provides a framework of the city branding process consisting of strategic brand analysis, developing brand identity, brand equity, leveraging the brand and identity implementation. it is necessary to know about people’s perceptions of a city to be able to develop brand identity and to create an emotional bond between the city and the target group. in other words, the identity and core values 2 of a city should be taken into account and its current and future image should be identified to successfully market it. image is a product of the mind, and a city’s image is the sum of people's beliefs, ideas and impressions about that city (ergen, 2015). image consists of personal perceptions, and therefore, different people and/or groups have different perceptions of cities. the thoughts and impressions of inhabitants, visitors and investors of a city should be sought in order to determine its true image, and strategically designed initiatives should be implemented in accordance with city identity. this study investigated how local people and college students from other cities perceived the district of köprübaşı of manisa, which one of the leading cities in agricultural and industrial production in the aegean region of turkey. köprübaşı is a small aegean district with 46 quarters inhabited by 14.045 people (2015 population data), mostly involved in agriculture. each city has values worth marketing. big and modern cities have many products and product groups that can be marketed. it is, however, not the case for small districts such as köprübaşı. in 2018, the district governorship and the municipality carried out the “manisa köprübaşı district strategic city marketing plan project,” from which this study is derived. 1 1. literature review there are many international and national studies on city marketing, city image and perception, the most popular of which is aaker's work on brand personality. she developed a 42-item brand personality scale consisting of 5 dimensions; sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication and ruggedness. afterwards, it was adapted to tourism by hosany et al. (2006), ekinci and hosany (2006) and murphy, benkendorf and mascordo (2007a, 2007b, 2007c). however, some researchers has raised several criticisms regarding the capacity of the adapted version of the scale to measure brand personality (murphy, 2016). gilboa et al. examined 39 academic studies on city image published from 2001 to 2013 and concluded that history and heritage, culture, entertainment, nightlife, infrastructure (road, communication, transportation etc.), shopping centers, environment (pollution and water), activity centers, accommodation, security, sporting facilities, parks, services, transportation, health, restaurants and green areas are criteria used to measure city image. 1 this research was developed within the framework of city marketing in order to increase the effect of the “manisa köprübaşı district strategic city marketing plan project” rufaidah (2007) argues that city or regional governments should have city marketing strategies to achieve marketing goals, that is, economic, social and environmental sustainability. he uses three dimensions to measure city marketing, the first of which is visitability referring to the convenience of a place worth visiting and concerning with the management of domestic and foreign tourists visiting for the first time or again. to help cities achieve visibility, governments should be able to offer not only hospitality, regional destination and attraction centers but also services that make the cities attractive to visitors and tourists (noivana and rufaidah, 2012: 1277). the second dimension is investability determined by labor force participation rate, investment amount, number of industrial workers, developing smes and migrants, and level of occupational safety. governments should have the ability to determine and optimize the competitiveness of cities to attract investment. the final dimension is liveability depending on education level, occupational and social activities, amount of household waste processed by the hygiene department, amount of consumption, management of permanent residents and migrants who settle in the city and availability of clean water and air. in short, according to rufaidah, the three dimensions of city marketing are visibility, investability and livability. rufaidah and noivana (2012:1277) measured the three dimensions of city marketing and showed that the concept of city marketing can be conceptualized as a multidimensional structure. they stated that competition between places or cities is related to striking changes in the distribution of economic power. different from commercial businesses, places compete to increase attraction to potential target markets such as mobile investments, tourism, mega events and specialist human resources. karavatzis (2004) argues that city branding is based on the physical structure of the city and on the interaction of subjective perceptions of complex mental messages about the city and that city image communication involves three dimensions. the first of these is the concrete (physical structure and infrastructure) and abstract elements of the city (such as management structure, social structure, vision and culture behavior patterns). the second level involves the elements of marketing mix while the third one is word-of-mouth advertising. carried out by manisa celal bayar university in collaboration with köprübaşı district governorate, manisa metropolitan municipality and köprübaşı municipality in 2018. 3 merriless et al. (2009) conducted research in gold coast, queensland, australia and reported that climate and natural assets followed by security, cultural events and festivals significantly improve the image of the city. they also addressed the sustainability aspect of the city and pointed out that the inhabitants attach great importance to growth and sustainability, and therefore, employment opportunities should be created in the city. they also stated that shopping, cuisine, a clean environment, and transportation and government services also affect people's perceptions of the city. there are some studies conducted in turkey as well. acar et al. (2015) made conceptual and theoretical explanations of the city identity of gaziantep. gelibolu et al. (2014) addressed the image and brand identity of kars and presented findings regarding its popularity and visibility. the eastern anatolia development agency (2014) carried out a study on the branding and marketing of products produced in the city of muş and discussed the issue of city branding as well. the izmir development agency (2015) conducted a study on the urban marketing strategic plan of i̇zmir and referred to perception studies on city image. fırat and kömürcüoğlu (2015) discussed the issues of personality, quality, identity, utility and communication of the city of muğla. focusing on the requirements of being a brand city, özdemir and karaca discussed the image and people's perceptions of the physical, abstract and urban image of afyon. the first step in developing a city brand is to determine how that city is perceived by its target audience. the aim of this study was, therefore, to determine how köprübaşı was perceived by local people and college students who are from different cities. 2. material and method the main objective of this study was to determine how people perceived köprübaşı in order to achieve city marketing and to contribute to the city's branding process. the study regarded köprübaşı as a potential city brand and investigated local people’s and college students’ perceptions of it. various scales were used to develop the köprübaşı district perception scale (kdps) used to measure participants’ perceptions of köprübaşı. the kdps consisted of four sections; (1) demographic characteristics of participants and (2) concrete, (3) abstract and (4) public image of köprübaşı. özdemir and karaca's scales were used to measure the abstract image and the public image of köprübaşı. özdemir and karaca listed the variables as semantic differences in the abstract image. the same scale was used in this study, and participants were asked to mark the category that correlated with their thoughts about the district on a scale of 1 (most negative) to 5 (most positive). their scores were averaged to calculate a perception score for each adjective (table 1) (özdemir and karaca, 2009: 117). table 1. abstract image scale exhausting 1 2 3 4 5 relaxing boring 1 2 3 4 5 exciting dull 1 2 3 4 5 alive not nice 1 2 3 4 5 very nice unsafe 1 2 3 4 5 safe chaotic 1 2 3 4 5 orderly expensive 1 2 3 4 5 cheap source: adapted from özdemir and karaca, ibid. 2009, 129-130 and gallipoli et al. ibid. 2014, p.45 the studies conducted by yılmaz and yücel (2013: 66), özdemir and karaca (2009: 117) and gelibolu et al. (2014: 59) were utilized to measure the public image of the district. the scale assessed 12 variables; commitment to tradition, hospitality, friendliness, helpfulness, generosity, honesty, courtesy, sociability, modernity, boredom, reliability and diligence. the study sample consisted of college students from different cities and local people of köprübaşı. since college students come from all over the country, they can compare köprübaşı with other districts and cities and evaluate it from an outside perspective. students are, therefore, an important target group to determine how the district is perceived from outside. the local community is the second target group and their perceptions of the district will provide important data, which also provide an insider's view of the district. the kdps was first administered to local people. cfa was performed and construct validity was tested (referring to your work). then it was administered to college students. data were analyzed using the excel, amos and spss. 3. analysis results and findings 3.1. exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis results an efa was applied to the kdps. literature review showed that three different scales are used to measure the public, abstract and concrete images grouped under one factor. the same method was used in this study and each dimension was considered a separate scale (kestane et al., 2018: 432). table 2 shows the factor loads, total variance coverage ratio and reliability of the items. 4 table 2. efa factor loads and reliability. public image factor loads concrete image factor loads abstract image factor loads traditionalist 0.775 history 0.724 exhausting/relaxing 0.779 hospitable 0.872 cuisine 0.699 boring/exciting 0.729 friendly 0.884 security 0.670 dull/alive 0.756 helpful 0.878 hygiene 0.712 nice/not nice 0.865 generous 0.893 nature 0.752 safe/unsafe 0.784 honest 0.893 in-district transportation 0.778 orderly/chaotic 0.811 kind 0.849 out-of-district transportation 0.793 expensive/cheap 0.769 social 0.757 accommodation 0.816 total variance explained 61.7% modern 0.742 cultural/social/sports 0.803 reliability 0.89 boring 0.515 urbanization 0.826 reliable 0.804 eating/drinking/entertainme nt 0.840 hardworking 0.741 shopping 0.831 climate 0.710 total variance explained 65.1% total variance explained 58.9% reliability 0.94 reliability 0.94 source: kestane et al., 2018:433. all these results showed that the concrete, abstract and public image scales had construct validity. the concrete and public image scales were highly reliable (α= 0.94) and the abstract image scale was reliable (α=0.89). the afa results showed that the kdps was a reliable scale consisting of 3 subscales; public, concrete and abstract image. second level confirmatory factor analysis (slcfa) was also performed on the scales. the kdps consisted of three subscales and a total of 32 items (13 items for concrete image, 12 items for public image and 7 items for abstract image) (kestane et al. 2018:435). confirmatory factor analysis shows that concrete image (0.89) is the most important factor affecting perception, followed by public image (0.81) and abstract image (0.66). item 3 (0.83) and items 2 and 4 (0.82) have the highest correlation with concrete image, suggesting that the more improved the entertainment and shopping opportunities and urbanization level, the better the concrete image of the district. item 11 (cuisine) has the lowest correlation with concrete image. items 21 and 22 (0.91) have the highest while item 26 (boredom) has the lowest correlation with public image, suggesting that the more generous and honest the köprübaşı people, the better the public image. items 16 (0.85) and 27 (0.66) have the highest and lowest correlation with abstract image, respectively, suggesting that the nicer the district, the better the abstract image. the slcfa goodness of fit values are as follows: table 3. the slcfa goodness of fit values cmin/df nfi rfi ifi cfi rmsea gfi chi-square df p 3.487 0.926 0.917 0.946 0.946 0.059 0.887 1094.856 314 0.0000 table 3 shows that the kdps has a high goodness of fit. 3.2. findings 213 students of the köprübaşı vocational school (kvs) of celal bayar university participated in the study. face-to-face interviews were conducted with them. as has been stated before, students are an important target group for this research because they come from all over the country, and therefore, are likely to provide important information on how köprübaşı is perceived from outside. the image of a city cannot be separated from its inhabitants for they are the most important architects of traditions and culture. this study, therefore, investigated how local people perceived köprübaşı as well. questionnaire forms were distributed to 900 local people, 727 of which were found to be suitable for analysis. findings are given below. 3.2.1.demographic characteristics of participants table 4 summarizes the participants’ demographic characteristics. of 213 students, 60% are women, 99.5% are 5 single, 69.5% are 20 years of age or younger and 71% have an income of 2000 tl or less. they have been living in köprübaşı for 1 to 5 years and come from all over the country, mostly from i̇zmir and manisa and its districts, followed by aydın, muğla and balıkesir. there are also some students from van, edirne, diyarbakır and trabzon. of 727 local people, 45% are women, 50% are married, 27% are between the ages of 21 and 30 years and 54% (32%+22%) have an income between 0 and 2000 tl. table 4. demographic characteristics of participants demographic characteristics of students demographic characteristics of local people gender f % gender f % woman 128 60 woman 325 45 man 85 40 man 402 55 total 213 100 total 727 100 marital status f % marital status f % single 212 99.5 single 368 51 married 1 0.5 married 359 49 total 213 100 total 727 100 age (years) f % age (years) f % 20 or younger 148 69.5 20 or younger 166 23 2130 62 29.1 2130 196 27 3140 1 0.5 3140 127 17 41 or older 2 0.9 41 or older 238 33 total 213 100 total 727 100 income (tl) f % income (tl) f % 2000 or less 152 71 2000 or less 394 54 2001 4000 8 4 2001 4000 194 27 4001 or more 4 2 4001 or more 51 7 unstated 49 23 unstated 88 12 total 213 100 total 727 100 life in köprübaşı (years) f % life in köprübaşı (years) f % 5 or less 170 80 5 or less 286 39 6-11 5 2 6-11 85 12 12 or more 38 18 12 or more 325 45 total 213 100 unstated 31 4 total 727 100 3.2.2. findings what köprübaşı brings to mind all participants were asked what was the first thing that came to mind when they thought of köprübaşı. the purpose of this question was to identify the flagship product that can be used to promote the district. participants’ responses are listed in table 5. the first things that came to their minds were strawberries, tobacco, dam and olives. however, both students and local people first thought of strawberry. table 5. what köprübaşı brings to mind order of precedence students local people 1. strawberries strawberries 2. dam dam 3. coffeehouses tobacco and olives 4. terrace cafe olives 5. olives and tobacco fish and dam recommending köprübaşı to the question “would you recommend people you know to come and visit köprübaşı? why or why not?” 22% of the students and 66% of the local people responded “yes” (graph 1). graph 1. recommending köprübaşı the students who stated that they would not recommend people to visit köprübaşı justified their responses as follows: there are accommodation problems in köprübaşı; there is no such thing as 22 % 78 % student yes no 66 % 34 % local people yes no 6 social life; there is nowhere to spend the day; it is an undeveloped place and people cannot meet their general needs like entertainment and shopping; there is nowhere to go; it does not have a proper environment; there are no theatres; everything is too expensive; there are no social activities; transportation is difficult; it does not have proper roads. the students who stated that they would recommend people to visit köprübaşı justified their responses as follows: it is a quiet and calm place to rest; there is no traffic; it is a safe place; i recommend it for education because there is nothing to do other than studying; it is a good place for retirement. the local people who stated that they would recommend people to visit köprübaşı justified their responses as follows: it has a peaceful social life; it has an unspoiled nature and decent people; it is suitable for development and investment; its agricultural sector is self-sufficient; one can live there without having to take great risks; there is no corruption; it is safe and has fresh air and lovely climate; life is cheap there; one would not starve here; it is one of the most beautiful districts for retired people. the local people who stated that they would not recommend people to visit köprübaşı justified their responses as follows: it is culturally and socially weak; people go and live somewhere else; transportation is inconvenient; there are no jobs; there are health problems; there are no activities; there are no places to go and have fun. if köprübaşı were a person participants were asked “if köprübaşı were a person, what kind of person would it be?” the purpose of this question was to determine the distinct characteristics of the district to use them for branding. participants’ responses are summarized in table 5. table 5. what kind of person would köprübaşı be? students % local people % bad 22.1 good 39.8 ugly 23 beautiful 22.7 old 43.7 old 34.9 calm 37.1 calm 44 man 16.9 man 20.9 students stated that if köprübaşı were a person, it would be a bad, calm and ugly old man while local people stated that it would be a good, calm and beautiful old man. this result shows that branding activities should focus on changing the “bad, ugly and old” image of köprübaşı to a “good, beautiful and young” image and reinforce the “calm man” image. colors of köprübaşı participants were asked “what colors do you think symbolize köprübaşı?” the purpose of this question was to determine suitable colors to be used for the promotion of the district. graph 2 shows the participants’ responses. of the students 24.4% chose black, 31.9% turquoise and 99.5% turquoise. of the local people, 13.20% chose red, 23.5% green and 18% turquoise. graph 2. colors of köprübaşı 1) black, 2) turquoise, 3) turquoise 1) green, 2) blue, 3) red dream köprübaşı participants were asked “what is your dream köprübaşı?” to determine the vision of the district. the students answered the question as: it is an orderly, vibrant and developed district with shopping malls, social and cultural activities, entertainment venues, recreation and picnic areas, advanced industry, high living standards, colorful houses, green areas and advanced health, education and transportation services. the local people answered the question as: it is an advanced, industrialized and popular city-like district with accommodation, transportation and health services, a renovated bazaar, arts and cultural events, shopping and entertainment centers and job opportunities with shops, businesses and factories that will help prevent the migration of young people. 24.4 0% 31.9 0% 99.5 0% student black turquoise turquoise 23.5 0% 18 % 13.2 0% local people green blue red 7 qualities that should be highlighted for the development of the district participants were asked “what qualities of köprübaşı should be highlighted?” the purpose of this question was to determine suitable qualities to be used for the promotion of the district. 75% of the students and 86.2% of the local people responded it as “agricultural products.” table 6. qualities that should be highlighted for the development of the district qualities students (%) local people (%) agricultural products 75 86.2 industry 3 3.7 service 6 3.9 tourism 4 1.5 cultural attractions (architecture, artistic activities etc.) 2 1.5 people’s perceptions of concrete image of köprübaşı regarding the concrete image of köprübaşı, participants were asked to score 13 variables on a scale of 1 (most negative) to 5 (most positive). those variables were history, cuisine, security, cleanliness, nature, transportation in and out of the district, accommodation, cultural/social/sporting activities, urbanization, eating/drinking/entertainment, shopping and climate. graphs 3 and 4 provide a summary of the students’ and local people’ responses, respectively. graph 3. students’ perceptions of concrete image of köprübaşı the students’ scores show that the most important factors that reduce the concrete image of köprübaşı are lack of shopping/eating/drinking/entertainment opportunities and cultural/sporting/social events. their scores also show that they consider the district safe and its climate good, but not much. the local people’s scores show that the most important factors that reduce the concrete image of köprübaşı are lack of cultural/sporting/social events and shopping/eating/drinking/entertainment opportunities and little urbanization and poor accommodation. their scores also show that they consider the district safe and its climate good, but not much. graph 4. local people’s perceptions of concrete image of köprübaşı people’s perceptions of abstract image of köprübaşı eight items were used to determine the abstract image of köprübaşı, and participants were asked to score them on a scale of 1 (most negative) to 5 (most positive). the students find köprübaşı moderately relaxing, safe and cheap but boring and dull (graph 5). graph 5. students’ perceptions of abstract image of köprübaşı the students’ perceptions of the abstract image of köprübaşı indicate that exciting and inspiring activities should be organized to ignite an interest in the district and that its comfort, safety and cheapness should be highlighted in brand marketing and management. the local people find köprübaşı relatively more relaxing, safer and cheaper and yet more boring and dull than the students (graph 6). 3.0 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.2 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.9 2.8 3.3 2.9 2.5 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 climate eating/drinking/enter… cultural/social/sports… in-district… nature security history 3.6 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.8 3.3 2.6 0 1 2 3 4 climate eating/drinking/entert… cultural/social/sports… in-district transportation nature security history 8 graph 6. local people’s perceptions of abstract image of köprübaşı image of local people the image of a region consists not only of concrete and abstract values but also of local people’s characteristics, which are used to define that region, such as “the people of kayseri are crafty” or “the people of ankara are aloof.” therefore, what makes a city is the people who actually live there. their vision, education, ideologies and values are the city itself and therefore, image studies should focus on the characteristics of locals. twelve items were used to determine participants’ perceptions of the local people of köprübaşı. graph 7 shows the mean scores of the students. graph 7. general image of köprübaşı people the students have the lowest mean scores on sociable and modern, indicating that they do not consider köprübaşı people sociable and modern. the other items have a mean score of 3. the local people also have the lowest mean scores on sociable and modern, indicating that they do not consider themselves sociable and modern. they regard themselves relatively hospitable, friendly, helpful and reliable (graph 8). graph 8. local people’s perceptions of themselves conclusion and suggestions this study was conducted within the scope of the manisa köprübaşı district strategic city marketing plan project. it investigated locals’ (727) and students’ (213) perceptions of köprübaşı, which is a district of the city of manisa. participants find köprübaşı quiet, peaceful and restful but point out that it should be improved in terms of eating-drinking, entertainment and shopping opportunities and urbanization level. they also state that it has major problems in terms of transportation, health and accommodation. “strawberries, tobacco, dam and olives” were the first things that came to participants’ minds when they thought of köprübaşı. both locals and students agree that agricultural products should be promoted to develop the district. they describe köprübaşı as an old and calm man and state that blue and turquoise colors symbolize it. according to participants, köprübaşı is a safe district with good climate, however, it has very few shopping, entertainment, cultural and social centers and sports facilities (concrete image). participants find köprübaşı relaxing, cheap and safe but boring and dull (abstract image). several suggestions were made based on the findings. 1. köprübaşı is quiet and safe, and therefore, it can be awarded the title “cittaslow.” 2. participants describe köprübaşı as “an old and calm man.” therefore, the “old man” should be rejuvenated and modernized, which requires planning of activities that will increase the attractiveness of the district. 3. a shopping mall should be built to increase the attractiveness of the district, and this can be implemented in different ways. 4. since blue and turquoise colors symbolize the district, all promotional materials and symbols for the district image should be in those colors. 3.7 2.9 2.7 3.5 4 3.2 3.9 0 1 2 3 4 restful exhausting exciting boring alive dull nice not nice safe unsafe orderly chaotic cheap expensive 3.5 3.8 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.5 3.3 3 2.8 3.4 3.7 3.6 0 1 2 3 4 tradition… hospitable friendly helpful generous honest kind sociable modern boring reliable hardwor… 3.5 3.8 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.5 3.3 3 2.8 3.4 3.7 3.6 0 1 2 3 4 traditionalist hospitable friendly helpful generous honest kind sociable modern boring reliable hardworking 9 5. the first things that come to mind about köprübaşı are strawberries, tobacco and olives. therefore, development plans should focus on agricultural products. cooperating is the most important step for the production and export of strawberries. 6. agricultural products should be converted to high value added products for the development of the district. 7. organic farming should be promoted, and a certification system should be designed to support production. 8. necessary arrangements should be introduced, and actions should be taken to allow local producers to export to european union countries. 9. another thing that comes to mind about köprübaşı is the dam. therefore, fishing activities should be promoted and the area around the dam should be turned into a center of attraction. such activities as fishing, camping and canoeing should be held. this study determined locals’ and students’ perceptions and expectations of köprübaşı and provided feedback to the managers of köprübaşı about their services. it is, therefore, a strategic guide for the köprübaşı district governorship, köprübaşı municipality and other senior managers of köprübaşı. in the short run, the results can be used to develop the district development plan, to prioritize services and to determine how the district resources should be allocated. in the long run, they can also help administrators to implement the strategic city marketing plan, and thus, turn köprübaşı a brand city and provide a high quality of life for all inhabitants. references 1. aaker, d. 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(2012), “dimentions of city marketing”, the global advance research conference on management and business studies (garcombs),at bandung, indonesia, nowember. 21. merriless, b., miller,d., herrington, c. 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january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 36 application of marketing in interest as a factor of development of enterprises in digital economy prof. dr. nerimane bajraktari universiteti i prizrenit “ukshin hoti” nerimane.bajraktari@hotmail.com msc. ali ahmeti ali.ahmeti@mcfood-ks.com abstract online transactions have been characterized by steady growth in recent years. this trend has not left aside developments in organizations in kosovo. people who buy online are faced with technological equipment that often does not perform the right way as the customer requests or expects. the intranet connects the computer systems of an enterprise or organization based on the internet technique especially in the tcp / ip protocol. digital marketing is a term for the marketing of targeted, measurable and interactive products and services using digital technology to reach and convert "leads" to customers. the main objective is to promote brands, build preference, and increase sales through various digital techniques. it is embodied by a wide selection of service, product and brand marketing tactics, which, as a core promotion medium, largely use the internet. digital marketing activities are: search engine optimization (seo), search engine marketing (sem), content marketing, influencing marketing and e-commerce, social media marketing, email marketing, display advertising, books electronics, video games and any other form of digital media. according to the digital marketing institute, the digital marketing institute, digital marketing is the use of digital channels to promote or sell products or services to consumers or businesses. the digital economy is the highest level of use of computers in a national economy. the higher the rate of use of computers in a more digitized economy and closer to the overall economic progress is that country. key words: marketing, digital, internet, economics, development, online. mailto:nerimane.bajraktari@hotmail.com mailto:ali.ahmeti@mcfood-ks.com prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 37 1. digital marketing channels digital marketing is done through multiple channels. the main objective is to find channels that result in better brand communication and better return on investment (roi) 1. marketing through facilitators 2. advertising through the show 3. marketing via email 4. demand marketing 5. social media 6. social networking. 2. the importance of the study from 2014 we have seen an increase of 15.57% from the value of 1.471 trillion to 1.701 trillion in 2015 in terms of online shopping. this growth is expected to continue reaching 2,143 trillion in 2017 globally (stat. 2016b). naturally, this increase in the online channel raises interest in the business spectrum, stimulating young entrepreneurs to enter and offer their products or services through this channel. also, researchers or academics have shown interest in this channel by trying to understand the structure of functioning, trends, opportunities for improvement, etc. it is noteworthy that this growth has also come as a result of what many consumers have gone through from purchases to online physical stores (verma, sharma, and sheth 2015). referring to the case of amazon, which owns 67% of the book sales market, we can see that development in online purchases has reached the threat of closing down many libraries that offer their services only to physical stores (abbruzzese 2014). this situation is due to the benefits offered in online purchases, such as: ease of purchase [from home, tablet, phone or other equipment] (rose, hair, and clark 2011), the wide range of products which are hardly found in physical stores or as the [the long tale] (anderson 2006), the opportunity to buy from other people and not just companies (bobalca 2015).1 3. an overview of internet marketing over the last few years, the letter "e" has been of great importance not only in the world of information and communication technologies (ict), virtual businesses, internet research, but also in the economic sector. it has become an important component for a large number of search areas. thus, we can mention as electronic marketing, e-business, electronic finance, e-commerce, electronic and distance learning, electronic and other markets. the revolution in information and communication technology (ict) has changed not only our lives but also the way people do business. in recent years there is an increase in the number of operators using the internet and other electronic media to realize their marketing efforts by giving priority to electronic marketing as a new philosophy and phenomenon. there are around 1.97 billion internet users in the world 1 art shala, ndikimi i cilësisë së shërbimit në krijim të besnikërisë ndaj markave: raste studimore nga kosova universiteti i tiranës 2016 faq:8 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 38 who account for 28.7% of the world's population. in general, the number of internet users is growing rapidly. this trend is also associated with increasing people's confidence in doing business online. internet retail sales levels in europe in 2010 marked an increase of 19.6% compared to 2009, which in total accounts for about 5.5% of all retail sales. this increase in sales levels may be an attribute of increasing consumer confidence and improvements in the security aspect of online markets. customers who make online purchases are more confident about the suggestions and ratings of friends and other internet users (consumer forums and discussion groups) than the advertisements of companies in other media. there is no doubt that the internet today represents one of the major challenges for the tourism sector, trade, banks and all sectors, and world wide web content is a very important element for millions of its users. website evaluation has been the focus of many empirical studies. despite the fact that research results vary according to different studies and scholars, most of them emphasize the presence of over one billion pages on the internet. the web connection nature has become part of the market space and provides great communication opportunities as a result of size and rapid technological development. however, organizations today have a balanced view of the opportunities and constraints that the internet offers.2 internet marketing, otherwise e-marketing or online marketing is the marketing of products or services via the internet. the internet brings multiple and unique marketing benefits, including low cost and information distribution, and thus plays the role of a medium to the global audience. this kind of marketing brings together creative and technical aspects of the web, including design, development, advertising and sales. electronic marketing methods include: • marketing of shows • marketing through e-mail • diversified marketing • advertising • blog-maketing.3 electronic marketing is the process of growth and promotion of an organization using online media. this does not mean that this form involves just building a web site or promoting it, often behind this site is hiding a really-intended organization. strategies for this form of marketing include all aspects of online product advertising, e-mail marketing, direct sales etc. the internet offers advertisers two ways of advertising. in addition to simple banner advertising, online advertising is also popular in key words, which allows advertisers to display the ad only when the seeker requires a definite notion. advertisement by keyword is paid per click (ppc model), which means that the advertiser pays the location of the account only when the user clicks on that part. when a user seeks for a notion (one or several words), the seeker at a moment finds internet connections that correspond to the required notions. online marketing offers us quick communication with the buyer, who can immediately order the required product. the potential 2 marketingu në internet dhe vlerësimi i shërbimeve elektronike o. theodhori 3 marketingu në internet dhe vlerësimi i shërbimeve elektronike o. theodhori prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 39 buyer can at any time return to the advertisement and certify once again the services they provide or in relation to company information. advertising on the internet is an advertisement that can be weighed on how much it has been productive because we can know exactly how many times advertisements are viewed, and whenever visitors visit the site through online advertising. 4. computer networks  computer networks mean connecting two or more computers to each other.  the computer network enables communication between system users / it systems.  computers connected to the computer network function uniquely according to established communication standards, meaning "speak the same language"  a computer network is a group of autonomous computers connected with the help of a particular technology. two computers are called interconnected if they are able to exchange information between them. the connection can be accomplished by means of electric cables, fiber optics, microwaves, infrared rays or satellites. networks have different shapes and sizes.4 5 4 https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/rrjeti_kompjuterik 5 https://www.bing.com/images/search prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 40 5. categories of computer networks by size • personal area network (pan) • wireless pan • local area network (lan) • wireless lan • home pna • powerline communication (home plug) • metropolitan area network (man) • wireless man • wide area network (wan)6 according to the relationship • client-server • multitier architecture according to topology • bus network • star network • ring network • grid network • toroidal networks and hypercubes • tree and hypertree networks according to the functions • storage area networks • server farms • process control networks • value-added network • soho network • wireless community network7 6. e ‐ commerce according to bakos (1998), electronic and traditional markets are summarized in two main functions: to link buyers to sellers and to facilitate their frameworks in goods or services transactions. srinivasan, anderson, and ponnavolu (2002), point out that the advantages of 6 https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/rrjeti_kompjuterik 7 https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/rrjeti_kompjuterik prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 41 online sales compared to physical store sales include broad product lines, lower system costs, the ability to offer customers products on demand, and a great opportunity to enter the general public. e-commerce is defined as an information exchange between the organization and its external actors electronically mediated "(chaffey 2007).8 an approximate indicator of the importance of e-commerce can be obtained from the rapid expansion that e-commerce has experienced over the last decade. based on quarterly comscore report on internet consumption, we can perceive the radical increase in online spending.9 according to bakos (1998), the reasons for the success of e-commerce are in the successful dissemination of information technologies to provide a platform where there is increased efficiency and decline in transaction costs, which consequently leads to an increase in efficiency. tassabehji and ebrary (2003) claim that the benefits of the consumer using e-commerce are: 24 hours a day, ease in comparing bids from one supplier to another by means of a direct comparison of bid prices and a wide variety of products offered. for the latter, anderson (2006) emphasizes the power that online retailers have in comparison to physical stores associated with the ability of consumers to access all products and the ability to purchase fewer products or services from a wide range.10 this feature is because the online platform can be easily used as a framework through which people from all over the world can sell rare or difficult products to find in physical stores. scientific research by rust and p.k (2003) on online services [e-services], which they set as supply of electronics in the electronic market, have made some major changes in the traditional e-commerce world; for former benefits-related issues are shifted from product-to-consumer benefits; from standardization to bid adjustment; from focus on focusing efficiency to pleasure. from the above changes, it is noted that the customer is positioned on the basis of these developments, as all thinking of having a client as a business point of business, such as in business or business-to-business markets, has proven to be a good strategy for further development. customer relationships are often considered as an important part of e-commerce, as by establishing a strong relationship with online consumers, companies show a deep understanding of their values, which will lead to a stronger bond in between brand and customer and will be as personal as and hard to reach from competitors (ramsey 2008). given the central importance and the growth that this channel has had, i think it is worth to measure the quality of the services offered on an e-commerce platform. understanding the patterns of consumer behavior, according to the growth and expansion rate the internet channel is going through, is of crucial importance for creating a company and keeping a loyal customer base long-term, thus positively impacting the benefits.11 8 chaffey 2007). 9 art shala, ndikimi i cilësisë së shërbimit në krijim të besnikërisë ndaj markave: raste studimore nga kosova universiteti i tiranës 2016 faq:19 10 art shala, ndikimi i cilësisë së shërbimit në krijim të besnikërisë ndaj markave: raste studimore nga kosova universiteti i tiranës 2016 faq:19 11 art shala, ndikimi i cilësisë së shërbimit në krijim të besnikërisë ndaj markave: raste studimore nga kosova universiteti i tiranës 2016 faq, 20 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 42 what are the industries that are benefiting from digital marketing? 12 every company needs a digital plan, but some sectors are more appropriate than others for this type of marketing.13 in our world of computers and mobile phones, relationships are built through digital marketing. the days of marketing plans have been made up of personal events and traditional media. instead, crossing borders through e-mails and social networks is now critical for every attempt by companies.14 it's a fitness situation, and so far, most companies are gearing up for these new marketing channels. according to a study by study insights, 82 percent of businesses have a defined digital marketing plan, either in their marketing plan or in a split digital plan.15 as consumers, we have always been the target of these digital marketing efforts. our inboxes are packed daily by businesses, and social media packed with photos and videos encouraging us to try the products and services of companies we follow or, based on advertising algorithms, the companies we would like to have, we followed. the message is clear.16 12 http://mesazhi.com/cilat-jane-industrite-qe-po-perfitojne-nga-marketingu-digjital 13 ky studim i vitit 2014 nga digital training academy 14 http://mesazhi.com/cilat-jane-industrite-qe-po-perfitojne-nga-marketingu-digjital 15 ky studim i vitit 2014 nga digital training academy 16 ky studim i vitit 2014 nga digital training academy http://mesazhi.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/marketing-digjital.jpg prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 43 but in the midst of this digital marketing bombardment, a big question arises, is it worth it? are companies receiving full benefits in their digital marketing efforts? are the followers looking, are consumers buying, and are their personal brands growing on the world market? numbers say yes because most companies are having at least $ 5 in revenue for every $ 1 spent on digital marketing. openly, the benefits of digital marketing are greater in some sectors than in some others. here are five industries that are benefiting greatly from their digital marketing efforts.17 the law it may seem a surprise, but the law industry is having a lot of success in digital marketing. while it may not be a wholly strategic move, according to green target’s 2013 state of the digital & content marketing survey, only one of the four law firms had specific marketing strategies. but law firms are out of blogs. legal representatives are intelligent individuals who are specialized in communication. specifically, they are good at explaining how the law works and how to use the skills in the argument. in their fringe blog, linkedin, and prominent websites such as medium and huffington post, these legal representatives are writing useful blog posts on specific legal topics. people find and read them, and these firms win clients as a result. it is a strategy that provides powerful benefits because, for these legal firms, they do not invest much financially, but still benefit greatly.18 health when you have questions about your health, what is the first thing you do? if you're like threequarters of the internet users, 77 percent, you check online for more information, according to the pew research center's health online 2013 survey. while doctors obviously are an important part of it, the truth is that they are not the first-place people go to have access to health information. for this reason, a good digital marketing for healthcare organizations and individual doctors is important.19 a good website, a solid presence in social media, easy reading graphics, and health information leave a good impression and bring patients.20 autos marketing has always been a major part of the automotive industry. television, magazine and newspaper advertisements promising the best deals on the newest models have been standard for a long time. but recently, digital marketing has become one of the most important automotive industry channels to reach potential consumers. according to e-marketer, advertising spending on traditional media from all major automotive companies is declining, while spending on digital ads is increasing every year. in fact, from 2014 to 2015, it rose almost 22 percent. an important 17 ky studim i vitit 2014 nga digital training academy 18 ky studim i vitit 2014 nga digital training academy 19 http://mesazhi.com/cilat-jane-industrite-qe-po-perfitojne-nga-marketingu-digjital 20 ky studim i vitit 2014 nga digital training academy prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 44 reason for this growth is that digital marketing allows these companies to regulate marketing experience for different demographics, thanks to personal information available through social media, an older person, for example, is engaged differently than a person new. 21 rather than waiting for viewers or readers of advertising, companies are bringing direct advertising to consumers. entertainment industry social media has become the venue for entertaining companies to share all sorts of information, photos, short content, appearances behind the scenes, and even direct videos.22 more than that, though, is a place where these companies put ideas into the heads of followers, go see this movie, do not forget to shoot this show, tell your friends how much you liked this direct experience. with personal information available on social media, along with analytics to promote specific entertainment products for different demographics, the digital marketing benefit of these companies is greater than with the less-targeted traditional media. according to a recent explanation at track maven, this is all thanks to improved engagement with admirers, better market sharing, and marketing data to target specific demographics.23 food people have a real emotional connection with the food they like, and they are loyal to their favorite products. aware of this, food companies have responded effectively to social media campaigns, with many sensory traits and a high degree of customer engagement. "the food industry is no longer dependent on boring prescription cards or words in a book," said mat silitala, director of avalaunch media.24 "customers are now online, checking their social networks, and watching exciting videos that only show you in just a few seconds how to prepare almost anything you can imagine."25 these efforts attract the user. they should feel that these companies are really interested in their food preferences, and the results are impressive. 26 (this 2014 study by digital training academy looks at five digital marketing campaigns and shows how sales and movements have grown from each) 7. digital-electronic money • the concept of digital money is seen in that the value of a place instead of placed on a piece of paper or metal is remembered as a bare digit of digital media. 21 http://mesazhi.com/cilat-jane-industrite-qe-po-perfitojne-nga-marketingu-digjital 22 http://mesazhi.com/cilat-jane-industrite-qe-po-perfitojne-nga-marketingu-digjital 23 ky studim i vitit 2014 nga digital training academy 24 http://mesazhi.com/cilat-jane-industrite-qe-po-perfitojne-nga-marketingu-digjital 25 ky studim i vitit 2014 nga digital training academy 26 http://mesazhi.com/cilat-jane-industrite-qe-po-perfitojne-nga-marketingu-digjital prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 45 • digital money represents an entire system that enables a particular person to pay the merchandise or service by transferring or transferring certain numbers from one computer to another electronically. • digital money can be used for online purchases in which the consumer chooses the product for purchase through the computer, inserts his bank account number into the computer and orders the bank to electronically make payment for the particular product. • in addition to the purchase of goods, services may also be paid for in digital-electronic money.27 8. supply chain management technologies • when extranets are configured to coordinate and manage the supply chain, edi (electronic data interchange) is often used. edi is a generic term that refers to the structured exchange of data and documents between organizations using it. • e-procurement enables the electronic purchase of products respectively of services from any company through digital networks, thus resulting in the integration of innovative communication and information technologies in support of respectively the development of operational and strategic tasks in the field of supply. • e-shop enables the electronic sale of products respectively services from any company through digital networks, thus resulting in the integration of innovative communication 27 doc.dr. fisnik dalipi prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 46 and information technologies, in support of respectively the development of operational and strategic tasks in the sales sphere. • e-marketplace enables electronic commerce with products or services through digital networks, thus resulting in the integration of innovative communication and information technologies, in support of respectively bid and demand development and interconnection. • there are two other platforms that can describe the broader e-business circle, which does not equally emphasize the above mentioned three components, but specifically focus on information and communication. • e-community enables electronic contact between persons respectively institutions through electronic networks, thus resulting in the integration of innovative communication and information technologies as well as support for exchange of data respectively of knowledge, as well as support for the preparation of relevant decisions that have to do with financial transactions. • e-company enables electronic collaboration between enterprises through digital networks, thus resulting in the integration of innovative communicative and informational technologies for interconnecting the outputs/effects of particular enterprises towards the creation of a virtual enterprise with a unified transaction offer differently. • do not forget erp (enterprise resource planning) or enterprise resource planning systems. these systems represent complex software tools that serve to integrate standard functions (eg production, accounting, human resources) and all organization records. 9. business concepts for creating value for the customer the answer to the question "how can i generate earnings / profit in e-business?" can be gained directly from an analysis of a business or business concept. the business to business concept describes the change or exchange of an effect, respectively the result (product or service) between the particular business partners from the point of view of content and also the appropriate compensation. we distinguish four typical business concepts for e-business: • content contains collection, selection, systematization, compilation and preparation of content on a platform within a network. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 47 • commerce includes or involves the initiation and treatment of business transactions, respectively, through digital networks, which means that the traditional phases of transactions are electronically supported, supplemented or replaced. • context is to classify, systematize, and co-govern the information and results/effects present (found) on the nets. thus, the aim is to achieve the goal of improving market transparency (complexity reduction), and orientation (navigation) for users. • connection this concept enables, respectively, the interaction of actors (participants) in the network. this merger can be accomplished at the communication level, the commercial level as well as the technological level.28 10. electronic value creation chain (value chain) • the value chain represents the total value that consists of individual electronic activities and the profit generated from these activities. • within the chain value chain -value chain, activities that have a high relevance for value creation are identified.29 30 28 doc.dr. fisnik dalipi 29 doc.dr. fisnik dalipi prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 48 11. use of the internet in albania and kosovo albania and kosovo are considered as developed countries in terms of the use of information and computer equipment on the basis of several indicators. one of the most important is the penetration report on the internet. this represents an equation where the number of users is calculated in relation to the population number. although a country considered to be in the development phase, from the internet world stats report (2016),31 albania appears to have 1.81 million users by november 30, 2015. consequently, this number symbolizes an online penetration of 62.7%. kosovo is in this report appear to have relatively higher penetration than albania, with a total of 1.52 million users and with a penetration of 84.4%. as comparative values, countries in the region have the following values in terms of internet penetration: macedonia 68.1%, montenegro 61.0%, serbia 66.2% and greece 63.2%. whether albania or kosovo appear to have a relatively high level of penetration compared to the world average of 46.4%. regarding the relationship with the developed economies of the world, the european union has a penetration of 79.3%, while the united states has a penetration of 87.9%. based on the study published by the association for information and communication technology of kosovo, there are various profiles of companies that provide information technology services. organizations that deal with maintenance and repair of technological equipment represent 28% of the market; organizations that deal with software design and development represent 27%; organizations focusing on internet service delivery represent 13.2% of the market; organizations dealing with training/certification and consultancy represent 15% of the market; organizations that deal with network management & systems 12%; while organizations dealing with production and assembly represent 5% of the market (berisha and ilazi 2013). the value of this entire segment amounts to 70 million euros billing per year. analyzing this study, we see that the market of companies focused on information technology is considered to be relatively high. organizations that are focused on selling online products or services represent 13.2% of the market, which respectively represents a market of around 9.3m euros annual billing. i consider that for a market segment of such size, it is worth analyzing in detail the possibility of offering quality services because it is one of the most important components for a long-term development of online business (blut et al., 2015).32 in 2013, a report published by stikk (association for information and communication technology of kosovo stikk) regarding internet penetration and use in kosovo has resulted in some interesting data. the data we will present below is based on the report mentioned above.33 in kosovo, there are about 1.1 million internet users. this figure is among the highest in the region and can also be compared with developed countries like switzerland, germany, great britain, etc. 30 doc.dr. fisnik dalipi 31 internetworld stats (2016) 32 art shala, ndikimi i cilësisë së shërbimit në krijim të besnikërisë ndaj markave: raste studimore nga kosova universiteti i tiranës 2016 faq21 33 stikk (shoqata për teknologji të informacionit dhe komunikimit e kosovës stikk) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 49 12. more internet users in rural areas another interesting fact is that in rural areas the use of the internet is higher compared to urban areas. in rural areas, the use of the internet is 77.7 per cent and in urban areas 75 per cent. • one of the reasons for the high use of internet in rural areas is the need to communicate with family members who are in the diaspora. the following facts further support the abovementioned argument: • 80 percent of users use the internet to communicate with diaspora and friends. • 65 percent of users use the skype application. compared to fixed-line communication, the internet has made communication much cheaper and more convenient. besides voice communication, other benefits from the internet are also the exchange of pictures, videos etc. in terms of web services, the most used by employees are email, linkedin, new web pages, search and survey web pages, etc. on the other hand, preferred services from the unemployed are facebook, instagram, twitter, movies and online music, etc. 55% percent of mobile device users access the internet from their smart phones. in kosovo there are over 600 thousand smartphone users where 48% percent of them are unemployed. an interesting statistic: based on the report mentioned above, in the online community, women in kosovo are studying more and are more curious about their personality: when it comes to study and research, 60% of women use the internet for this purpose. and 55 percent of women browse the internet from curiosity with 45 percent of males.34 13. conclusion and recommendations the marketing role is present in all types of enterprises by size, as well as by type of enterprise and type of activities it carries out. it is natural that the developed market economy has a primary position, while in other environments it becomes imperative for impractical implementation. the internet is the largest market in the world and at a very small cost and with the maximum speed that for all business creates an opportunity to develop. from all that was said above during this paper we conclude that the interest in advertising our activities through the internet should be increased. with this kind of marketing we make the right choice. the internet enables us to advertise quickly worldwide, to anyone who is interested in our products or services. online advertising is the best way to make our activity known, a new and extensive information tool that has been successfully applied for many years in all other countries of the world. already this long-awaited reality found his confrontation in the eyes and minds of all forms. to advertise our online activity means to identify faster and more, meaning to be more successful than others, meaning to rank higher than others in the main search engines, meaning to we have a bigger traffic of visitors, summing it all in one single sentence; meaning that we have found the gateway that enables us to gain massive publicity. stop foolishly 34 stikk (shoqata për teknologji të informacionit dhe komunikimit e kosovës stikk) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 50 expensive advertising on tv and radio, now we have the opportunity to pay cheaper and achieve a faster success. the internet is increasingly becoming the main street of any activity and business in the world, kosovan companies should definitely become part of this broader community, to be included in the new era of virtualization and contemporary technology. now it is no longer difficult to open a business and advertise it with as little expense and as profitable as possible. through it, we can buy, sell, trade and compete with other firms. the newest and most honest form for a safer and more successful business is undoubtedly today electronic-digital marketing informatization of enterprises has become imperative of time with the aim of achieving positive results in economic activity. in this regard, serious projects need to be initiated for the construction of the computerization network of state, central and local administration bodies as well as corporations representing the public interest. this would also initiate the state-building process, which is in essence the goal of all developed and developing countries. internet connection also constitutes a qualitative indicator for the degree of computerization of enterprises. according to the latest statistics and data in kosovo, kosovar businesses have a good degree of access to the internet and computerization of enterprises, and the use of digital marketing has very positive trends and their effects are producing results in businesses of the republic of kosovo. 14. references • shala a., ndikimi i cilësisë së shërbimit në krijim të besnikërisë ndaj markave: raste studimore nga kosova universiteti i tiranës 2016 • stikk (shoqata për teknologji të informacionit dhe komunikimit e kosovës stikk) • (burimi: të dhënat nga anketa e mti-departamenti i pzhsp) • ll. shyqrimanaxhimi , tiranë, 2010 • internetworld stats (2016) • marketingu në internet dhe vlerësimi i shërbimeve elektronike o. theodhori • dr. sc. edmod beqiri interneti – komunikimet kompjuterike – dukagjini, pejë, 2002 • denise moser, “marketing tools for the 21 century” – semaphore inc. 2002 • dr. ralph f. wilsonelements of a web marketing philosophy, que publisher, copyright © 1998 • bytyqi sh & elmazi, l,: drejtim marketingu. • cant m.c & strydom j.w & joorte c.j., marketing management, fifth edition, 2007. • çepani a., sipërmarrja dhe menaxhimi i biznesit të vogël 2006, • drucker p., practic of management. 1954 • decenzo r., bazat e menaxhimit, tiranë. uet press 2011 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 51 • groucutt j & leadley p., marketing, united states, 2004. • jakupi a., bazat e marketingut, 2004 • kazmi, shh., marketing management, new delhi, 2007. • kotler p & keller k., marketing management, 2001,12th edition, • kotler p, marketing 3.0 • kume v., menaxhmi strategjik 2010 • kume v & panariti n: planifikimi strategjik në organizatat publike dhe jofitimprurëse, tiranë 2003. • kristo i., marketing dhe biznes ndërkombëtar, tiranë, 2004 • llaci sh, manaxhimi, tiranë, 2010. • manxhari m., sjellja në organizatë, 2010 . • meler m ., bazat e marketingut, prishtinë, 2008. • quinn s., management basics, 2010 • http://www.atis-shpk.com • ramadani v., specifikat e biznesit të vogël dhe të mesëm, tetovë, 2010. • reshidi n., menxhmeni i strategjive të marketingut, prishtinë, 2006. • tahiri i., menaxhimi i ndërmarrjes, prishtinë, 2008. 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http://www.druckerinstitute.com/ http://www.sayeconomy.com/ 1. digital marketing channels what are the industries that are benefiting from digital marketing? 30 effects of employee motivation on organizational performance at ethiopian telecom south west region jimma wolde shiferaw dubagus, ma ¹* eminent negash, ma. ² aregu asmare hailu, ma. ³ shimekit kelkay eshete, ma. ⁴ ¹ jimma university, collage of business and economics, management department, woldeshif@gmail.com , *correspondent author ² jimma university, collage of business and economics, management department, negashemnet@gmail.com ³ jimma university, collage of business and economics, management department, areguasmare2@gmail.com ⁴ jimma university, collage of business and economics, hospitality and tourism management department, skelkay@gmail.com article history: accepted 02 july 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: ethiopia, employee, training, promotion, teamwork, employee benefit, organization performance, working enviroment. a b s t r a c t the study examined the effects of employee motivation on organization performance of crews in ethio telecom south west region jimma. the data were collected through self-administered questionnaire from 229 respondents and 219 were returned. both primary and secondary sources of data were consumed in this study. the quantitative research approach was implemented and simple random sampling technics were adopted to provide equal chances for respondents. exploratory research design and data was analyzed using correlation and regression analysis. the correlation analysis indicates that there was a positive relationship between the independent variables and dependent variables. the result of the regression implies that the independent variables have accounted for 78.1% of variance in the dependent variable. based on the outcome of the study, the researcher recommend that, it is better if the company focuses on employee motivation factors, mostly promotion, employee benefit, teamwork and training so as to improve its performance. 1. introduction employee motivation is one of the rules of managers of growth efficient task control between personnel in businesses. a motivated employee is responsive of the precise goals and goals he or she ought to achieve consequently he or she directs its attempt in that course. motivation formulates an enterprise greater successful because provoked employees are constantly seeking out progressed practices doing more. getting employees to do their satisfactory performance even in energetic circumstances is one of the personnel most stable and greasy demanding situations and this can be made possible over motivating them. motivation principle is concerned with what determines purpose directed behavior. those wishes, how the fulfillment of goals and or comments on their success reinforces a successful behavior and the way perception in a single’s capacity to perform a specific task will actuate behavior that is anticipated to achieve the successful overall performance of that challenge (armstrong, 2006). factors affecting employee’s motivation, nobody work for free, nor need to them. employees need to earn affordable revenue and fee, and personnel choice their people to sense that is what they're getting (houran. j, 1974). money is the fundamental incentive, no other incentive or motivational technique comes even close to it to appreciate to its influential cost (sara et al., 2004). it has the supremacy to magnetize, preserve and motivate people in the direction of better performance. frederick taylor and his scientific associate defined money because the most essential issue in motivating the economic workers to acquire extra productivity (adeyinka et al., 2007). studies have suggested that a reward is now reason for satisfaction of the employee which directly affects the performance of the employee (kalimullah et http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 mailto:woldeshif@gmail.com http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1711-9705 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7622-8149 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1450-8249 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9042-4074 31 al., 2010). the rewards are management tools that optimistically make a contribution to company’s effectiveness by using influencing character or organization conduct. all organizations use pay, promotion, bonuses or different types of rewards motivate and inspire high level performances of employees (reena et al., 2009). to use salaries as a motivator effectively, managers need to recall revenue systems which ought to include significance. organization attach to every job, payment in keeping with overall performance, non-public or special allowances, fringe advantages, pensions and so on (adeyinka et al., 2007). and if you want them to believe you and do things for you and the institute, they want to be inspired (baldoni. j, 2005). theories imply that leader and fans raise one another to better stages of morality and motivation (rukhmani. k, 2010). motivation is solely and really a management behavior. it stems from wanting to do what is right for people in addition to for the organization. management and motivation are dynamic techniques (baldoni. j, 2005). including up, they work with a feeling of duty and prefer advantages of the organization to have benefit for themselves (yazdani, b.o. et al., 2011). trust is defined as the belief of one approximately others, selection to behave based on speech, conduct and their choice (hassan et al., 2010 if a business enterprise wants to improve and be successful, agree with performs a massive function so it should continually be preserved to make certain an organization's existence and to enhance workers motivation (annamalai. t, 2010). it is able to make intrapersonal and interpersonal results and influence at the relations, interior and out the employer (hassan et al., 2010). regardless of how technologically advanced an enterprise can be, excessive productivity depends on the level of motivation and the effectiveness of the group of workers. so a personnel training is an indispensable method for motivating people. one way managers can instigate motivation is to present suitable information on the judgments of their actions on others (adeyinka et al., 2007). research has shown that there are a variety of significant factors which determines the degree of employee motivation. consequently, managers are crucial to the performance and success of the organization. managers are highly involved in the process of modeling or reshaping the organizational structure in a manner that inspires and increases the level of employee motivation. it is widely known that employees are motivated and stay within an organization for as long as they feel that the organization is able to provide an opportunity for self-actualization and personal development. the fulfillment of such conditions contributes to an improvement of the employee’s willingness to strive toward successfully achieving the organizations goals and objectives (pereira, 2012). research shows that job satisfaction is positively related to job performance, in addition low motivation and low job satisfaction has negatively affected organizational performance. therefore, an employee motivation is likely to have effects on the outcome of care and performance of organizations. 2. literature review according to butkus & green (1999), motivation is originated from the word "motivate", means to move, push or impact to continue for satisfying a want. motivation is a fixed of publications worried with a kind of energy that enhances overall performance and directs closer to engaging in a few definite objectives (kalimullah et al., 2010). helliegel, slocum, and woodman describe motivation as the force acting on or within a person that causes the man or woman to act in a, goal-directed manner (hellriegel, 1992). daft and marcic explain that motivation refers to the forces either within or outside to someone that provoke passion and persistence to pursue a positive path of movement (daft, 2004). bartol and martin (1998). consider motivation is an effective tool that boosts conduct and triggers the tendency to preserve. in different expressions, motivation is an internal force to satisfy an unsatisfied want and to attain a certain goal or objective. according to (bartol & martin et al., 1998) motivation is a physiological or psychological want that stimulates an overall performance set via an objective further more motivation has something to do with someone’s behavior, a reason of conduct, or the motives of individual conduct, and the reasons of man or woman behaviors might also vary because of one of a sympathetic person desires. the perception of the criteria to managers is that they need to first discover the personality differences and their needs and develop right fashions to inspire employees by means of satisfying those different needs to achieve organizational targets. consequently, managers need to not limit themselves to at least one specific motivational component, as an alternative, they should consider numerous motivational fashions to grasp the different wishes of employees (kim et al., 2006). it additionally describes the way to inspire humans to apply their efforts and abilities to achieve the business enterprise’s desires in addition to satisfy their own needs (armstrong, 2001). 2.1. motivation theories employee motivation is an intricate and sophisticated subject; however, modern managers must face and deal with this topic to obtain organizational success. to enhance understanding of employee motivation, managers must recognize the 32 requirements of employee motivation, its concepts, and differences in individual needs. according to (kim et al., 2006) this understanding of the employee motivation process requires a systematic approach, and managers must realize that employee motivation and its process are there to motivate their employees. therefore, employee input must be valued and included throughout this process maslow was a psychologist who proposed that within every person is a hierarchy of five needs (coulter, 2002). maslow argued that each level in the need’s hierarchy must be substantially satisfied before the next need becomes dominant. an individual moves up the need’s hierarchy from one level to the next. in addition, maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower levels. physiological and safety needs were considered lower-order needs; social, esteem, and self-actualization needs were considered higher-order needs. lower-order needs are predominantly satisfied externally while higher-order needs are satisfied internally (coulter et al., 2002). another classic motivational theory is douglas mcgregor's theory x and theory y. he is best known for proposing two assumptions about human nature. very simply, theory x is a negative view of people that assumes workers have little ambition, dislike work, want to avoid responsibility, and need to be closely controlled to work effectively. theory y is a positive view that assumes employees enjoy work, seek out and accept responsibility, and exercise self-direction. mcgregor believed that theory y assumptions should guide management practice and proposed that participation in decision making; responsibility and challenging jobs and good group relations would maximize employee motivation. (coulter et al., 2002). frederick herzberg’s two-factor theory (also called motivation hygiene theory) proposes that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with job dissatisfaction. on the other hand, when they were dissatisfied, they tended to cite extrinsic factors arising from the job context, such as company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relationships, and working conditions (coulter et al., 2002). the most comprehensive explanation of how employees are motivated is a victor vroom’s expectancy theory. it includes three variables or relationships invoked expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (coulter et al., 2002). according to vroom (1969) expectancy theory, that an employee will be motivated to apply a high level of effort when he or she trusts that effort will lead to a good performance appraisal, followed by organization rewards such as promotion which later satisfy personal goals. 2.2. intrinsic motivation deci and ryan (1985) suggested that intrinsic motivation is based on the needs to be competent and self-determining (that is, to have a choice). intrinsic motivation can be enhanced by assigning suitable job or role design. according to (katz, 1964) the job itself must provide sufficient variety, sufficient complexity, sufficient challenge, and sufficient skill to engage the abilities of the worker. 2.3. extrinsic motivation extrinsic motivation occurs when things are done to or for people to motivate them. these include rewards, such as incentives, increased pay, praise, or promotion; and punishments, such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, or criticism. extrinsic motivators could have an immediate and powerful effect but will not necessarily last long. the intrinsic motivators, which are concerned with the quality of working life (a phrase and movement that emerged from this concept) are likely to have a deeper and longer-term effect because they are inherent in individuals and their work and not imposed from outside in such forms as incentive pay and summarized in table below the most significant ones are those concerned with expectancy, goal setting and equity, which are classified as process or cognitive theories armstrong( 2009). salary is very important for everyone. wages must first be received fairly (wheelhouse, 1989). as (bohlander, snell and sherman, 2001, cited in petcharak, 2002, p. 22) argued pay is a major consideration in human resource management because it provides tangible reward for employee’s service. according to (wentzel & wigfield 2009). the connection between worker motivation and employee productivity is not always well established. however, the consensus is that motivation ends in growth of productiveness in the long run. according to (sara, 2004). major factors that affects employee performances are fair pay, bonus, reward, promotion, and training. dessler (2008) presented that promotion is said to be came about employee makes a shift inside the upward direction within organizational hierarchy and movements to a place of more duty and responsibility. (armstrong et al., 2009) argue that a promotion coverage could maximizes the company’s goal by enhancing employee’s motivation. according to milkovich (2011). employee benefit has its own impact on company performance as well as individual’s productivity. highperformance teams are characterized by a deep sense of commitment to their growth and success (armstrong et al., 2009). thus, teamwork plays a vital role on employee performance and organization productivity. centers and bugental (1970) discovered that at better occupational level, “motivators” or 33 intrinsic activity elements were extra valued, while at lower occupational levels “hygiene factors” or extrinsic job factors had been extra valued. as many researches additionally suggest those elements have significant effect on the task performance of employees. according to negash, zewude, megersa, (2014). there was significant and positive association between compensation and work motivation. inconclusion different variable and statistical measurements had been applied and tested by several researchers. 2.4. conceptual framework from the literature collected for the study the factors that increases employee performance are training, promotion, employee benefits, teamwork and working environment which leads to better organization productivity. the researcher was provided detailed information on the application and results of motivational factors, so that it can justify the association or the connection of outcomes of employee motivation on organization performances. the below conceptual model was used in this study. figure 1. conceptual model of study source: constructed from review literature 3. materials and methods this study was employed descriptive and exploratory. it is descriptive since descriptive data were collected through a questionnaire and it is also exploratory because the researcher would explore the effects of motivation on organization performance so as to meet the research objective. both primary and secondary types of data were collected. the primary data was collected by using structured questionnaires. the secondary data was collected from published journal articles, human resource books, organizational manuals, and any relevant secondary sources. the populations of the study were the entire region professional employee starting from regional management level to lower level employees of the company. currently, there were total of 540 employees in the region based on data taken form the regional human resource department from the total of 540 employees 229 samples were drawn based on taro yamane (1967) formula. 𝐧 = 𝐍 𝟏 + 𝐍(𝐞)𝟐 where n is the sample size n is the total population size and e is the level of precision. by using above formula we obtain sample size 𝑛 = 540 1+540(0.05)2 =229 the researchers used simple random sampling technique to distribute the survey questionnaires to acquire participant’s perception towards the effects of employee motivation on organizational performance. in order to analyze the data gathered and come up with answers to the question raised exploratory methods was employed. the collected questionnaires were analyzed statistically with the help of spss (statistical package for social science) version 20. moreover, it was summarized by frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations. determination of the relationship between the identified independent and dependent variables, the researcher use pearson’s correlation coefficient and to show the extent of variation in the dependent variable that was explained by the independent variable, the data was computed by regression analysis so as to answer the research questions. according to creswell (2009) criteria for choosing statistical testes when the number of independent variable would be more than two and dependent variable is one multiple regression was statistically tested. in this regard the following multiple regression models were used to determine the variation or qualitative associations between the variables as follows: y =𝛼 + β1x1+ β2x2+ β3x3+ β4x4+ β5x5+e where: y dependent variable = organization performance, 𝛼 = constant, β1=is the coefficient of employee benefit, β2=is the coefficient of promotion, β3=is the coefficient of trainings, β4=is the coefficient of team work, β5=is the coefficient of working condition. when β1= is the change in y for one unit change in x1 and β2 = is the change in y for one unit change in x2, β3= is the change in y for one unit change in x3, β4= is the change in y for one unit change in x4, β5= is the change in y for one unit change in x5. x1 = employee benefit, x2 = promotion, x3 training, x4 team work, x5 working environment and e = is the error term. 4. result and discussions 34 4.1. descriptive statistics of employee motivation and organization performance as described in the research methodology, likert scale was used to measure the effect of motivational factors for increasing organizational performance. the researcher has revealed employee’s insight towards motivational factors that influences company productivity. table 1. employee motivation and organization performances descriptive statistics no variables n mean standard deviation 1 employee benefit 219 2.85 1.42 2 working environment 219 2.82 1.43 3 promotion 219 3.13 1.42 4 training 219 3.12 1.39 5 teamwork 219 3.04 1.47 6 organization performance 219 3.09 1.41 source: own filed survey (2018) as shown in the above table 1 statistics, results were sorted based on their occurrence in the questionnaires. the mean value of an employee benefit package is=2.85 (sd=1.42) this shown that, the majority of the respondents were averagely satisfied with the benefit packages of the company. this indicates that employee benefit has impact employee performance. the average mean value of working environment is=2.82 (sd=1.43) this indicates that employees of the organization were also averagely satisfied with the working environments in which they were currently working on. this indicates that the working environment has an effect on employee performances. as indicated in the above table the mean value of promotion is = 3.13 (sd=1.42) from this we noticed that average of employees were satisfied and motivated when they were got a promotion opportunity and fair promotion policy and procedure within the company. from this we deduce that promotion is the most important factor that motivates and affects the employees of the company. accordingly, the average mean value of training is = 3.12 (sd=1.39) which is shown on the table above indicates that average of employees were satisfied and motivated by the training given to them by the company and believed that training is important to advance their performance, this also leads to increase the performance of the organization as well. the other determinants that affect employee motivation is teamwork which was shown in the table 1 above and the mean value is = 3.04 (sd=1.47) this shows that an average of the organizations crews motivated when they were working in teams, and believed that teamwork increases their productivity, this could increase the company’s performance. as illustrated in the above table 1 the respondents were requested to rate or select the effects of employee motivation on the performance of the company and replied that the mean value is= 3.09 (sd=1.41) this indicates that an average of the respondents were agreed that employee motivation has an effect on organizational performance in terms of profitability, employee retention, productivity and customer satisfaction. therefore, from the above paragraphs one can reveal that predictor variables such as employee benefit, working environment, promotion, training and teamwork could have averagely affects the dependent variable that is organizational performance. 4.2. correlation analysis in this section, the direction and degree of the strength of the relationship among the variables were examined, it is possible to determine the correlation among all scopes of the independent variables (employee benefits, working environment, promotion, training and teamwork) and the dependent variables (organization performance) were used to analyze the strength, direction and statistical significance of the relationship as indicated table 2 below. the correlation results provide initial indications for further analysis. in this study bivariate pearson coefficient (r) was used to determine the relationship between the effects of motivation and organization performance by using a two-tailed test of statistical significance at the level of 95% significance, p< 0.05. the results in table 2 show that correlation between all variables and it summarizes the values of the pearson coefficient of correlation and their significance. it is quite apparent from the results that organizational performance is very strong and positive correlated with promotion as the value of pearson correlation coefficient .807 and the relation is significant at 95% confidence level (p<. 01). the relationship between organization performance and employee benefit is also positive and strongly significant as pearson correlation coefficient is .664 and p value is less than .01 followed by the relationship between organization performance and teamwork which is positive and strongly significant as pearson correlation coefficient is .606 and p value is less than . 01. but the relationship between training and working environment and organization performance is positive and moderately significant as pearson correlation coefficient is .598 and .504 respectively and p value is less than . 01. 35 consequently, all five independent variables are positively and significantly correlated with organization performance. based on the results, one can argue that employee motivation has an effect on organizational performance. table 2. pearson correlation analysis for independent and dependent variables correlations empb wenv pr tr tmw orgp empb pearson correlation 1 .373** .553** .350** .520** .664** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 n 219 219 219 219 219 219 wenv pearson correlation .373** 1 .420** .471** .376** .504** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 n 219 219 219 219 219 219 pr pearson correlation .553** .420** 1 .499** .478** .807** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 n 219 219 219 219 219 219 tr pearson correlation .350** .471** .499** 1 .330** .598** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 n 219 219 219 219 219 219 tmw pearson correlation .520** .376** .478** .330** 1 .606** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 n 219 219 219 219 219 219 orgp pearson correlation .664** .504** .807** .598** .606** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 n 219 219 219 219 219 219 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). empb=employee benefit, wenv=working environment, pr=promotion, tr=training, tmw=teamwork, orgp=organization performance. 4.3. regression analysis regression analysis supports in order to measure the relative strength of the independent variable on the dependent variable. thus, in order to examine the statistically significant effect of the independent variables on the dependent variable, multiple regression analysis was used. according to kothari (2004), multiple regression analysis applied when the researcher has one dependent variable, which is supposed to be a function of two or more independent variables. the objective of this exploration is to make a prophecy about the dependent variable based on its covariance with all the concerned independent variables. 4.3.1. diagnosis test before applying regression analysis to assess the effect of employee motivation on organization performance, some tests were determined in order to confirm the appropriateness of data to assumptions of regression analysis as follows: 4.3.1.1. multicollinearity test according to andy field (2013) one way of identifying multicollinearity is by scanning a correlation matrix of the predictor variables. spss yields various collinearity diagnostics, one of which is the variance inflation factor (vif). the vif shows whether a predictor has a strong linear relationship with the other predictor and tolerance statistics which is the reciprocal of vif. there is no one best rule that determines the value of vif but there are some general guidelines: if the largest vif is greater than 10 then there is cause for concern (bowerman, o’connell, & myers, 1990). if the average vif is substantially greater than 1 then the regression may be biased (bowerman & o’connell, 1990). tolerance below 0.1 indicates a serious problem. tolerance below 0.2 indicates a potential problem (menard, 1995). as indicated in the table 3 below tolerance value of all variables were above 0.5 and variance inflation factor (vif) less than 2 hence, we conclude that there was no multicollinearity issues exist. table 3. collinearity statistics summary 36 coefficientsa model collinearity statistics tolerance vif 1 employee benefit .600 1.666 working environment .698 1.433 promotions .554 1.805 trainings .666 1.502 teamwork .657 1.521 a. dependent variable: organization performance 4.3.1.2. linearity test linearity refers to the degree to which the variation in the dependent variable is related to the variation in the independent variables. to determine whether the relationship between the dependent variable organization performance and the independent constructs employee benefit, working environment, promotion, training and teamwork is linear, so, plots of the regression residuals through spss software has been used. figure 2. normal p-p plots of regression the scatter plot of residuals shows no more variation in the spread of the residuals as you can see from left to right on figure 2 above. this result suggests the relationship we are trying to predict is linear. as a result, the above figure shows the normal distribution of residuals around its mean of zero. hence the normality assumption is fulfilled as required based on the above figure, it is possible to conclude that the inferences that the researchers would made about the population parameter from the sample were valid. 4.3.1.3. normality test figure 3 shows the frequency distribution of the standardized residuals compared to a normal distribution. as you can see, although there were some residuals (e.g., those occurring around 0) that are relatively far away from the curve, many of the residuals are fairly close. moreover, the histogram is bell shaped which lead to deduce that the residual (disturbance or errors) are normally distributed. thus, there is no violation of the assumption normally distributed error term. figure 3. histogram 4.3.2. regression analysis result 37 table 4. model summary model summaryb model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .886a .786 .781 .39401 a. predictors: (constant), teamwork, training, working environment, employee benefit, promotion b. dependent variable: organization performance multiple regression result in the above table 4 indicates that employee motivation constructs (employee benefit, working environment, promotion, training and teamwork) have significant influence on the performance of the organization. the adjusted r2 tells us how much change in the outcome would be accounted for if the model had been derived from the population from which the sample was taken (field, 2013). in addition, the adjusted r2 gives us the percentage of variation explained by only the independent variables that actually affect the dependent variable. as a result, the adjusted r2 0.781 revealed that 78.1% of variance in organizational performance can be explained by employee benefit, working environment, promotion, training and teamwork whereas 21.9% were explained by other factor. table 5. testing for model fit anovaa model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 121.247 5 24.249 156.199 .000b residual 33.068 213 .155 total 154.315 218 a. dependent variable: organization performance b. predictors: (constant), teamwork, training, working environment, employee benefit, promotion according to (field, 2013) the anova (analysis of variance) tells us whether the model, overall results in a significantly better degree of prediction of the outcome variable. similarly, anova indicates the overall fit of the model. hence, as we seen from table 5 the value of f which is computed by dividing the mean square of explained data by the mean square of residual data is f (5, 213) =156.199, p<.001 from this one can conclude that the overall model has a better fit. table 6. coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) -1.172 .161 -7.276 .000 employee benefit .325 .062 .214 5.228 .000 working environment .072 .042 .064 1.696 .091 promotions .606 .054 .479 11.249 .000 trainings .217 .043 .195 5.021 .000 teamwork .186 .041 .177 4.535 .000 a. dependent variable: organization performance 38 referenced table 6 shows that standardize beta coefficient, which tell us the unique involvement of each factor to the model. according to george (2003) a large beta value and a small p value (p<.05) revealed the predictor variable has made a significance statistical involvement to the model. on the other hand, a minimum beta value and a maximum p value (p >. 05) indicate the predictor variable has little or no significant influence of the model. the relative importance of effects of employee motivation (independent variables) in contributing to the variance of the organizational performance (dependent variable) is described by the standardized beta coefficient. the beta value of employee benefit is (beta=.214, p<0.05), working environment (beta=.064, p>0.05), promotions (beta=.479, p<0.05), trainings (beta=.195, p<0.05), and teamwork (beta=.177, p<0.05). among the independent variables, promotion is more significant and statistically sound and expression. this can be interpreted as every single unit improvement in the promotion will increase organizational performance by 47.9%. therefore, the promotion has a greater amount of impact than other predictors on the other hand, the working environment has less contribution which is 6.4% of the organization performance. table 6 also implies that employee benefit, promotions, training and teamwork have a significant influence on organizational performance at 95% confidence level. all employee motivation factors have been included in the formation of the function and detail expression as follows: y =𝛼 + β1x1+ β2x2+ β3x3+ β4x4+ β5x5+e y=-1.172+0.325x1+0.606x2+0.217x3+0.186x4+0.072x5+e the outcome of this study shows that, except working environment, all variables of employee motivation have a positive and significant effect on organizational performance. from the analysis the co-efficient value of promotion in the organization was 0.606. this means that all things being equal, when the other independent variables (employee benefit, teamwork, training and working environments) are held constant, organization performance would increase by 60.6% if there is a 1-unit improvement in the promotion. from the analysis the co-efficient value of employee benefit was 0.325. this means that all things being equal, when the other independent variables (promotion, teamwork, training and working conditions) are held constant, organization performance would increase by 32.5% if there is 1-unit improvement in employee benefit package. this was statistically significant (0.00<0.05) i.e. the variable (employee benefit) is making a significant unique contribution to the prediction of the dependent variable (organization performance). indicated from the analysis the co-efficient value of training was 0.217. this means that all things being equal, when the other independent variables (promotion, employee benefit, teamwork and working conditions) are held constant, performance would increase by 21.7% if there is 1-unit improvement in training. this was statistically significant (0.00< 0.05) i.e. the variable (training) is making a significant unique contribution to the prediction of the dependent variable (organization performance). as shown from the analysis the co-efficient value of teamwork was 0.186. this means that all things being equal, when the other independent variables (promotion, employee benefit, training and working conditions) are held constant, performance would increase by 18.6% if there is a 1-unit improvement in teamwork. this was statistically significant (0.00< 0.05) i.e. the variable (teamwork) is making a significant unique contribution to the prediction of the dependent variable (organization performance). furthermore, from the findings of this study, researchers found out that not all of the variables selected by the researchers have significant effects on organization performances. from the analysis the co-efficient value of working environment was 0.072. this means that all things being equal, when the other independent variables (promotion, employee benefit teamwork, and training) are held constant, performance would increase by 7.2% if there is 1-unit improvement in the working environment. this was statistically insignificant because it has value more than 0.05 i.e. the variable (working environment) is not making any unique contribution to the prediction of organization performance. from total of five selected variables (employee benefit, promotion, training, and teamwork) have positive unique contribution to organizational performance. among this promotion has the most unique contributor of all, this supports vrooms (1969) expectancy theory of motivation that argues, an employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort that leads to good performance appraisal followed by organization rewards such as promotion which later meets personal goal. on the contrary, the working environment has no significant unique contribution to company performance. regarding to this it is possible to deduce that promotion and employee benefit contribute more for organizational performance and would be focusing area for the company to inspire its workforce. 5. conclusion and suggestions depending on the outcome of this study the following conclusions were made. the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of employee motivation on company performance. for any organizations to be productive and successful, having of motivated employees has the most important issue to be emphasized by the organization. since organizations will be efficient if and only if their employees are motivated and this 39 could happen among others through having an effective motivation of employees assured by the company. on employee motivation, it can also be concluded that promotion, employee benefit package, training, teamwork and working environment have an impact on organization performance that also leads to increase productivity and performance of employees of the company. similarly, promotion, employee benefit, training and teamwork have unique and significant contribution to company performance based on the result of this study. furthermore, the result shows that employees of the company were averagely agreed with the employee benefit currently provided by the company. likewise, the result of this study concludes that employee motivation is very important factors that the region managements needs to focus on to achieve region target or goal as well as to contribute more to company performance. ignoring this factor could cause to build demotivated employees, which are subject to reduce performance, lower commitment, and lower motivation or even contribute to the lesser productivity of the company. in contrast working environment has least unique effects on company performance in this investigation result which shows that the working environment has an insignificant impact on company performance. in summary, the major finding of this study implies that employee motivation has a positive effect on the ethio telecom company performance. based on the outcomes and conclusions the researchers recommend that the managements of the company need to motivate and encourage their staffs so as to advance their performance. it is important to work closely with hr departments to have promotion opportunities and flexible career development which are highly prioritized by crews as an important motivation factor. employees who work harder and perform well and meet their targets should be motivated by their respective organizations by giving them a special treatment in terms of incentives like bonus, salary increment, transportation and housing allowances and training programs to induce others to follow their footsteps. incentives were generally developed to generate employee motivation, satisfaction, and greater performance of any company. in addition, with an effective incentive, employees could gain several social and psychological benefits as a result of improving their purchasing power to meet his or her needs of goods and services. therefore, it can be concluded that incentives have great potential for improving employee work performance and increasing production efficiency through encouraging individuals or groups to act in a desired and productive way. and also the implementation of teamwork can increase efficiency and encourage employees to work smarter and strongly. references 1. armstrong. 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(2009) handbook of motivation at school. rutledge, new york 37. yazdani b. o., yaghoubi n. m., giri e. s., european journal of social sciences 20(2) (2011) 267-274. 1 education management of policy reform of extraordinary school known as (slb) in central java province diyah etana* endang larasati yuwanto sundarso *correspondent author: diponegorouniversity, faculty of social and political sciences, prodidap@gmail.com article history: accepted 29 august 2019 available online 31 december 2019 keywords: policy reformation disability standard operational procedure education management extraordinary school a b s t r a c t every citizen has the same rights to obtain the education, including for children with disabilities. however, from the current researchers there are several problems faced with the implementation of extraordinary school (slb) education in central java province, which is the limitation of human resources policy, budget and infrastructure facilities. this research aims to observe and conduct analysis of the policy reform of sekolah luar biasa (extraordinary school) of education management in central java province and supporting factors and inhibitors of slb education management policy conducted by the government of central java province. the research method used by researchers is qualitative, with data collection using triangulation techniques. the results showed that the policy reform of slb education management in central java province in the field of apparatus resources still need to be addressed because still many who have not been literate with technology. however, it does not affect them in the service given to the community. these recommendations given improving the quality and quantity are human resources apparatus through the technology and training. the addition of personnel, development of infrastructure adapted to disabled, master data collection and budget adjustments. preparation of standard operational procedure (sop) sustained to the law no 8 in 2016 about the disabled. the creation of governor regulation that is specifically governs the disability. introduction every country needs a policy to direct actions so that the desired objectives achieved. this is in line with the opinion expressed by (anggraeni, zauhar, & siswidiyanto, 2011) in a book entitled: public policy evaluation. "policy is an act that leads to a goal proposed by a person, group or government in a particular environment in connection with certain obstacles while looking for opportunities to achieve goals or desired goal. the policy contains an element of action to achieve the goal. generally, the goal achieved by a person, group or government. the policies certainly face various obstacles or problems but have to look for opportunities to realize the desired objectives. the problem of education faced by the indonesian nation is the low quality of education at every level and unit of education. the report comes from the united nations development program (undp) in 2016 about the human development index (hdi). the composition of the achievement stage in education, reported that in 2015 indonesia was at the rate of 113 from 188 countries, and still low compared to some of the countries in asia pacific such as singapore, hong kong, japan, malaysia, thailand and china, which seen in figure 1 below. mailto:prodidap@gmail.com 2 figure 1. human development index in asia-pacific countries source: human development index, 2016 based on the figure above, known that hdi for indonesia in 2015 is the lowest compared to five other asia pacific countries. indonesia ranks 113 with a score of 0.689. the highest hdi obtained by singapore with a score of 0.925. it ranks five out of 188 countries. low hdi shows the low competitiveness of the nation in global trade. national education has a very important role for citizens. national education aims to educate the life of the nation; therefore every citizen has the right to get an education. as stated in (kemendikbud, 2013) stated that every citizen has the same opportunity to obtain an education. this indicates that the disabled child may also have the same opportunity as other children in education. the world health organization (who) in 2010 revealed that 10% of the world's population is a disability, approximately 600 million people. while the data ministry of health indonesia in 2010 recorded, the number of special disabilities in indonesia reaches 6.7 million consisting of blind, dumb, deaf, disablement and other types of defects. in 2012, who wrote that there were 285 million people experiencing visual impairment around the world, 39 million people had blindness and 246 million of people suffered from low vision. a number of 90 % case blindness (low vision) occurs in developing countries. exclusion, marginalization, and discrimination against people with disabilities are still a tough challenge for their opportunities to live on par with other communities. based on the results of the data from the ministry of social affairs of indonesia republic in 2009, about 67.33% of adult disabilities have no skills and employment. for those who have a job, the main skill types of disability are massage, crafting, farmer, labor, and services. according to (lusli et al., 2015), the change of disability data in a survey of statistical center (bps) from health indicators to become indicators of social welfare since 1998 raises difficulties to determine the actual magnitude of a disabled resident, especially since the operational definitions used change frequently. the results of unbiased surveys, such as riskesdas 2007 and the world bank trials in 2007, are estimated to be no less than 2-3% of the indonesian population with disabilities that interfere with the function and daily social activities. figure 2. number of disability in indonesia source: social ministry of indonesian republic, 2011 social ministry of indonesia republic as of december 2010 mentions the number of people with a disability in indonesia 11,580,117, consisting of a blind 3.474,035 people, disability is 3,010,830 people, deaf is as many as 2,547,626 people, mentally disabled is 1,389,614 people and chronic disability is as many as 1,158,012 people. based on the social ministry data, this shows that the blind have the largest amount compared to other types of others. data reported from the provincial government of central java in this case the provincial education office of central java, that there are about 14,544 students of extraordinary school (slb). by details for kindergarten extraordinary school (tklb) of 574 students, elementary extraordinary school (sdlb) as many as 9,785 students, junior school of extraordinary school (smplb) as many as 2,697 students, senior high school of extraordinary school (smalb/smklb) as many as 1,468 students, and vocational school as many as 20 students. where more details seen in figure 3 below. figure 3. number of extraordinary school (slb) students in central java province source: educational institution of central java, 2016 3 regardless of the large or small number, given that the inherent number of the figure is the soul, then any number is a number that requires the attention and concern of all elements of the nation and inherent to that number of human rights demanded to be respected, fulfilled and protected. another problem that arose after the education authority of extraordinary school (slb) taken over by the provincial government of central java from the district/city government besides human resources (hm), and infrastructure is the field of budget associated with a diminished extraordinary school (slb) teacher's welfare problem, especially teachers in private extraordinary school (slb). where many honorary teacher incentives in private extraordinary school (slb) after the transition of authority was carried out from the district/city which was taken over by the provincial government of central java, it has an impact on the loss of their incentives. such practices are not reformist, when the management authority of extraordinary school (slb) is pulling back to the level of the provincial government of central java. because in practice cannot be in accordance with what is expected by the honorary teachers in private extraordinary school (slb) that are widely scattered throughout the province of central java today. where it seen in figure 4 below. figure 4. the amount of state and private extraordinary school (slb) in central java province source: educational institution of central java province, 2016 based on figure 4 above, it can be noted that the number of extraordinary school (slb) of state in the central java province is currently only 41 schools, while for extraordinary school (slb) which is managed by the private sector more compared with the current state of extraordinary school (slb) with number of schools as much as 149. while teacher incentives lost due to the management of extraordinary school (slb) in the back to the level of the provincial government of central java reached thousands. as shown in figure 5 below. figure 5. number of slb’s teachers of civil servants and non civil servants of central java province source: educational institution of central java province, 2016 based on figure 5 above, it can observe that the number of teachers from civil servants in central java province is currently 1,727, while non-civil servant teachers who are threatened incentive disappear because they caused by the management authority of the slb in pulling back to central java provincial government amounted to 1,308. slb's withdrawal policy to the provincial government began in 2014, through (pemerintah republik indonesia, 2014) on local government and (kementerian pendidikan nasional, 2010) on previous management and implementation of education, all assets, teachers and management of extraordinary school (slb) is the provincial authority. in addition, this withdrawal is in order for the provincial government of central java to responsible as a special education provider. ensure if the provincial government of central java manages and develops this extraordinary school (slb) in central java province and conducts more comprehensive coaching for special education in central java. however, nothing has done in accordance with the planned, so there are still a lot of problems that arise. according to the data above showed that the management of extraordinary school (slb) in central java province needs reconsidered. particularly, for teacher’s resources taking placed in separated extraordinary school (slb) and its public service, seen from still the least number of extraordinary school (slb) standing in the region of central java provincial government today. and this is the interest of researchers to conduct a study related to policy reform that focus on the human resources apparatus and services to people who have children with disability condition. as stated in the grand design of the current bureaucracy reform, which examined in the bureaucracy reform, it includes its human resources and its public service so that it can affect the public in general. this research aims to conduct a reform analysis of the education management policy of slb in central java province, which seen from the human resource factor of apparatus, and public service. 4 1. research method this research uses qualitative data analysis and the technique analysis is applying quantitative data. where this method is a method of research that is not the same as the experimental method, this method of research used to examine the condition of natural objects and researchers have a duty and function as a key instrument in observing a key problem that revealed in a research object that it would implement. by testing the validity and validity of data are using triangulation techniques. 2. literature review 2.1. public policy the scope of public policy studies is broad because it has various fields and sectors such as economics, politics, social, culture, law, and so on. besides judging from the hierarchical public policy can be national, regional and local such as legislation, government regulation, presidential regulation, ministerial regulation, regulation of the local government/province, the decision of the governor, regency/city, and the decree of the regent/mayor. in terms of public policy understanding, it turns out a lot, depending on which point we interpret. (profwork.org, 2014) provided a definition of public policy as the authoritative alocation of values for the whole society or as a forcibly allocation of values to all members of the community. (kaplan & lynch, 2001) also interpreted public policy as a capacitance program of goal, value, and practice or a program of achievement of objectives, values in directed practices. the public policy according to (dye, 2016) defined as "whatever governments choose to do or not to do". public policy is what the government chose to do or did not do something. this understanding indicates that the government has the authority to make choices about which policies performed or not, depending on the issues arising or the achievement that is intended addressed by the policy. meanwhile, the policy sense expressed by (bohara, mitchell, & mittendorff, 2004) defined public policy as a series of actions that a person, group or government proposes in a particular environment, with existing threats and opportunities, where the proposed policy intended to potential and overcome obstacles in order to achieve certain objectives. it differents from the opinion of the experts above (dye, 2016) in (joko, 2016) suggested that in the policy system there are three elements cosists of "(a) stakeholders policy; (b) policymakers (policy contents); and (c) policy environment ". based on the theory, you can be aware that a policy creates by the government to achieve certain objectives in which there are perpetrators involved in addressing the problems arising from the environment. as (anderson, 1990) elements stated in the public policy, among other things includes the following as follows: 1. policies always have a purpose or are oriented towards a particular purpose. 2. the policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials. 3. policy is what the government is actually doing and not what it intends to do. 4. public policy is positive (which is the government's action on a particular matter) and is negative (the decision of government officials not able to do anything). 5. public policy (positive) always based on certain rules of law that are pushy (authoritative). public policy created as is intended to address issues that arise in the community, formulating problems is one of the phases in policymaking, so formulating problems is fundamental to policy making. (dunn, 2003) described some important features of policy issues, classified as follows: 1. interdependence is among policy issues. policy issues within a field sometimes affect policy in other areas. (meyer & dunn, 2006) suggested that in reality policy issues are not a standalone unity; they are part of the whole system of problems that best described as meses, that is, an external condition system that generates dissatisfaction among different segments. 2. the subjectivity is among policy issue. external conditions that pose a problem defined, classified, described and selectively evaluated. while it consists of a presumption that the problem is objective, the same data on a problem interpreted differently. 3. artificial nature is among the problem. policy issues are only possible when humans make judgments about the desire to change some of the problem situations. policy issues constitute a result/product of human subjective judgment; that policy problem also accepted as legitimate definitions of objective social conditions; and changed socially. 4. dynamics is among policy issues. they consist of many solutions to a problem, as many definitions to the problem. problems and solutions are in constant changes; and hence the problem not constantly solved. the solution to the problem can be obsolete even though the problem itself is not obsolete. public policy on addressing a problem also contains various concepts. (anderson, 2003; sugandi, 2017) defined public policy as "a response from the political system to demands/claim and support that flows from its environment". in policy making to address community issues, the policy contains values that aligned 5 with the prevailing values in the community that will directly or indirectly impacted by the policy. as (eulau & easton, 2006) presented in (kawer, baiquni, keban, & subarsono, 2018) said that "when the government makes public policy, it is also the government to allocate values to the community, because each policy contains a set of values in it" . in line with this, (lasswell & kaplan, 2018) in (kawer et al., 2018), argued, "public policy should contain the goals, values, and social practices that exist in the community". public policy should not contradict the values and social practices that exist in the community, in order not to occur rejection or resistance when implemented.. 2.2. policy reform concepts the basic conception of reform is to create changes, improvements, arrangements and settings comprehensively and systematically on many matters, especially as it relates to leadership, as well as to state, organize and government. reform defined as the process of change from the old condition to the desired new condition (said, abdullah, uli, & mohamed, 2014). whereas according to the opinion of (novianto, kurniawan, & wibawa, 2017) stated that a movement to change the shape and behavior of a setting, because the order is no longer preferred or not according to the needs of the times-good because it is inefficient, not clean, not democratic, etc. according to (hidayat, 2017) stated that reform is a corrective or changing form. (anderson, 2003) in (nugroho, 2017) defined the policy as "a relative stable, purposive course of action followed by an actor or set of actor in dealing with a problem or matter of concern." policy is the direction of action that has the intent set by an actor or a number of actors in addressing a problem or issue. according to the explanation above it noted that the understanding of public policy reform is to change the behavior or action better to be more effective and efficient than the actors in addressing a problem that are occurs in the society of today. 2.3. bureaucracy reform concepts relating to the government's efforts in fixing the bureaucracy, which eventually referred to as bureaucratic reform? thus, there are various definitions of bureaucratic reform, with varying understanding of bureaucracy reform. according to (sedarmayanti, 2011) stated that bureaucracy reform was the government's effort to improve performance through various ways with the aim of effectiveness, efficiency, and accountability. where the bureaucracy reform includes several changes namely (a) changing in way of thinking; (b) changing of ruler into civil servant; (c) putting the role of authority; (d) not think the production result but the final result; (e) changing in performance management. the explanation above shows that to reform bureaucracy there are some things changed from the bureaucracy itself. after seeing the various explanations of bureaucracy reform above, bureaucracy reform is part of administrative reform, could said in relation to actions or measures undertaken in the reform the administration of one of its objectives is to reform bureaucracy. in the grand design bureaucracy reform in the period of 20102025 it had determined that the objectives achieved in bureaucratic reform are to create professional government bureaucracy with adaptive, integrity, high performance characteristics. it also shold be clean and free of corruptio, collusion and nepotism, being able to serve the public, neutral, prosperous, dedicated, and uphold the basic values and ethics code of the state apparatus. there are 8 (eight) areas of change that become the goal of bureaucracy reform covering all aspects of government management, as stated in the table below: table 1: these 8 areas of bureaucracy reform changing areas results expected organization proper organizational function and precise size (right sizing) execution clear, effective and efficient, measured and in accordance with good governance principles, systems processes and working procedures laws and regulations regulation that is more orderly, not overlapping and conducive human resources apparatus human resource apparatus is integrity, neutral, competent, capable, professional, high performance and prosperous. supervision increased governance of clean and free of corruption, collusion and nepotism accountability increasing capacity and accountability for bureaucratic performance public service excellent service according to the needs and expectations of society mind set and cultural work bureaucracy with high integrity and performance 6 (culture set) apparatus bases on these definitions, in the interest of the authors ' research is to take a generalization of bureaucratic reform concept (administrative) that is a change efforts made by the government in the governance system to create or make things better than the previous state by involving bureaucracy as the target of change so that bureaucracy becomes more qualified. in addition, using the eight areas of change in the grand design bureaucracy reform 2010-2025 became a tool to parse the current research problems. because of the limitation of researchers then in this research will be selected two areas of change such as human resource apparatus and public services. the researchers choose these two areas as a matter of the problem in implementing the education management of extraordinary school (slb) in central java province. the reason why researchers in using the grand design bureaucracy reform 2010-2025 is more applicative than the other theory, and is one of the mandatory government programs that should be implemented by any agency or institution government in the entire territory of indonesia. 3. result and discussion the results of research that has been done in the field, for reform study of the policy of education management of extraordinary school (slb) in central java province has been known that it turns out the policy by the current government not maximized or optimal. this can be seen from the data obtained from the relevant instituion/agencies through the results of interviews that have been done with some informant both from the government and from the community. the head of the education and culture office, the director of the ministry of religious affairs, the scholarship of the ministry of agriculture, educators and special education (slb’s teacher) currently represent as the informant of the central java provincial government. while the informant of the community in this research represented by parents who attended the extraordinary school (slb). several problems are widely alluded to by the informant of policy reform studies that have been widely complained of by some informant are both human and non-people. moreover, some facilities of space infrastructure classes that still require improvement to be comfortable to use as a place to learn and teach while in the classroom. researchers in obtaining an overview of the policy reform of the education management of extraordinary school (slb) in central java province used some of the principles contained in the grand design bureaucracy reform 2010-2025 to parse current research problems. in addition, because of the limitations owned by the researchers, then in this research will be selected two areas of change such as human resources apparatus that is seen using the theory presented by (notoatmojo, 2010) and public services viewed by using the theory of (kasmir, 2009). the member states transfer sovereignty always and more, by attributing them the power of creating legally dependent norms, as well as the power to adopt mutual politics, that have always been reserved from the sovereign decisions of member states. until now we have mutual monetary, agricultural politics etc. i. policy reform of education management of extraordinary school (slb) in central java province the current policy reform conducted by the provincial government of central java in conducting the management of extraordinary school (slb) education for pupils or students with special needs can be known results. results obtained after a thorough research with the stakeholders and the society results in the reform of the policy has not succeeded optimally. it is very conscious of some results interviews with informers that were successfully encountered by researchers at the field. some of the informant are the head of education and culture office, head of field of construction as well as special education, the study of student affairs, educator and education special teachers, and slb’s teacher. the intention of bureaucracy reform, namely as a change effort to improve the bureaucracy quality. every change to be made always focuses on the bureaucracy as a change target, this is done to solve the problems that exist in the community. given that the bureaucracy is always in contact with the community therefore the bureaucracy is demanded to maximize its task and function as a servant in serving the community. to achieve this aim, the government as a competent authority to make renewal and fundamental changes to the system of governance. ii. human resources apparatus the area of change is included in the grand design bureaucracy reform 2010-2025, namely human resources apparatus. which in the weaver human resources apparatus according to (amran, 2009) seen in two factors that can affect the human resources apparatus in the department of education and culture of central java, internal and external factors? researchers observe about mission and organizational objectives, achievement strategy and types of technology used use this internal factor. while in the external, factors used by researchers to observe about the 7 government's wisdom, social culture, and the development of science and technology. the results of research conducted by researchers found based on interviews and data obtained that the education management of extraordinary school (slb) in central java province. it related to human resources apparatus has not been done optimally because the vision of a mission that has not yet contained or alluded to the disability, uncertified teachers of extraordinary school (slb). as well as several teachers of extraordinary school (slb) or education personnel specialized in extraordinary school (slb) who have not been able to use the computer applications skillfully and well when completing the work that they are responsible for. based on the results of the interview explanation above, it is known that at present, the government has not succeeded the policy reform of the education management of extraordinary school (slb) in central java province from human resluces factor apparatus. it is necessary to make improvements so that the quality and effectiveness of extraordinary school (slb) teachers can be fulfilled. for people with disabilities can face a better future in their lives later. who has gained the knowledge and skills of their current teachers? the human resource condition above is very suitable with the data in the provincial education and culture office of central java. teachers who have become civil servants currently in central java province have 1,727 teachers. the following classes are seen from graph 1 below. gar's people with disabilities can face a better future in their lives. who has gained the knowledge and skills of their current teachers? graphic 1. number of civil servants of extraordinary school (slb) classifying in central java province source: central java provincial education office, 2018 from graph 1 above, it noted that the extraordinary school (slb) teachers in the current region of central java province are the most in-group iv a with 1,029 people. then the second most teacher group had shown in-group iii b with the number of teachers as much as 189 people. in addition, the number of teachers at least from the graph above knew, namely extraordinary school (slb) teacher with group ii a, ii b and iv. each of them is only one person. therefore, the government of central java province is required to add or make improvements in quality and quantity to teachers who still lack their capacity to teach students or slb student in central java province. whereas if it viewed based on the type of experience it seen in graph 2 below. graphic 2. the number of civil servants of extraordinary school (slb)’s teachers by gender in central java province sources: educational institution of central java province, 2018 based on graph 2 above can be noted that at this time extraordinary school (slb) teachers located in central java province in the domination of women where the total amount is 1,925 overall, with the details of the status of civil servants as many as 1003 teachers, and non civil servants as many as 922 extraordinary school (slb) teachers. after that, the gender of men with a total 1,110 extraordinary school (slb) teachers, with the status of civil servants as many as 724 people and non civil servants currently number as many as 386 people. based on the results of interviews, data and facts in the field can be noted that the number of extraordinary school (slb) teachers in central java province still needs to be added, as well as the addition of qualified teachers in educating children at the time of children with disabilities lessons given in the classroom. according to (van rensburg, basson, & carrim, 2011) stated that the factors affecting human resources are two, first internal factors: mission and organizational objectives, goal achievement strategy, type of technology used and external factors: government policy , social culture, and the development of science and technology. the human resources factor of this apparatus used by researchers to determine the extent of the education and culture department of central java in conducting the management of extraordinary school (slb) based on internal and external factors that have been carried out. the results of a reform study of the education management policy of extraordinary school (slb) in central java province that has been conducted by researchers at the time in the field can be known that currently that the human resource factor apparatus 8 to conduct management of extraordinary school (slb) still need improvement by improved quality and quantity in the field. this is due to the absence of policy regulations such as the struggle or regional regulations, which specifically regulates education for those with disabilities. in addition, several classes of teachers who are still not skilled or not able to operate the computer to support the teaching activities of students at the time they are in front of the class. so according to them given the training or technologycal guidance in order to support the education of slb and develop the interests and talents owned by the students in extraordinary school (slb). the absence of conformity between the theory conveyed by (van rensburg et al., 2011) the practice at the time in the field makes the management policy program of in extraordinary school (slb) conducted by the provincial education and cultural office of central java there are still many face of the problem. so according to the informant necessary improvement efforts of the central java provincial government so that extraordinary school (slb) in central java province is better than when it managed by the regency/city government. especially it focuses on science and skills are from teachers at extraordinary school (slb) school. in addition, the numbers of teachers who still slightly compared to schoolteachers for other education levels also become an obstacle in fulfilling the ratio of teachers to students. teacher improvement in quality and quantity then it can make children with disabilities can compete with other children in the middle of society today. iii. public service the area of change included in the grand design bureaucracy reform the next second 2010-2025 in this study was public service. which in this weaver will be seen in some of the symptoms or indicators, namely the ability of officers in performing the service quickly and precisely, able to communicate well, able to maintain the secret well, have knowledge and ability, trying to understand the community necessities, and able to give confidence to the community. based on the results of the interview explanation that conducted by the researchers at the time of the field, it is known that the policy reform of the education management of extraordinary school (slb) in central java province relates to public service factor is can walk according to the society expectations. it based on the answer of the informant who said that the service provided by the central java provincial education and culture office in handling the problem is responsive. they are officers quickly and precisely in providing, the clarity of information needed by both of the teachers and the community who reported related to the problem of extraordinary school (slb) in central java province. therefore, in the end it can increase the trust of people who currently have children with special needs to be able to follow the education of extraordinary school (slb) with high enthusiasm. the characteristics of good service according to (jansi, kasmir raja, & sandhia, 2018) formulated as follows: 1. responsible to each customer/visitor from the beginning to completion. 2. being able to serve quickly and precisely 3. being able to communicate 4. being able to provide assurance of confidentiality of each transaction 5. have a good knowledge and ability 6. strive to understand the needs of customers/visitors. 7. giving confidence is to customers/visitors. understanding the quality of services or services centered on the fulfillment of needs and desires of the community and its delivery provisions to offset the expectations that wanted by the society today. this public service factor used by researchers to determine the extent to which the central java provincial education and culture department in conducting the management of extraordinary school (slb) is able to provide good service to the community in the field of extraordinary education for children with disabilities. the research results conducted by researchers can be found based on the results of the description of interviews and data obtained that the management of extraordinary school (slb) education in central java province related to the service provided to the community is already running according to what is expected. the implementor officers who come from the provincial education and cultural office of central java and teachers who teach in extraordinary school (slb) are already able to provide good service to the community. therefore, in the implementation it is no problem in conducting the management of extraordinary school (slb), after all the extraordinary education affairs taken by the provincial government of central java. the alignment between theory and practice, so that the management of extraordinary school (slb) conducted by the department of education and culture of the central java province in conducting services today has been able to satisfy the various parties to the teacher, principal as well as community. it based on the ability of officers in performing services quickly and appropriately, able to communicate well with the principal, teachers of extraordinary school (slb) and society, transparent in providing data related to slb, have knowledge and skills about good management of extraordinary school (slb) is what it does. they are trying to understand the needs of the community, and able to give confidence to the community to send their children who have special need to learn to the extraordinary school (slb). having good public service even though the human resource is still very limited to central java province showed his achievements in the olympics for students with 9 disabilities who are held in jogjakarta in the past time by bearing or won as general champion. figure 6. extraordinary school (slb) students of central java who become champions in competition events o2sn in all indonesia source: researcher document, 2018 4. conclusion and suggestions research reform study of the policy of education management of extraordinary school (slb) in central java province that has done by researchers previously concluded as follows: the policy management of extraordinary school (slb) education in central java province as whole results in the framework of reform in the field of apparatus has not carried out well. because up to the extent of the resource apparatus that became a phenomenon in this research, after the study in the field is, still many who have not digital literacy is to operationalize computer and props when the teacher teaches students in front of the class. especially for human resources apparatus, that is middle age. however, based on the results of the study in the field they continue to do public service well, fast and responsive to the principal and slb’s teachers of whom found many problems when they learn to teach in extraordinary school (slb) school the that they handle today. therefore, to improve apparatus resources especially for extraordinary school (slb) teachers, need to do some training to improve their quality. therefore, those extraordinary school (slb) teachers can give a good understanding to their students, when teaching them in the classroom while learning to teach in the school. improvement efforts that need implemented on various conditions evaluation of the education management policy of extraordinary school (slb) are as follows: 1. improving the quality and quantity of human resource apparatus through technology and training 2. the addition of current extraordinary school (slb) teachers is still very little, compared to the general level of education. 3. the construction of facilities that can adapted to the disability. 4. re-collection of teachers is both of state and of private extraordinary school (slb) in central java. therefore, it could see the amount of human resources certainty teacher that are both of honorer, state and private. so it calculated in the budget adjustment that will done by the central java provincial education office in the payment of benefits for extraordinary school (slb) teachers to be paid. 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(2011). human resource management as a profession in south africa. sa journal of human resource management. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v9i1.336. introduction 1. research method 2. literature review 2.1. public policy 3. result and discussion 4. conclusion and suggestions references 11 kosovo integration in eu rinor rexhepi ¹* vigan sahiti ² florim rullani ³ ¹ universum college, master's degree program in diplomacy, rexhepirinor@hotmail.com *correspondent author. ² universum college, master's degree program in diplomacy,vigansahiti1@gmail.com ³ universum college, master's degree program in diplomacy, rrudhaniflorim2@gmail.com article history: submission 21 july 2020 revision 18 september 2020 revision 27 september 2020 accepted 8 november 2020 available online 31 december 2020 keywords: foreign policy, eu integration, copenhagen’s criteria, kosovoserbia negotiations, process of stabilizationassociation. a b s t r a c t kosovo is a new state which has just been established and has not yet been fully promoted in the international arena. kosovo drafted a foreign policy strategy which consisted of key objectives such as lobbying for new recognitions and establishing diplomatic relations with the states that had recognized us. the purpose of the research is to measure the opinion of the citizens of kosovo on the importance of kosovo's integration into the eu, to measure the challenges, opportunities of kosovo's citizens after integration, the impact it has on the economic field and to measure the opinion of state officials and experts on integration in eu. total of 400 respondents from all over kosovo, a senior government official and two integration experts participated in the research. the research was conducted through a survey of citizens through the online platform and interviews with officials. we confirm the results of the research that the citizens of kosovo will not migrate even after kosovo's integration into the eu, and the integration of kosovo has a significant positive impact on the development and economic prosperity of businesses. on the other side, it has been found that there are gender differences in terms of their opinion on the impact that eu integration has, and some citizens fear that integration would negatively affect their lives. so we recommend that kosovo should be integrated into the eu as soon as possible in order to have a genuine economic development and for this the future legislatures should work seriously on this. 1. introduction kosovo is the youngest state in europe, kosovo was declared an independent and democratic state on february 17, 2008. kosovo's independence was declared in full compliance with the plan of martti ahtisaari, where according to this plan kosovo is an independent and multiethnic state which consists of the albanian majority and other minorities such as the serb minority, bosniak, turk, rae, etc. the official languages of the republic of kosovo are albanian and serbian. immediately after the declaration of independence came the first recognitions of the state of kosovo by countries which were supporters of the establishment of the republic of kosovo. the newly formed state had put the main focus on its promotion in the international sphere trying to secure as much recognition as possible. in this journey, kosovo had an opposing party, the republic of serbia, which tried to prevent kosovo from penetrating the international system because it considers it a territorial part of it. since the declaration of independence until now, a strong diplomatic battle has been taking place between the state of kosovo and serbia, where the first party tries to secure as much recognition as possible, while the other party tries to prevent at any cost the internationalization of the state kosovo. the state of kosovo enjoys great support from the above mentioned states. the republic of kosovo is a member of over 38 international and regional organizations, among which the most important are the monetary fund, the world bank, the http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 mailto:rexhepirinor@hotmail.com mailto:rrudhaniflorim2@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1848-7326 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2668-6632 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4519-9773 12 world trade organization, reconstruction and development, etc .; while it has failed to join unesco and interpol. kosovo continues to lobby for membership in as many other international organizations as possible, but its primary goal is membership in the un and other euro-atlantic organizations. 2. literature review foreign policy is an organized activity of the state with which it tries to maximize all values and interests in relation to other states. foreign policy is drafted by the main policy makers of a country who are: the president, the prime minister, the minister of foreign affairs and diplomatic missions. foreign policy should be drafted in accordance with state interests. in order to successfully achieve the main goals in foreign relations, foreign policy must formulate the main objectives it aims to achieve (vukadinovic, 1999). kosovo has also defined its goals and interests which it aims to achieve in the international system and for this has drafted the framework of objectives which contains the primary foreign policy goals which are defined as priorities to be achieved in international relations and one of the main objectives of the foreign policy of the republic of kosovo is membership in the european union (ministry of foreign affairs, 2011). one of the most important and successful eu policies is enlargement policy. european policy aims to join the european organization, all countries that are part of the european continent and aspire to membership in this organization. eu extension policy makes europe a safer and more stable country, enables us to become stronger and promote our values, and enables us to play our role as a global player on the world stage. countries willingly integrate into the eu as they value eu membership as a political and economic interest. according to article 6 of the treaty on european union, the eu is founded on the principles of freedom, democracy, respect for human rights, fundamental freedoms, the rule of law and principles which are common to all member states. while article 44 of the european union states that any state that respects the principles mentioned in article 6 can apply to become a member of the european union, but for states aspiring to membership a long process awaits the fulfillment of the principles of freedom , democracy, respect for human rights, and the rule of law (dalipi, 2015). to join the eu, kosovo must complement the copenhagen criteria (political, economic and legal criteria) and the additional madrid criteria and fulfill the obligations arising from the saa. the political criterion requires the creation of stable institutions, the development of democracy, respect for human and minority rights, the creation of the rule of law, etc (reka, 2010). to successfully meet the political criteria, the republic of kosovo must focus on the consolidation of the state, the spread of democracy throughout the state and respect for human rights, which includes fundamental freedoms such as: the right to life, the right to life. educated, the right to free expression. since kosovo is a multiethnic state, it is necessary to respect the rights of minorities and treat them equally with the albanian majority. creating the rule of law is another task for the state of kosovo, ie creating a rule of law where no one would be above the law, where the same laws would apply to all and where the judiciary is not politically influenced. all obligations arising from the political criterion,. kosovo has them written in the constitution, but their primary priority should be their implementation in practice. the economic criterion requires meeting the economic standards set by the eu and these standard criteria relate to the free market and the creation of economic capacity to compete with other eu countries (reka, holl & sela, 2010). to fully meet the economic criteria, kosovo needs to strengthen the economic sector because kosovo's economic sector compared to eu member states is quite weak. market opening and economic cooperation with other countries is necessary, therefore kosovo should be oriented towards economic cooperation. kosovo also needs to ensure economic growth which would create sustainable economic stability. using this economic strategy, kosovo would be able to successfully meet the economic standards required by the eu. the legal criterion is the ability to implement acqius communautaire or harmonize national legislation with that of the eu (reka, holl & sela, 2010). the state of kosovo, respectively the relevant authorities in charge of this work should work on the approximation of kosovo legislation with that of the eu, then all necessary measures should be taken so that the standards of the acquis communautaire are part of the legislation of the respective state. kosovo must approximate all the chapters of the acqius communautaire in order to fulfill its obligations deriving from the legal criteria. it is also necessary to train kosovo lawyers based on eu legislation. the stabilization and association process (sap), adopted and put into effect in 1999, is the european union policy framework for the western balkans, within which the process of integration of these countries into the eu until their full membership takes place. . through this process, the eu helps and serves as a guide for each country in the process of their development, so that when they become full members they will be able to implement 13 european standards, enabling everyone to be able to to play his role as a member with full rights and obligations (qorraj, 2012). on october 27, 2015, the stabilization and association agreement was signed between kosovo and the eu. this agreement was subsequently ratified by the assembly of the republic of kosovo. the signing and ratification of this agreement brought a new chapter for kosovo, taking the first step towards european integration. the saa contains 596 pages, the preamble, 144 articles and x titles, which include general principles up to institutional provisions. the purposes of this agreement are: 1. support kosovo's efforts to strengthen democracy and the rule of law, 2. contribute to political, economic and institutional stability in kosovo, 3. to support kosovo for the development of economic and international cooperation, 4. support kosovo's efforts to complete the transition to a functioning market economy. 5. to promote regional cooperation in all areas addressed by this agreement, etc (ministry of european integration, 2010). all obligations deriving from the chapters of the saa are obligations which must be fulfilled by the state of kosovo for a certain term given by the european union for 10 years. also after signing the saa, kosovo can apply for the status of european union candidate (osmanaj, 2018). but one of the main challenges that prevents obtaining candidate status is the non-recognition of the state of kosovo by the 5 eu member states, but kosovo must start a lobbying process to ensure eventual recognition by the 5 countries of the european union, and so will avoided any possible obstacles to obtaining candidate status (hoxhaj, 2016). after the unilateral declaration of independence of the republic of kosovo, neighborly relations between kosovo and serbia remain tense. the serbian side is constantly trying to challenge kosovo's independence by using a counter-campaign to prevent its recognition and integration into international organizations, but if a country does not have good relations with its neighbors, that country can not join the eu. the european union initiated the start of talks on neighborly relations between kosovo and serbia, which would be mediated by the organization itself. the dialogue for the improvement of relations between these two countries started in 2011, while the first agreement was reached on april 19, 2013, which contained 15 points which included the improvement of relations (osmanaj, 2018). the points that have to do exactly with the membership in the european union are points 14 and 15. point 14. it has been agreed that neither side will block, or encourage others to block the other side's progress on the relevant eu paths. item 15. an implementation committee will be set up by both parties, with the facilitation of the eu (assembly of the republic of kosovo, 2015). although the kosovo-serbia dialogue began with eu mediation, this dialogue has contributed neither to the strengthening of statehood from within nor to its consolidation from outside. the republic of kosovo continues to have difficulty in controlling and exercising sovereignty throughout its territory. while in the international arena, kosovo continues to be blocked by serbia in its efforts to advance in international organizations (osmani, 2016). the association process is known as the core policy of the european union, which was adopted in 1999 and reaffirmed in thessaloniki in 2003, on this occasion the thessaloniki agenda confirms the european perspective for kosovo (qorraj, 2012). in the 2012 feasibility process, the eu finds that the criteria for starting saa negotiations between kosovo and the eu have been met. negotiations for the start of the saa between kosovo and the eu opened in 2013 and were described by former prime minister hashim thaçi as a historic day (ministry of european integration, 2010). the international community as a whole supports kosovo's transition to a contemporary state. however, it is promising that an important part of the international community supports this state of the country, with the overwhelming majority of the eu, the united states, and some other important players, is a good starting point for kosovo (mekaj&aliaj, 2019). kosovo as a young state, without sufficient experience in diplomacy, has constantly encountered difficulties in achieving foreign policy objectives, especially in the primary goal, that of eu membership. on the one hand, from the external factor, especially from the serbian state, which constantly hinders the aspirations of the state of kosovo for integration in international organizations, a fact that directly affects the development and economic growth of the country; on the side is the internal factor, the incompetence of our diplomats, sometimes the appointment of positions without meritocracy, which has affected the unproductivity and stagnation in the necessary achievements for our new country. the external factor that mostly hinders kosovo on the path to eu integration is serbia. there are two main problems where we 14 address serbia: the first problem is lobbying for non-recognition of those states that have not yet recognized us, and the withdrawal of recognitions from those states that have already recognized the state of kosovo. the second problem is the lobbying of serbia against the integration of kosovo in various international organizations for non-membership, e.g. unesco, interpol, while fifa (which despite serbia's lobbying has accepted us) etc. the other external factor, which hinders kosovo's integration into the eu, are the 5 eu member states which have not yet recognized kosovo's independence. we will briefly mention the causes of non-recognition by these 5 countries: in spain the issue is its internal problems with catalonia and basketball; in greece, although the official justifications for non-recognition are based on these 3 points, which are: open opposition to international law; ill-treatment of minorities, mainly serbs; creating an organized crime paradise. in fact the main reason lies in cyprus' problem with turkey; cyprus' attitude towards kosovo is so sharp that it does not even recognize kosovo documents. romania has not recognized kosovo's independence due to the problem with the hungarian minority. slovakia, as one of the countries that has not recognized kosovo's independence so far, has no indication suggesting a 'change of decision' in this regard. slovakia has been moderate in its liberal contacts. it has a liaison office in prishtina (kipred, 2013). the other (internal) factor that is very important in foreign policy are the institutional bearers: the president, the prime minister, the minister of foreign affairs and the oversight role has the assembly of the republic of kosovo through which all important decisions pass. the foreign policy of the republic of kosovo has been characterized by ups and downs. starting from the cycle of recognitions of the first years of the declaration of independence, until the beginning of a regression which brought not only a stagnation in recognition, but also the withdrawal of recognitions from the states that have recognized us. also the failure to join international organizations, the failure to meet the criteria for visa liberalization and various diplomatic scandals. regarding the future of kosovo in the eu, given that the constitution and the laws of the republic of kosovo are in full compliance with the european spirit and values, we can conclude that the orientation of kosovo is clear and unchangeable, as far as regarding integration into the european union (halili, 2019). the future of the european union, after the exit of great britain, has created confusion in some other member states. however, given that the eu is composed of powerful countries such as france, germany, italy, spain, etc., we can consider that the eu will have a secure future. therefore, kosovo must continue its euro-atlantic orientation to be part of this project. 3. methodology the research is of quantitative and qualitative type, where through the survey the citizens of the republic of kosovo were surveyed regarding their opinion on kosovo's integration into the eu, while through interviews government officials and experts in the field of economy in kosovo were interviewed. the research aims to measure the opinion of citizens on kosovo's integration into the eu, the criteria and reasons for accession and the opportunities that kosovo has in europe, and experts were asked to measure the impact of economic development if kosovo integrates, the reasons for non-integration. of kosovo and the opportunities offered for kosovo if we integrate into the eu. the total sample in the research is 400 respondents, ie citizens of all ages, where through the survey distributed electronically they have expressed their opinion. the questionnaire is composed of the demographic part and the second part which is focused on their opinion on eu integration, the reasons for non-integration, their expectations in economic and cultural terms. the interview included a senior official of the government of kosovo, an expert in the field of economics and a lawyer. the research lasted 2 months, where the questionnaires were first distributed through google form in various forums on social networks, then the data were collected and coded in excel and transferred from excel to spss. in spss descriptive, comparative analysis and verification of hypotheses, reliability test and their final interpretation were performed. the interviews were distributed through the e-mail address, where the respondents completed them and sent them to us, notifying them of their submission. data analysis was done through spss program (version 25), and interviews through inductive method. to test the hypotheses, parametric tests t-test and anova one way were used, which enabled the comparison and validation of research hypotheses. the data are primary data and were conducted directly by us as students through surveys distributed on social networks and interviews with government officials. 3.1. purpose of the research the main purpose of the research is to measure the opinion of the citizens of the republic of kosovo on the importance of kosovo's integration into the european union, to measure their opinion on the desire for integration, the impact that this integration has on kosovo civic life and culture, and the reasons non-integration so far and expectations after eu integration. in addition to this, the aim is to present the opinion of state officials and experts in this field, which was done through an interview. 3.2. research question and hypotheses the main research question is: 15 1. what is the impact of kosovo's eu integration regarding the migration of citizens to the eu? 1.1. is any danger to kosovo culture after eu integration? 1.2. would kosovo's eu integration affect economic development and prosperity? 1.3. are there gender differences in their opinion in relation to eu integration? hypotheses: h01. regardless of the level of education, kosovo's integration into the european union does not affect the opinion of kosovo citizens to migrate to eu countries. h1. regardless of the level of education, kosovo's integration into the european union affects the opinion of kosovo citizens to migrate to eu countries. h02. there are significant differences between male and female citizens in terms of their opinion on the impact of kosovo's eu integration on the lives of citizens and the endangerment of our culture. h2. there are no significant differences between male and female citizens in terms of their opinion on the impact of kosovo's eu integration on the lives of citizens and the endangerment of our culture. h03. citizens who do not want kosovo's integration into the european union fear that this negatively affects the lives of kosovo citizens, compared to citizens who agree that kosovo should be integrated into the eu. h3. citizens who do not want kosovo's integration into the european union are not afraid that this will negatively affect the lives of kosovo citizens, compared to citizens who agree that kosovo should be integrated into the eu. h04. kosovo's integration into the eu has a positive impact on economic development and prosperity. h4. kosovo's eu integration does not have a positive impact on economic development and prosperity. 4. research analyze in this part will be presented the results from the survey conducted with citizens as well as the analysis of interviews with government officials and experts in the field of integration in kosovo. statistical results were obtained through spss program, while interviews were analyzed through inductive method. 4.1. reliability test the reliability test is realized to verify whether our data meet the statistical requirements. a total of 400 respondents were included in this test. table 1. case processing summary n % cases valid 400 100.0 excludeda 0 0.0 total 400 100.0 a. listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. based on the following results we see that the reliability test is 0.626 which is above the permissible level of reliability and therefore we say that our data meet the conditions to proceed with further analysis. table 2. reliability statistics common variance 0.626 true variance 0.060 error variance 0.566 common inter-item correlation 0.096 reliability of scale 0.615 reliability of scale (unbiased) 0.617 4.2. demographic results a total of 400 respondents participated in the research, of which 89 belong to the age group 18-25 years or 22.3%, 131 belong to the age group 26-35 years or 32.8%, 77 belong to the age group 36-44 years or 19.3%, 59 belong to the age group 45-54 years or 14.8%, 32 age groups 55-65 years or 8% and 12 other age groups 65+ or 3% of them. of these males were 229 or 57.3%, 149 females or 37.3% and 22 did not respond to this by choosing not to show or 5.5%. with primary qualification were 16 respondents or 4%, 66 were with secondary education or 16.5%, 158 with bachelor level or 39.5%, with master level 116 or 29%, phd were 20 or 5%, while professional were 17 or 4.3% and without qualification were 7 or 1.8%. table 3. demographic results of the survey age n % 18-25 age 89 22.3% 26-35 age 131 32.8% 36-44 age 77 19.3% 45-54 age 59 14.8% 55-65 age 32 8.0% 65+ age 12 3.0% 16 sex n % male 229 57.3% female 149 37.3% i prefer not to tell 22 5.5% level of education you have completed? n % elementary school 16 4.0% high school 66 16.5% bachelor 158 39.5% master 116 29.0% phd 20 5.0% professional / craft course 17 4.3% no qualification 7 1.8% 4.3. descriptive results of citizens' opinions regarding kosovo's membership in the eu and the impact of this integration on the lives of citizens and the sovereignty of kosovo. based on the following results we see that the vast majority of kosovo citizens who participated in the survey have stated that eu integration is in the interest of kosovo, where 349 of them said yes or 87.3%, while 46 others said that this is not in the interest of kosovo or 11.5% and 1.3% said they do not know. a similar percentage is to the question whether they want kosovo's integration into the eu, where 86% of them said they wanted, 11.8% did not and 2.3% said they did not know. an interesting debate has arisen in the question of whether kosovo's integration into the eu affects kosovo to lose sovereignty, 23.5% say that such a thing will happen, 56.8% say no and 19.8% say they do not know if it will happen or not . according to the opinion of the citizens, kosovo's integration into the eu will have a positive impact, with 80% saying that there will be positive changes, 10.5% saying that this will happen negatively, 6.5% saying that it will not affect at all and 3% they do not know. citizens say that with kosovo's integration into the eu, kosovo territory will be less vulnerable, where 72.3% say it will be safer, 18.3% say it will not be safe and 9.5% have no knowledge. table 4. results of citizens' opinions regarding kosovo's membership in the eu do you think it is in kosovo's interest to join the european union? n % yes, it is in the interest of kosovo 349 87.3% no, it is not in kosovo's interest 46 11.5% i don’t know 5 1.3% do you want kosovo to integrate into the european union? n % yes 344 86.0% no 47 11.8% i don’t know 9 2.3% with the membership in the european union, does kosovo lose its sovereignty? n % yes, lose 94 23.5% no, not lose 227 56.8% i don’t know 79 19.8% how will kosovo's eu integration affect the lives of citizens? n % positively 320 80.0% negatively 42 10.5% not influence 26 6.5% i don’t know 12 3.0% do you think that kosovo's territorial integrity will be less vulnerable to eu integration? n % yes, kosovo will be safer 289 72.3% no, will not be 73 18.3% i don’t know 38 9.5% 4.4. opinion of citizens regarding the work of the governments of the republic of kosovo and the time when they think that integration will take place. in the question, how much the governments of the republic of kosovo have worked in terms of eu integration, we see that we have a great dissatisfaction on the part of citizens, where 11.5% say they have worked hard, 24% say they have worked moderately, 40.5% say that have worked little, 22.3% have worked at all and 1.8% do not know. citizens have disappointing expectations regarding kosovo's integration into the eu, where only 18.8% hope that this will happen in the period 2025-2030, 35.8% in the period 2031-2035, 30.8% hope that this will happen in the period 2036-2040 and 14.8% say they do not know. table 5. citizens opinion on the goverments work on eu integration how much have the governments of the republic of kosovo worked hard enough for eu integration? n % a lot 46 11.5% 17 on the average 96 24.0% few 162 40.5% none 89 22.3% i don’t know 7 1.8% in which year do you think kosovo will be integrated into the european union? n % in year 20252030 75 18.8% in year 20312035 143 35.8% in year 20362040 123 30.8% i don’t know 59 14.8% 4.5. citizens' opinion on the obstacles that are affecting kosovo's non-integration into the eu and the desire of citizens to migrate after integration and the agreement with serbia. by the opinion of the citizens, the biggest obstacle seen during kosovo's journey to the eu is the stagnation in the dialogue with serbia where 38% of respondents expressed, then 20.5% think that it is the non-recognition of kosovo by 5 eu member states, 16.3% of the non-fulfillment of obligations arising from the stabilization and association agreement, 15% say they lack knowledge, 9.8% as non-fulfillment of the copenhagen criteria and another 0.5%. what can be considered very positive is that citizens will not migrate to the eu even if kosovo joins the eu, where 42.8% said no, 39.3% yes, and 18% have no knowledge. according to the opinion of the citizens of kosovo, what most hinders kosovo towards the eu is the internal factor where 31.8% are expressed, the external factor (5 eu member states that are reluctant to recognize kosovo) with 27.8%, external factor (eu and its bureaucracy), 12% external factor (serbia and russia) and 11.5% do not know. the final agreement with serbia is not seen as a problem or important for 69% of the surveyed citizens, 25% think it is important and 6% do not know. table 6. citizens' opinion on the obstacles that are affecting kosovo's non-integration into the eu and the desire of citizens to migrate after integration and the agreement with serbia. what could be the biggest obstacle in kosovo's path to european union membership? n % not fulfillment the copenhagen criteria 39 9.8% stagnation in the dialogue with serbia 152 38.0% not fulfilling the obligations arising from the stabilization and association agreement 65 16.3% non-recognition of kosovo by 5 member states of the european union 82 20.5% i don’t know 60 15.0% other 2 0.5% after kosovo's membership in the eu, would you migrate to one of the eu countries to live? n % yes 157 39.3% no 171 42.8% i don’t know 72 18.0% which factor hinders kosovo's integration into the european union the most? n % internal factor (governments and other accompanying institutions) 127 31.8% external factor (eu and its bureaucracy) 68 17.0% external factor (5 eu member states reluctant to recognize kosovo) 111 27.8% external factor (serbia and russia) 48 12.0% i don’t know 46 11.5% should a final agreement be reached with serbia if the exchange of territories would be a condition for kosovo's membership in the european union? n % yes, it must achieved 100 25.0% no, it must not achieved 276 69.0% i don’t know 24 6.0% 4.6. citizens' opinion on the impact of integration on kosovo businesses and the standards used so far by the eu towards kosovo, as well as the impact of the uk exit from the eu. 18 citizens say that businesses are not ready to compete with businesses in eu countries where 51.5% of them say no, 38% say yes and 10.5% do not know. most citizens think that the culture of kosovo or our citizens would not be endangered even after eu integration where 70.3% say that such a thing will not happen, 20.3% yes and 9.5% do not know. we understand that citizens say that the eu is using double standards or 65.3%, 24.8% say no or 10% do not know. citizens say that even after the exit of great britain from the eu there will be no endangerment of this organization where 55.5% say no, 29.3% say yes and 15.3% have no knowledge. table 7. citizens' opinion on the impact of integration on kosovo businesses do you think that kosovo businesses are ready to compete with the businesses of european union countries? n % yes, are ready 152 38.0% no,aren’t ready 206 51.5% i don’t know 42 10.5% do you think that integration to the eu will risk our culture to become like the culture of other eu countries? n % yes, it is endangered 81 20.3% no, it is not endangered 281 70.3% i don’t know 38 9.5% do you think that the eu uses double standards for the integration process? n % yes 261 65.3% no 99 24.8% i don’t know 40 10.0% after the exit of great britain from the eu, is the future of this organization in doubt? n % yes 117 29.3% no 222 55.5% i don’t know 61 15.3% 4.7. verification of hypothesis 4.7.1. h01. regardless of the level of education, kosovo's integration into the european union does not affect the opinion of kosovo citizens to migrate to eu countries to confirm the hypothesis that above i used the anova test where i have compared the differences in the level of education as an independent variable and their opinion if they would migrate after kosovo's integration into the eu. based on the following results we can notice very few differences in the average values, which means that this is a positive picture for our citizens that even after integration there will be no migration. table 8. after kosovo's membership in the eu, would you migrate to one of the eu countries to live? n mean std. deviation std. error 95% confidence interval for mean minimum maximum lower bound upper bound elementary school 16 2.13 0.957 0.239 1.61 2.64 1 3 high school 66 1.82 0.802 0.099 1.62 2.02 1 3 bachelor 158 1.80 0.727 0.058 1.69 1.92 1 3 master 116 1.72 0.640 0.059 1.61 1.84 1 3 phd 20 1.70 0.657 0.147 1.39 2.01 1 3 professional / craft course 17 1.88 0.857 0.208 1.44 2.32 1 3 without qualification 7 1.43 0.535 0.202 0.93 1.92 1 2 total 400 1.79 0.727 0.036 1.72 1.86 1 3 based on the following results we see that free degree df = 399, mean square = 5.28, test f of statistical significance = 1.137 and p value = .340 e which is above the level of reliability of 5%, which means that we accept the hypothesis and we say that regardless of the level of education, kosovo's integration into the european union does not affect the opinion of kosovo citizens to migrate to eu countries. 19 table 9. after kosovo's membership in the eu, would you migrate to one of the eu countries to live? sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 3.600 6 0.600 1.137 0.340 within groups 207.337 393 0.528 total 210.938 399 4.7.2. h02. there are significant differences between male and female citizens in terms of their opinion on the impact of kosovo's eu integration on the lives of citizens. to confirm the above hypothesis, i used the independent sample t-test where i compared the gender ratio in relation to their perceptions on the impact of kosovo's eu integration on the lives of citizens and whether our culture would be endangered after eu integration. based on the following results we see that men have a lower level of their perception on the impact of integration in the lives of kosovo citizens with an average of 1.23 which means that they are more optimistic in this regard, while women have an average slightly more pessimistic about the impact of kosovo's eu integration on the lives of its citizens. table 10. group statistics sex n mean std. deviation std. error mean how will kosovo's eu integration affect the lives of citizens? male 229 1.23 0.638 0.042 female 149 1.39 0.777 0.064 do you think that after eu integration our culture is endangered by the cultures of other peoples of the european union? male 229 1.90 0.511 0.034 female 149 1.93 0.559 0.046 based on the following results we see that in the first factor that if integration affects the lives of citizens, we see that men express higher optimism than women where test f of statistical significance = 13.355, test t = -2.067, degree of freedom df = 376 and p value = .040 which is within the 5% confidence limit. our hypothesis is accepted and we say that there are significant significant differences between male and female citizens in terms of their opinion on the impact of kosovo's eu integration on the lives of citizens. table 11. independent samples test levene's test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means f sig. t df sig. (2tailed) mean difference std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper how will kosovo's eu integration affect the lives of citizens? equal variances assumed 13.355 0.000 2.154 376 0.032 -0.158 0.073 -0.302 -0.014 equal variances not assumed 2.067 272.148 0.040 -0.158 0.076 -0.308 -0.007 do you think that after eu integration our culture is endangered by the cultures of other peoples of the european union? equal variances assumed 0.333 0.564 0.555 376 0.579 -0.031 0.056 -0.141 0.079 equal variances not assumed 0.545 295.956 0.586 -0.031 0.057 -0.143 0.081 20 4.7.3. h03. citizens who do not want kosovo's integration into the european union fear that this negatively affects the lives of kosovo citizens, compared to citizens who agree that kosovo should be integrated into the eu to confirm the above hypothesis, i used the independent sample t-test where i made a comparison between citizens who wanted kosovo's accession to the eu and those who did not accept as an independent variable and the impact that this integration may have on life of the citizens of kosovo as a dependent vaiabel. the first results show a high difference, where those who have accepted you have an average of 1.24, compared to those who have accepted eu integration with an average of 1.86. table 12. group statistics do you like kosovo to integrate into the european union? n mean std. deviation std. error mean how will kosovo's eu integration affect the lives of citizens? yes 344 1.24 0.662 0.036 no 56 1.86 0.883 0.118 based on the following results we see that the test f of statistical significance is 15,285, the test t = 65,454, p value = .000 which is within the reliability limit of 1%. so, we accept the hypothesis that citizens who do not want kosovo's integration into the european union are afraid that this negatively affects the lives of kosovo citizens, compared to citizens who agree that kosovo should be integrated into the eu. table 13. independent samples test levene's test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means f sig. t df sig. (2tailed) mean difference std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper how will kosovo's eu integration affect the lives of citizens? equal variances assumed 15.285 0.000 6.162 398 0.000 -0.619 0.100 -0.816 -0.421 equal variances not assumed 5.021 65.454 0.000 -0.619 0.123 -0.865 -0.373 4.7.4. h04. kosovo's integration into the eu would have a positive impact on economic development and prosperity. this hypothesis has been confirmed through interviews by analyzing the interpretations of three experts in this field, where one of them is a senior official of the government of kosovo and the other two are senior experts. we can conclude that kosovo has many benefits from eu membership, but it must pay attention to and support kosovar businesses at all times. the sectors that kosovo has the opportunity to benefit from are initially the agricultural sector in economic terms, while in broader aspects it is the security aspect which is in fact the main element of investments and economic prosperity of a country, ie the provision of capital investments. other benefits include membership in iterpol and improved judicial system. this shows that our country must be part of the eu as soon as possible to achieve proper development and get out of the 20-year post-war transition. so, kosovo's integration into the eu would have a positive impact on the development and economic prosperity of our country. 4.8. analysis and interpretation of interviews 4.8.1. analysis of interviews with government officials and integration and foreign policy experts 21 table 14. interviews with policy experts category preliminary interpretation text 1 . do you think that kosovo businesses are ready and have enough capacity to enter the european market? according to government officials and experts, we can say that kosovar businesses are ready but do not meet the necessary conditions to compete with european businesses due to lack of conditions and failure to meet key criteria required by the eu. in this context, the eu is seen as guilty because of the political game it plays and the domestic spectrum because of the high level of corruption. for reasons b.r kosovo businesses, despite their progress, are still not at the level of businesses of eu member states. therefore, they are not sufficiently ready to compete or compete with foreign businesses. so local businesses need to focus on increasing quality to become compatible with the products of eu member states' businesses. to reach this stage, the state of kosovo must support their advancement through grants and subsidies, ie make a development policy v.y kosovo businesses will have great initial difficulties in achieving a certain level of competitiveness for the european market. in these difficulties, the republic of kosovo must have a much more active commitment, thus undertaking the financing of product and quality standardization, qualification and training of the workforce, ensuring and crediting the financial liquidity of the enterprise, as well as improving the conditions. infrastructure for industry development (primarily electricity supply). this would enable kosovo enterprises to have ample space and opportunities to invest in capacity building, as well as in improving the production process that would increase its efficiency. n.h no, kosovar businesses are still far from such a reality, so we still need time to be equal at the level of the european market with the businesses of eu countries. 2.. with eu membership, would kosovo benefit more economically if so in which sectors specifically? according to the opinion of experts and government officials, it is emphasized that kosovo would greatly benefit from eu membership starting from the legal aspect, by joining internationalsecurity institutions,would encourage the agricultural sector to increase production capacities and in all other areas in kosovo. so membership for kosovo is a real opportunity for positive change and development and prosperity. b.r the very fact that all countries that join the eu, do it of their own free will, this shows that all countries that integrate have benefits in all sectors, especially in the economic one. one of the benefits of different sectors, i think is the opening of markets, so a greater opportunity for economic development of kosovo through the deportation of local businesses in the wider european market. so through participation in the european market the state of kosovo would benefit financially a lot. n.h non-eu countries have financial assistance restrictions and double customs barriers, so our country's membership in the eu is a priority as we gain equal rights with member states, being exempt from customs duties and the opportunity of the absorber of donations, which is in the interest of the country. the government of kosovo has taken several steps to promote agriculture and rural development. in order to improve the economy in rural areas, the budget for the agricultural sector has increased steadily in recent years. this budget is intended for farmers in rural areas to improve productivity and quality of agricultural products. v.y in the long run, of course, kosovo will benefit. but this does not come by itself. thus, it is the national duty of public authorities together with the private sector in kosovo to clearly define the economic sectors in which kosovo has or can build comparative advantages in order to focus both public and private investments to maximize the potential of these sectors. of course, the food processing industry, the wood industry, but also the mining sector can be sectors of industry in which kosovo can increase its potential and benefit from them. in particular, we need to focus on sophisticated service sectors which require a much more efficient education system so that the information technology sector is one where kosovo, through economic integration with the eu, manages to maintain a part of great value added within its own economy. 22 4.8.2. final interpretation of interviews 4.8.2.1. topic 2: readiness and capacities of kosovo businesses to enter the european market. we consider kosovo businesses to have an extraordinary readiness to integrate into the eu, despite their ability to compete in the european market. the government of kosovo should create facilities, invest in production and in the agricultural sector in order for kosovo businesses to be ready and closer to meeting the criteria required by the eu. the main causes of nonfulfillment of conditions by businesses are corruption and nepotism, which are the main destructive factors of prosperity and opportunities for kosovo businesses to meet the criteria. kosovo businesses are in a neglected way, especially the production and agriculture sector, due to long-term and genuine non-planning by the government of kosovo since the declaration of independence. recently there has been a greater, but not enough, approach, and if this continues then the risk is that even if kosovo joins the eu, then kosovo businesses, manufacturing or industry and agriculture will not be ready to compete with european businesses. this requires detailed planning, investment and maximum support by the government of kosovo to all business sectors. 4.8.2.2. topic 3: potential economic benefit of kosovo with eu membership we can conclude that kosovo has many benefits from eu membership, but it must pay attention to and support kosovar businesses at all times. the sectors that kosovo has the opportunity to benefit from are initially the agricultural sector in economic terms, while in broader aspects it is the security aspect which is in fact the main element of investments and economic prosperity of a country, ie the provision of capital investments. other benefits include membership in interpol and the improvement of the judiciary. 5. conclusions and recommendations in the research was attended by a total of 400 respondents, a sufficient number to represent the public opinion on kosovo's integration into the eu, as well as officials and experts in the field of integration and policy. the age groups of the participants were from 18 years old to over 65 years old, while the gender difference was 57.3% male participation and 37.3% female, with a relatively high level of bachelor and master education. based on the results, we conclude that the citizens of kosovo are ready for eu integration and think that this is in the interest of kosovo, clarifying that this integration will not have an impact on the loss of kosovo's sovereignty, not excluding others. who think differently. citizens' lives are considered to be more positive for most citizens, and there are those who are skeptical about this work. they say that the governments have not worked properly and this shows that they are the main responsible that kosovo has not joined so far, and there is a pessimism that kosovo will join in a short period. as the biggest obstacle we see the dialogue with serbia and the non-recognition of kosovo by 5 eu countries, while on the other hand the internal factor is equivalent to the first two which shows that we have both internal and external problems in terms of kosovo's integration into the eu. they say they would not migrate even after kosovo's eu membership, and that an agreement with serbia should not be a precondition for membership. on the other side, businesses are viewed with high skepticism regarding their competition with european companies, as it is considered that they do not meet the right conditions and that a lot of work needs to be done in this regard. the citizens of kosovo say that the eu is using double standards for kosovo's integration into the eu and the exit of great britain does not see a problem for the future of the eu. on the other side, experts say that although changes have been made and there has been some prosperity on the road to the eu, it is still not enough due to the high level of corruption, nepotism and organized crime. these are the key factors that are hindering kosovo in its eu integration and without improving and working in this direction, they do not see any quick solution. regarding the recommendations in relation to the results, we address the government of kosovo to create the action plan for achieving kosovo 's main objective, which is eu integration. initially, work must be done to reduce corruption and nepotism, to carry out vetting at all institutional levels, to fight organized crime. to achieve these, the political scene in kosovo must achieve stability and work hard in this direction. on the contrary, without political stability it will not be possible to achieve any of the objectives, much less eu integration. the government of kosovo must provide suitable conditions for kosovo businesses to be ready and meet the conditions to compete with european union businesses. this should be fast and efficient, so that economic development is then more stable and employment is possible in our country. this gap is affecting the 23 brain drain of kosovo and this is very harmful, as it is happening constantly without noticing it much. references 1. dalipi, s. 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(1999). foreign policy theories. zagreb: varaždin. http://www.kipred.org/repository/docs/kosova_perball%c3%8b_5_vendeve_an%c3%8btare_t%c3%8b_be-s%c3%ab__q%c3%8b_nuk_e_kan%c3%8b_njohur__86556.pdf?fbclid=iwar110v9srw9bolhjzv5w873kxruhz8j7elttowtzn1glb1n5ekkwjzrcnzc http://www.kipred.org/repository/docs/kosova_perball%c3%8b_5_vendeve_an%c3%8btare_t%c3%8b_be-s%c3%ab__q%c3%8b_nuk_e_kan%c3%8b_njohur__86556.pdf?fbclid=iwar110v9srw9bolhjzv5w873kxruhz8j7elttowtzn1glb1n5ekkwjzrcnzc http://www.kipred.org/repository/docs/kosova_perball%c3%8b_5_vendeve_an%c3%8btare_t%c3%8b_be-s%c3%ab__q%c3%8b_nuk_e_kan%c3%8b_njohur__86556.pdf?fbclid=iwar110v9srw9bolhjzv5w873kxruhz8j7elttowtzn1glb1n5ekkwjzrcnzc http://www.kipred.org/repository/docs/kosova_perball%c3%8b_5_vendeve_an%c3%8btare_t%c3%8b_be-s%c3%ab__q%c3%8b_nuk_e_kan%c3%8b_njohur__86556.pdf?fbclid=iwar110v9srw9bolhjzv5w873kxruhz8j7elttowtzn1glb1n5ekkwjzrcnzc 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https://dspace.aab-edu.net/bitstream/handle/123456789/1177/03%20-%20sfidat%20e%20konsolidimit%20t%c3%ab%20shtet%c3%absis%c3%ab%20-%20dialogu%20i%20brukselit%2c%20dhjet%c3%ab%20vjet%20pas%20pavar%c3%absimit%20t%c3%ab%20kosov%c3%abs.pdf?sequence=1&isallowed http://www.doktoratura.unitir.edu.al/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/fadil-osmani-integrimi-n%c3%ab-be-sfid%c3%ab-e-kosov%c3%abs.pdf http://www.doktoratura.unitir.edu.al/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/fadil-osmani-integrimi-n%c3%ab-be-sfid%c3%ab-e-kosov%c3%abs.pdf http://www.doktoratura.unitir.edu.al/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/fadil-osmani-integrimi-n%c3%ab-be-sfid%c3%ab-e-kosov%c3%abs.pdf http://www.doktoratura.unitir.edu.al/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/fadil-osmani-integrimi-n%c3%ab-be-sfid%c3%ab-e-kosov%c3%abs.pdf 53 effects of deciphiring in piano education based on work analysis 1 lecturer dr. çağlar bakioğlu* assoc. prof. dr. yakup alper variş** correspondent author: * trabzon university faculty of education, department of music education, caglarbakioglu@trabzon.edu.tr * ondokuzmayıs university, faculty of education, department of music education, yalperv@omu.edu.tr article history: accepted 01 september 2019 available online 31 december 2019 keywords: piano education work analysis form deciphering deciphering in piano education work analysis in piano education a b s t r a c t in this study “piano lesson analysis form” was developed and intended to provide a thorough analysis in the work of a piano piece, at the time of the study or before playing it. this developed form allowed us to determine what is effecting the skills of the students in sight reading. in this study, which has pre-test and post-test control group design, the assessments were made with betweengroups and within-groups comparisons. in the study, results in the first period of both groups were obtained and sight reading study was made. after these implementations, the other piano pieces that were deciphered by the experimental group and the homework assignments of the piano lessons studied throughout the semester and examined with “piano piece analysis form for the piano lessons”. based on the results of pre-test and post-test comparisons, it is observed that there was a significant difference in terms of the sight reading skills. introduction the importance of the piano in the instrument training which aims to make the candidates of music teachers competent, knowledgeable and equipped in their instrument that requires discipline and patience (akyürek, 2018), is a recognized fact all over the world. in turkey, the music departments of the universities as well as the other music institutions, are in consensus that music teachers should learn adequate keyboard skills that are acquired during the process of music education. keyboard competence is considered as a skill that should be acquired for all students studying music (baker, 2008). teachers, researchers and academicians working in many institutions and organizations think that piano education is not only a training for pianists but also a training process that every musician should take. piano education can be defined as all of the processes applied to gain new behaviours that have aesthetic, musical and technical characteristics for individuals (yılmaz, 2006). according to 1 the study is a part of the first author’s doctoral dissertation (supervised by assoc. prof. dr. yakup alper variş) entitled “effects of deciphering in piano education based on work analysis” kurtuldu (2007), the method of repetition and organizing plays an important role in the cognitive perception of the student in piano education. in this process, in which the student is active, reinforcement is done by repeating. the process of repetition should be divided into certain parts, not from beginning to end. this process of repetition can be done by dividing the work such into sentences, motifs and periods. this method facilitates the learning process of the work while increasing the retention. for this reason, the works studied in piano education should be divided into pieces and repeated in certain time periods. 1. deciphering skills in piano education if we compare the universal music to a language, the notes can also be regarded as the alphabet of that language. being able to pronounce notes in a work correctly can be compared to the correct reading of the texts in that language. performing regular exercises in order to be able to read quickly and accurately ensures the development of talent by eliminating the deficiencies mailto:caglarbakioglu@trabzon.edu.tr 54 in that subject. students who have difficulty reading notes can minimize this problem by doing regular exercise. the better a person can read, the more he / she can reach different types of books and improve his / her reading. so like reading, the music students can reach different types of music more easily, thus improve their music taste, repertoire and interpretation that can provide them easier transitions to other steps in the educational process (özer, 2010). it can be thought that deciphering can make a significant analysis of the given notes and contribute to other areas of music education. deciphering, which comes up with similar names in the literature such as playing deciphering, reading deciphering, is an important and indispensable element that exists in all areas of music education. deciphering, which is a guide and assistant for all activities of a musician's professional life, is among the most important skills expected from a musician (kurtuldu, 2014). when the relevant literature is examined, it is possible to come across studies that reveal the place and importance of deciphering studies in piano education (küçük, 1994; kurtuldu, 2014; özer, 2010; selen & aşkın, 2009; tufan, 2000). öztutgan and akbulut (2019) state that deciphering is one of the main qualities that should be present in each individual engaged in music, and that the factors that may affect the dimensions of deciphering are composed of learning, reading and vocalizing.as in every scientific field, making an analysis in the field of music has an important place. in this context, the student's ability to what he/she sees can be seen as an equivalent to deciphering. the ability of a student to read (decipher) what he/she sees directly affects the speed and quality of musical learning, especially in beginner and advanced levels. in addition, this ability, which helps students become independent musicians, can also be regarded as an indicator of a musician's level of musicianship. for this reason, many universities, orchestras, or any music institution or ensemble measure the ability to decipher to have better musicians. students who develop better deciphering skills can learn new music faster and improve their self-confidence by increasing the level of correct playing on the instrument (kuo, 2012). çimen (2001) defines deciphering, which is accepted as one of the most basic skills of piano education, as playing or reading notes of a music at first sight without any previous work. the high level of deciphering skills helps the student to learn faster and more accurately, but also makes the learning more enjoyable and enables the student to love his instrument and move forward more quickly. students who do not hesitate to study new notes increase their interest in learning. thus, the students who are good in deciphering improve their talent with the opportunity to get to know the richness of the piano literature such as style, technique and interpretation. a student with these characteristics can develop himself / herself and become an independent musician without the help of others and create a source foe music that he/she can enjoy throughout his life (cited by küpana, 2012). individuals who can provide self-learning with the ability to analyse can improve themselves by enjoying music. at this stage, if we take deciphering as the ability to analyse, we see that it is used in two dimensions in music. according to fenmen (1974), there are two types of deciphering. generally speaking, the first one is to examine the piece slowly when we first have it and read every note, while the second type of deciphering is to read the piece at first glance at a speed close to its tempo. the first deciphering type is made for the works that we intend to play in full. the aim of such studies is to bring the work to our repertoire. for this reason, it should be read by paying attention to all the features of the work on paper. the purpose of the second deciphering type is to improve reading faster. in this deciphered form, while performing instant work, it is necessary to play as close to the tempo of the work as possible. it is more likely to play a selected work below students’ level at a speed close to its original tempo. in this way, the students can improve the ability to play at the moment when they see the work just by focusing on the notes. in this process, trying to play the work with the right and clean notes as much as possible makes us think that the student's learning skills will improve. since the aim is to have a new piece in repertoire, it should be done carefully and accurately. it can be thought that all the features of the work will be analysed and learned thoroughly and will contribute to the development of technical skills as well as its accuracy. according to tufan (2000), considering the benefits of deciphering skills and the extent to which these benefits will reach, the following can be reached. a) enjoying the work b) with the improvement in note reading speed, the instrumental skill also shows a rapid improvement c) wondering new works to play with the desire of making and getting them d) piano repertoire development e) development in musicality f) recognizing accompanied instruments and knowing the music types g) with the development of music culture enjoying more music. 55 the individual can obtain these gains by analysing the music works well. it can be thought that the gains obtained will contribute to the musical development of the person as well as understanding the music correctly. it’s either the technical development of the piano, the right method of operation or good deciphering skills mainly brings success and the factors related to success into mind. 2. analysis in piano education if an effective piano education has been chosen as the goal, the student's questions about music must arise in order to achieve this goal. in order to better perceive music and express it back, students should be in search of what kind of things can be done. in short, “musical analysis in piano education” is an imperative to approach piano education analytically with this understanding (bağçeci, 2003). it can be said that the examination of the piano works, which have many fields of knowledge in technical, musical or cognitive ways, makes it possible to separate them under these headings as much as possible, to analyse them in general terms and to make the difficult parts into perceptible information. accurate perception of the difficulties in the technical and artistic content of a musical work is seen as the main basis of mastery (demirova, 2008). musical analysis is one of the first steps in learning, considering that it is a sub-step of mental perception of knowledge. when creating music, it is essential to think analytically in many areas. especially because of the use of cognitive, affective, sensory and dynamic fields used by the person during performance, these fields need to interact based on each other. providing this interaction will provide a higher level of vocalization. for this reason, analysis should be made in terms of both technical and musical disciplines (bağçeci, 2003). considering the function of nuances and articulation signs in the transmission of musical emotion, it can be said that analysis of such areas is also important. before the deciphering of a work, having a prior knowledge of the work enables the deciphering process to take place in a shorter period of time. in this context, deciphering is a skill that has many sub-dimensions, which can develop as you work and that musicians need to use throughout life (çiftçibaşı and şaktanlı, 2017). given the importance of deciphering throughout a musician's life, it can be seen that it should be developed as much as possible. in this context, it can be said that a good analysis is needed for better decoding. the ability to decipher can also be considered as the power to analyse the note they see. it can be said that the power of this analysis is highly utilized while learning a work. when learning a new piece on the piano, starting by analysing the piece first makes it easier and more robust to learn. a pianist who can be analytical can see himself as a musician. evaluating and discussing musical objects from different angles can create the most enjoyable and effective way to achieve the goal that determines the strategy (selen and aşkın, 2009). according to chaffin and imreh (2002), when preparing a notation for performance, a performer will go through several stages, such as dismantling, working on, and reassembling (cited, macritchie, 2017).when the student is learning a new piece on the piano, he or she may need to develop an insight into how to plan to play the piece he / she wants to learn. during the piano education process, the students will be able to analyse and understand the works they have played with the theoretical information they have learned, and it will enable the students to interpret that work and add their own interpretation. in this aspect, it is seen that musical analysis plays an important role in the interpretation of the work in a systematic way (bulut, 2008). in order for a pianist to be a full musician, he/she has to take an analytical approach. the fact that the musician is able to understand the content by analysing the music of the works can be interpreted as he/she have the background information. it can be said that the first step is to reveal information considering that it is necessary to reach information in order to learn and make it functional. looking at the whole while studying a piano work, it can be seen as a ball of knowledge. accordingly, the learning process can be perceived as difficult in the eyes of the students. if we think that it is not impossible to play any piano piece, it would not be wrong to think that there is a way to play the existing piece. for this purpose, the student may need to try to see what is invisible to the eye in the learning process. the use of behaviours such as thinking, trying to understand, trying to play will help. it may be necessary to form some analytical questions in order to make learning easy, fast and accurate considering that there are many technical and cognitive knowledge in piano works. through these questions, the student improves himself / herself and at the same time decomposes all the knowledge of the work. once the disaggregated information is learned both technically and cognitively, the merging process can start. thus, the information consisting of small pieces is combined in order to reach the information contained in the whole piece. when learning a new piece, one of the useful approaches is by summarizing the structural and style features such as musical elements, form and period of writing. recognizing the piece in terms of music elements and their complementary patterns will help the student to understand the musical ideas in that piece and make simple analyses from it (ercan, 2008). 56 piano students, focusing only on the notes without paying due attention to all the features of the work they play, may decrease the quality of the work. in addition to deciphering, this may negatively affect the academic achievement and attitude towards the piano lessons. the work analysis form, which was developed in order to eliminate these negativities, can help the student to become more familiar with the work while paying attention to these characteristics. thus, since he/she can see the work in every sense, not only with its notes, a more accurate and faster learning is expected. for this purpose, it was planned to compare the data obtained by using the deciphering scale for the piano lesson and “piano lesson analysis form” to contribute to the piano education processes. in this context, the research question of this study was “what are the effects of the music teacher candidates' analysis on the works they have learned in piano education processes with their basic features and pre-studies through work analysis to their deciphering skills?”. 3. purpose of the study the aim of this study is to determine whether the music teacher candidates' analysis on the works they have learned in piano education processes with their basic features and have an effect on the deciphering skills or not. on the other hand, it is aimed to determine the effect of “piano lesson work analysis form” which is developed and to test its usability. 4. importance of research the research is important in terms of aiming to contribute to turkish music education by determining whether the analyses on the works during piano lessons made by music teacher candidates effect sight reading skills of the piano or not. 5. research model in this study which has a pre-test/post-test control group design, screening model was also used and expert opinion was also applied. kerlinger (1973) pre-test/post-test control group design can be defined as a system which assigns subjects into experimental and control groups neutrally and evaluate them before and after manipulation (x) (büyüköztürk, 2001:22). in this context, after determining the equivalence of the subjects, they were assigned to experimental and control groups objectively. figure 1. pre-test/post-test control group design in figure 1, eg represents experimental group, cg represents control group, r represents neutrally assigned subjects, o1 and o3 represents the pre-test and post-test measurements of the experimental group, o2 and o4 represents pre-test post-test measurements of the control group and x represents the independent variable that was applied to the subjects in the experimental group. the practice to be performed according to the pre-test/post-test methods are given in table 1. table 1. practices to be performed according to the pre-test/post-test methods eg r o1 x o3 experimental group grade point avarage (gpa) of the piano lessons from previous five semester decipher1 evaluation of the skill work analysis form of the piano lessons decipher2 evaluation of the skill gpa of the 5th semester gpas of the 6th semester attitudes towards piano lessons attitudes towards piano lessons cg r o2 --o4 control group grade point avarage (gpa) of the piano lessons from previous five semester decipher1 evaluation of the skill current piano program decipher2 evaluation of the skill gpa of the 5th semester gpas of the 6th semester attitudes towards piano lessons attitudes towards piano lessons 57 6. determination of experimental and control groups for this study’s experimental and control group 16 (8 for experimental group and 8 for control group) junior year students were selected from trabzon university, fatih faculty of education, department of fine arts, music teaching program. in order to make a comprehensive analysis of the piano work, it was preferred to work with the class that reached the most intermediate level in the piano class as much as possible. there is no piano lesson in the senior year due to the renewal of the curriculum in the department. therefore, in the 2nd semester of the junior year the students have the most advanced piano education. this research, ground on the neutrality of the subject assignments of the groups. for this purpose, the piano grade point average (gpa from now on) of the first five semesters was accepted as the basis. in order to represent all success levels of the subjects in both groups, they were matched with each other and then distributed to the groups by neutral assignment. this way was chosen to prevent the group of students with high gpa end up in one group and students with low gpa in the other. in order to ensure the equivalence of the selected students, the gpas of the first five semesters were examined and equivalent students were identified. piano course’s academic achievement is determined and equivalent students whose scores are closest to each other were considered. it was taken care that the difference between the achievement scores of the matched students did not exceed more than 5 points. after the difference between the average scores of the groups in pairs not exceeding 5 points, it was decided objectively whether which student will be in the experimental group and which will be in the control group and then assignments were made. in order to get the gpa of the selected students, they should not fail the piano course of previous semesters. in the first stage, 26 students were identified that matched these conditions and matched each other. these 26 students were matched with each other and 13 experimental and control groups were formed. however, the number of groups had to be reduced from 13 to 8 due to some negativities in the research’s process. 5 groups (10 students in total consisted of 2 students for each) were excluded from the study due to the unexpected negativities such that some students worked without completing the “piano lesson analysis form” and some students were not thrilled during the deciphering video recordings. experimental and control groups of 8student were determined. the piano gpa of these students are given in the table below. 7. data collection process while the pre-test and post-test deciphered works, which are used in the experiment process, are developed by experts, to evaluate the video recordings that were used in the piano deciphered works, “decipher evaluation scale” developed by kurtuldu (2014) was used in order to evaluate this information. researchers prepared some tools and equipment using experts’ ideas. while scoring and suggestions were taken into consideration in determining the deciphered works, lawshe technique was used in the development of “piano lesson work analysis form”. 7.1. piano lesson work analysis form development process when creating a piano work analysis form, a pool of items was created in order to help subjects to analyse the piano work thoroughly. in this item pool, it is aimed to know the character traits of the work as much as possible. in this sense, 32 items which can help the student to realize the characteristics of the work such as number of measurements, tone / tonality, melodic structure, rhythmic patterns, changer marks, nuances, articulation marks are included. in addition to these cognitive items, eight affective and psychomotor items were prepared to determine the first impressions of the subjects about the work. while developing the “piano lesson analysis form”, expert opinion was used to determine the comprehensibility and suitability of the items for the target audience. in the first stage, the item pool that was prepared in the cognitive-affective-psychomotor fields was first tried to obtain the most appropriate expressions in turkish by consulting a specialist in the department of turkish and social sciences education. subsequently, the items obtained were reviewed in terms of education in consultation with an expert in educational sciences and made ready to be sent to the experts. this pool of materials was then sent to 10 music educators specializing in piano. according to the feedback from the experts, it was proposed to remove the affective and dynamic field items and it was considered that it was more appropriate to analyse only in the cognitive field. therefore, only the cognitive domain items were improved. the necessary explanations for the parts that are not deemed appropriate or required to be corrected by the experts have been taken and the “piano lesson work analysis form” has been finalized and made ready for use with 28 items with the help of lawshe technique. 58 7.2. the process of identifying deciphered works the deciphered works used as pre-test/post-test were written by the researcher. this method was used in order to eliminate the possibility that the transcription works had been seen, heard or sung by the students before. in this context, the researcher has created five works with different characteristics and asked the experts to determine whether they are appropriate for the pre-test and post-test, if appropriate, to select the most appropriate ones, if not, how to make corrections. in order to make these evaluations, five works were sent to experts with voice scales and note scales, as well as evaluation scales, where they could indicate their comments. experts stated their opinions about the work by scoring and commenting. in line with the feedback received, the highest score was accepted as the pre-test and the second highest score was accepted as the post-test. based on these results, pre-test and post-test works that will be used to measure the deciphering skills of the subjects were determined. in order to determine the pre-test and post-test deciphering skills, 5 works with different characteristics were first sent to 12 music education piano specialists. for these works, a scale prepared by the researcher for the experts can make scoring and commenting. in order to prevent the works used as pre-test and post-test to be based on one feature, each deciphering works have different features than the others. the works submitted to expert opinion have the following features; decipher 1; there are two harmonious and monophonic successive melodies that are very similar but not exactly the same for the right hand and the left hand. decipher 2; simple figures and chords are written for the left hand whereas main melody for the right hand. deciphering 3; the left hand gives an octave bass sound while the right hand has a main tune greater than 1 octave. in the second part, if we consider the number of measurements as 4/4 as 8/8, it is given as 4 + 4 in the left hand and 3 + 3 + 2 in the right hand. decipher 4; 2 or 3 voice tunes were used instead of monophonic sound, including the main melodies in the right hand and left hand. decipher 5; a melody in the right hand and left hand is exactly the same. every experts opinion and scoring were needed for this work. it is stated that the first two works with the highest scores will be pre-test and post-test. in addition, suggestions and comments about the works received by the experts via phone calls and emails were also evaluated. incoming feedbacks were converted to numerical values by making content analysis, so that two works could be determined to be used as a pre-test and post-test among five works. according to the feedback received from the experts, among 5 works the highest score was obtained by decipher 1 and the second highest score by decipher 2. as mentioned while taking expert opinions, it was determined that the highest score obtained by deciphering 1 used as pre-test and the second highest score by decipher 2 as the post-test. 7.3. experiment process the “piano lesson work analysis form”, whose development was completed, was applied to the experimental group. this form was filled in before any studying or the practising was held by the subjects. the experimental group, consisting of junior year spring semester students, completed the form for each piano work they should play during the education process. in addition, they have completed the form for works that were selected as deciphering 1 and deciphering 2 to determine their deciphering skills. the experimental group used the “piano lesson analysis form” for both the piano works played in the midterm and final exams and for the determination of their reading skills. 7.4. determination of experimental-control groups and ensuring equivalence students from trabzon university, fatih faculty of education, department of fine arts, music teaching program junior year and spring semester were selected for the experiment, during piano lessons in an academic year (14 weeks) once a week for one hour. in accordance with the study, the equivalence and neutral assignment of the subjects should be ensured. in order to make equivalence and unbiased assignments, the piano gpas of the subjects were taken as basis. after obtaining the necessary legal permissions, a 5 semester gpa was reached. the arithmetic mean of five semesters was calculated for each student in the class list and they were balanced with each other to form the experimentcontrol group. the first five semesters of the piano course averages were compared and the subjects were matched with each other and randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. the experimental group students completed the “piano lesson analysis form” for each piano work from the first week and the control group continued their courses in accordance with the curriculum without doing so. all subjects were pre-tested for deciphering skills and recorded on video. post-test applications were performed for the deciphering skills of the subjects and the videos were recorded. in this application, the experimental group completed the “piano lesson work analysis form”, and the control group was given time to recognize the work without using the form. after the end of the midterm exam, the experimental group completed the “piano 59 lesson analysis form” for each of these works. the control group did not complete this form and continued their courses according to the curriculum. 7.5. deciphering skills in the practice, the process of deciphering the works of art was recorded on video. this method was preferred in order to make it possible to reach the expert juries who will make the evaluations. because of the objective and validity of the evaluation process of the skills in the deciphered pieces, connection established with as many juries as possible and 12 academicians in the piano branch. subjects and juries were divided into four groups and matched with each other. 3 participant were involved in each jury groups and 5 or 6 participants were involved in test groups. thus, each jury evaluated 5 or 6 people and each subject were evaluated by 3 juries. the reliability of the numerical data was tried to be increased by the evaluation of the subjects by 3 juries. in order to measure pre-test and post-test deciphering skills, the selected works were played by the subjects and this process was recorded on camera. before the works were played, the experimental group was filled in the “piano lesson work analysis form”, and the control group was given time to recognize the work. then, these records were sent back to the experts with the “deciphering assessment scale” and the subjects were asked to score their deciphering skills. the arithmetic mean of the scores obtained from the 3 experts that evaluated at least 5 or 6 student. the scores obtained for the pretest/post-test were compared with each other and the data were compared with the experimental and control group. experimental and control groups were asked to play the deciphered work. firstly, after giving time to study the work, the first performances were recorded. both groups were deciphered without using any method. the data obtained from there form the pre-test part of deciphering skills. the data obtained from the post-test applications were first compared with the pre-test data in the group, then the results were compared with the experimental and control groups. in the post-test application for deciphering skills, a second deciphering piece (deciphering 2) was played to the subjects and the video was recorded. the experimental group completed the “piano lesson analysis form” before they started, and the control group did not complete the “piano lesson analysis form”. the control group was asked to analyse the work in accordance with their wishes and to allow them to recognize the work. then, the played works were recorded by video and sent to expert teachers with “deciphering assessment scale” and they scored. the data from the experts were compared with the pretest results of the groups themselves and the general data of the experimental and control groups. 8. data analysis since both qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques are used in this research, quantitative and qualitative analysis methods are used in the data analysis stage. the qualitative field was involved in developing the data collection tools of the study and the creation of the “piano lesson analysis form” while the quantitative field was included in the pre-test and post-test section. a known statistical package program was used in the analysis of the quantitative data of the study. in statistical transactions, average score calculations for data, reliability coefficient and comparative measurements were performed respectively. in the scoring process of the deciphering works, “deciphering assessment scale” was used and scored by four jury groups consisting of three people. the scoring process and data are explained in detail in the tools used and developed above. after obtaining the course lists (6 semesters) related to the academic achievements of the study group, the arithmetic average of the related course notes was obtained. while the average of the first five semesters of these lecture notes determines the equivalence of the groups, the fifth and sixth term averages constitute the pretest and post-test parts of the academic achievement of the subjects. after completing the process of obtaining descriptive information for the concept of deciphering, the process of comparing the data obtained from the experimental and control groups was initiated. comparative measures (mann whitney u test wilcoxon signed-rank test) were used to evaluate the scores obtained from the deciphering process of the experimental and control groups. in the measurement of the obtained scores, it was considered that the students in the experimental and control groups could not meet the assumption of normality because of the small number and therefore non-parametric tests were preferred. in comparative measurements, the significance level was accepted as p <,05. the collected data were firstly compared as pre-test/post-test within the groups. the status of the experimental and control group students before the experiment was determined and recorded under three headings. then the applications were made and the new data of the subjects were recorded under three headings. comparisons with the control group were needed to fully determine the observed changes. comparisons were made with the control group in order to determine whether the changes in the experimental group stem from the applications in the experimental process or the natural ongoing process. all the data obtained from the subjects were compared between the groups 60 and then in the groups. the wilcoxon signed-rank test was used for intra-group comparisons of data, and mann whitney u test was used for comparisons between groups. 9. findings in this section, the values obtained were compared both in groups and between groups and the results were tried to be reached as a result of these comparisons. 9.1. experimental group pre-test/post-test comparisons the pre-test and post-test (in-group) comparison of the transcription scores of the students in the experimental group are given in table 2. table 2. pre-test/post-test comparison of the experimental group’s deciphering skill subject number pre-test posttest difference 1 51 72,6 +11,6 2 40,3 61,3 +21 3 65,3 83 +17,7 4 57 74,6 +17,6 5 68,6 77,6 +9 6 37,6 54,3 +16,7 7 30,6 67,6 +37 8 49,6 54 +4,4 x 50 68,12 +18,12 max. 68,6 83 +14,4 min. 30,6 54 +23,4 when the pre-test and post-test mean values of the deciphering skills of the experimental group were examined, an increase was observed from 50 to 68,12. deciphering skills were found to be an increase of 18.12 in the group. when the highest scores in the group were analysed, it can be said that there is an increase of 23.4 in the lowest points and an increase in general. in the light of these data, it can be said that there is an increase in all grades taken by the experimental group and an increase in the skills of playing piano works table 3. experiment group deciphering scoring test results for pre-test and post-test using wilcoxon signed-ranks test results measurement ranks n mean a. addition r. z p experiment g. decipher pre-test/post-test negative r. 0 0,00 0,00 -2,52 ,012 positive r. 8 4,50 36 equal 0 summation 8 the results obtained in the comparison of the scores of the experimental group in the deciphering process according to the data at the pre-test and post-test level were found to be significant according to the p <0.05 level [z = -2.52, p <, 05]. when the data were analysed, it was observed that there were no students who caused negative decrease in scores, and all students in the group were in positive order. accordingly, it can be said that the posttest scores of the students in the experimental group increased positively compared to the pre-test scores. 61 9.2. control group pre-test/post-test comparisons the pre-test and post-test (in-group) comparison of the transcription scores of the students in the control group are given in table 4. table 4. pre-test/post-test comparison of the control group’s deciphering skill subject number pretest posttest difference 1 62 71 +9 2 56 57,3 +1,3 3 60 60,6 +0,6 4 52,6 55,3 +2,7 5 40,6 34,6 -6 6 35,6 42,3 +6,7 7 42 44 +2 8 36,6 38,6 +2 x 48,17 50,46 +2,29 max. 62 71 +9 min. 35,6 34,6 -1 decreasing skills of the control group showed an increase from 48.17 to 50.46 when the pre-test and post-test mean values were analysed. there is an increase of 2.29 in deciphering skills within the group. when the highest scores in the group are analysed, it is seen that there is an increase of 9 points, and the lowest points decrease is -1. in this sense, it can be said that there is no significant difference between the control group deciphering pretest and post-test data comparisons. table 5. control group’s deciphering scoring test results for pre-test and post-test using wilcoxon signed-ranks test results measurement ranks n mean a. addition r. z p experiment g. decipher pre-test/posttest negative r. 1 6,00 6,00 -1,68 ,092 positive r. 7 4,29 30 equal 0 summation 8 the comparison of the scores of the control group during the deciphering process according to the data at the pre-test and posttest levels was not significant according to the level of p <, 05 [z = -2.52, p <, 05]. according to these results, it can be said that the scores obtained from pre-test and post-test did not show a positive increase in the deciphering process. 9.3. pre-test comparisons of experimental and control groups the comparison of the transcription scores of experimental and control group students at the pre-test level between the groups are given in table 6. 62 table 6. pre-test comparison of the experiment and control group’s deciphering skill experiment group rank n. decipher control group rank n. decipher 1 51 1 62 2 40,3 2 56 3 65,3 3 60 4 57 4 52,6 5 68,6 5 40,6 6 37,6 6 35,6 7 30,6 7 42 8 49,6 8 36,6 x 50 x 48,7 max. 68,6 max. 62 min. 30,6 min. 35,6 when the mean scores of deciphering were examined at the pretest level of the subjects, it was seen that the experimental group was 50 and the control group was 48.7. in the highest scores, the experimental group was 68.6 and the control group was 62. in the lowest scores, the experimental group was 30.6 and the control group was 35.6. when the general averages are taken into consideration, it can be said that there is no significant difference between the deciphering skill scores of both groups. table 7. comparison of transcription scores at pre-test level between groups using mann whitney u test results for measurement groups n rank a. u p decipher scores experiment g. 8 8,75 30,00 ,834 control g. 8 8,25 when the results obtained in the comparison of the scores of the students in the study group, the deciphering process were examined, no significant difference was found according to p <0.05 level. when the average rank values are examined, it can be observed that both groups have close scores. according to this result, the deciphering scores and the deciphering skills of the students in both groups can be considered as equivalent. 9.4. post-test comparisons of experimental and control groups the comparison of the transcription scores of the experimental and control group students at the post-test level between the groups is given in table 8. 63 table 8. post-test comparison of the experiment-control deciphering experiment group rank n decipher control group rank n decipher 1 72,6 1 71 2 61,3 2 57,3 3 83 3 60,6 4 74,6 4 55,3 5 77,6 5 34,6 6 54,3 6 42,3 7 67,6 7 44 8 54 8 38,6 x 68,12 x 50,46 max. 83 max. 71 min. 37,6 min. 34,6 when the test scores of the subjects were examined at the posttest level, it can be seen that the experimental group was 68,12 and the control group was 50,46. while the highest scores were 83 in the experimental group, the control group was 71, the lowest score was 37.6 and the control group was 34.6. when the general averages are examined, it is observed that the experimental group is 17.66 points higher than the control group. in this sense, it can be said that the “piano course work analysis form” shows increase in the experimental group compared to the control group. table 9. comparison of deciphering scores at post-test level between groups using mann whitney u test results measurement groups n rank a. u p decipher scores experiment g. 8 11,25 10,00 ,021 control g 8 5,75 when the results of the post-test deciphering scores of the students in the study group were compared between the groups, a significant difference was found according to the p <0.05 level. when the average order values were examined, it was observed that the significant difference occurred in the direction of the experimental group (11.25 5.75). according to this result, it is understood that the scores obtained during the deciphering process indicate the experimental group comes up first at the level of the groups, and that the scores of the students in the experimental group are at a better level than the control group. 10. conclusion when the post-test results of the music teacher candidates' analysis of the works they are working with in the piano education process are analysed, it is necessary to make comparisons with the pre-test results in order to make full evaluation with the obtained data. we looked at the post-test results of deciphering skills, academic achievements and, in order to make full evaluation of the data obtained from the comparisons made in three sections, and they were evaluated by comparing with the pre-test achievement scores between the groups. the table below shows these comparison results. 64 table 10. pre-test/post-test comparisons of both experimental and control groups test group average results control group average results success in piano 73,71 success 72,5 application decipher application decipher pre-test 50 pre-test 48,17 post-test 68,12 post-test 50,46 difference +18,12 difference +2,29 when the data that the subjects have both within themselves and between the groups is observed, it is seen that there is a significant positive difference in the deciphering skills of the experimental group. the first five-semester piano course averages (piano success) that ensure the equivalence of the groups were 73.71 in the experimental group and 72.5 in the control group. considering the fact that the piano success scores of the groups were close to each other, it can be said that the groups were also equivalent to each other. as a result of the applications, the experimental group showed an increase of 18.12 points in deciphering skills while the control group showed an increase of 2.29 points. as a result of the applications of the “piano work analysis form” that had been applied to the experimental and control groups; it was found that the experimental group made a significant difference in piano lesson sight reading skills. according to bağçeci (2003), the student should aim to play well and create questions in his mind in order to achieve this goal. what should be done in order to play well?, how we can overcome problems? or what can be desired to be told in this music work?, such questions created by the student's analytical approach to piano work should be provided. in an effective piano education, it is necessary to understand all aspects of music mentally. in this context, musical analysis is essential in the process of piano education. considering that the analytic approach helps us to understand the object in front of us, it can be argued that it needs to be analysed in order to understand the content of the work we are going to study in piano education. it can be said that the well-understood work can be transferred more easily on the keyboard, since the well-analysed work is well understood. in addition to reading the notes while deciphering, there is also a voice over the instrument. during this vocalization, there are mechanical movements according to the structural aspects of the instrument along with the mental dimension of the vocalization (öztutgan, 2018). it can be thought that mentally good perception, analysis and comprehension while playing a musical tune will help to transfer this tune on the instrument more quickly and accurately. in this context, it can be said that analysing the work well and learning it mentally will contribute to deciphering skills. it can be concluded that the “piano lesson work analysis form” helps to understand the work mentally so that the technical skills can be transferred to the piano more quickly. the fact that the experimental group showed an increase of 15.58 points compared to the control group in the pre-test-post-test comparisons of the deciphering skills of the experimental-control groups can be considered as an indicator that the ‘piano lesson work analysis form” had a positive effect on the deciphering skills. decreasing skills post-test scores increase in the experimental group according to the pre-test scores, and post-test scores do not increase in the control group according to the pretest scores and that can be considered as an indicator of this. it can be said that the most important reason why the experimental group showed an increase in score in the deciphering skills of the subjects was that the experimental group analysed a wide range of the deciphered work to be played compared to the control group. in order to play the piano works correctly, it is necessary to read the correct notes, correct finger numbers, correct nuances and articulation marks. it can be said that the experimental group noticed a lot of cognitive field information by completing the “piano lesson work analysis form” before playing the deciphering works and then deciphering the piece after this stage. it may be thought that the attention of the correct finger numbers, correct nuances, articulation marks and notes before playing the work contributes to the increase in deciphering skill points by acquiring the subjects more familiar with the work. 65 11. recommendations playing the piano is a performance that requires active use of the mind as well as physical activity and emotional aspects. the more information about the work to be played, the more dominating the cognitive domain is. the more you know about a work, the easier it is to learn and play it. it is hardly possible to say that focusing on notes is the right approach when deciphering, studying or playing a piece on the piano. by analysing the work in the best way and in all its aspects, it can be said that trying to ensure a permanent learning will be a more correct approach in terms of education. before playing the piano works, etc. analysis is a very important issue. considering that the piano students perform their piano analysis according to their natural abilities, some individuals may be successful and others may be left behind. when the piano instructors recognize the students who have problems in analysing the piano works in terms of playing, it can be considered that they will help them with the analysis mentioned above. in such a case, the use of the “piano lesson work analysis form” can be considered as beneficial. however, if desired or required, the instructor may remove items from the work analysis form or add items to the form. in this research, it was tried to provide a scientific approach by taking expert opinions as it was tried to put the students' work analysis on a broad and certain basis in terms of playing the piano. for this purpose, an analysis form that can be used in all works has been tried to be reached. however, the trainer may create analysis items that draw attention to the characteristics of the work to be studied, if there are subjects that the student wants to pay particular attention to, or if it is necessary for the student to analyse on certain topics, not on each subject according to the student's situation. because the main issue here is to enable the student to analyse. references 1. akyürek, r. (2018). müzik eğitimcisi yetiştiren kurumlarda orkestra/oda müziği eğitimi etkinlik sürecinin incelenmesi. journal of turkish studies, 13(19), 65-76. doi:10.7827/turkishstudies.14034. 2. bağçeci, s. e. (2003). piyano eğitiminde müzikal analiz kavramı – kapsamı ve örnek klavye analizleri. fırat üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 13 (1), 159-176, elazığ. 3. baker, n. e. (2008). the effects of peer teaching on undergraduate music majors' achievement and attitude toward sight-reading in the group piano setting. (unpublished doctoral dissertation). louisiana state university, baton rouge. 4. bulut, f. (2008). piyano eğitiminde geleneksel türk halk müziği kaynaklı eserlerin seslendirilmesine yönelik oluşturulan bir “çoklu analiz modeli” ve bu modelin öğrenci başarısı üzerine etkileri. gazi üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü güzel sanatlar eğitimi anabilim dalı müzik öğretmenliği bilim dalı, doktora tezi. 5. büyüköztürk, ş. 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(2007). bilgiyi işleme modeline dayalı piyano eğitiminde genel öğrenme stratejilerinin yeri ve görsel imajlar oluşturma yönteminin kullanılabilirlik düzeyi. gazi üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü güzel sanatlar eğitimi anabilim dalı müzik öğretmenliği bilim dalı, doktora tezi, ankara. 13. kurtuldu, m. k. (2014). piyano öğrencilerinin deşifre becerileri ile piyano dersi başarılarının karşılaştırılması. tsa, 18(3). 14. küçük a. (1994). bir piyano eseri nasıl çalışılır. gazi üniversitesi gazi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, yeni dönem (özel sayı), 185-194. 15. küpana, m. n. (2012). piyanoda deşifre öğretimi programının müzik öğretmeni adaylarının piyano dersine yönelik tutumlarına etkisi, 11 (41), 183-194. 16. macritchie, j. (2017). deciphering and embodying contemporary piano scores: a commentary on huisman, gingras, dhondt, and leman. empirical musicology review, 12(1-2), 75-79. 17. özer, b. (2010). piyano öğretiminde deşifre becerisinin kazandırılması. selçuk üniversitesi eğitim 66 bilimleri enstitüsü güzel sanatlar eğitimi anabilim dalı müzik eğitimi bilim dalı, yüksek lisans tezi, konya. 18. öztutgan, k. (2018). mesleki müzik eğitimi veren kurumlarda klasik gitar deşifresini geliştirmeye yönelik bir metot önerisi. ondokuz mayıs üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, güzel sanatlar eğitimi anabilim dalı, doktora tezi, samsun. 19. öztutgan, k. ve akbulut, f. (2019). müzikal deşifrenin boyutları ve etken faktörleri. sdü güzel sanatlar fakültesi sanat dergisi, 12 (23), 65-87. 20. selen, b. ve aşkın, c. (2009). piyano eğitiminde çözümleme destekli çalışma metodu ve uygulanışı. i̇tü dergisi/b, 6 (1), 53-63. 21. tufan, s. (2000). piyano eğitiminde deşifre çalışmaları. g.ü. gazi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 20 (3), 101-104. 22. yılmaz, n. (2006). uludağ üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi gse bölümü müzik eğitimi anabilim dalında uygulanan piyano eğitiminin değerlendirilmesi. ulusal müzik eğitimi sempozyumu bildiri kitabı, (554-593), 2628 nisan, pamukkale üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi, denizli. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 14 financial decisions, tax effect and investment performance1 yasemin coşkun adnan menderes university yascoskunk@hotmail.com selim bekçi̇oğlu adnan menderes university abstract the aim of the study is to measure influence of taxation while making financial decisions and predict it with the general application in turkey. except for equity returns of financial and negative capital institutions registered in borsa istanbul between 2000 and 2012, those of all other businesses were calculated. in order to measure cost of capital, capital assets pricing model(capm) was employed. businesses were divided into for regions as stated in tax incentive law according to the study. as stated in tax incentive law, the businesses whose costs of capital were divided into six regions where statistical analysis was made to determine whether taxation influenced financial decisions of the related businesses based on tax incentive law or not. assessment of the findings within the study determined that businesses in 1 st, 2 nd and 3 rd regions were affected by taxation 5,69, 2,75 and 1,39 as means between 2007 and 2012, respectively. accordingly taxation load of businesses in 1 st region provinces was found to be heavier than those of businesses in other regions. considering the tax incentive law, it was found to be statistically important that taxation load of the related region should be taken into account in making any financial decisions. in this respect, there is an impact of tax when one makes financial decisions. however, other relevant factors should also be considered. keywords: financial decision, the kinds of financial decisions, tax, tax incentive law, borsa i̇stanbul. jel classification: g39, h2, k34, h29 1.introduction 1 the present study has been prepared using the doctoral dissertation “tax effect on financial decisions: application in turkey” by yasemin coşkun kaderli̇ and it has been presented at financial decisions tax and investment performance, icesos’14, sarajevo, no.1676119. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 15 in a rapidly globalised world, businesses are quite diffucult to survive. the fact that technology develops fast gradually makes it both easy and difficult for them to run their processes. maintaining its existence, a business has to manage their competitors not only in its own but also in other sectors. therefore, its survival and power to cope with its rivals depends on financial decisions which it has taken or would take. such decisions that businesses have taken or could take are of both economic and social nature involving the whole operational process. any resolutions mistakenly taken could lead the business to a failure or even bankruptcy, thus financial executors are obliged to be very cautious in making a financial decision and if they are to do so, they have to make it following a comprehensive analysis. financial decisions made by businesses can be classified into two, such as financial and investment processes, the first of which is affected by the business’s magnitute, capital volume and number of active personnel and by the state and its law, legislation and taxation structures. tax is a dynamic concept subjected to financial social political and judicial factors, significant varying nation to nation. taxation has three basic functions namely financial economic and social functions. because it is a financial means, tax motivates or does not motivate deposits, investments and exportation. the purpose of the present study is to explain influences of tax-incentive acts and legislation performed in turkey on financial decisions made by businesses in terms of regions. accordingly, the study focuses on financial decisions first, then taxes, acts and incentives which affect financial decisions as well as on evidence from the application related to the study involving public firms. 2.financial decisions made by businesses and their importance business executives should make the business various decisions in a way to enable it to serve general and particular purposes. it is financial decisions that is one of those of great importance. financial decisions are those to allow finance management to find available funds under available conditions and use them in most efficient ways. dramatic economic and financial consequences could appear if such decisions were made improperly. therefore financial decisions are of great importance in related business administrations. for example any financial decisions made improperly or and mistakenly are likely to create a serious interest overload. on the other hand, if those improper investment decisions were made on fixed assets, they could even lead to a bankruptcy, particularly when significant volumes of capital are in question. another reason why financial decisions are important is that consequences from their execution have impacts on both financial function and other processes (yılmaz, 1999: prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 16 52).since, it is only possible for other functions such as production and marketing to operate their missions efficiently thanks to the fact that financial function can finance other functions incessantly. business administrators have to consider a given purpose while making financial decisions, which is to enable the firms’ market value or asset to be maximum. financial executive is to consider a continous aquilibrium between targets of profitability, liquidity and security, which can permit business activities to be successful and continous (berk, 1990: 8). financial decisions made by businesses includes such three factors as capital time and risk (ersöz and ban, 2003: 2). businesses have to take these three factors into account in other to maximize the firms market value. capital and its related time asset are vital in terms of financial decisions for current investments would create their benefits in future. comparison of currently investment capital its future or prospective returns without considering time asset of capital is to cause misleading consequences. in addition, the business should also consider the risk factor when financial decisions are made. all most all investments cover risks. therefore calculations without considering risk factor is boned to mislead business executives (aydın et al, 2003; 7-9). financial decisions is therefore of so great importance as to influence future and targets of the business since quality of financial management depends on whether it could fail or even go bankrupt or succeed (okka, 2009: 7). financial decisions are made by financial administrators. financial decisions are made to achieve financial targets, which are categorized into two major groups, namely financial and nonfinancial. financial targets are classified into five groups such as cash related, liquidty related, asset related and profitability related processes. financial decisions made by the business are grouped into two decisions namely financial and investment decisions(sarıaslan and erol, 2008: 7; canbaş and vural, 2010: 5-7). financial executives to make financial decisions can be said to have three major missions which are previsions of funds to meed financial needs, and their efficient and affective uses(ceylan and korkmaz, 2006: 10-12; uzun, 2008: 16-17; gitman, 1992: 19-20). it is a very important factor in terms of success of the business that cash input and output should be compatible with eachother in amount and time, which can only be accomplished by financial planning related to future activities. the fact that future includes numerious risks and ambiguities increases importance of financial management for achievement the function of above. success of financial plan depends on proper determination of business targets. financial administrators has to prepare cash budget proforma balanced sheet revenue table and fhsibility report considering their financial planning (ceylan and korkmaz, 2006: 10-11). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 17 financial inspection is one of the missions which financial managers should perform. inspection and planning are closely related processes it is only the inspection that can establish the practices incompatible with future expectation or plans so that potential deviations from what has been planned could be easily established with due corrections. inspection is impossible without planning(ceylan ve korkmaz, 2006: 11). having performed what is to be done involving financial planning, financial manager has to find out how to finance the difference when cash output exceeds cash inputs(uzun, 2008: 17). in addition, search of due and proper provision of a fund necessary to be invested in long term and fixed assets would be inquestion. it is the financial manager to decide what sources needed funds could be provided from in time. all decisions made consirning this process are categorically called financial decisions. efficient employment of funds to be provided is an issue much more important than their provision. it is therefore necessary to make financial decisions after a careful and serious because improper and wrong employment of funds could lead to the business encountering irreversible losses. in order that financial administrators should not make wrong decisions, they should conduct a variety of studies prior to decisions for short-term fund uses and prepare comprehensive investment project fhsibility studies before deciding on investment in long-term fund uses that is in fixed assets. it is clear from the above that decisions to be made by the financial manager are related to investment and finance processes. financial managers are in close association with financial markets and institutions, state administrations and tax officials. 3.taxes and levies to affect financial decisions tax is all economic values inform of money which the state revenues based on its power of hegomony and judicial force considering legal essentials without return through officials and institutions assigned to levy or tax (muter et al, 2003: 121). amount of funds transferred from private sector to public processes via taxation not only influences compasition of economic structure but uses of funds, and levels of output(production) and income(revenue) as well. tax incentives to be applied private sector can plan unimportant role in accelariton of investment activities in this sector. moreover, taxation can be employed as aneffective means in qualitatively and quantitatively increasing potantial of labor force for struggle against inflation and deflation, in encourgement of private deposits and investments, in accelaration of capital accumulation and exportation and finally in limitation in imports (muter et al, 2003: 121). tax incentive policies can be defined as immunity of certain amount of income or income from taxation or postponement of taxes in a variety of ways (tekin, 2006: 301). tax incentives can be classified into two major gruops namely legal and affective tax incentives, the former of which can be described as legal and more suitable taxational prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 18 processes applied to investment projects not subjected to private or privileged taxation conditions (zee et al, 2002:1498). in developing nations private sector can not create or develope economic growth and development alone, which is why the state is of importance as a pioneer in some activities. in such nations it is only possible for attempted for development to be initiated or with provisions of taxation incentives for those short of finance, however it is important to precisely determine those to be exempt from taxation by means of accurate and due preferences, which can only be achieved by state taxation administration. as long as taxational incentives are performed in right sections, they would be able to contribute to economic growth and development(siverekli demircan, 2003: 109). incentives for exemtions of customes and value-added tax enable investments to be supported which meet the condition on amount of least fixed investment determined and not included in investment issues not encouraged without any regional discriminations and other incentive practices in general investment incentive processes. furthermore, if 6 th region(the least developed region) is not invested in, incentives for social security premium and income tax stoppage calculated on minimum wage for employees will be provided(republic of turkey ministry of economics, 2012: 11). in regional investment incentive practices are transition to a new regional mapprovince based regional incentive system, variable times and rates in incentive parameters, updating sectors to be supported, actractive incentives for the region (the socio-economically least developed region) and priority-requiring investments. provinces in turkey are separated into regions to benefit from tax exemtion/deductions(republic of turkey ministry of economics, 2012: 13-15). table 1: regional map 1st region 2nd region 3th region 4th region 5th region 6th region ankara antalya bursa eskişehir i̇stanbul i̇zmir kocaeli muğla adana aydın bolu çanakkale denizli edirne isparta kayseri kırklareli konya sakarya tekirdağ yalova balıkesir bilecik burdur gaziantep karabük karaman manisa mersin samsun trabzon uşak zonguldak afyonkarahisar amasya artvin bartın çorum düzce elazığ erzincan hatay kastamonu kırıkkale kırşehir kütahya malatya nevşehir rize sivas adıyaman aksaray bayburt çankırı erzurum giresun gümüşhane kahramanmaraş kilis niğde ordu osmaniye sinop tokat tunceli yozgat ağrı ardahan batman bingöl bitlis diyarbakır hakkari iğdır kars mardin muş siirt şanlıurfa şırnak van 8 provinces 13 provinces 12 provinces 17 provinces 16 provinces 15 provinces prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 19 incentive parameters modified by ministry of economics are tax deduction, support for employers share in security premium and interest incentive. table 2: percentage of contribution to investment in regional incentive applications regions percentage of contribution to investment(%) regional incentive practices incentive for large scale investments investments started until 31.12.2013 investments started before 01.01.2014 investments started until 31.12.2013 investments started before 01.01.2014 i 15 10 25 20 ii 20 15 30 25 iii 25 20 35 30 iv 30 25 40 35 v 40 30 50 40 vi 50 35 60 45 part of amount of contribution to investment can be applied to profits from all activities during investment period for firms which invest in 2 nd, 3 rd, 4 th, 5 th and 6 th regions (republic of turkey ministry of economics, 2012: 13-18). in order to take advantage of tax deduction for the incentive applications, provinces in turkey are separated into regions whose tax deduction rates are as follows (republic of turkey ministry of economics, 2012: 19): table 3: tax deductions in applications of regional incentives tax deductions in applications of regional incentives regions percentage of contribution to investment (%) percentage of tax deduction (%) percentage of contribution to investment to be applied in period of investment by business (%) period of investment period of business 1st region 15 50 0 100 2nd region 20 55 10 90 3th region 25 60 20 80 4th region 30 70 30 70 5th region 40 80 50 50 6th region 50 90 80 20 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 20 if investments to be made priority fields are made in 1 st, 2 nd, 3 rd, 4 th and 5th regions, they will benefit from incentives for 5th region which are all below(republic of turkey ministry of economics, 2012: 36-37): i. investments in mining ii.those in rail road, maritime processes iii.those in vehicle centers, wind tunnel and similar constructions iv.those in tourism-related activities in regions for protection and development of culture and tourism v.those in primary, middle and high schools to be constructed by private sector vi.those in processes related to medicine production and defense industry which amount to 20 million tl within the context of targets to support and encourage formation and clustering of investment basins for regional incentive practices applications: . investments to be made in organized industrial zones . those in sectoral cooperation . those in manufacture of items developed by research-development projects supported by tubitak. businesses can benefit from incentives in that just below the region categorized above in terms of supports and incentives for tax deduction and employers share in security premium (republic of turkey ministry of economics, 2012: 40). other significant changes are the following: . those in iron or and lignite coal processes to be supported within the frame of regional incentive system, . where shipyards will be built, amount of social security premiums of minimum wage employees for which employers are supposed to pay will be provided by the related ministry (republic of turkey ministry of economics, 2012: 41). large-scale investments will increase capacity of technology and r&d, creating an international competitive advantage. support for large-scale investments will be maintained through ; i.vat exemption, ii.customes tax exemption, iii. tax deduction, prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 21 iv. incentive purpose-allocation of investment process and support for social security premium paid by employers (republic of turkey ministry of economics, 2012: 43). supportive parameters in incentive for large-scale investments are as follows (republic of turkey ministry of economics, 2012: 45): table 4: supportive aspects in incentives for investments supportive aspects i ii iii iv v vi exception for vat x x x x x x exemption for customes tax x x x x x x tax reduction for all businesses but organised industrial areas percentage of contribution to investment(%) within organised industrial areas 25 30 35 40 50 60 30 35 40 50 60 65 sigorta primi osb dışısocial security premiıum except for organised industrial areas support for employer’s contribution to social security premium within organised industrial areas 2 yıl 3 yıl 5 yıl 6 yıl 7 yıl 10 yıl 3 yıl 5 yıl 6 yıl 7 yıl 10 yıl 12 yıl allocation for investment place x x x x x x support for interest support for stopage in income tax 10 years support for share of employees’ social security premium 10 years 4.research methodology and resultant evidence 4.1. methodology basic criterion of financial decisions concerning investment dimension in a business is excess of invested capital and that of financial decisions is cost of capital, both of which should be compared with eachother to make a decision concerning the whole business structure. the two issues of cost of capital are costs of equity and debt. all models can establish cost of debt and simultaneously consider influence of tax as well. however, because taxes are levied on divident model distributed to shareholders in turkey, influence of tax on equity is to be considered and cost of capital and profitability of investment compared. in order to calculate effects of tax incentives applied in this process on financial decisions, financial data of the firms was used after excluding financial and negative equity institutions from those registered in borsa i̇stanbul between 2000 and 2006. predictions for 2007-2012 allowed for return from capital invested those years. capital assets pricing model(capm) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 22 was employed to achieve cost of capital of the same businesses in 2012 and with their data base of prices being used for 2007-2012. to compare concluded parametres considering tax incentives, businesses were divided into regions defined in the incentive law with their differences being studied and interpreted. 2000-2006 financial database of businesses registered in borsa istanbul was obtained from the official web site of borsa istanbul and prepared to be analysed by excel. to be processed, in practice it has to be expressed by 2006 prices. for this purpose all database between 20002006 is multiplied by index number for the correspanding year. in order to zero impact of non-inflational factors on financial evidence(data), all data is multiplied by 2006 exchange rate of dolar. in conclusion, using the dolar-expressed tables, data of 2007-2012 was predicted to achieve return from the capital invested after tax of the businesses in 2012, which is a performance criterion to indicate profitability of the nettest investment of the firm. following the above-said process, we initially have to use pricing model for capital assets, with data for 60 months from 2007 to 2012 being employed to calculate beta exponents which were found using basic equation of pricing model for capital assets of equity. in addition we should find return from borsa istanbul index on riskless interest rate according to the model. however, calculate both return from borsa istanbul and that from stocks and bonds, one should use continous combined return, which is natural logarithm of division of the price in previous month by that in the related month. cost of equity was achieved by neglecting impact of tax and adding riskless interest rate after beta exponents that we found by correlating return from the related asset via continous combined return with that from borsa istanbul. later, considering impact of tax, cost of equity was obtained and cost of capital for the business calculated by correlating financial output in the related years with cost of debt and calculating weighted avarage capital cost. comparing cost of capital of tax effect with return of invested capital previously found, one tried to understand to what extent tax generally influenced investment decisions. then, businesses were divided into regions according to the incentive law to distinguish effect of tax on influence on investment decisions depending on incentive law using spss program. cost of capital is equal to weighted means of costs of all kinds of resources which are used or planned to be used. structural characteristics of resources used or planned to be used have impacts on establishment of independent resource costs. therefore, weighted means of costs determined by specific characteristics of every independent resource implies cost of total used capital (ceylan, 2004: 183). cost of capital is an important factor even in investment process since cost of capital is required as a discount element in order to calculate an investment. on the other hand, structure of capital in a business influences profit and profit-related risk to determine its value as well. in addition, leasing, long-term finance and similar policies requires cost of capital to be known(brigham, 1996: 594). the study used capital assets pricing model(capm) to calculate cost of capital. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 23 capital assets pricing model(capm) is one of the most successful studies conducted to measure how cash flow risk was calculated from potential investment studies, amount of capital of investment, expected rate of return and whether or not the investment could be demanded given that rate(civan, 2007: 337). the fact that every investor has the same knowledge and opinions of prospective expectations from a financial asset means that they process and analyse them using the same methods(yörük, 2000: 31). market is perfect for financial assets and there are no disagreements as to potential assumptions such as lending and/ or borrowing upon infinite divisibility taxes, transactional costs and different riskless rates(wang, 2003: 25-28). formula of pricing model for capital assets is as follows: ifmfi errrr  )( cost of debt is calculated as below: 2 / year)current in debt financial year previousin debt (financial finance paid of expenses debt ofcost   cost of weighted capital means is calculated by the following: the model, return of stock is obtained by multiplication of market risk premium by beta exponent which indicates correlation between stock and market on riskless interest rate. market risk premium is however obtained by subtraction of riskless interest rate from market return. this formula presents return from stock as well, which means cost of capital stock in terms of business itself. in other words, the value is return for with stocks on one hand and cost of capital stock for the business which has issued the stock concerned on the other. accordingly, capital assets pricing model(capm) is used to determine cost of capital stock. to find cost of capital stock using the equation above, beta exponent is calculated by the regression equation to establish return of stock, market risk premium and riskless interest rate as dependent variable, independent variable and constant exponent, respectively. prediction of return from stock via beta exponent finds cost of capital stock as ri in the formula. cost of debts is calculated through relationship between interest and debt to find cost of weighted capital means that has two constituents namely, cost of debt and that of capital stock. cost of capital stock can be estimated from beta exponent using equation of capital assets pricing model to find cost of capital stock by predicting it via the equation. cost of debt are added to that of capital stock to obtain cost of weighted capital means, which is the first data that we can utilize to compare profitability of the invested capital. cost of weighted capital means is compared with profitability of the invested capital in terms of taxability. 2000-2006 balance sheets and revenue tables of database of businesses registered in borsa istanbul were prepared by excel. because the tables are composed of database which were not corrected for inflation, the values were multipled by annual wholesale price index    debt of weight debt ofcost stock capital of weight stock capital ofcost means capital weightedofcost  prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 24 and recorrected accordingly. in order to prevent the obtained values from being affected by variations in purchasing power, they had to be reexpressed as us dollar, the purpose of which is to be able to define 2000-2006 financial data as exchange rates in 2006.all the values were multipled by 2006 exchange rates to obtain data of 2006 in dolar and predict it for 2012. process of prediction makes it necessary to form the rates which consist in business estimations which are used to calculate growth rates based on previous database. the growth rates were therefore employed to predict return of after and before-tax capital investments for 2012. in general sales percentage method is used for prediction. after sales growth has been calculated, items related to sales by business are determined. consequently, constant-assumed items are added to equilibrate balance sheet using the related growth until short term debt plus of securities. this is in deed the essence of the sales percentage method. two parameters exist in return of invested capital such as pre and post tax processes. there are six essential phases only after of which is to obtain return of invested capital. the first is obtained by dividing net tangible fixed assets into net sales using data of sales involving years,the second by dividing net working capital into sales, the third by adding net tangible fixed assets and net working capital, fourth by subtracting difference between other assets and other debts from the above addition, the fifth by (net working capital +net tangible fixed assets)+(other assetsother debts) and finally the sixth by adding the previous year and the current year values and subtracting the result into two to calculate profitability of the invested capital, which is the mean invested capital. invested capital profitability is calculated by division of net sales into invested capital. calculation of return of pre-tax invested capital requires division of activity profit into invested capital. calculation of return of post-tax invested capital calls for division of net activity profit into invested capital to find return of invested capital. 4.2.obtained findings regional numbers of businesses were also processed by excel and assessed according to tax incentive law in the consequence of the above the activities. provinces in turkey are divided into six different regions by the tax incentive law with the following difference of businesses between their pre-tax and post-tax net investment returns. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 25 table 5: return of net investment for the 1st region businesses r e g io n return from capital invested in pretaxation (%) cost of capital in pretaxati on return from invest ment for pretaxa tion return from capital invested after taxation (%) cost of capital after taxation return from investm ent after taxatio n 1 st r e g io n mean standard deviatio n adel 1 33,4 14,94 18,46 26,8 13,04 13,76 4,7 5,696765 7,666705 alcar 1 110,7 11,89 98,81 88,6 9,47 79,13 19,68 alctl 1 -132,1 7,24 -139,34 -105,7 4,04 -109,74 29,6 anacm 1 8,2 12,42 -4,22 6,6 10,09 -3,49 0,73 arclk 1 16,1 13,88 2,22 12,9 11,8 1,1 1,12 asels 1 -15,5 13,71 -29,21 -12,4 11,6 -24 5,21 aslan 1 37,2 16,42 20,78 29,8 14,77 15,03 5,75 ayces 1 -6,7 11,59 -18,29 -5,4 9,12 -14,52 3,77 aygz 1 74,2 12,5 61,7 59,4 10,18 49,22 12,48 bfren 1 -49,5 16,78 -66,28 -39,6 15,19 -54,79 11,49 brisa 1 11,2 11,55 -0,35 8,9 9,07 -0,17 0,18 brova 1 -21,1 16,47 -37,57 -13,7 14,82 -28,52 9,05 brsan 1 18,6 11,76 6,84 14,9 9,32 5,58 1,26 btcim 1 20,5 10,94 9,56 16,4 8,36 8,04 1,52 bucim 1 40,3 11,02 29,28 32,2 8,46 23,74 5,54 burce 1 -3,9 11,21 -15,11 -3,1 8,68 -11,78 3,33 celha 1 1,8 9,02 -7,22 1,4 6,11 -4,71 2,51 cemts 1 -11 12,4 -23,4 -8,8 10,07 -18,87 4,53 cimsa 1 46,1 14,23 31,87 36,9 12,2 24,7 7,17 cment 1 18,6 16,95 1,65 14,9 15,39 -0,49 2,14 ecyap 1 -8,5 12,41 -20,91 -6,8 10,08 -16,88 4,03 edip 1 -55,7 14,17 -69,87 -44,6 12,14 -56,74 13,13 egeen 1 6,4 10,43 -4,03 5,1 7,76 -2,66 1,37 eggub 1 -3,1 12,14 -15,24 -2,5 9,76 -12,26 2,98 emnis 1 4,3 12,13 -7,83 3,5 9,75 -6,25 1,58 fenis 1 13,9 10,87 3,03 11,2 8,28 2,92 0,11 fmizp 1 -107,7 9,23 -116,93 -86,2 6,36 -92,56 24,37 frigo 1 6 12,98 -6,98 4,8 10,75 -5,95 1,03 froto 1 20,2 12,82 7,38 16,1 10,56 5,54 1,84 gediz 1 175,2 12,82 162,38 140,2 10,56 129,64 32,74 goody 1 12,8 10,09 2,71 10,2 7,37 2,83 0,12 gubrf 1 35,1 13,07 22,03 28,1 10,85 17,25 4,78 hekts 1 7,9 13,09 -5,19 6,3 10,88 -4,58 0,61 hurgz 1 4,5 13,48 -8,98 3,6 11,33 -7,73 1,25 hzndr 1 14 12,9 1,1 11,2 10,66 0,54 0,56 intem 1 -23,4 9,24 -32,64 -18,8 6,37 -25,17 7,47 izmdc 1 55,2 13,93 41,27 44,2 11,86 32,34 8,93 izocm 1 22,4 14,14 8,26 17,9 12,1 5,8 2,46 kaplm 1 5,1 12,41 -7,31 4,1 10,08 -5,98 1,33 kartn 1 2,2 7,42 -5,22 1,8 4,25 -2,45 2,77 kent 1 11,6 24,06 -12,46 9,2 23,7 -14,5 2,04 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 26 knfrt 1 48,6 11,19 37,41 38,9 8,66 30,24 7,17 kords 1 10,3 11,82 -1,52 8,2 9,39 -1,19 0,33 maalt 1 34,2 9,28 24,92 27,4 6,42 20,98 3,94 maktk 1 166,7 15,55 151,15 133,4 13,75 119,65 31,5 merko 1 2,5 8,15 -5,65 2 5,1 -3,1 2,55 mipaz 1 63,4 16,72 46,68 51,7 15,12 36,58 10,1 mrshl 1 29,3 7,56 21,74 23,5 4,4 19,1 2,64 mutlu 1 8,2 12,97 -4,77 6,6 10,73 -4,13 0,64 netas 1 -126,3 16,29 -142,59 -101 14,61 -115,61 26,98 nettur 1 17,7 11,3 6,4 14,1 8,79 5,31 1,09 olmks 1 12,3 13,5 -1,2 9,8 11,35 -1,55 0,35 parsn 1 16,4 12,38 4,02 13,1 10,04 3,06 0,96 petkm 1 39 10,38 28,62 31,2 7,7 23,5 5,12 pinsu 1 14,1 14,64 -0,54 11,3 12,68 -1,38 0,84 pkent 1 -43,9 14,08 -57,98 -35,1 12,03 -47,13 10,85 pnsut 1 4,7 13,64 -8,94 3,7 11,52 -7,82 1,12 prkab 1 36,7 9,63 27,07 29,3 6,83 22,47 4,6 sarky 1 15,8 13,08 2,72 12,6 10,86 1,74 0,98 snpam 1 -0,4 17,79 -18,19 -0,3 16,37 -16,67 1,52 sonme 1 -38,7 18,69 -57,39 -31 17,42 -48,42 8,97 tatks 1 8,8 14,68 -5,88 5,7 12,73 -7,03 1,15 tborg 1 -26 16,03 -42,03 -20,8 14,32 -35,12 6,91 thyao 1 -6,8 12,98 -19,78 -5,4 10,75 -16,15 3,63 tire 1 14,8 14,28 0,52 11,9 12,26 -0,36 0,88 tubras 1 29,2 10,6 18,6 23,4 7,97 15,43 3,17 ucak 1 21,7 10,83 10,87 17,3 8,23 9,07 1,8 vking 1 4,7 18,95 -14,25 3,8 17,72 -13,92 0,33 table 5 shows 68 businesses allotted in the first region registered in borsa istanbul according to tax incentive law in turkey.subtraction of pre-tax investment return from pre-tax capital cost yields calculation of pre-tax net invested return. calculation of post-tax net invested return requires subtraction of post-tax capital cost from post-tax invested return. tax load amounts to 32% in the 1st region with a means of 5,69 and a standard deviation of 7,66. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 27 table 6: return of net investment for the 2nd region businesses r e g io n return from capital invested in pretaxation (%) cost of capital in pretaxati on return from invest ment for pretaxa tion return from capital invested after taxation (%) cost of capital after taxation return from investm ent after taxatio n 2 n d r e g io n mean standard deviatio n adana 2 68,3 14,87 53,43 54,7 12,95 41,75 11,68 2,755238 2,793363 adbgr 2 39 12,65 26,35 31,2 10,36 20,84 5,51 adnac 2 0,9 12,97 -12,07 0,7 10,73 -10,03 2,04 altin 2 9,4 8,45 0,95 7,5 5,46 2,04 1,09 ateks 2 -7,8 12,77 -20,57 -6,2 10,5 -16,7 3,87 boluc 2 36,8 11,96 24,84 29,5 9,55 19,95 4,89 bossa 2 12,5 10,42 2,08 10 7,75 2,25 0,17 brmen 2 6,7 12,99 -6,29 5,3 10,76 -5,46 0,83 bshev 2 10,5 19,84 -9,34 8,4 18,77 -10,37 1,03 dencm 2 1,8 13,03 -11,23 1,4 10,8 -9,4 1,83 derim 2 51,8 8,17 43,63 41,5 5,12 36,38 7,25 erbos 2 32,7 12,87 19,83 26,2 10,61 15,59 4,24 gents 2 23,3 12,26 11,04 18,7 9,9 8,8 2,24 golts 2 15,8 13,83 1,97 12,6 11,73 0,87 1,1 konya 2 21,7 9,33 12,37 17,3 6,48 10,82 1,55 krtek 2 6,8 13,62 -6,82 5,4 11,5 -6,1 0,72 luksk 2 22,2 9,56 12,64 17,8 6,75 11,05 1,59 otkar 2 25,4 10,82 14,58 20,3 8,22 12,08 2,5 sktas 2 -6,7 14,48 -21,18 -5,4 12,5 -17,9 3,28 trkcm 2 10,2 12,41 -2,21 8,1 10,07 -1,97 0,24 yunsa 2 13,8 8,36 5,44 11 5,35 5,65 0,21 table 6 shows 21 businesses in 2nd region registered in borsa istanbul in turkey. subtraction of pre-tax investment return from pre-tax capital cost yields calculation of pre-tax net invested return. calculation of post-tax net invested return requires subtraction of post-tax capital cost from post-tax invested return. tax load amounts to 11% only in one business in the 2 nd. tax loads of other businesses amount to 7,5% maximum in the second region with a means of 2,75 and a standard deviation of 2,79. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 28 table 7: return of net investment for the 3th region businesses r e g io n return from capital invested in pretaxation (%) cost of capital in pretaxati on return from invest ment for pretaxa tion return from capital invested after taxation (%) cost of capital after taxation return from investm ent after taxation 3 r d r e g io n mean standard deviatio n bagfs 3 2,9 10,14 -7,24 2,3 7,43 -5,13 2,11 1,397143 1,157018 banvt 3 20,1 15,53 4,57 16,1 13,72 2,38 2,19 eregl 3 8,5 14,69 -6,19 6,8 12,74 -5,94 0,25 tuddf 3 7,2 12,37 -5,17 5,7 10,04 -4,34 0,83 tukas 3 -2,4 10,19 -12,59 -1,9 7,48 -9,38 3,21 usak 3 16,3 13,69 2,61 13 11,57 1,43 1,18 vestl 3 9,4 14,91 -5,51 7,5 13 -5,5 0,01 table 7 points out that there are 7 businesses in 3rd region registered in borsa istanbul in turkey. subtraction of pre-tax investment return from pre-tax capital cost yields calculation of pre-tax net invested return. calculation of post-tax net invested return requires subtraction of post-tax capital cost from post-tax invested return. tax load amounts to 3,21% only in one business in the 3 rd. tax loads of other businesses amount to 2,19% maximum in the second region with a means of 1,39 and a standard deviation of 1,15. table 8: return of net investment for the 4th region businesses r e g io n return from capital invested in pretaxation (%) cost of capital in pretaxati on return from invest ment for pretaxa tion return from capital invested after taxation (%) cost of capital after taxation return from investm ent after taxatio n 4 t h r e g io n mean standard deviatio n afyon 4 15,6 -10,02 25,62 12,5 -16,14 28,64 -3,02 kutpo 4 -11,7 22,78 -34,48 -9,4 22,2 -31,6 -2,88 table 8 points out that there are 2 businesses in 4th region registered in borsa istanbul in turkey. subtraction of pre-tax investment return from pre-tax capital cost yields calculation of pre-tax net invested return. calculation of post-tax net invested return requires subtraction of post-tax capital cost from post-tax invested return. because tax loads can not calculated only for 2 businesses to infer proper consequences, they were excluded from the study. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 29 table 9: return of net investment for the 5th region businesses r e g io n return from capital invested in pretaxation (%) cost of capital in pretaxati on return from invest ment for pretaxa tion return from capital invested after taxation (%) cost of capital after taxation return from investm ent after taxatio n 5 t h r e g io n mean standard deviatio n ditas 5 -4,2 9,46 -13,66 -3,3 6,63 -9,93 -3,73 unyec 5 36,3 13,56 22,74 29,1 11,43 17,67 5,07 table 9 illustrates 2 businesses registered in borsa istanbul and included in 5th region in turkey. subtraction of pre-tax investment return from pre-tax capital cost yields calculation of pre-tax net invested return. calculation of post-tax net invested return requires subtraction of post-tax capital cost from post-tax invested return. because tax loads can not calculated only for 2 businesses to deduce proper consequences, they were not included in the study. table 10: return of net investment for the 6th region businesses r e g io n return from capital invested in pretaxation (%) cost of capital in pretaxati on return from invest ment for pretaxa tion return from capital invested after taxation (%) cost of capital after taxation return from investm ent after taxatio n 6 t h r e g io n mean standard deviatio n mrdn 6 34,1 14,61 19,49 27,3 12,66 14,64 4,85 table 10 illustrates only 1 business registered in borsa istanbul and included in 6th region in turkey. calculation of post-tax net invested return requires subtraction of post-tax capital cost from post-tax invested return. tax loads can not calculated only for 1 business to reach proper consequences. therefore, they were excluded from the study. tables calculated according to the regions above show that businesses in all provinces in them did not participate in the study considering their limited number. now that number of businesses is sufficient in the first 3rd regions, other regions were excluded from the study. difference between return of pre-tax invested capital and pre-tax capital cost showed return of pre-tax net investment in terms of examining influence of tax on the first 3rd regions, which indicates the tax effect. means of tax effects were calculated for all three regions each considering magnitute of tax effect. figure 1 shows on which levels mean tax effect are in the first 3rd regions as below. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 30 figure 1: mean tax effect figure 1 illustrates from calculations that tax effects are in percentages and magnitutes are easily understood in the first 3rd regions. difference of tax effects between provinces of 1st and 2nd regions is less than that of those in 3 rd region. while tax effect in 2nd region is higher than that in 1st region, this is not the case for 3rd region at all. tax effect of 3rd region is more significant than those of 1st and 2nd regions, which means that the difference diminished, in other words tax effect decreased. because number of businesses in 4th, 5th and 6 th regions were found not to be available for analysis, they were not included in the study. difference between return of pre-tax and post-tax net investments in 1st region amounts to 30%. tax load in 1st region was found to be higher with a mean of 5,6.however, incentive in 2nd region was greater and thus up to 12%. tax effect on return of investments in 2 nd region was much less than that in 1st region. tax incentive law positively influenced businesses in 2nd region just because of less tax effect. whether number of businesses is little or not, addition of 3rd region to the study showed that tax effect was less than those of other two regions. tax effect for the first 3 regions was calculated to form figure 2. figure 2: mean tax effect by regions figure 2 shows that businesses in provinces of 1 st, 2nd and 3rd regions were affected by taxation in 5,69, 2,75 and 1,39, respectively. in other words, tax effect of 1st region was found to be higher than those of 2nd and 3rd regions under the s ignificant influence of tax incentive law. 5.6968 2.7552 1.3971 1 st region 2 nd region 3 rd region 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 3 th region 2nd region 1st region prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 31 the aim for us to choose variance analysis is to test whether difference variable (pretax and post-tax net investment returns) showed any significant variations in regions to regions. although there are six regions according to tax incentive law in turkey variations of means between three regions were tested because data is not sufficient. statistical analysis method used to test whether means of two and more independent groups are different from each other is called one-way variance analysis. to do so, measurements from such groups should have been made in the level of least equal intervals. anova requires variances of groups to be equal or homogenous. homogeneity is measured by levene test (sipahi et al., 2008: 124). table 11: test of homogeneity of variances levene statistic df1 df2 sig. 5,048 2 93 ,008 considering the result of levene test, in h0 hypoothesis variances are equal whereas in h1 hypoothesis variances are not equal. sig. value ≤ 0,05 then h1 hypoothesis is accepted. that is, variances of groups are not homogenious, in which case one-way anova test is not provided with primary condition when. such unavailable conditions emerge welch and brown-forsythe tests are available alternatively.these tests are alternative to f test, of which welch test is strongest and widely used(sipahi et al.,2008:133). table 12: robust tests of equality of means statistic value degree of freedom 1 degree of freedom 2 p (the level of significance) welch 8,926 2 40,365 ,001 brown-forsythe 9,117 2 92,181 ,000 since both tests have p values less than 0,05, differences can be concluded to exist between difference variables of regions. tamhane’s t2 test is used to determine from what region the difference has resulted because equations of variances in levene test was rejected, this multiple comparisons test has been chosen (sipahi et al.,2008:133). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 32 table 13. multiple comparisons (i) bölge (j) bölge mean difference (i-j) standard error p (the level of significance) 1 2 2,94153* 1,11173 ,029 3 4,29962* 1,02744 ,000 2 1 -2,94153* 1,11173 ,029 3 1,35810 ,75020 ,228 3 1 -4,29962* 1,02744 ,000 2 -1,35810 ,75020 ,228 * mean difference of 0,05 is statistically significant. from results of tamhane’s t2 test, it is clear that there are between 1st, 2nd and 3rd regions in terms of difference variable. 5.conclusion businesses have difficulties in surviving let alone competing with other firms in globalised world where technology changes rapidly. survival of businesses requires financial decisions to be made. therefore, it is of great importance that ability of a firm to survive depends on continous output, power to invest in fixed and circulating capitals and financial policies to be conducted. every financial decision includes money, time and risk parameters. finance is actually related to evaluation of future cash flows. uncertainties in future increase possibility of making mistakes. failure to make financial planning is one of the unsuccesses in businesses. major reasons why businesses fail and encounter risks are such problems as not taking steps for due fonds to assume responsibility, greater desire to grow beyond present capacity, fixed responsibilities caused by excesive borrowing more than business undertakings, ambibalance or disagreement between the period of using sources and just in time procedures for means, absence of policies to distrubute profits which may weaken financial structure of firms failure to make decisions to motivate business to progress, and such policies and decisions as to cause businesses to fail. within the context of the study, one seeks to find answers to questions “what is financial decision?”, “what are financial decision types?” and “what kinds of taxes are considered in making financial decisions?” findings from the study, show that there are 101 businesses whose analyses are positive except for financial instutions and firms whose recorded capitals are negative following 2000. such financially successful businesses are classffied into 6 regions including their provinces according to tax incentive law in turkey. in addition, these firms are already registered in borsa istanbul considering related city index regulations and necessary analyses are performed. taxation is an important factor as well as other parameters such as money, time and risk while making a financial decision since financial structure, share in industry, present and prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 33 prospective profits, the region in which to include etc. will determine levels of taxes to be levied. therefore, the state is itself interested and how much profit businesses will gain in what sectors. accordingly, tax management belongs to managers in charge of business finance. findings of the study covers a total of 101 businesses, 50% of which is included in 1st region with a total of 68 firms. 2nd region has 21, 3rd 7, 4th 2, 5th 2 and 6th only one. because the first three regions heavily focuse on majority of businesses and other regions do not have sufficient number of firms, 4th, 5th and 6th regions were excluded from the study. the findings show that pre-tax investment returns and per-tax capital costs of 68 businesses in 1st region were calculated to find the difference between them as net investment returns and returns of post-tax invested capital and post-tax capital cost were calculated with the difference being obtained as pre-tax net investment return to finally measure post-tax invested capital return and post-tax capital cost with the difference as post-tax net investment return and return of pre-tax and post-tax investments. the present findings showed this difference to rise to 33% in 1st region with a means of 5,69 and a standard deviation of 7,66. the difference found in 2nd region was about 12% with a means of 2,75 and a standard deviation of 2,79. the 3rd region showed a difference of 3% with ameans of 1,39 and a standard deviation of 1,15. according to the findings of the study, businesses of 1st, 2nd and 3rd regions including their provinces were found to be affected by taxation in 5,69, 2,75 and 1,39, respectively. in conclusion, it was observed that businesses in 1st region have heavier tax loads than those in others. in this respect, tax incentive law has different effects in different regions with tax loads of those in 2nd and 3rd being lighter than those in 1st region. because tax load of 3rd region is less than those of 1 st and 2nd and considering tax incentive law,3rd region is likely to have higher possibility to invest in it financially. however, in spite of the advantage of low tax load, financial decisions are believed to be negatively affected by lack of infrastructure, higher transportation costs insufficient organised industrial areas and absence of qualified personel as unavailable parameters. due to insufficient means and staff to calculate tax load of businesses in provinces of 4th, 5th and 6th regions, they were not included in the study. accordingly, geographical distiribution of firms was found to be effective and important as to taking financial decisions if sufficient investments hade been made in those under developed regions, many more businesses would have existed and thus been included in the study. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; 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(2002) tax incentives for business investment: a primer for policy makers in developing countries, world development, vol. 30, no: 9, ss.1497-1516. 1 do older indonesian with chronic disease still be able to engage in an activity and feel happy? santi sulandari, s.psi., m. ger. ¹* afrilin dewi purnama, s. psi ² mei wijayanti, s. psi. ³ fitriana dwi hastuti, s. psi. ⁴ permata ashfi raihana, s. psi., ma. ⁵ ¹ university of muhammadiyah surakarta, faculty of psychology, ss280@ums.ac.id, *correspondent author. ² university of muhammadiyah surakarta, faculty of psychology, afrilpipin@gmail.com ³ university of muhammadiyah surakarta, faculty of psychology, meiwijayanti285@gmail.com ⁴ university of muhammadiyah surakarta, faculty of psychology, fitrianadh14@gmail.com ⁵ university of muhammadiyah surakarta, faculty of psychology, par192@ums.ac.id article history: accepted 05 april 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: activity, chronic disease, health, happiness, older people. a b s t r a c t this study aimed to understand what activities could be done by older indonesian who are physically sick and how those activities can make them feel happy. it was a qualitative study conducted in the surakarta, central java, indonesia. a total of 6 older people aged >60 years and suffering from the chronic disease were selected for this study. the data were collected by an in-depth interview. the data were analyzed using thematic analysis with the help of the nvivo 12 qsr program. older people with chronic disease were still able to be active in worship, socializing with the surrounding environment, working, doing the daily chores, and doing older people gymnastic. the benefit of staying engaged in the activity, including the ability to feel happy, be motivated to get a reward, exchange ideas, and share experience, help others, be calm, and have good health. this study emphasized the importance of being engaged in activities for older people to achieve happiness even though there had poor health status. 1. introduction old age is a period that will be passed by anyone, especially for those who are given a long life by god. there are positive and negative things when an individual enters old age. the older people experienced a setback in several things both physically (hearing, vision, wrinkled skin, etc.); cognitive (easy to forget, etc.); or psychological (loneliness, stress, anxiety, fear of death, etc.) (suardiman, 2011). in addition to experiencing setbacks, the elderly can also be wiser and more sensible in responding to a matter. it is because previous experience has made the elderly more socially mature (advising younger people), emotions (calm in facing certain situations), and cognitive (wiser in making decisions). the growth of the older people population cannot be avoided. based on population projection data quoted from the indonesian ministry of health and ministry's page and information [kemenkes ri] (2017), it showed the number of older people experienced a significant increase. in accordance with chart 1, in 2017, there were around 9.03% of the total older people of the total population in indonesia. this number increased from the previous two years 2015 data of 8.49%. the indonesian ministry of health also predicts that by 2020 the number will still increase to 9.99% and will increase to 11.83% in 2025. mailto:ss280@ums.ac.id https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0091-3382 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5043-6094 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9140-2827 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7013-6558 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7396-2268 2 figure 1. increase in the older people population in indonesia in 2010-2030 the older people population that experiences growth every year makes one of the causes of the emergence of various problems in the older people. according to suardiman (2011) states that some problems arise when someone enters old age, including economic problems (reduced income due to retirement), social and cultural problems (lack attention, depressed, lonely), health problems (deterioration of bodily functions). these problems can make the older people vulnerable to various diseases, as well as psychological problems (loneliness, feelings of uselessness, helplessness, lack of confidence, dependence, post power syndrome, and so on). one of the problems felt by the older people is related to health. as a person ages, it raises various complaints about health. based on bps data, it is stated that as people age, they are more susceptible to complaints and illness, indicated by data of 48.39% of the population of young older people (60-69 years), middleaged people (70-79 years) amounting to 57.65%, and older people (80-89 years) of 64.01% who complained about their health condition. in addition, based on data in the 2014 older people population statistics regarding morbidity rates experienced by the older people in 2014, there was 25.05%, which means that around one in four older people had experienced illness in the past month (badan pusat statistik [bps], 2014). furthermore, according to siti setiati as chairman of the indonesian medical gerontology association, it is stated that in old age, various diseases attack, especially non-communicable (ptm) and chronic diseases, such as the brain, heart, blood vessels, chronic lung disease, and cancer. older people health problems are generally multi-disease, so they require long-term care (paramitha & puspitasari, 2016). aging causes the quality of the health status of the older people in indonesia to decline. according to badan pusat statistik [bps] (2014), the older people are very vulnerable to low health status. the results of basic health research (riset kesehatan dasar [riskesdas], 2018) showed an increasing number of non-communicable diseases experienced by the older people. delivered by siswanto as head of the health research and development agency, it is stated that the prevalence increased from 2013 to 2018. cancer increased by 0.4%, stroke increased by 2.9%, chronic kidney disease increased by 1.8%, diabetes mellitus increased by 1.6%, and blood pressure and hypertension increased by 8.3%. health complaints experienced by the older people can disrupt daily activities. complaints experienced by the older people affect the psychological and physical conditions experienced by them. furthermore, according to bestari and wati (2016) and steptoe, deaton, and stone (2014) stated that, health status is very influential on the happiness of elderly individuals. it is confirmed by the findings from lobos, lapo, and schnettler (2016), which mentioned that health status is one crucial factor in happiness. findings from amalia (2017) also noted that the perception of the older people in looking at health affects the level of happiness as much as 8.1%, meaning that the more positive the perception level of the older people in looking at health, the more influential it is on the level of happiness they felt. in addition, according to indriana, kristiana, sonda, and intanirian (2010) and suardiman (2011), it is stated that complaints/disturbances to health can prevent the older people from carrying out their daily activities while also being able to cause stress to the older people. several factors cause stress experienced by the older people; one of them is a change in selfrole caused by the inability to perform daily activities optimally. the results of the study (nuryanti, indarwati, & hadisuyatmana, 2019) showed that changes in the role of the self-experienced by 3 the older people causes anxiety to experience depression. furthermore, the findings from parasari and lestari (2015) indicated that depression in the older people is characterized by a lack of interest in doing activities, fatigue, lack of confidence, to experiencing difficulties in social activities, different from happy older people, who will be more active in social activities. older people, who enter old age with various problems at the end of their lives, especially health problems, are expected to be able to have happiness because happiness is a component in life satisfaction (nemati & maralani, 2016). individuals, especially the older people, have the right to be happy in any condition. happiness becomes an essential thing for the older people because the older people who experience various declines or setbacks need to adjust to these conditions. health is one of the factors that influence happiness. however, not all sick older people are not happy because other factors can make older people who are sick still feel happy through their old age. research results (indriana et al., 2010; nuryanti et al., 2019; parasari & lestari, 2015; suardiman, 2011) are not in accordance with the results of an initial survey conducted by researchers in which 91% of 94 respondents who had health complaints or had chronic illnesses showed that they considered their lives to be very valuable and were satisfied with the lives they lead despite being sick. furthermore, the initial interview conducted by researchers to the older people with the initials hs, male, and 63 years old. the informant could not carry out normal daily activities because he had diabetes, so he only carried out activities on a bed and wheelchair if he wanted to do outside activities. he stated that despite experiencing limitations due to illness, the informant did not feel sad or sorry. the informant revealed that he felt calm and happy by using their time to carry out worship (religious activities) even in bed. in addition, the older people also still felt comfortable with a family that always supports him. it appears from the interview results that the state of illness experienced by the older people did not reduce the level of happiness. happiness in the older people can be influenced by factors other than health. according to erlangga (2012), happy older people are older people who can positively evaluate themselves in controlling situations or essential problems in a balanced way in life. the positive assessment conducted by the older people is one of them by doing worship. then, mayasari (2014) revealed that the level of religiosity embraced provides happiness that is more directed to a meaningful life that is not just positive or negative feelings but rather leads to independence, great expectations, to optimally utilize the potential within themselves.likewise, the results of research by sulandari, wijayanti, and sari (2017) emphasized that worship or religious activities regularly can bring happiness to the elderly. it is supported by bixter (2015) who conducted research on religious effects, and it is obtained the results that religious factors have a greater effect on one's happiness compared to other factors. another factor that also affects the happiness of the elderly is family support. family social support can also improve health and well-being in the elderly (dharma, 2014; ikasi & hasanah, 2014). furthermore, mastuti and sulandari (2016) stated that family support contributes more than 50% of the happiness of the elderly. demir, jaafar, bilyk, & mohd ariff (2012) pointed out that happiness is closely related to close relationships with other people. the quality of the relationship is more important in influencing one's happiness than the amount or quantity of the relationship itself. based on the background above, the researchers aim to describe what the elderly can still do even in the illness condition and how these activities can bring happiness to them. 2. literature review 2.1. happiness happiness, in its definition, is the subjective experience in an individual that includes a positive component, which is characterized by the satisfaction in life that reflects the welfare of an individual as a whole. according to (selingman, 2013), the concept of happiness is that an individual is sure of what is chosen. happiness is the fulfillment of a need and hope. happiness is the same as life satisfaction. diener (2009) argues that in happiness, there are two components, namely the cognitive component and the affective component. the cognitive component is the result of evaluation in life events, which includes hope, while the affective component is a feeling, which contains the meaning of peace, the absence of feeling depressed to live satisfaction. happy individuals are individuals who have no psychological problems. when an individual experiences psychological pressure, it positively affects their health and perceived happiness. happiness is a component of well-being that reflects feelings and satisfaction for oneself, especially happiness reflects the quality of social relationships (diener, ng, harter, & arora, 2010; inglehart, foa, peterson, & welzel, 2008). according to (lu & gilmour, 2004; putri, 2018), it is said that happiness is characterized as follows; be physically free from illness, suffering, live a peaceful, peaceful life, free from feelings of worry or fear, live more pleasant, and be accepted by the community, not isolated, able to maintain and have normal social relations until good relationship in the midst of society. sources of happiness in the elderly can be obtained from various sources, 4 such as social support, economic level, religiosity, to good relationships in the environment. further, the findings from (chei, lee, ma, & malhotra, 2018) shows that perceived happiness can reduce mortality rates that occur in the elderly. as the concept of happiness, experts (valois, zullig, huebner, & drane, 2004; zhao & wu, 2018), stated that happy older people are characterized by happy feelings, able to receive and interpret information correctly without affecting feelings of happiness, and optimism and have good social relations with others to achieve the required social support. 2.2. older people the older people are the end of period in a person's life span. this period starts at the age of 60 years until the end of one's life cycle or until the end of life (jahja, 2011). according to government regulation of the republic of indonesia (pp ri) number 43 of 2004 concerning implementation of efforts to increase social welfare elderly, it states that an older person is someone who has reached the age of 60 (sixty) years and above. the older people's population continues to increase. followed from the(world health organization [who], 2018), in 2015 to 2050, the number of older people is estimated to increase by 22% from the previous number of 12%, while in 2050, the number of older people will increase, especially in developing countries, as much as 80%. increasing the number of older people in the world will undoubtedly affect the burden on each country. the health threat is one of the problems experienced by the older people, while changes in lifestyle and changing daily activities are a result of aging. the reduced biological and physical functions experienced by the older people make the older people vulnerable to disease. changes in the older people can be seen from changes in physical function. many changes occur in the older people, including changes in body composition, muscles, bones and joints, cardiovascular system, and respiration. bones, joints, and muscles are interrelated if the joint cannot be moved in accordance with the range of motion (rom), then the movement becomes limited (ambardini, 2009). in addition, several changes occur in the older people (riyanto, 2014), namely: 1. changes in physical function, including changes from the cellular level to all organ systems, such as the respiratory, hearing, vision, cardiovascular, body temperature regulation systems, and respiration systems. 2. changes in cognitive function; among the brain functions that decrease gradually with increasing age is the memory function in the form of a setback in naming and the speed of searching for information that has been stored in the memory center. the ability to send information from short-term memory to long-term memory deteriorates with increasing age. 2.3. chronic disease prevalence shows that more diseases that attack the older people are non-communicable diseases, such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer (world health organization [who], 2011). chronic illness is a disease that is often experienced by the older people. the results of the studies (flynn, markofski, & carrillo, 2019; kraja et al., 2016; shishido & sasaki, 2020) noted that health threats are one of the problems experienced by the older people as a result of increasing age, changes in lifestyle, and daily activities so that they are susceptible to chronic diseases. cai, zhang, zhao, and coyte (2018) and cockerham, hamby, and oates (2017) argued that chronic diseases themselves include cancer, cardiovascular, diabetes, lung, stroke, and hypertension. furthermore, prince et al., (2014) mentioned that cardiovascular disease accounts for as much as 30.3%, respiratory disease as much as 9.5%, and musculoskeletal disorders as much as 7.5%. more specifically, in indonesia's data (pusat data dan informasi kementrian kesehatan ri [kemenkes], 2013) found that health problems experienced by the older people, such as gout, high blood pressure, rheumatism, low blood pressure, and diabetes, as much as 32.99% were followed by other diseases, such as runny nose (11.75) and cough (17.81%). 2.4. previous research related to older people and chronic disease health problems for the older people affect the level of life satisfaction at the end of the older people's life. research result (steptoe et al., 2014) showed that health status is closely related to age so that subjective well-being, such as hedonism feelings (feelings of anger, sadness, happiness, stress, and illness) and eudemonic well-being (the meaning of life), is disturbed. chronic illness affects the physical and psychological condition of the older people. findings from lotfaliany et al., (2018) mentioned that depression was found in 6.0% of cases, 95% diabetes, 2.14% arthritis, and asthma 3.14%. furthermore, the results of (bestari & wati, 2016) showed that older people, who have more than one chronic disease, have a three times greater risk of feeling anxious. it seems clear that the older people, who experience chronic diseases, indirectly cause feelings of anxiety and depression, so that it will affect the level of happiness of the older people. findings from (chei et al., 2018) indicated that perceived happiness can reduce mortality that occurs in the older people. happiness comes from various sources. the findings of (sujarwoto, tampubolon, & pierewan, 2018) found that older people would be happier and more satisfied in living life in an 5 adequate economic position; good service is different in the older people who live in conflict regions, the existence of violence makes the level of happiness decreases, and life satisfaction is low. the results of the previous studies (hori & kamo, 2018; rey, extremera, & sanchez-alvarez, 2019) showed that social support received by older people from friends can increase happiness, especially women, because it contributes positively to emotional well-being and is used in passing through each event life. social support is in the form of information, advice, to the financial. meanwhile, other findings (siqueira, fernandes, & moreira-almeida, 2019; vishkin, bigman, & tamir, 2014; you & lim, 2018) noted that religious influence in regulating emotions and happiness so that the higher the level of religiosity the higher the level of happiness felt. furthermore, other research results (chopik & o’brien, 2017; jeon et al., 2016; lestari, 2017; richards et al., 2015) stressed that apart from harmonious relationships, a stable economic level is equally important as health, which exerts an influence on happiness older people; it is because, with a healthy state, the older people will increase their physical activities, such as running a hobby, having fun, exercising to socializing. 2.5. research question based on the problems that have been described, the researchers proposed questions, including whether in the sick condition, the older people are still able to feel happy or not, and how they feel the happiness. 3. method 3.1. study design this study used a qualitative approach. an in-depth interview was used to collect the data. the researcher used a semi-structured interview. a guided interview was prepared to help the researcher obtaining data. this research involved six older people. the researcher visited the informant's house directly while asking for permission to conduct an interview. the interview was conducted at the informant's house. this study was conducted in surakarta residency, central java, indonesia. 3.2. informants the informant in this study was selected using purposive sampling. the informant criteria included: older people aged ≥ 60 years who were in the surakarta residency, central java, and had health problems. six older people who were suffering from the chronic disease were chosen to participate in this study. chronic diseases included stroke, diabetes mellitus, heart disease, and arthritis hypertension. the informants consisted of four men and two women with muslim and christian religious backgrounds. table 1. informant characteristic no. informant age gender type of chronic diseases 1 informant 1 (i1) 70 years old male diabetes and heart disease 2 informant 2 (i2) 68 years old female diabetes 3 informant 3 (i3) 76 years old male stroke and high blood pressure 4 informant 4 (i4) 85 years old male diabetes 5 informant 5 (i5) 62 years old female diabetes 6 informant(i6) 65 years old male stroke 3.3. data collection the research method used semi-structured interviews, utilizing interview guides. interview guides that would be used are listed in table 2. the language used in the interview process was indonesian and/or javanese. the choice of language was adjusted to the desires and language skills of the informants. table 2. interview questions no questions 1. 2. (what are your current activities?) (what are the benefits of these activities for you?) a. (how have you been feeling lately?) b. (what have you been thinking lately?) 3.4. research procedure the following were the steps taken by the researcher in conducting this research, including the researcher who understood the situation and conditions in the field, took care of permission to informants with the time and place agreed upon together, and took data with an interview duration of ± 30-60 minutes per informant. researchers conducted interviews back to several informants when the data was felt to be lacking, and the 6 researchers would check the data to informants in order to validate the data. 3.5. data analysis data obtained from the results of the interview were then transcribed. this transcript was then analyzed using thematic analysis techniques, assisted by the nvivo12 qsr program. the researcher did the coding and then categorizing the theme, according to the purpose of the study. in purpose of publication, the related transcripts were provided in english. 3.6. research ethics study ethic included informed consent given, and it was filled out by study informants. this research had been granted permission from the faculty of psychology. 4. result the results of this study are classified into several sub-sections, including 1. activities that can still be done by the older people who are sick; and 2.the benefits of conducting these activities. 4.1. activity despite having health problems, research informants continue to do daily activities. activities done by informants include: worshiping, socializing with the surrounding environment, working, doing the daily course, and having a gym for the older people. 4.1.1. worshiping worshiping is the most activity conducted by informants. informants 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 stated that praying, being grateful, fasting, reading the qur'an, and joining the recitation were still actively done. especially for informants 4, 5, and 6, they did the evening prayer in the mosque. informant 3 stated that praying is done at any time without knowing the time, while the informant 2 stated the form of gratitude is to thank god so that he can get up and do the activities again. [i usually] thanks to allah, who always protects me while i am taking a rest or waking up…. [i2] as a muslim, i need to pray all the time. there is no particular time to pray [i can do any every time]. [i3] [i usually] come to a mosque for praying. [i4] i pray in mosque every night. [i5] i am grateful i am still able to go to the mosque for praying. [i6] 4.1.2. socializing with the surrounding environment the information above shows that socializing is done for informants 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6. the socializing forms consisted of gathering with children, talking with friends about the relationship, attending the marriage, and helping neighbors who have an event. informant 2 and 3 states that they gathered with neighbors in spare time and take part in the conversation. however, it was different from the informant 4, who states that he had no experience in chatting so that he only became a listener when gathering with neighbors or with family. i have children … we spend time together every sunday. [i1] we meet and have a chat frequently with neighbors on any occasion, such as community meetings. [i2] if i would like to have a chat with neighbors, i would come to them. [i3] i go to my neighbor’s house when there are community meetings. [i6] 4.1.3. working working was an activity chosen by informants 2, 4, and 6. the works done by older people are to go to the rice fields, fields, and even catfish farming. from what was conveyed to the informant 4, he took part in processing the rice fields. furthermore, informant 6 stated that he was not only going to the fields but also planting rhizome, spices, and even farming catfish. [i usually] go to the rice field for working. [i2] my main activity is only going to the rice field [for working]. [i4] i am still able to take a walk and still work ing in the rice field regularly … lately, i also selling spices … and i grow catfishes in my pond. [i6] 4.1.4. doing the daily chores information was given by informants 2, 3, 4, and 5 that they did the daily chores such as sweeping, cleaning the garden, and cooking when they were at home. meanwhile, informant 4 said about the activities that should be done by her were cleaning the garden, pulling out the grass and collecting firewood for cooking. [i usually] clean my house … boiling water for my husband. [i2] [the activity that i regularly do] sweeping at home. [i3] [i] cleaning my field, collecting woods when i clean wild grass. [i4] i work as a traditional chef [foods are as requested]. [i5] 7 4.1.5. joining older people gymnastics informant 6 actively took part in a fitness exercise that is held on every saturday morning. it is done routinely of personal desires. [i] joining an older people community for doing gym every saturday … that is my weekly regular activity … [besides] engaging in other events run by the community. [i6] 4.2. the benefit of staying active conducting daily activities provides benefits to the informants. benefits obtained by the informants include: feeling happy, gaining motivation to get merit, exchanging ideas and sharing experiences, helping others, being calm, and maintaining health. 4.2.1. feeling happy based on information conveyed by informants 2, 3, 4, and 6, who stated that having activities makes the mind more relax because it can be shared with others. one of the aims in conducting activities for older people was to seek entertainment. it seemed that the activities carried out can make older people feel happy. although these activities were limited to go to the garden and clean the garden from fallen leaves, it indirectly affected the condition of the older people. older people felt happier than just sleep. further, taking a rest even made their situation worse. some informants reflected: i am excited . [i2] almost every day i am doing my activities as an entertainment and it makes me happy. [i3] it is entertaining [makes me happy]. even i am sick but if i can walk around, i would prefer to do it. i also happy to clean up my field from dried leaves. i do it [activity] as far as i am able to do so. [i4] i am happy [doing my daily acivities]. [i6] 4.2.2. maintaining health based on the information obtained, it shows that the benefit obtained from activities carried out by older people is to maintain health. it is supported by the statement of the informant 3 that the activities carried out can smooth blood circulation. yes [doing the activities] mainly for body movement so the blood will circulate smoothly. as well as reducing the sitting period, then the sleeping hours also need to be controlled and any other things. [i3] if i am doing nothing, my body feel not good. [i4] 4.2.3. being motivated to get reward another benefit that was felt by the older people towards conducting activities was getting merit. it was conveyed by the informant 4 who stated that praying was a provision for the hereafter. praying at the mosque could bring more friends and more merit than praying at home. furthermore, the informant 4 also said that fasting has many merits. praying at the mosque is better that do it at home. like fasting, if we do not do fasting, we only get ten merits, but if we do fasting, we will receive 700 merits. i do fasting as long as i can. the merits are many. [i4] 4.2.4. exchanging ideas and sharing experiences the benefit of activities undertaken by older people is exchanging ideas and experiences. it is supported by the statement of the informant 4 that activities carried out with friends was felt more comfortable and can be a place to exchange ideas and experiences because of different ages and knowledge. i prefer to go to my neighbor’s house to share ideas or experiences with friends. the conversation topic between the older and the younger is different. the youths are smart, the older like me did not go to school like the young people nowadays. [i4] 4.2.5. helping others associated with the benefits of activities carried out by the older people, it was obtained that conducting activities can help others. it is supported by the statement of the informant 4 that collecting firewood can help her husband to fulfill their daily needs. additionally, she stressed that one of her daily activities is providing morning beverage for her husband. [i am] working as i desire to do it, the most important one is i still able to do it, collecting woods [to help her husband fulfill their daily needs]. every early morning, [i] boiling water to serve a hot drink for my husband. [i4] 4.2.6. settling down based on the information that has been found that the benefits of activity, such as worshiping, undertaken by older people can make older people feel calm. it is supported by the statement of the informant 2 that the activities carried out can make calm feelings because everything that is left to god and flows as it is. so we can live in a peaceful mind if we can let everything happened [through worshiping] since it is from god. all will be good and relaxing and flows as it is. [i2] 8 5. discussion this discussion will explain the results of the research data that have been done. the following discussion is about the results of the above data: physical activity is not always related to sports but can be in the form of activities carried out daily, such as: walking and doing housework (taylor, 2014). related to activities, the majority of the older people in this study did not make health problems as a barrier to remaining active in carrying out daily/physical activities. informants are still involved in activities such as: worshiping, socializing with the surrounding environment, working, doing the daily course, older people exercise. (world health organization [who], 2010) emphasized that carrying out physical activity actively can provide several benefits for the body, especially in older people. current research found that older people who have health problems but remain active in physical activity will get benefits such as feeling happy, gaining motivation to get merit, exchanging ideas and sharing experiences, helping others, being calm, and maintaining health. it appears that physical activity is undertaken by older people indirectly affects their mental health. it is supported by the results of research (kim, chun, heo, lee, & han, 2016) who revealed that utilizing spare time to do activities will obtain good benefits such as creating positive emotions, i.e., life satisfaction and wellbeing. further research results(lera-lopez, ollo-lopez, & santos, 2017; pertiwi, 2017; pool, sadeghi, majlessi, & foroushani, 2014) claimed that physical activity is positively related to happiness. the results of the study (kim, lee, chun, han, & heo, 2016) found that utilizing spare time to do physical activities can bring psychological benefits such as optimism, life satisfaction, and well-being. it is in line with this finding that the older people who did activities during the spare time, such as going to the rice fields, planting, and doing older people exercises every saturday showed a feeling of pleasure. it was stated by boylu, ayfer, gunay, & gulay (2017) that life satisfaction has a positive impact on the quality of life of older people, so it appears from the findings of this study that the activities carried out by the older people in their spare time are merely to avoid feeling bored, especially for the health of the older people to reduce pain and relaxes muscles. souza, carvalho, & ferreira, (2018) stated that the results of a systematic review show that physical activity is essential, not only for older people but also for individuals who have certain diseases, such as parkinsonism, cancer, osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, obesity, depression, etc. furthermore, (soraki & abolghasemi, 2016) added that there is a positive correlation between happiness and health with life expectancy in patients suffering from chronic diseases (cancer). according to hongu, gallaway, and shimada (2015) there are five benefits of physical activity for the older people, namely: increasing the chance of living longer, reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome, improving the quality of life, promoting social interaction, and improving brain health. (francis, 2014) wrote a literature review article related to physical activities. the results of some of the literature reviews indicate that physical activity can prevent various diseases, and the risks of health problems, improve social well being and increase psychological well-being. one of the interesting findings from this research is related to the activity of “socializing with the surrounding environment” that, in fact, can help informants to interpret a happier life. socializing with others involves physical activity because informants visit relatives or neighbors. moreover, more activities are carried out when they are socializing. forms of social activities include talking with neighbors, coming to weddings, and mourning. the finding from hsu and chang (2015) revealed that happiness is not limited to the interaction but rather the involvement between others and the social support received. other studies (didino et al., 2017; kapikiran, 2016; moeini, barati, farhadian, & ara, 2018) mentioned that social support in the form of information, judgment, and emotional support received by the older people can positively increase happiness and life satisfaction of older people. additionally, (seligman, 2002) added that one crucial aspect of happiness is involvement. through social activities with other people also foster social support from the surrounding so that it can support the happiness of older people. moreover, the support of family and the environment can bring happiness to someone who suffers/has complaints of illness or has a chronic illness. according to (sulandari et al., 2017), living with family is one of the factors that can bring happiness, as is the case for some older people who care for grandchildren is happiness. these results are not in line with the finding (asadullah & chaudhury, 2012), which uncover that no relationship between religion or gender affects happiness, but interpersonal relationships and social wealth will affect happiness. hence, it differs from this study that shows that religious activities play an important role in happiness. further finding (sander, 2017) showed that religious background impacts on happiness. the findings in this study show that religious activities carried out by older people have a positive impact on the psychological health 9 of older people, such as feeling calm, happy, gaining motivation to get merit. bayani (2014) revealed that there is a significant relationship between religion and happiness. furthermore, sulandari et al., (2017) states that some religious activities undertaken by older people can make the older people feel happy through gaining calm and the spirit of activity, feeling happy, and feeling closer to god. even though older people are sick, they can still work, and it can grow their satisfaction. it is in line with the opinion (suardiman, 2011), who stated that older people work to maintain physical condition remains active and motivated by the desire to be independent. suardiman also added that older people who can meet their needs independently would feel satisfied. it is supported by the opinion of santrock (2012), who noted that older people will feel happier when they are active, energetic, and productive. besides, indriana (2013) also believed that working is not only for economic needs, but also for an opportunity to develop themselves, build relationships, find life experiences, have the creative spirit, and to make themselves useful for others. 6. conclusion based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that older people with chronic diseases were still able to be active in worship, socializing with the surrounding environment, working, doing daily chores, and having older people gymnastic. the benefits of engaging activities include the ability to feel happy, gain motivation to get merits, exchange ideas and share experiences, help others, be calm, and have good health. older people with chronic disease can feel happy by actively doing various physical and social activities. this study result emphasized the importance of being engaged in activities for older people to achieve happiness even though they have poor health status. 7. acknowledgement we thank the center for islamic and indigenous psychology and faculty of psychology, universitas muhammadiyah surakarta, for providing permissions for us to conduct the research and resources. this research receives a specific grant from universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. references 1. amalia. 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diponegoro university, faculty of social and political sciences, department of public administration, ³diponegoro university, faculty of social and political sciences, department of public administration, ⁴diponegoro university, faculty of engineering, civil engineering department, article history: accepted 01 march 2020 available online 31 april 2020 keywords: stakeholders mapping, penta helix, flood disaster management, lake tempe. a b s t r a c t the main problem in the management of the floodplain of lake tempe is the weak involvement of affected communities in disaster management. the purpose of this research is to comprehensively analyze and map stakeholders in managing floodplain. the penta helix concept is used in stakeholder mapping. this research applied mixed methods, qualitative and quantitative. data collection was done through in-depth interviews with various parties who understand the problem of research and direct observation "pre", "whilst", and "post" a disaster occured. affected communities are found to be an important part of the disaster management stage. affected communities, who have been the object of disaster, should be the subject of disaster management. the recommendation for the results of this research is that the concept of five stakeholders in penta helix was not sufficient in disaster management. affected communities deserve to be placed as one of the stakeholders, in addition to the government, business world, universities, ngos, mass media. this six-stakeholder concept is called "hexa helix". 1. introduction indonesia is a disaster-prone country, because it faces disasters either at any time or in a certain time. disaster management must be handled in an integrated, holistic and comprehensive manner. overcoming the problem of disaster various parties have been involved, but the important role of the state cannot be ignored. the preamble to the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia mandates that the government must be the main party in charge of disaster management. the implementation of the mandate is that the government together with the house of representatives of the republic of indonesia (dpr ri) in 2007 established the law of the republic of indonesia number 24 of 2007 concerning disaster management as a legal basis for the implementation of disaster management. the disaster management law regulates responsibilities based on values, institutions and the distribution of authority. although the implementation of disaster management has been regulated by law and its implementing regulations, there are still many issues that need to be reviewed, related to harmony to the role of stakeholders. the research of stakeholders came from management and business administration studies (brugha and varvasovszky, 2000), this research developed and was applied in broader scientific studies, such as in political science, public policy, development studies and environmental studies. the concept and understanding of stakeholders depend on the academic interests mailto:jenewa.alexandra@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8215-2857 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2964-7935 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6659-5789 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1636-5827 21 or perceptions of the scientists who research them (billgren and holme, 2008). the researchers clarified their views in line with their beliefs and positions about who can be seen as stakeholders so that there is no bias in identifying stakeholders (stoney and winstanley. 2001). the opinion of christopher stoney and diana winstanley regarding the definition and concept of stakeholders is very dependent on the viewpoint of the researcher. freeman stated that stakeholders are a group of people or individuals who influence each other and are influenced by the achievement of certain goals of the organization (freeman, 1984). biset believes that stakeholders are people with an interest or attention to an issue (azheri, 2012). steve rowlinson and yan ki fiona cheung define stakeholders as each individual or group that can influence the performance and achievement of organizational or project goals (rowlinson and cheung, 2008). derek walker, arthur shelley and lynda bourne define stakeholders are individuals or groups who have interests, rights or ownership in the project, and can contribute, influenced by the project, both work or project results (walker et.al., 2008). some of these definitions indicate that stakeholders are individuals or groups who have an interest in the problem or activity to be resolved. stakeholders who will be examined in the management of floodplain of lake tempe are individuals or groups/institutions involved and either directly or indirectly affected by the flood disaster. the penta helix stakeholder analysis model is a comprehensive stakeholder theory. the concept of penta helix defines stakeholders into 5 (five) groups, namely (1) government; (2) business world; (3) universities; (4) non-government organizations (ngos); and (5) mass media (mohr and spekman, 1994). collaboration of 5 (five) stakeholders is expected to synergistically interact with each other so as to realize a quality policy and oriented to the public interest. the penta helix concept was built and developed on two previous stakeholder models of the triple helix theory and the quadra helix theory. triple helix theory consists of government (government), business (business) and university (academician), while quadra helix stakeholders are added by one stakeholder namely civil society or civil society organizations (non-government organizations). the penta helix stakeholders are perfected to 5 (five) by adding mass media. the concept of the triple helix can be traced to its development since the second world war. the second world war brought out the concept of a comprehensive relationship between science (academics), the industrial sector or trade (business world) and the public sector (government). this trilogy relationship is very clear and interdependent. the public sector, namely the government, uses a tax base to fund knowledge institutions in researching innovative technologies and products, especially the technology and innovation of war armanents. the business sector yields the results of research and innovation and finally the public sector, namely the government, gets results through tax collection. another theory of the triad partnership is known as the "iron triangle" theory and the "advocacy coalition framework" theory (afc). the iron triangle theory is based on the thought of ralph pulitzer (1919), which explains that there are three very influential forces in the administration of government namely the legislative, executive and interest groups (reynolds, 2015). the basic concept of this theory is actually based on the idea that the bureaucracy always tries to build its power like any other organization. whereas the most influential interest groups are business and industry groups who lobby for the executive and legislative branches. quadruple helix is a stakeholder concept that perfects the previous concept by incorporating the fourth dimension, each of which has a very valuable contribution in an activity. the fourth dimension, namely "users" from the perspective of the company (economy), seems to be treated as a consumer rather than a partner for the creation of shared innovation. several studies have shown that this fourth dimension is interpreted as a stakeholder of a non-governmental organization that has a stake in solving a problem. quadruple helix brings the actors closer and brings the conversation to the lowest level of stakeholders. the latest development of the stakeholder model is penta helix. penta helix goes far beyond, technology and science enter the dimensions of space involving previously existing models. the fifth stakeholder is the media. the media is considered capable of influencing and becoming a part that must be taken into account in stakeholder mapping. the penta helix concept is an ideal tool for mapping the complexity of stakeholders, for example in the economic world the penta helix concept is able to provide a solution to the consumer market-based business innovation model. figure 1. triple helix stakeholder concept, quadra helix and penta helix source: processed by researchers from various 2019 sources several previous studies have shown that empirically the concept of penta helix is a comprehensive concept in stakeholder mapping. sturesson, lindmark and roos research concluded that 22 the penta helix model is very useful for solving multi-stakeholder problems in which stakeholders represent various interests in one location or one case (sturesson et.al., 2009). other researches conducted by muhyi, chan, sukoco, and herawaty, show that the concept of penta helix can help analyze and map "relationship problems" between stakeholders (muhyi et. al., 2017). whereas the research of halibas, sibayan, and maata explained that the involvement of penta helix stakeholders can show the stakeholders who are able to encourage and make innovation (halibas et. al., 2017). the location of this stakeholder mapping research is located on the tempe lakeside in south sulawesi province, indonesia. data collection was carried out in wajo regency, in 4 (four) villages, namely (1) wiringpalennae; (2) salomenraleng; (3) laelo urban; and (4) mattirotappareng. these four areas represent the character of the areas of 51 villages along the tempe lakeside which experienced floodplain. figure 2. location map of lake tempe, wajo regency, south sulawesi province, indonesia source: wajo regency regional development planning agency 2019 lake tempe waters will overflow and flood the surrounding area every year, better known as floodplain. the time span of floodplain is approximately 3 (three) to 5 (five) months. the lake water surface elevation varies between 3 m above sea level during the dry season to 10 m above sea level during floods (ramadhan, triyanti, & koeshendrajana, 2017). the areas that were inundated partly were residential areas on tempe lakeside. figure 3. lake paparan tempe flood conditions in 2019, south sulawesi province – indonesia source: researcher documentation in 2019 from the research of policies, empirical facts and stakeholder theory, the research question "why are the affected communities always considered as victims or objects in the disaster management?" 2. research methods the method used in this research is the mixed method. qualitative methods as the main method and quantitative methods as other methods (secondary). the research began with a complete mapping of the stakeholders involved based on the penta helix theory. the second stage, the researchers collected existing documents both official documents from the government and other documents related to the management of floodplain of lake tempe. the third stage, in-depth interviews with parties who understand the flood management of floodplain of lake tempe. the selection of informants was based on the criteria of individuals who were directly involved in flood management and/or are victims of flooding. at this stage observation was also carried out by observing each stage of floodplain disaster management. observations were made to obtain in-depth and comprehensive information about stakeholders. after the stakeholder mapping was successfully carried out the next step was to conduct a survey by distributing questionnaires to flood affected communities. the questionnaire revealed stakeholder perceptions of the management of floodplain of lake tempe. the fifth stage, the answers to the questionnaire were tested using multiple linear statistical analysis (multiple linear regression). this analysis is used to determine the level of significance of stakeholder involvement (independent variables) on flood disaster management (dependent variable). the results of the analysis indicate the significance of the level of influence of each stakeholder on flood management. the last stage of the research is concluding the research fndings. 3. discussion 23 3.1 stakeholder mapping the results of research applying the penta helix theory in stakeholder mapping for floodplain management can be explained as follows: 3.1.1 government the government is a stakeholder that has the biggest role in the flood management. the government is the main role because it is supported by the ability of funding, regulation, number of personnel and adequate infrastructure to be involved in disaster management. law of the republic of indonesia number 24 of 2007 concerning disaster management (uu-24, 2017), states that the disaster management coordinator is the central government in this case bnpb and/or bpbd for provincial/district/city governments). bnpb / bpbd as the coordinator communicates in preparing action plans that need to be taken especially in the case of an emergency including in preparing the command of all stakeholders in disaster management (perka-bnpb, 2008). specifically in the case of lake tempe flooding, the bpbd at the district level coordinates and communicates with all stakeholders involved without exception, so that disaster management can be carried out quickly, effectively, efficiently and remains targeted. the government organizations involved include the parliament to the organization of technical implementing devices including the military and police as well as the lowest elements of government namely the village/village administration. the government has strong financial support in disaster management through relevant agencies that have prepared budgets for activities in the happening of a disaster (pp-22, 2015). provision of funding is based on regulations on the use of funds. regulatory support is used to mobilize available resources, including personnel and supporting facilities/equipment. the amount of personnel and equipment comes from military support, police and social disaster organizations, including members of the fire brigade and civil service police units (uu-34, 2004; uu-2, 2002; pp-16, 2018). this great support shows the government is a very dominant stakeholder in flood disaster management. in accordance with the mandate of government regulation has the obligation and responsibility to pay attention to disaster victims in each cycle of disaster management in a planned manner. the military, police and satpol pp, and pusdalops (centers for controlling disaster management operations) are government organizations that have a role in providing disaster data and information support related to the flood disaster exposure to lake tempe [19]. the data and information support helps all stakeholders involved can make policies according to the level of disaster. another stakeholder from the government element is the disaster preparedness team that is actively involved with other volunteers to participate in disaster management (perka-bnpb, 2008). 3.1.2. business world the business world gives attention as a form of social obligation to disaster casualties. funding support as an embodiment of corporate social responsibility (csr) and (charity) from entrepreneurs. csr is provided in the form of logistics to disaster affected communities. the business world cooperates with the government in the distribution of aids, although sometimes it also distributes the aids directly to the community. the results of identification of the business world as a stakeholder show that national scale companies up to local businessmen are involved in charity activities around flooded areas. national scale companies pay attention by channeling aid through csr as a form of corporate social responsibility with the environment in which the company is located. local entrepreneurs individually or collectively channel aid in the form of charity. 3.1.3 universities universities conducted many studies on lake tempe. the research was conducted on the physical characteristics and life of the community around lake tempe, so that the general public can understand lake tempe more comprehensively. the universities, which is located in the vicinity of the flood area, also provided assistance, both in the form of phisycal helps and basic needs for disaster casualties. 3.1.4 ngos non-governmental communities (ngos) involved in handling the floodplain of lake tempe were identified from religious communities and other organizations that have a concern for disasters. this communities became volunteers, and provided assistance in the form of equipment and logistics. ngo involvement in disaster management coordinates with the government and other parties. the involvement of ngos was quite large, especially the support of personnel or volunteers. many volunteers were deployed to the location of the flood directly together with other stakeholders. this community in general have been equipped with skills related to disaster tasks so that their existence is considered to be very helpful in managing at every stage of the disaster. 3.1.5 mass media the mass media has a role in the dissemination of information on disasters that occured, both in the form of printed, electronic and 24 internet media. access and dissemination of information related to disasters can open opportunities for disaster casualties to get attention and assistance. internet media, especially social media, is very instrumental in providing information quickly and accurately to other stakeholders. the use of social media was the most effective and efficient means. 3.1.6 affected communities: object or subject? in each stage of the disaster cycle it is always associated with very complex stakeholders (brilly and polic, 2005). the penta helix concept is a mapping of the involvement of external stakeholders. external stakeholders tend to view affected communities as objects worthy of assistance. the results of the research through in-depth interviews, direct observation strengthened by statistical tests showed that stakeholders who have a very strong influence on the disaster management of floodplain of lake tempe flood disasters other than the government are the affected communities themselves. significance test to determine the effect of each stakeholder on disaster management was done by using multiple regression statistical analysis techniques. this analysis technique is called as quantitative data quantification technique which is transformed from quantitative data. quantification was likely to ranking purposes (tashakkori and teddlie, 1998). statistical test results show that 6 (six) mapped stakeholders represent 94.8% of the stakeholders involved. f test results prove that 6 (six) stakeholders that have been mapped jointly influence the management of the floodplain disaster of lake tempe. the results of the t test statistic indicate that the affected communities as stakeholders have a high level of significance and ranks second which influences the management of floodplain of lake tempe after the government (see the attachment of the results of statistical analysis). the statistical test results show that in the management of floodplain of lake tempe, affected communities should not be placed in positions as objects but subjects that must be involved as stakeholders. this finding means that the use of the penta helix concept in stakeholder mapping for the management of the tempe lake flood disaster needs to be updated to six stakeholders namely the government, the private sector, ngos, universities, mass media and affected communities. the placement of affected communities as subjects in flood management is strengthened by the results of research showing the ability of affected communities to adapt to floods that come twice every year. the ability to adapt is a form of social capital. social capital can be identified as "social bonding capital", which is a bond or close feeling between people who are in the same situation. forms of social capital bonding include: (1) family ties; (2) culture, religion, customs and language; (3) livelihoods; (4) social facilities and public services; (5) social norms; (6) legal and customary rules; (7) settlements and (8) have long lived [22]. statistical test results show that 6 (six) mapped stakeholders represent 94.8% of the stakeholders involved. f test results prove that 6 (six) stakeholders who have been mapped jointly influence the management of the flood disaster exposure to lake tempe. the results of the t test statistic indicate that the affected communities as stakeholders have a high level of significance and ranks second which influences the management of lake tempe flood exposure after the government (see the attachment of the results of statistical analysis). the statistical test results show that in the management of lake tempe flood exposure, affected communities should not be placed in positions as objects but subjects that must be involved as stakeholders. this finding means that the use of the penta helix concept in stakeholder mapping for the management of the tempe lake flood disaster needs to be updated to six stakeholders namely the government, the private sector, ngos, universities, mass media and affected communities. affected communities who belongs to the casualties of floods have an independence in managing floods, so that if a "catastrophic" flood comes they are ready to deal with taking various actions at each stage of the disaster. the community does not fully view floods as mere disasters, but as an annual routine that brings blessings to the economic life of the family. the income of the fishing community will increase when the flood arrives. flooding makes lake tempe become more widespread. this condition means the area of fishing becomes wider. flooding also provides an opportunity for fish to develop properly because dry land that has been flooded for several months can provide a large food source for fish. 4. conclusion stakeholders in the concept of the penta helix consist of the government, business world, universities, ngos and the mass media play a role in every stage of disaster management of floodplain of lake tempe. the government is the main stakeholder in the management of floodplain of lake tempe. it was found that there were other stakeholders who played an important role but were not mapped with the concept of penta helix stakeholder analysis, namely affected communities as disaster casualties. disaster casualties are important parts of the disaster management stage, because before other stakeholders are involved disaster casualties have already taken action that needs to be prepared in managing the disasters. affected communities should be part of the solution to the problems caused by flooding. 25 affected communities should not have seen as objects but should be considered as subjects. from the results of qualitative and quantitative data analysis, it was concluded that stakeholder mapping with the concept of penta helix has not been able to comprehensively describe the stakeholders involved in the disaster management of the floodplain of lake tempe. researchers provide recommendations to improve the concept of penta helix to hexa "hexa helix" by adding one stakeholder, the affected community. the new concept of hexa helix stakeholders consists of 6 (six) actors, namely: (1) government; (2) business world; (3) universities; (4) ngos; (5) mass media; and (6) affected communities (see figure 3). the placement of affected communities as the sixth stakeholder because they have the ability to adapt to floods and have a role as the spearhead in flood management. figure 4. new hexa helix stakeholder concept source: research results the results of the statistical analysis (see t test in the appendix table), if arranged based on the value of the t test, then the sequence of stakeholders can be arranged as follows: 1. government 2. affected communities; 3. ngos; 4. business world; 5. mass media; and 6. universities. references 1. r. brugha dan z. varvasovszky, “review article stakeholder analysis: a review,” health policy plan., vol. 15, no. 3, hal. 239–246, 2000. 2. c. billgren dan h. holme, “approaching reality: comparing stakeholder analysis and cultural theory in the context of natural resource management,” land use policy, vol. 25, hal. 550–562, 2008. 3. c. stoney dan d. winstanley, “stakeholding: confusion or utopia? mapping the conceptual terrain,” j. manag. stud., vol. 38, no. 5, hal. 603–626, 2001. 4. r. e. freeman, strategic management: a stakeholder approach. boston: pitman publishing inc., 1984. 5. b. azheri, corporate social responsibility: dari voluntary menjadi mandatory. jakarta: rajawali pers, 2012. 6. s. rowlinson dan y. k. f. cheung, “stakeholder management through empowerment: modelling project success,” constr. manag. econ., vol. 26, no. 6, hal. 611– 623, 2008. 7. a. d. walker, a. shelley, dan l. bourne, “influence, stakeholder mapping and visualisation,” constr. manag. econ., vol. 26, no. 6, hal. 645–658, 2008. 8. j. mohr dan r. spekman, “characteristics of partnership success: partnership attributes, communication behavior, and conflict resolution techniques,” strateg. manag. j., vol. 15, no. 2, hal. 135– 152, 1994. 9. m. reynolds, “(breaking) the iron triangle of evaluation,” ids bull., vol. 46, no. 1, hal. 71–86, 2015. 10. e. sturesson, a. lindmark, dan m. n. roos, collaboration for innovation a study in the oresund region. sweden: lund university libraries, 2009. 11. h. a. muhyi, a. chan, i. sukoco, dan t. herawaty, “the penta helix collaboration model in developing centers of flagship industry in bandung city,” rev. integr. bus. econ. res., vol. 6, no. 1, hal. 412, 2017. 12. a. s. halibas, r. o. sibayan, dan r. l. r. maata, “the penta helix model of innovation in oman: an hei perspective,” interdiscip. j. information, knowledge, manag., vol. 12, hal. 159–172, 2017. 13. uu-24, undang-undang republik indonesia nomor 24 tahun 2007 tentang penanggulangan bencana. indonesia, 2007. 14. perka-bnpb, peraturan kepala bnpb nomor 10 tahun 2008 tentang pedoman komando tanggap darurat. indonesia, 2008. 15. pp-22, peraturan pemerintah republik indonesia nomor 22 tahun 2015 tentang perubahan atas peraturan pemerintah republik indonesia nomor 60 tahun 2014 tentang dana desa yang bersumber dari apbn. indonesia, 2015. 16. uu-34, undang-undang republik indonesia nomor 34 tahun 2004 tentang tentara nasional indonesia. indonesia, 2004. 17. uu-2, undang-undang republik indonesia nomor 2 tahun 2002 tentang kepolisian negara republik indonesia. indonesia, 2002. 18. pp-16, peraturan pemerintah republik indonesia nomor 16 tahun 2018 tentang satuan polisi pamong praja. indonesia, 2018. 26 19. perka-bnpb, peraturan kepala bnpb nomor 15 tahun 2012 tentang pedoman pengendalian operasi penanggulangan bencana (pusdalops-pb). indonesia, 2012. 20. m. brilly dan m. polic, “public perception of flood risks, flood forecasting and mitigation,” nat. hazards earth syst. sci., vol. 5, no. 3, hal. 345–355, 2005. 21. a. tashakkori dan c. teddlie, mixed methodology combining qualitative and quantitative research. usa: sage publications ltd, 1998. 22. r. s. astuti dan a. rachim, “flood exposure of lake tempe in south sulawesi,” adv. soc. sci. educ. humanit. res., vol. 350, no. icispe 2018, hal. 70–74, 2019. appendix of statistical analysis the framework of the conceptual model of statistical analysis testing the results of stakeholder mapping is as follows: figure 5. conceptual model analysis framework source: researcher analysis results the results of multiple regression tests were carried out with the help of spss application version 25. the test results in this research will be explained in the form of: (1) determination coefficient; (2) f test; and the last (3) t test. following are the results of each test: 1. determination coefficient the determination coefficient is to measure how far the ability of the model in explaining the variation of the dependent variable. the following table is the coefficient of determination generated in the research: table 1. model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 0.974 0.948 0.939 0.313 source: research regression analysis 2019 based on the table above it can be seen that the value of r2 is 0.948, this means that of the 6 (six) mapped stakeholders who have represented the stakeholders involved at 94.8%. while there are still other unmapped stakeholders of 5.2% (100% 94.8% = 5.2%). mapped stakeholders are the most dominant stakeholders in the management of floodplain of lake tempe. figure 6. percentage of stakeholder engagement with management of floodplain of lake tempe source: processed from research regression analysis results 2. simultaneous significance test (test f) the f test shows whether all independent variables (6 stakeholders) included in the model have a joint (simultaneous) effect on the dependent variable (disaster management). the results of the f test calculation, in the following table: table 2. simultaneous significance test results (statistical test f) 27 model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regressio n 59.170 6 9.862 100.74 1 0.000 residual 3.230 33 0.098 total 62.400 39 source: research regression analysis 20193. based on anova test or f statistical test, the calculated f value is 100.741 with a probability level of 0.000. the probability is smaller when compared to 0.05, then the regression model can be said to be an independent variable (6 stakeholders) simultaneously (simultaneously) significantly influencing disaster management. 3. partial influences significance test (t test) the t test shows how far the influence of one independent variable (6 stakeholders) individually (partial) in explaining the dependent variable (disaster management). table 3. partial influences significance test (t test) model unstandardized coefficients standardi zed coefficien ts t sig. b std. error beta (constant) 3.780 0.493 7.67 0 0.000 government 0.255 0.030 0.555 8.37 7 0.000 business 0.101 0.028 0.187 3.56 7 0.001 universities 0.035 0.034 0.043 1.01 6 0.317 ngos 0.125 0.034 0.203 3.62 7 0.001 mass media 0.078 0.049 0.065 1.60 8 0.117 affected communities 0.128 0.025 0.243 5.04 3 0.000 source: research regression analysis 2019 t test results indicate the significance value of the mass media and the university does not significantly influence the management of floodplane of lake tempe because of the value (significance level> 0.05). while the government, business world, ngos, and affected communities have a significant influence in the management of lake tempe flooding (significance level <0.05). 78 criminal policy in the management of road traffic accidents yulius harya pamungkas, phd. c. ¹* moch. bakri ² prija djatmika ³ rachmad safa’at ⁴ ¹ brawijaya university, faculty of law, doctoral study program, yulius.fhub@gmail.com *correspondent author. ² brawijaya university, faculty of law, bakri@ub.ac.id ³ brawijaya university, faculty of law, prija.djatmika@ub.ac.id ⁴ brawijaya university, faculty of law, rachman.safaat@ub.ac.id article history: accepted 30 july 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: criminal policy, road traffic accident, management. a b s t r a c t acceleration in modern life requires acceleration, including acceleration on the highway. the accumulation of interests that are centralized on this highway creates a conflict of interest that ends in material loss or loss of life. many road users do not realize that the legal consequences of negligence are categorized as criminal acts because they cause others to suffer. legal politics the issuance of law number 22of 2009 concerning road traffic and transportation as an embodiment of criminal policy to provide legal protection and legal certainty for citizens who are casualties of road traffic accidents. through criminal policy, it is expected that there will be order, smoothness, security in road traffic and legal certainty and legal protection for road users. 1. introduction road traffic and transport is the pulse of the national economy and plays a very strategic role in realizing development and public welfare. this is in line with the aspirations of the indonesian people contained in the opening of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia. the progress of modern transportation supported by well-ordered roads has certainly had an impact on economic development. the increase in the economy has an impact on changes in human life, where everyone has a target of work and time, which requires high mobility, this condition makes everyone use the road in order to fullfill these things. the number of road users on the highway, resulting in conflicts of interest on the highway, so that the behaviour of drivers can be varied, ranging from improper parking, breaking red lights, breaking signs, violating road markings, and the most dangerous is a traffic accident road that brings casualties. so far, the public has not been aware that traffic violations are a type of crime, so that many do violations, and their understanding is limited to being ticketed and paying fines if caught by traffic officers. sudarto, as quoted by suhariyono (2012), said that crime is ”suffering that is deliberately inflicted on people who commit acts that meet certain conditions”. in another book, sudarto said: ”that traditional crime is defined as the misery that is imposed by the state on someone who violates the provisions of the law”. according to moeljanto as quoted in eddy o.s hiariej (2016), criminal law is a part of the entire applicable law in a country, which establishes the basics and regulates the provisions of acts that must not be done, prohibited accompanied by criminal threats for those who commit them. when, and in what cases, those who have violated the prohibition, may be subject to criminal sanctions and in what way criminal prosecution can be carried out. law number 22 of 2009 concerning road traffic and transportation, is a formal legal product in regulating order, smoothness so that the implementation of traffic and road http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 mailto:yulius.fhub@gmail.com http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2944-5623 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7032-9763 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5259-1522 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5246-4171 79 transportation can be carried out safely, securely, orderly, smoothly, and efficiently. this law regulates criminal sanctions for people who commit acts on the road, which results in disorder, non-smoothness and threatens the safety of others. the provisions of criminal provisions for motorists in law number 22 of 2009 concerning traffic and road transportation are regulated in chapter xx concerning criminal provisions, which from articles 273 to article 315 regulates the amount of fines and criminal penalties for everyone who uses the road. criminal arrangements in the provisions of this law are divided into 2 (two) groups, namely groups of violations and criminal groups. the determination of violation groups and crime groups is regulated in article 316, which states, namely: (1) ” the provisions referred to in article 275, article 275 paragraph (1), article 276, article 278, article 279, article 280, article 281, article 282, article 283, article 284, article 285, article 286, article 287 , article 288, article 289, article 290, article 291, article 292, article 293, article 294, article 295, article 296, article 297, article 298, article 299, article 300, article 301, article 302, article 302, article 302, article 303, article 304, article 305, article 306, article 307, article 308, article 309 and article 313 are violations”. (2) ”the provisions referred to in article 273, article 275 paragraph (2), article 277, article 310, article 311 and article 312 are crimes.” in dividing the two groups of criminal acts above, it is clear that the political law on the establishment of law number 22 of 2009 concerning road traffic and transportation, is to impose financial penalties and criminal penalties for everyone who interferes with kamtibcarlantas (security, orderly and traffic smoothness); it is intended that every person who uses the road, get legal protection and certainty by the state. in writing this research, the author will discuss criminal law policies on road traffic accidents. the discussion in this study was carried out with a theoretical and empirical approach. further discussion is described in the following chapter. 2. research method research is a way of developing science and technology. research aims to reveal the truth systematically, methodologically and consistently through the research process. in this research method, normative legal research is used, or also called library legal research, which is legal research conducted by examining primary legal materials and secondary data or library materials. in this study, the approaches used by researchers to address the issue of legal issues is law approach. the approach to the law is to examine all laws and regulations relating to the legal issues being examined. with this approach, consistency and compatibility between one law and other laws or the laws with the basic law or between regulations and laws will be known so that the benefits in providing legal certainty and justice will be known. to be able to answer the issue of legal issues, researchers need research sources in the form of primary and secondary legal materials. primary legal material is legal material consisting of legislation, official records or minutes in the making of laws, and judges' decisions. secondary legal materials are all legal publications which are official documents such as textbooks, legal dictionaries, legal journals and comments on court decisions, which are still related to research material. the legal materials that have been obtained are then administered, compiled, recorded, edited, studied, and extracted, then the materials are examined in accordance with the problem set. primary and secondary legal materials that have been collected, then analyzed and examined, the results of the analysis and study of primary and secondary legal materials become a clue as an answer to the legal problems of this study. 3. results and discussion 3.1. road traffict accident crimes the development of automotive technology that creates modern transportation, on the one hand increases the standard of living of people in mobility, but on the other hand, the frequency of the number of risk of accidents in the use of motorized vehicle transportation has resulted in the number of human lives that are very numerous each year. the number of traffic accident casualties recorded by the national police traffic corps from 2013 to 2015 is relatively large, with an average of 160,000 fatalities per year. in 2017, pt jasa raharja (persero) recorded 121,805 casualties due to traffic accidents. this number is dominated by productive age, which means that many workers have become casualties, which results in other social problems, namely: poverty, displaced children, increasing disability population (disability due to accidents), school dropouts, theft and others. according to kun wahyu wardana (2009), the impact of road traffic accidents on casualties stated, ”that the casualties of road traffic accidents who died in 2006 were 36,000 casualties, which affected 62.5% of the families they lived in being poor, besides that the social and psychological impacts must have been far more serious, when the fate of a wife 80 became a widow or children who have been orphaned by the death of their parents ”. hikmanto juwana (2016), stated, the impact of the impact of road traffic accidents has a social impact, namely: ”in the context of traffic accidents, socio-economic risks which are unavoidable. from a traffic accident, a person can lose his physical ability to do his daily work, so the family left will lose the backbone of the family”. there are factors causing the occurrence of road traffic accidents resulting in the fall of fatalities on the highway caused by various factors. the factors causing these are: individual awareness factor, this factor determines the risk of accidents, the higher awareness in traffic, the number of traffic accidents will decrease. infrastructure factors, this factor is the cause of accidents, namely if many roads are damaged and potholes, it can result in accidents and casualties. negligence factors of apparatus or officers, if the officer assigned to regulate the traffic flow is negligent, resulting in an accident. an example is a train door guard who is negligent in closing a train door when a train is passing which results in an accident. vehicle maintenance factors, vehicles that are not cared for properly have the potential to cause accidents, this occurs because vehicle components that are not suitable for use are still forced to use, so they do not function properly which results in accidents (wardana, 2009). in an effort to prevent road traffic accidents resulting in casualties, the factors that cause accidents must be prevented and anticipated in order to protect other road users to create kamtibcarlantas on the highway, then the enactment of law number 22 of 2009 concerning traffic and transportation roads, forcing everyone not to be the cause of road traffic accidents by avoiding and eliminating the factors causing the accidents above. coercion to road users so as not to be the cause of road traffic accidents is effectively done by giving criminal sanctions to everyone who is the perpetrators of road traffic accidents resulting in casualties or material losses. criminal provisions in accordance with law number 22 of 2009 for perpetrators causing road traffic accidents resulting in losses for other parties are contained in the following articles: a. article 230: ”the traffic accident case as referred to in article 229 paragraph (2), paragraph (3) and paragraph (4) is processed by a criminal justice program in accordance with the provisions of the legislation.” b. article 310: (1) “every person who drives a motorized vehicle due to their negligence resulting in a traffic accident with damage to the vehicle and / or goods as referred to in article 229 paragraph (2), sentenced to a maximum imprisonment of 6 (six) months and / or a maximum fine of rp 1,000.000.00 (one million rupiah).” (2) “every person who drives a motorized vehicle due to their negligence results in a traffic accident with casualties of minor injuries and damage to the vehicle and / or goods as referred to in article 229 paragraph (3), sentenced to a maximum imprisonment of 1 (one) year and / or a fine a maximum of rp. 2,000,000.00 "(two million rupiah).” (3) “every person who drives a motorized vehicle due to his negligence resulting in a traffic accident with a heavy injury casualties as referred to in article 229 paragraph (4), sentenced to a maximum imprisonment of 5 (five) years and / or a maximum fine of rp 10,000,000, 00 (ten million rupiah).” (4) “in the case of an accident as referred to in paragraph (3) which results in the death of another person, sentenced to a maximum imprisonment of 6 (six) years and / or a maximum fine of rp 12,000,000.00 (twelve million rupiah).” the imposition of criminal penalties for perpetrators who cause road traffic accidents as regulated in article 310 paragraph (1), paragraph (2), paragraph (3) and paragraph (4), is a criminal act (see article 316 paragraph 2). this means that the handling and prevention of road traffic accidents must be a priority to reduce the number and provide a law for the perpetrators. other technical arrangements for road traffic violations with criminal law are regulated technically in the regulation of the head of the indonesian national police number: 15 of 2013 concerning procedures for handling traffic accidents, in article 38 states: "the procedure for investigating traffic accidents is carried out in accordance with the criminal procedure act and the provisions of the legislation”. the nature of the above criminal sanctions is to provide protection to other citizens in traffic so that secure, safe, orderly, smooth and integrated road traffic is integrated with other modes of transportation to encourage the national economy, promote public welfare, strengthen the unity and integrity of the nation and able to uphold the nation's dignity as well as the realization of 81 cultured traffic ethics with the goal of manifesting law enforcement and legal certainty for the people. 3.2. criminal law policy in road traffict accidents before discussing the criminal law policy in road traffic accidents, it is necessary to discuss the function of criminal law and criminal purposes. the function of criminal law according to sudarto as quoted from eddy o.s. hiariej (2016), stated that the criminal law function is divided into two namely general functions and special functions. the general function of criminal law is the same as the function of law in general, namely to regulate social life or conduct order to the people, while the special function of criminal law is to protect the legal interest against acts that want to rape them with sanctions in the form of crime. criminal objectives are broadly divided into three, namely absolute theory, relative theory and joint theory. each of these theories is: 1. absolute theory, according to this theory retaliation is the legitimacy of punishment. the state has the right to impose a criminal offense because criminals have committed attacks and rapes on protected legal rights and interests. this theory is also called the theory of retaliation. 2. the relative theory, according to this theory, punishment is for the enforcement of public order and the criminal goal is to prevent crime. 3. combined theory, according to vos, this theory aside from focusing on retaliation, the purpose of the nature of retaliation is needed to protect law order. vos has given equal weight between retaliation and people protection (hieariej, 2016). crime mitigation is not only in the aspect of criminal provision as absolute theory, relative theory and joint theory, but efforts and policies to make good criminal law regulations are essentially inseparable from the purpose of crime prevention, this is called a penal policy or criminal law policy. according to muladi and barda nawawi arief (2010) law enforcement is an embodiment of a criminal sanction as a process of embodying policy. the policy in this case is a criminal law policy consisting of three stages to produce a rational form of law enforcement, namely: 1. stages of determining the penalty by the legislator; 2. the sentence decision stage, by the court; and 3. the execution stage of the sentence by the first execution apparatus. the handling of road traffic accidents if referring to criminal law policy theory, must be started from the first stage, namely the stipulation in the making of laws, this is interpreted at the time of making the law on road traffic, must contain sociopolitical, and sociocultural values; which underlies and gives content to the normative and substantive content of the idealized criminal law, so that the "spirit" of the law really provides a sense of justice in accordance with the culture of its users, which in turn the implementation of this law becomes effective and the people will be orderly traffic on the highway. at this stage the legislator, namely the house of representatives (dpr) and the president must be well aware that the law has a position as a rule of the game for the people to consolidate their political and legal position, to regulate life together in order to realize the goals in the form of the state. the law can also be said as a collection of principles governing government power, people's rights, and the relationship between the two. for this reason, the seriousness of the house of representatives and the government / president in the formation of laws starting from the preparatory stage, the discussion up to the ratification that is believed to be only in the interests of the people, not for personal or group interests, so that after being implemented it can be effective and able to create order and prevent violations and law enforcement. in the second stage, namely the granting or imprisonment by the court, then at this stage every road user who causes a road traffic accident resulting in fatalities and material losses must be subject to criminal penalties, in order to obtain legal certainty and legal protection for the casualties. according to zainal arifin hoesein (2016), the judiciary as an independent and authoritative state power is idealized to be able to carry out its functions. these functions include: 1. as a pressure valve, which means the authority granted by the constitution and laws through the judicial bodies to suppress any action that is contrary to the law, by giving punishment to anyone and any party who commits an unconstitutional violation, namely a violation which is contrary to public order and that violates propriety (violation with the reasonableness). 2. as ultimum remedium, which means as the last place in seeking and upholding truth and justice. 3. as the guardian of people's independence (the guardian of citizens' constitutional rights and human rights), which means that judicial institutions must be able to prioritize the constitutional rights of citizens and human rights. 82 4. as the trustee of the people (judiciary are regarded), meaning that the power of the judiciary is a place of protection and restoration of the original situation for the people who feel violated or disadvantaged by the interests of individuals, groups, and even by the authorities.. 5. court decisions are like the decisions of god (judicium die), this happens as a consequence of the free and independent principles given by the constitution and laws to the judiciary. implementation of the functions of judges in court decisions in handling road traffic accident cases which the author can convey below is in the form of road traffic accident cases from tangerang city district court, where the judge's role in deciding his case considers and promotes justice for the perpetrators and casualties, as follows: table 1. the judge’s decision of road traffic accident cases from tangerang city district court no decision defendant's name chronology of accident number of casualties judge's decision 01 1260 / pid.sus / 2015 / pn tng 25 august 2015 irman ariz bin suprapto defendant is a car driver who crashed into 2 (two) motorcycle riders so that they were injured 3 (three) people were injured and treated in the hospital. criminal imprisonment for 1 (one) year and a fine of rp. 1,000,000, a subsidiary of 1 month in prison 02 590 / pid.sus / 2016 / pn.tng 22 june 2016 sugandi bin armawi defendant is a motorcycle driver in the opposite direction and then crashed into another motorcycle resulting in serious injuries 1 (one) seriously injured person criminal imprisonment for 1 (one) year 03 336 / pid.sus / 2018 / pn.tng 19april 2018 gugun gunardi bin gaston kusnadi defendant driving a car which resulted in a traffic accident, which resulted in another person died 1 (one) person died criminal imprisonment for 1 (one) year 6 months and a fine of rp.5 million, a subsidiary of 3 months in prison considering the judge's decision above, we must assume that the decision is something that is fair and impartial, this is in line with what is stated in article 24 of the 1945 constitution which states; ”judicial power is exercised by a supreme court and the judiciary according to the law”. whereas the explanation of the 1945 constitution concerning judicial power provides an affirmation,”judicial power is an independent power, meaning that it is independent of the influence of government authority”. in this regard, the law must guarantee the position of judges”. according to zainal arifin hoesein (2016), judicial power is one of the state's powers in the field of law and justice based on pancasila which is free / independent from interference from parties of extra judicial. next is the third stage, which is the stage of criminal execution by the first execution apparatus. at this stage the execution apparatus in accordance with article 270 of the criminal procedure code stipulates that the implementation of court decisions that have legal force will still be carried out by the prosecutor. for this reason, the court clerk sends a copy of the decision letter to the prosecutor. in line with the provisions of the criminal procedure code, it is also explained that in article 36 of law no. 4 of 2004 concerning judicial power, that the implementation of court decisions in criminal cases is carried out by prosecutors. in the context of court decisions in road traffic accident cases in accordance with law number 22 year 2009 in article 310 paragraph (1), paragraph (2), paragraph (3) and paragraph (4), the maximum sentence of imprisonment is 6 (six) ) year. procedure for carrying out court decisions regarding imprisonment or confinement, the prosecutor receives a copy of the court's decision from the relevant district court clerk within 1 (one) week for ordinary cases and 14 (fourteen) days for cases with a short event, then the chief prosecutor issues a letter order to execute the court's decision, then hand the convicted person to the penitentiary to be imprisoned. according to iqrak sulihin (2016), the aim of imprisonment is not limited to efforts to imprison perpetrators and frighten the public. according to utilitarianism, the aim of imprisonment is as a form of punishment for crimes that lead to rehabilitation or reform efforts. the theory of utilitranism sees imprisonment as a form of punishment that gives good consequences because when undergoing a crime, lawbreakers are kept away from the people, so they are no longer able to commit violations further. according 83 to zimring and hawkins, as quoted from iqrak (2016), preventing crime through imprisonment is done by limiting the certainty of individuals in expressing their preferences. this basic aim also influences the principles of imprisonment in many countries. imprisonment only deprives individuals of their freedom of movement, and imprisonment should not make conditions for prisoners worse than before being convicted. based on the above matters, the criminal law policy in the field of road traffic accidents is very strategic in repeating the emergence of road traffic accidents, as well as the fall of futile victims on the highway. the number of death tolls every year is around 30,000, which must be stopped not only through repressive measures, but criminal law policy has great importance. therefore, it can be said that criminal law policy has an ultimate goal and its main goal is protection for the people, to achieve people's welfare. according to sudarto as quoted in barda nawawi arief, said that if criminal law is to be involved in overcoming negative aspects of the development to the people / modernization (including crime), then it should be seen in the overall relationship of criminal law policy and this must be an integral part of national development plan. 4. conclusions the results of writing conducted by the authors in this study, several conclusions that can be submitted are: 1. the issuance of law number 22 year 2009 concerning traffic and road transportation is aimed at realizing traffic services and secure, safe, orderly, smooth transportation services, so as to create a cultured traffic ethic as well as law enforcement and legal certainty for the people. 2. law number 22 year 2009 concerning road traffic and transport is a product of criminal law policy, which aims to prevent criminal violations, law enforcement, tackling criminal acts and protecting people to achieve social welfare. 3. criminal law policy has three stages to produce rational forms of law enforcement, namely: a. stages of determining the penalty by the legislator; b. the sentence decision stage, by the court; and; c. the execution stage of the sentence by the first execution apparatus. d. that criminal law policy has an ultimate goal, and its main goal is protection for the people to achieve people's welfare. 5. suggestions the results of the writing of this study, the authors provide suggestions as input for relevant parties, namely: 1. countermeasures, enforcement, and prevention of criminal acts that harm others and the state, are not always determined from the deterrence effect with the threat of punishment and imprisonment, but are determined by how criminal law policies are applied so that they can become rational law enforcement tools. 2. the stages of criminal law policy according to muladi and barda nawawi arief can be used as a reference by the government in preparing for the birth of a law with the ultimate goal being law enforcement, legal prevention and legal action. 3. criminal law policy becomes more effective in creating public order and protecting the people. 4. future arrangements are needed for people who cause road traffic accidents that have been found guilty by the court, with the imposition of criminal penalties in the form of providing financial losses to the victim in the amount of cost of living for the victim's family for one year, the amount of which is determined by the court. references 1. arief, b.n. (2002). kebijakan hukum pidana. bandung, pt. citra aditya bakti. 2. hiariej,e.o.s. (2016). principles of criminal law. yogyakarta: cahaya atma pustaka. 3. hoesein, z.a. (2016), judicial power in indonesia, first matter. malang, setara press. 4. juwana, h. (2016). accident social security as a form of state presence. jakarta, spora consultant. 5. muladi and barda nawawi arief. (2010), criminal theories and policies. bandung, pt alumni. 6. suhariyono. (2012), renewal of fine penalty in indonesia, jakarta: papas sinar sinanti. 7. sulihin, i. (2016). punitive penological discontinuity, a genealogical analysis of imprisonment. jakarta, kencana. 8. wardana, k.k.w. (2009). insurance law, bandung, mandar maju. laws/regulations 9. the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia. 10. law of the republic of indonesia number 22 of 2009, regarding traffic and road transportation, publisher: ditlantas babinkam polri. 11. regulation of the head of the indonesian national police number 15 of 2013 concerning procedures for handling traffic accidents. references prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 72 the kosovo war in media: between war journalism and foreign policy of nato members festim ri̇zanaj, phd candidate anadolu university festimrizanaj@anadolu.edu.tr abstract significant links between the media and war have been identified for well over a century. media often plays a key role in today’s conflict. basically, their role can take two different and opposed forms. either the media takes an active part in the conflict and has responsibility for the increased violence, or stays independent and out of the conflict, thereby contributing to the resolution of conflict and alleviation of violence. indeed, throughout the yugoslav crisis of the 1990s, it often seemed that the media were dictating policy to western governments. the implications of the conflict were broad and did not exhaust themselves in its military aspects. a key player in the conflict was the media, both the tightly controlled media in yugoslavia, which came under increasing pressure in the months before the kosovo war, and the western media, largely unaware of the background to the conflict. the aim of this work is to show the media coverage on the kosovo war. although, how much influenced the foreign policies of states that have to find the solutions? the study includes the research done on balkans (including turkey), european and american press. keywords: kosovo war, balkans press, european press, us press, foreign policy. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 73 1. introduction in the kosovo conflict, three sides were clearly involved: the serbs, the kosovo albanians, and nato. though the nominal appearance of various political, cultural, and interest positions, there were striking resemblances among western media, which clearly indicates that the media can be considered as a single, specific element of the conflict (blagojević, 2005: 166). the media have played a huge role here; this was one of the real times that the media had a moral impact on western leaders and their states, and vice versa, which was what the albanian freedom-fighters wanted. this was the time when human rights and values were to be noted, as always, putting pressure on international leaders to act. later, the leaders began to condemn the attacks by serbian security forces in the unarmed albanian population resulting in nato intervention to stop serbian genocide against the albanian population in kosovo and to stop the second srebrenica occurring. nato’s press relations budget for the serbia/kosovo operation was between 50 and 60 million belgian francs; at 1999 exchange rates that was about £882,252. its chief press spokesman, jamie shea, reveals that rather than bidding for a supplementary public relations budget he “raided the existing budget”. most of the money went towards equipping a press centre adequate to the needs of the international media presence in brussels for the duration of the air campaign. this was what he had been “begging for years for” to no avail “but which had suddenly become instantaneously and miraculously available during the air operation (mclaughlin, 2002: 262). up to seven months before nato troops entered kosovo, western international broadcasters predicted a crisis in their reports. they increased broadcasting time and expanded their reach in the balkans. they pulled out all the stops, moving well beyond their traditional shortwave transmissions: they leased more time on medium wave transmitters, and organized or expanded internet text, audio and video delivery services and e-mail exchanges in serbian and albanian to reach the estimated half-million personal computers in the former yugoslavia; they began construction of several fm stations in countries neighboring serbia. in this, the voice of america (voa), the british broadcasting corporation (bbc), radio free europe/radio liberty (rfe/rl), deutsche welle of germany (dw) and radio france international (rfi) launched an unprecedented joint project during an international crisis—two 24-hour-a-day satellite feeds of their individual programs to the stations. both around-the-clock streams were tailored for balkan audiences, but one was dominated by serbian, the other albanian-language transmissions; they expanded downlinks of tv (voa’s serbian and bosnian simulcasts, available in successive half-hour programs each weekday evening from 11 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 74 to midnight, local time) via astra satellites. these programs reached direct to homes, independent of terrestrial in-country tv stations on which president milosevic had banned foreign relays; at full throttle, the western international broadcasters provided vital news and information to listeners in the balkans around the clock for nearly 250 hours a week. even under the information blackout and crackdown against universities, their programming reaches remote corners of the former yugoslavia. unlike cnn, their words are borne on electronic wings in the languages of the people at or near the center of the conflict: in albanian, bosnian, croatian, macedonian, and serbian (heil, 1999). kosovo war is important for patients to be witnessing one of the first examples of cyberwar in the world. when the kosovo crisis erupted in 1999, there were almost 4000 journalists at the scene, many of them independent freelancers. philip knightley in book “the first casualty: the war correspondent as hero and myth-maker from the crimea to kosovo” asserted that there were more war correspondents than ever before, as “2700 media people accompanied nato forces when they entered kosovo at the end of the bombing campaign (cited by bessaiso, 2010: 55). a new development also made kosovo the first internet war. beyond the battle area, anyone with a computer could broadcast their views to a global audience from the comfort of their homes. there is a need to place this development in some historical context since there were television cameras in korea during the 1950-53 war, but very few people had television sets at that time. vietnam, often erroneously labeled the ‘first television war’, was only ten years later. the gulf war was the first real-time war. by the time of kosovo, around 8% of the world’s population had logged on to the world wide web, mainly in europe and north america. the internet was to kosovo, therefore, what television was to korea. although ultimately the internet was less significant than the traditional mass media during the kosovo conflict, to repeat (taylor, 2003: 5). according to bucher, internet changes and improves crisis communication. crisis communication becomes multi-directional, more intercultural. if you compare coverage of the gulf war and recent events in afghanistan with the coverage of kosovo war the differences are obvious: the lack of internet resources in the first two cases was caused by a televisioncentered crisis communication with a high dependency on military information. in the case of the kosovo war, there were internet-based information sources right where the war was occurring, from e-mail to web sites, all of which reported as private correspondence and eyewitnesses. this multidirectional form of crisis communication allowed the audience to compare and evaluate different sources and to understand better the biases of official information (bucher, 2002). thanks to the internet, therefore, the fog of war' in kosovo merely prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 75 got thicker. for the serbs, and accordingly for the 19 nato countries they faced, the kosovo conflict was to the internet what the korean war was to television. nato's, performance was such that it will need to ensure! that its next conflict, if there is one, does not become another vietnam (taylor, 2000: 200). what comes out of it is a picture of the world in which contemporary wars and modern news media attract each other. in this process, the media become an integral part of the wars. they play a complex role in the conduct and pursuit of wars, which can’t be limited to simply being observers of events. they have become participants and even catalysts in international crises. the main aspect of media involvement in wars is the relationship between media coverage of wars and the crisis in creating foreign policy. 2. background of the kosovo war kosovo was an autonomous region in the former yugoslavia, which has struggled for its independence ever since it was annexed to serbia in the early twentieth century. both sides of the kosovo conflict—the serbs and the kosovo albanians—have historic claims for kosovo. albanians claim to be direct descendants of the illyrians, the earliest known inhabitants of kosovo, while the serbs claim that kosovo was part of the original serbian kingdom and the cradle of their civilization. whatever the historic claims are, the undeniable fact is that the kosovo albanians comprised about 90% of the total kosovo population when the disintegration of yugoslavia and the collapse of communism in the former socialist countries started in the late 1980s. both the domestic and international political situations became favorable for the kosovo albanians’ independence cause. in order to bring kosovo under the direct control and to strengthen his personal political power, serbia's nationalist leader, slobodan milosevic, deprived kosovo of its autonomy in 1989. the kosovo albanians strenuously opposed the revocation of its autonomy and struggled for independence. with the change of time and actual situation, kosovo albanians’ passive resistance was replaced by violent reaction. in 1998, milosevic responded to the armed albanian resistance w ith a campaign of ethnic cleansing, which caused wide international concern. in march of 1999, the confrontation between serb forces and albanians reached the peak of violence as tens of thousands of people fled from their homes from serbian military ransacking cities and villages through kosovo (yang, 2003: 234). this eventually lead to nato intervening to end the ethnic cleansing, which was compared to the holocaust of world war ii. nato initiated an airstrike where they began bombing areas where serb military were prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 76 camped out. on june 5, 1999 nato and the former republic of yugoslavia came to an agreement to ceasefire. the pretext for nato intervention was that kosovo was experiencing a humanitarian catastrophe from serbian aggression. the problem with military interventions is that they often serve more than one objective. one of these objectives, but not necessarily primary, is restoring respect for the existing humanitarian norms. one of the main reasons that nato intervened in the kosovo crisis is that nato is preparing to celebrate its fiftieth anniversary an opportunity to determine the alliance's vision for its future role. according to jing ke, underlying the kosovo war is the us global strategy of setting a new world order after the cold war, where the us and nato would have a free hand to protect their interests, ideological values, and credibility. before the war, nato used the threat of force. both serb and kosovo delegations were summoned to rambouillet, france, for the so-called “political negotiation.” the nonnegotiable rambouillet accords was rejected by serbia because the acceptance would mean the loss of sovereignty of the state (ke, 2008: 158). the following is part of the stipulations in appendix b of the rambouillet accords: “nato personnel, under all circumstances and at all times, shall be immune from the parties, jurisdiction in respect of any civil, administrative, criminal, or disciplinary offenses which may be committed by them in the fry. nato personnel shall enjoy, together with their vehicles, vessels, aircraft, and equipment, free and unrestricted passage and unimpeded access throughout the fry including associated airspace and territorial waters (rambouillet accords, 1999)”.1 it is clear that the us and its allies were not interested in negotiation. what they truly wanted was to get rid of milosevic and gain control of the balkan peninsular. behind the well-intentioned purpose of the humanitarian intervention in the kosovo war lies the unspeakable western geopolitical strategy (ke, 2008: 159). 3. us press and kosovo war the biggest effect of the „cnn effect‟ is the agenda-setting effect. the media affects the agenda by identifying a certain issue as a priority and push the policy-makers towards dealing with that issue prior to the other issues. there are some other effects of the cnn effect, which come secondary after the agenda-setting effect. these effects are the accelerant effect, the impediment effect, the propaganda effect, and the challenging effect. the accelerant effect 1 the rambouillet accords (feb. 23, 1999) is also called rambouillet agreement. its full name is interim agreement for peace and self-goverment in kosovo. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 77 accelerates the process of decision-making, of the government, by putting public pressure. even if something is happening in a country far away from the audience of the cnn, the media can present an issue as a priority, as existential to human rights values, and this will make public pressure to the government to take immediate decisions to stop atrocities and respond to the injustice. this usually happens with 24-hour coverage of the issue (bahador, 2007: 5761). in article examines the coverage of nato’s bombing of yugoslavia in march–june 1999 by the global television news organization, the cable news network (cnn), daya kishnu thussu argues that nato’s precedent-setting action — the first conflict in which the world’s most powerful military alliance intervened in the internal affairs of a sovereign state — was reported uncritically and presented by cnn as a humanitarian intervention. television pictures tended to follow the news agenda set up by the us military. few alternative views were aired and, most importantly, a fundamental change in the nature of nato — from a defence alliance to an offensive peace-enforcing organization — was largely ignored (thussu, 2000: 345). according to thussu, the war was presented as a humanitarian emergency, the last resort when all other diplomatic options had been exhausted. by giving a large proportion of news time to us military commanders, nato spokespersons and generally hawkish ‘independent’ experts, cnn tended to legitimize the bombing. though yugoslav and serbian leaders were given an opportunity to put across their point, the time allotted to such views was very limited. this was also the case in cnn’s analysis and comment program insight and the special extended worldview reports. the majority of the experts interviewed — both military and civilian — supported the nato action, arguing that the alliance was the best guarantee for peace in europe. cnn, like other mainstream western media organizations, presented the bombing as a moral crusade against a tyrant. the demonization of the serbs and the personalization of the conflict with slobodan milosevic was a continuation of eight years of western reporting of serbs as the main perpetrator of what has been routinely called ‘ethnic cleansing’. the kla, which in 1998 was labeled as a terrorist organization by the us government and by a leading us-based human rights group, running its operations with profits from international drug smuggling, was transformed by cnn into an army of ‘freedom fighters’ (thussu, 2000: 350351). instead of only checking and analyzing what was presented by the newspapers on issues related to the kosovo crisis, the study of jing ke about us press pays more attention to what was not reported or was only rarely reported and presented to the public by these two papers. from this unique perspective, the essay attempts to examine the objectivity of the american prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 78 newspapers through the washington post and the washington times, and the correctness of the theory on the social construction of reality (ke, 2008: 157). neither of the two selected papers presented a clear political slant in their reports on the kosovo conflict. both published articles questioning nato’s intention of intervention and the legitimacy of nato’s military means and operations during the war. on the other hand, both presented reports showing their pro-nato attitude because nato’s intervention was generally perceived as an attempt to put an end to the humanitarian crisis in kosovo. however, a closer look could help us see the fact that the post reported on the kosovo war more neutrally than the times. the post presented only two articles criticizing nato, but neither aimed to accuse the us democratic party or the clinton administration for the us involvement in nato’s kosovo intervention. the times published five articles reporting negatively on the us government and nato, where sometimes a strong political slant could be easily sensed. this may explain to some extent why the post has a larger audience (ke, 2008: 167-168). one more study that is worth mentioning is richard vincent’s (2000) “a narrative analysis of u.s. press coverage of slobodan milosevic and the serbs in kosovo,” where he noted the four themes that captured journalistic attention: (a) serbs as terrorists, (b) serbs as evil, (c) milosevic as a dictator, and (d) kosovo refugees as fearful victims of milosevic and serbs (vincent, 2000: 325-326). this article is an exploratory analysis of the linguistic treatment of the kosovo bombing and related events as reported in the major us media. it studies the national news reported by nine different news media during one-week period, 2228 april 1999. this was the period about midway through the nato bombing activity in kosovo. the specific media analysed were: the newspapers christian science monitor, los angeles times, new york times, and washington post; the news agency associated press (ap); and television and cable news channels abc, cbs, cnn and msnbc (vincent, 2000: 321-322). the resulting data pool comprised 645 separates stories on kosovo identified across the eight-individual media during the one week. (vincent, 2000: 325). bahador`s study about us media included, in research made in begin, the main television evening news programs of four major american networks—american broadcasting company (abc), columbia broadcasting system (cbs), national broadcasting company (nbc), and cable news network (cnn)—were reviewed from january 1, 1998 to march 20, 1999, the final week before nato bombing. the kosovo conflict of 1998–1999 was covered on american television news for the first time on march 2, 1998, in 3 minutes and 30 seconds of collective coverage on cnn, abc, and cbs, although images of the incident in the drenica area did not emerge until march 5. from the week that began on march 1, 1998, to the final prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 79 full week before the nato intervention (a period of 55 weeks or 385 days), there was 1,061 minutes and 50 seconds of total kosovo coverage, representing 3 percent of all american television news over this period.2 in periods immediately after the three massacre incidents, however, there was much greater coverage. in the two weeks (14 days) after images of the incidents first surfaced, for example, the average coverage per day was 8 minutes —almost three times the daily average (5 minutes and 40 seconds average after drenica, 12 minutes and 30 seconds average after gornje obrinje, and 6 minutes average after racak). although these three two-week periods after the massacres represented 10.9 percent of the total period reviewed, they accounted for 32 percent of the total kosovo television coverage. in the fourweek (28-day) periods after the massacres, which accounted for 21.8 percent of the time, media coverage was 48 percent of the total coverage. in other words, these three incidents accounted for nearly half of all media coverage (bahador, 2007: 90-91). the evidence reviewed in this case study demonstrates that the cnn effect, as defined and qualified in this study, was one of the influencing factors behind nato’s decision to intervene militarily in kosovo. each incident opened a window of opportunity in which policy shifted incrementally toward military intervention. in fact, the case study show that the cnn effect was only one-factor pressuring policy toward intervention. other variables relating to the actual fighting in kosovo and its consequences on civilians also contributed. these other drivers, which garnered limited or no media coverage, were the basis for more traditional government driven actions that, in some cases, were followed by media coverage (bahador, 2007: 163-165). hammond and peterson, in their study about cnn’s wartime coverage, concluded that in word usage, assumptions, and choice and treatment of issues and sources, cnn and its reporters on the kosovo war followed nato’s lead and served as a de facto public-information partner. these journalists never questioned nato’s motives, explored any hidden agendas, challenged nato’s claims of fact, or followed investigatory leads that did not conform to nato propaganda requirements. cnn’s journalists not only followed nato’s agenda and failed to ask critical questions, they also served as salespersons and promoters of the nato war (hammond & peterson, 2000: 113-114). overall, cnn served as nato’s de facto public information arm during operation allied force. despite its pretensions to being a ‘global’ enterprise, its news-making was not significantly different from that of its us media rivals. 2 there was an estimated 40,425 minutes of television news coverage over this period. (one hour on cnn and 30 minutes each on abc, cbs, and nbc. if this number is then divided by the 1,061 minutes and 50 seconds devoted to the kosovo civil war, an estimated three percent of all american news coverage over this period was devoted to the issue. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 80 any effort at being ‘open’ and ‘balanced’ was overwhelmed by its reporters’ internalized acceptance of nato’s aims, language, and frames of reference. nato’s basic truthfulness was assumed, and its spokespersons given command of the floor. although immensely successful at reaching a large audience with ‘breaking news’, cnn broke the news that nato wanted featured and rarely departed from nato’s perspective (hammond & peterson, 2000: 120). the study of jin yang, using a frame analysis technic, compares the way in which chinese media, represented by the people’s daily online and the china daily, and us media, represented by the new york times and washington post, covered the nato air strikes in 1999. the content analysis of 200 news stories reveals that chinese newspapers and us newspapers adopted two different media frames in recounting the large-scale military action. while the chinese newspapers framed the air strikes as an intervention of yugoslavia’s sovereignty and territory, the us newspaper framed the air strikes as a humanistic aid to albanians to stop the ethnic cleansing initiated by serbians. the general corresponding reflections of government attitudes toward the air strikes in the newspapers indicate a considerable influence of national interest on media frames in newspapers. the author concludes that in international news reportage, national interest often outweighs other factors to play an active role in framing media texts (yang, 2003: 231).3 yang concluded that, the chinese government’s stand of respecting yugoslavia’s sovereignty and territorial integrity and solving the kosovo crisis through peaceful and political negotiations was echoed in almost all the aspects of media framing. through selecting protest and condemnation topics and omitting ethnic cleansing and refugee topics, the chinese papers focused on challenging the nato air strikes. by choosing chinese and russian sources most of the time, the chinese papers adopted serbian points of view more often than the us papers. the antistrike attitude was also mirrored in using more anti-strike terms and displaying more emotion-charged headlines. hence, it was reasonable to conclude that chinese newspaper coverage reflected the chinese government’s reaction to the air strikes. the chinese newspapers presented to the chinese audience a frame of the nato intervention in the federal republic of yugoslavia’s internal affairs by force. on the other hand, the us newspapers, by giving more focus on the topics of air war updates and strategy/tactics/weapons, took the justice of the air strike action for granted. by using american and nato sources most of the time, the us papers covered 3 the official declarations from china and the us on the issue of kosovo exhibited two strikingly different national interests. while china upheld the principle of sovereignty, the us believed europe’s security, therefore its own security, had to be defended by providing humanistic aid to the albanians in kosovo (yang, 2003: 235). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 81 stories from the albanian point of view more frequently. the pro-strike attitude was also reflected in the usage of more pro-strike terms than the chinese papers. therefore it was legitimate to conclude that the way in which the us stories were framed corresponded to the us government’s stand in the crisis: the action of nato air strikes was in support of justice for the albanians to stop an ethnic cleansing. therefore, the american public was exposed to a different media frame than the chinese public (yang, 2003: 244-245). one main media framing technique includes comparing the current event to previous events that are similar. the kosovo war was not exempt from these generalizations and were frequently compared to the holocaust and vietnam war. when comparing the kosovo war to the holocaust opinion leaders framed the need for intervention from western countries. “if, for instance, the kosovo crisis were successfully portrayed through direct or indirect allusions as another holocaust, the imperative of stopping a genocide would lend support to some kind of american intervention in kosovo” (paris, 2002: 425). the same was done when comparing the kosovo war to the vietnam war, “if the crisis were viewed as another vietnam or as a civil war in which the united states had no clear national interest, unpleasant memories of the vietnam conflict would likely produce countervailing pressures against intervention” (paris, 2002: 425). these comparisons were used by such news outlets and discussed on national television in united states by influential opinion leaders. making such references and metaphors provided the public to activate conscious and subconscious, rational and emotional responses to these other current events, due to strong emotions that are associated with american intervention of the vietnam war, thus swaying the public opinions on the kosovo war (paris, 2002: 447-448). in other words, the kosovo war may not be a new holocaust, but it should be thought as a similar event where international intervention would be necessary. these are the statements and comparisons that have been repeatedly made by the clinton administration, as well as by other politicians and leaders in the media. 4. coverage of european press in infosuasion in european newspapers; a case study on the war in kosovo, rosella savarese examined the orientation of the european press during kosovo by means of the `infosuasion' (persuasive information) and media logic hypotheses; analyzing a selection of ten european newspapers, with the biggest circulation, to see how the conflict's participants were presented. two newspaper from each country (france, the uk, italy, spain and germany) were selected, one known as being conservative and the other as being liberal. the conservative prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 82 papers were le figaro, the times, il corriere della sera, abc and die welt. as examples of the liberal press were chosen; le monde, the guardian, la repubblica, el pais and frankfurter rundschau. savarese found the guardian was similar to the times, in that they were characterized by a balancing of opinions, particularly in comparison to the spanish newspapers, el pais and abc, who savarese found to be extremely partisan in their support for the nato campaign. savarese found there was a strong narrative scheme in the british papers, and that nato was seen as heroes and the serbs as anti-heroes, with nato's main value objects being a democracy, equality, liberty, independence and cultural independence, while the latter were authoritarianism, justice, peace, and nationalism. savarese found that in the non-spanish newspapers: `half the authors of the articles, although not necessarily journalists, declared themselves to be against intervention in as much as they believe that the operation is not (in this order) successful, or rapid, or effective, or necessary, or indispensable,' with the other half in favor of action for the opposite reasons. the author thought that those against the action either believed the serbs were legitimately defending their rights in kosovo; were worried that russia and china might enter the war on the serbs' side, or believed that diplomacy should have been used. those in favor of the nato campaign emphasized the fact that human rights had been violated; milosevic was authoritarian, and that the un had been blocked from taking action by vetoes. savarese did not find any distinct differences between the coverage of liberal and conservative newspapers across the different countries, (savarese, 2000: 369-379) and there was more difference found between the different countries' coverage. stig a. nohrsetedt, sophia kaitatzi-whitlock, rene ottosen and kristina riegert looked at the coverage of the first three days of the nato air strikes in newspapers from four countries: the daily telegraph from the uk, ta nea from greece, aftenposten from norway, and dagens nyheter from sweden.4 the focus is on the degree to which the propaganda image of the conflict laid out by president clinton in his speeches on 23 and 24 march, when the first air attacks were launched, was also present in the european media, and also to what extent it was criticized and opposed. this is accomplished by comparing daily newspapers discourse in this countries in terms of their construction of the following themes: (1) the clinton speeches; (2) the image of milosevic; (3) the consequences of the air attacks; and (4) the positioning of 4 of the countries included in this study, two – norway and the uk – took active part in the nato operations, but the former only to a minor extent (they supplied fighter planes for support, but were not involved in the actual bombings) while the uk was a major contributor (involved in the bombing campaign as well as in propaganda activities). greece, neighboring the conflict area, was one of the nato members not involved in the military operations, and promoted a political and diplomatic solution. sweden as non-aligned country did not participate in the nato operations in any way. as an eu member the swedish government stood behind the eu declaration on the kosovo conflict, but did not take a position on the military operations (nohrstedt et al., 2000: 388-389). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 83 the home country, i.e. the median country. the analysis found that the daily telegraph differed from the other papers because it depicted tony blair as the dominant nato leader, rather than bill clinton. the daily telegraph was also found to have followed clinton and blair in personalizing the war around milosevic more than the other papers and blamed him for all the troubles in the balkans over the previous ten years. the analysts concluded that only ta nea consistently questioned the nato discourse. their research also found that the daily telegraph did not question the legality of the nato air strikes as much as the other papers; criticized the bombing most for its lack of efficiency and discussed whether ground troops were the answer much more than the other three papers. in general terms and with respect to two central elements in clinton’s speeches, i.e. (1) the necessity of the bombings to make milosevic stop ethnic cleansing and (2) that the responsibility for the hostilities lies solely with milosevic, the nato/us propaganda view was privileged and even reinforced by the dailies from norway, sweden and the uk in our sample. in one instance — the association between milosevic and hitler as indicated by clinton — is even further elaborated on by the media. a third element, i.e. the peace-enforcing objective of the nato involvement, is on the whole uncritically promoted in the british and norwegian dailies, but strongly questioned in the swedish and the greek newspapers. the greek daily, however, is the only one in the sample where the nato/us discourse is directly countered by a predominantly critical discourse entirely questioning its rationality and legitimacy (nohrstedt, kaitatzi-whitlock, ottosen, & riegert, 2000: 391-401). when we look in british press exanimated by hammond, british newspaper except for the independent on sunday took a pro-war line in its editorial column, there were, broadly speaking, two types press support for the nato attack. politically conservative newspapers, such as the times, telegraph, express and daily mail, voiced their customary stout support for the british military. at the same time, however, these papers expressed a certain caution about the wisdom and goals of nato action, particularly in the early days of the war. for the daily mail’s leader-writer, it surely came naturally to emphasize ‘unequivocal support’ for the british and nato armed forces (25 march). by contrast, for the more liberal section of the press, particularly the guardian and independent, to whom a pro-military stance is not such a traditional reflex response, it was nato’s proclaimed moral mission which captured the imagination. with the help of the media, blair created a temporary ‘national moral purpose’ over kosovo. taking their cue from his talk of good versus evil, many journalists celebrated the bombing as a just war for victims of oppression, simplifying and distorting the reality of prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 84 the conflict. as the christian crusades needed the infidel, blairite moral crusading requires antisocial barbarians who must be taught about tolerance, by violence if necessary (hammond, 2000: 124-130). the conflict in kosovo was given priority by the bbc, which had established a presence in pristina a year prior to the outbreak of the conflict. the coverage of the nato bombing was the largest logistical media operation mounted by the bbc. by the time kfor troops entered kosovo on 13 june 1999, there was an estimated 60-70 bbc personnel on the ground in pristina. the journalists agreed that the kosovo conflict represented a much more sophisticated approach to media management than in previous conflicts involving great britain. there was less overt censorship and control, instead, there was an ever-increasing flow of information: more press briefings, better ‘stage-managed’ events, (i.e., the ‘interview of the day’), more special off-the-record-briefings, than ever before (riegert, 2003: 112-117). on bbc news, bombing of kosovo was reported as ‘the sound of angels’ (pilger, 2000: 132). the microstructural analysis demonstrated that nato’s aims, justifications, and motives remain unquestioned by the british media. the time spots covered four days before the initiation of the bombing and three days into the bombing, where such aims and motives should be most prominent. the analysis of the macrostructure of the british press and television demonstrated some typical differences between the media. television focused on the action: nato going into battle, the flight of kosovo albanian refugees and the reaction in belgrade (riegert, 2003: 131). french media coverage of the kosovo crisis was the continuation of a crusade begun over bosnia, in which ideological suppositions excluded unwelcome facts and indignation silenced questioning. the leading role in shaping the french attitude toward the yugoslav conflicts has unquestionably been played by the newspaper le monde whose influence is perhaps without equivalent in any other country as the newspaper of the mandarins. in france, an intellectual is sometimes defined as a person who reads le monde. in government ministries, universities, in all the places where ‘public opinion’ is developed, people read le monde, or libération, and the weekly, le nouvel observateur. and they watch television. all these media purvey the same center-left apology for neoliberalism (johnstone, 2000: 141). german reporting on the nato, according to thomas deichmann, war was no better than elsewhere in the west. there were exceptional journalists who attempted to give a balanced picture, but they were scarcely heard. what people remembered afterward was largely the onesided condemnation of the serbs. although questions were raised about the devastating effects of nato bombing, criticism was limited to the conduct of the war; its legitimacy was rarely prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 85 called into question. for the most part, the media parroted official justifications of the war and even offered arguments and rhetoric of their own to legitimize the air strikes. german politicians claimed nato was not waging a war but defending human rights and attempting to thwart a genocide milosevic had long planned. such claims were not only repeated uncritically but actively promoted by journalists who were openly partisan (deichmann, 2000: 153-154). toward the end of the war, reporting was focused around fischer’s diplomatic efforts to resolve the conflict. unimpressed, nato meanwhile escalated the bombing day after day. in this respect, german coverage deviated from that in the us and britain. while the german media stimulated hopes for an immediate end to the air war, cnn, for example, offered a more realistic analysis. meetings between fischer and russian negotiators were much reported in germany but were often not even worth mentioning in the american media. the spotlight on fischer’s diplomacy corresponded to a change in strategy in the german foreign office, which was reflected immediately in media reports (deichmann, 2000: 161). in the phd thesis made by margit viola wunsch on the german press making quantitative comparisons in five daily newspapers, namely die welt, frankfurter allgemeine zeitung, frankfurter rundschau, die tageszeitung, bild-zeitung, der spiegel, junge freiheit, konkret and allgemeine jüdische wochenzeitung concluded that coverage was high due to nato intervention during the kosovo war, which could be attributed to the deployment of german soldiers in active combat for the first time since world war ii, which transformed a conflict external to one of the inner importance. according to wunsch the selection of primary sources for this thesis was construed to allow a broad comparison of discourses ranging from extremeleft to extreme-right. further qualitative conclusions can be drawn with regard to the four larger themes which have been traced throughout the entire thesis. firstly, the changing perceptions of the german press regarding the serbian president slobodan milošević and who was to blame for the conflicts; secondly, how the armed forces, including the yugoslav peoples’ army and the kosovo liberation army were presented in the german press; thirdly, the persistent presence of the second world war in the press’ reporting, as well as the holocaust and how they shaped the press’ interpretation of the violence; and lastly, how germany’s role in the region was evaluated by the national press – both in the realms of diplomacy and military intervention (wunsch, 2012: 314-319). starting with the first theme, the near-exclusive focus on milošević during the kosovo conflict partially stemmed from his role in the preceding war in bosnia and especially the srebrenica massacre. this underlines the influence of the bosnian war on the journalists’ interpretation of the violence in kosovo. the second theme, one-sided focus on the serbian prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 86 forces was mirrored in the coverage of the initial violence in kosovo, which embellished kla’s belligerence. indeed some publications displayed a tendency to ‘spare’ the kla by explaining their actions with the kosovo-albanian civilian suffering. however, a few months later, in early 1999, the kla was portrayed perhaps more realistically as an organized, heavilyarmed force, especially in pictures. the third theme traced throughout this thesis, namely the presence of the second world war in the german press coverage revealed an interesting interplay between the war itself and the collective memory of the holocaust as well as its influence on the foreign political debate. on the one hand, the second world war continuously influenced the german press’ word-choice in reporting on the wars in bosnia and kosovo. while in the reporting on kosovo, ‘concentration camps’ and ‘genocide’ were used regularly, even when the terms were inaccurate or blatantly wrong in some cases (wunsch, 2012: 319322). media discourses in sweden and norway, according to höijer, nohrstedt, & ottosen, were equally occupied by the fate of the civilian population and their suffering due both to terror on the ground and to the nato air attacks. in other respects, the norwegian and swedish media discourses differed. the authors concluded that in particular, the nato bombing operations were initially given remarkably opposite coverage, but later the two media discourses converged towards a rather critical image. from the start, the media in norway, the nato country in this comparison, had a low profile with respect to the effects of the air strikes, but they were generally described as necessary in order to restore peace in kosovo. the swedish media, on the contrary, had a much more outspoken and critical voice, emphasizing the potential risks of the conflict spreading out over the entire balkans and eventually into a third world war. under the impact of subsequent events, and especially the misdirected attacks on albanian refugees, the media news discourses in both countries turned into a mainly critical image of the nato bombings. in this case, the explanation we would suggest is that the combined effect of journalists’ access to civilians’ experiences on both sides in addition to the impact of the compassion discourse led to increased counter-pressure on the attempts of nato to dominate the media discourses. the norwegian media were even more sensitive to this and also more movable because of its initially less critical view than the swedish (höijer, nohrstedt, & ottosen, 2002: 15-16). according to røn, in reality, every norwegian newspaper took a pro-war stance in its editorial column, with exception of the leftist klassekampen, which has a circulation of only 6,500. furthermore, the press went to great lengths to emphasise norway’s role in the conflict, taking a strongly patriotic line despite the absence of any clear prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 87 national interest. it is therefore perhaps not surprising that the majority of norwegian public opinion supported the war (røn, 2000: 164). the debate within the russian media about the proper response to the war led to contradictions, inconsistencies and mutual recriminations. much of the discussion was focused on western reporting and nato propaganda. while the western media presented ethnic albanian refugees as obvious victims of serb atrocities and ‘ethnic cleansing’, describing the exodus as a ‘humanitarian catastrophe’, russian journalists pointed out that people were fleeing from nato bombing, and that air raids supposedly designed to protect the kosovo albanians had only made their situation worse. the russian press argued the western media were fighting a propaganda war on the side of their own governments, targeting domestic public opinion and yugoslavia itself. western journalists were censured by their russian counterparts for their one-sided reporting, and nato’s conduct of a ‘ruthless’ propaganda war was frequently criticized (hammond, nizamova, & savelieva, 2000: 181-182) the kosovo war acted as a prism, refracting domestic political views and prompting a reevaluation of russia’s role in the world. virtually all the russian media were concerned by the role assigned to russia in the conflict – or more precisely, the lack of a role. as seen from russia, there were two main stages to the conflict: ‘without russia’s participation’ and ‘with russia’s presence’. this was reflected in media coverage, which at the start of the crisis featured sharp disapproval of ‘nato aggression’ and support for ‘sovereign yugoslavia’. yet after the ‘role of russia’ was recognized, most newspapers adopted a more neutral tone, carrying more articles about the albanian refugees and the excesses of the milosevic regime, and fewer reports on ‘brother serbs’ (hammond et al., 2000: 184) according to lalli’s study of the italian press, studies on italian media information about nato’s military action in kosovo highlight some relevant aspects. regarding television news, it has been observed that emotional engagement in media representation was very high, also because of a new sense of disorientation of anchormen and correspondents, both challenged by the severe control of information operated by institutional sources. it was very difficult to find sure alternative sources, and also to check the truth and the reliability of the available information; moreover, this sense of distance and uncertainty was strengthened by the shortage of visual supplies witnessing what was really happening in serbia and kosovo. in newspapers, lalli find two main rhetorical frames of debating and reporting war facts: on the one hand the humanitarian legitimation of the nato’s military action, and on the other hand, the contemporaneous difficulty in accepting such a bloody way to react to a civil war fought in a foreign country. along these newspaper’s frames, there also were more faceted aspects of prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 88 reporting and justifying the different episodes of the war; but, at last, we can say that the italian media representation of the kosovo war except for some “militant” left-oriented newspaper constantly fluctuated between some kind of bewilderment in front of such a massive military engagement of western powers, and the attempt to construct and release a “story” of this engagement being as reassuring and consensual as possible (lalli, 2002: 2). a study published in the journal of gender studies reports that women were generalized into six specific frame through imagery in western media during the kosovo war: the passive refugee, the waiting wife, the female body torn apart, the rape survivor, the touchyfeely peace activist and the non-stereotypic woman in war (del zotto, 2002: 149). this study applies textual and visual media analysis to the coverage of women’s experiences in the kosovo conflict of 1998–99. it argues that mainstream global media constructed a gendered interpretation of that war. the study illustrates how the application of a masculinist narrative served to omit many important issues involving female agency in kosovo. an empirically structured contextual/visual analysis was applied to a wide body of media material generated over a four-month period. three hundred and sixty major news items were gleaned between 1 february and 30 may of 1999, representing twenty-one countries. additionally, thirty broadcasts from cnn, cbc, bbc and univision were monitored during this same time, period. newspapers used in this analysis were considered to be the most widely read, mainstream papers in their respective countries. they ranged from the u.s. new york times, germany’s deutsche presse-agentur and mexico’s la jornada in the ‘west’ to israel’s jerusalem post and china’s xinhua in the ‘east’. nations represented for the survey were the united states, canada, mexico, cuba, colombia, argentina, united kingdom, ireland, germany, france, egypt, israel, iran, pakistan, india, malaysia, taiwan, japan, people’s republic of china, south africa and australia. a rigorous context analysis model was applied to all articles and news programs from these countries’ coverage of the war in kosovo (del zotto, 2002: 144). del zotto concluded that media representation of women in kosovo supports the theory that popular culture still upholds a masculinist paradigm of war. indeed, women as passive victims rather than as activists and combatants have been the staple of war coverage for decades. traditionalism, commercialism and nationalism inform mainstream media, contributing to a gendered coverage of war. five out of the six constructs of women in kosovo, generated by media, are products of these three characteristics. furthermore, women’s experiences in world events generally do not conform to linear, compartmentalized structures of mass media nor are they generated through ‘official sources’ (del zotto, 2002: 149). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 89 5. the kosovo war in balkans press raptis, in study of greek press wrote that, before the bombing began the situation in kosovo was reported almost daily in the greek media, but this was largely based on stories from western news agencies. eleftherotypia, for example, kept an almost equal distance from the kla, which is considered as bearing ‘a great part of the responsibility for the conflict’, and from the ‘atrocities by the serbs’. however, most editorials argued that ethnic albanians were intensifying the conflict in order to ‘invite’ nato into kosovo. in reporting the kosovo crisis, greek journalists had the implicit assistance of the greek population, who were not duped by nato’s ‘humanitarianism’ into classifying the albanians as the ‘good guys’ and the serbs as the ‘bad guys’. although, as expected, the greek government complied with the wishes of the us, the ‘participation’ of the greek population in the kosovo crisis can be found in their resistance to the us/nato intervention (raptis, 2000: 171-175). the clear departure of the greek stance from the coverage that prevailed in other countries during the air operations makes the issue of the greek media framework of coverage and interpretation of the events surrounding the kosovo crisis an important case for a number of reasons. first, because the media in greece, a nato member country, “deviated” from the mainstream media coverage found in the clear majority of nato and other western countries. second, predictably, as “journalists around the world grappled with the news angle of this conflict [in kosovo] to make it relevant to their markets” (goff, 1999: 27), the greek media perceived the nato air campaign against serbia in ways dictated by their own environment (kondopoulou, 2002: 2). according to margarita kondopoulou, from the onset of the nato air strikes against serbia in spring 1999 and throughout the campaign, the greek media maintained a distinct and uncompromising anti-war outlook on the events taking place, both in the airspace and on the ground of former yugoslavia. this view was different from most media perspectives in other nato member states. it was infused with reports and interpretations that contrasted with the mainstream coverage in other countries, was rather disapproving of the greek government’s position, seen as shaped by nato orders, and provoked accusations by many foreign commentators of being pro-serbian. the content and angle of the greek media coverage (both print and broadcast) undeniably suggest that the general framework was anti-nato. regardless of voices calling for a less fervent reaction, especially in the press, the focus was placed on the victimization of the serbs by the alliance (mainly via graphics and evocative television footage), which not only “pretentiously” used “alleged atrocities” as a pretext to intervene in order to serve its geopolitical goals, but also created more problems for the overall prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 90 region (including the widespread refugee problem). kondopoulou concluded that, the general greek media viewpoint was founded on a distinctive approach that saw the nato operation as an act of aggression not only against serbia, but also against the geopolitical order in the balkans. furthermore, the professed common cultural and religious characteristics shared by greece and serbia led to a view, adopted mainly – but not only – by right-wing newspapers, which evoked nationalistic sentiments and sided with the serbs. these features, coupled with typically popular opposition to american influence in greece, appeared to guide greek media coverage to a great extent. the endorsement of the fairly nationalistic discourse by a large proportion of the media was decidedly promoted by greek journalists. even though some journalists expressed different opinions, blaming serbian authorities for crimes committed against kosovo-albanians, a great majority of the profession, especially on the official level, has continued to defend greek coverage of the kosovo crisis (kondopoulou, 2002: 9-10). ekatarina balabanova looks at the relationship between the print media and policymaking in bulgaria at the time of the kosovo conflict. first, it analyses the print media coverage of the kosovo conflict during the two time periods – 24 february–25 march 1999 and 15 april–15 may 1999. in purely quantitative terms the kosovo crisis enjoyed extensive media coverage in the period directly prior to the nato military involvement. between 24 february and 25 march 1999 725 articles in 24 chasa, trud, demokracia, duma, pari, sega, standart and kapital made significant reference to the situation in kosovo. four of these newspapers − sega, standart, demokracia and 24 chasa – circulated a special issue, in addition to the regular one, on the 25 march 1999 devoted to the kosovo crisis and the beginning of the air strikes. on the whole, standart (third in readership figures, but significantly behind the leading two and considered an independent publication) was the newspaper that offered the most extensive coverage with 125 articles making reference to different aspects of the conflict over the 30-day period. this averages to 4.16 articles per issue on the kosovo crisis. not many of those made it to the first page, though. only 11 articles appeared on the front page of the newspaper. quite similar conclusions can be drawn regarding the media attention during the second observation period – 15 april 1999−15 may 1999. in the middle of the nato air campaign the media coverage was vast with a total of 3,286 articles making significant reference to the kosovo crisis in the eight newspapers selected for analysis. this translates into 106 articles per day on the topic in the main print media and clearly speaks of the absolute dominance of the issue in the news agenda. some differences are observable here among the dailies in terms of location of articles – only standart places a slightly higher amount than in the previous period on the front page. (balabanova, 2007: 75). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 91 during the february/march period, bulgarian print media framed its reports in neutral and subsequently, during the april/may period, critical way when the questions discussed related to the governmental position on the kosovo crisis and the nato air strikes. the reports referring to refugees and the devastation of the war were empathy-framed. hence, the result of the application of the media-policy interaction model to the bulgarian press coverage and foreign policy-making suggests that the print media did not have any substantial impact on the bulgarian government’s position on the kosovo conflict during both examined periods. what is of more interest here, however, especially during the first analyzed period, was the discovery of neutral media coverage on a topic of extreme importance for bulgaria – the countries position on the kosovo conflict, in particular, its support for the nato air campaign against the fry. this was the case with the bulgarian press coverage that was framed in a neutral way towards the nato decision to launch air strikes against the fry and the bulgarian government’s position to support this decision (balabanova, 2007: 148). according to a study made by devrim deniz erol about yugoslavia wars, the newspaper’s focused on bosnia and kosovo war. accordingly, newspaper’s chose to be on the side of bosnia and kosovo. quantitative research’s show that in a newspaper published a lot of photos especially civilians photos. erol concluded that both religion and history of living together in the past indicated that in turkey’s newspapers kosovo war (and bosnia) was given more attention (erol, 2013: 326-327). the findings of newspaper show that, especially for bosnians and albanians, the historical, religious and cultural ties that existed since the ottomans have also influenced turkey's foreign policy. in this context, turkey's foreign policy, especially in the fighting in bosnia and kosovo, has been influenced by newspapers (erol, 2013: 357-358). in a study made by aşkın, in scanning held during march 24 to june 9, 1999, in the digital archives of hürriyet newspaper with keyword “nato” and “kosovo” was found 442 articles. however, the basic research 5 (us, spain, france, germany) scans made with the same range of the same keyword in 6 newspapers of the country (washington post, the new york times, financial times, el pais, die welt, le monde), has been identified a total of 260 reports. taking much more news in one newspaper than the sum of six newspaper should be considered as a sign of great interest in nato’s kosovo campaign in turkey (aşkın, 2014: 126). 6. conclusion the media of the dominant nato states did not break this tradition of support in their coverage of the kosovo crisis and war. it is noteworthy that in a marginal nato country such as bulgaria where press coverage was framed in a neutral way towards the nato decision to launch air strikes against the fry and the bulgarian government’s position to support this prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 92 decision and greece, where maintained a uncompromising anti-war outlook, “deviated” from the mainstream media coverage found in the clear majority of nato and other western countries. the media of the dominant nato powers more than ever reached across the globe, seeking to influence people and governments outside their own borders. the coverage of all media of nato members (germany, britain, italy and france) shows that all played as a partisan media and play the role nato’s spokesman. their main reason was that there was violence in kosovo and intervention was indispensable. nato wanted the media to focus on serb atrocities and the media obliged, with gusto and gullibility. also, the findings show that the cnn effect was only one factor pressuring policy toward intervention during the kosovo war. overall, cnn served as nato's de facto public information arm during operation allied force. the us newspaper framed the air strikes as a humanistic aid to albanians to stop the ethnic cleansing initiated by serbians. while the chinese newspapers framed the air strikes as an intervention of yugoslavia’s sovereignty and territory, in russia there were two main stages to the conflict: ‘without russia’s participation’media coverage featured sharp disapproval of ‘nato aggression’ and support for ‘sovereign yugoslavia’and ‘with russia’s presence’most newspapers adopted a more neutral tone. each of the research pieces have taken a critical analysis of the media and the role they played in the kosovo conflict. they each imply that the dominant narratives running through media reporting of the conflict was overwhelmingly supportive of the official nato line, and failed to meaningfully critique and analyses the information that they were provided by ‘official sources.’ in fact the power of the media definitely influenced the conflict in kosovo: its initiation, its escalation and its outcome, so we can consider that the real victory belongs to the media. reference aşkın, a. c. 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(2000). a narrative analysis of us press coverage of slobodan milosevic and the serbs in kosovo. european journal of communication, 15(3), 321–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323100015003004 wunsch, m. v. (2012). german print media coverage in the bosnia and kosovo wars of the 1990s. london school of economics and political science. yang, j. (2003). framing the nato air strikes on kosovo across countries: comparison of chinese and us newspaper coverage. international communication gazette, 65(3), 231– 249. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016549203065003002 https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323100015003005 https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323100015003004 55 formulative policy of death penalty for corruptors in indonesia ni wayan sinaryati ¹* i gede artha ² ¹ udayana university denpasar, faculty of law, doctoral study program, wayansinaryati.fh@gmail.com, ,* correspondent author ² udayana university denpasar, faculty of law, doctoral study program,igedeartha58@gmail.com article history: accepted 10 june 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: policy formulation, death penalty sanctions, corruptors. a b s t r a c t corruption is committed by state officials, law enforcement and other related parties. various efforts have been made by the government in preventing and eradicating corruption in indonesia, but the efforts that have been made have not yet gotten optimal results. the fundamental weakness in eradicating corruption in indonesia is the formulation of the main criminal sanctions in the form of criminal threats that are facultative, uncertain or must be. so that the corruptors are never deterred or afraid. in the future, the legislators need to reformulate the provisions of article 2 paragraph (2) of the republic of indonesia law number 31 of 1999 as amended to law of the republic of indonesia number 20 of 2001 concerning eradication of corruption. various criminal law policies still need to be carried out by the state in order to eradicate corruption to achieve the expected results. this type of research in this paper uses the type of normative legal research. the type of approach is in the form of a legal approach related to corruption. there are two legal materials used, namely primary legal materials and secondary legal materials, with legal material collection techniques used in the form of library studies. the analysis technique used is descriptive, interpr etation, evaluation and argumentative techniques. the research in this paper intends and aims to examine and analyze the facts and phenomena of corruption that are stated in specific legislation concerning criminal sanctions (capital punishment) for corruptors in indonesia. moreover, corruption is qualified as an extraordinary crime so it needs extraordinary handling as well. 1. introduction behaviors, attitudes, statements are not always held fast as commitment to oneself. psychological disorders of a law will be tested when faced with the lure of a pile of banknotes with fantastic nominal value. the phenomenon of the above situation and position as well as the facts have proven in the statement of a former chief justice of the constitutional court, judge m. akil mochtar who is currently serving a life sentence for corruption, as quoted by muhammad yusuf (2013), his statement when it highlighted the existence of corruption in indonesia, with: "corruption in indonesia has reached its pulse. corruption in this country is so severe, deep-rooted, even entrenched. corruption practices occur in almost every layer of the bureaucracy, both legislative, executive and judicial, and have also spread to the business world. like a disease, corruption is a chronic disease, so it is very difficult to treat it". conscious or not, remember or not m. akil mochtar once made a statement of his attitude towards the corruption pandemic that occurred in indonesia like that of the former chief justice of the constitutional court and former advocate, now for him to be a material for self-reflection and introspection, to be aware of his actions that have denied the principle his life, violated the oath of office when he was appointed as a high state official in various top positions in a country based on the pancasila state law and ideology. rice has become porridge, regret always comes later. http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 mailto:wayansinaryati.fh@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2573-4292 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1381-0155 56 hopefully now for him arises a sense of regret accompanied by an attitude of repentance as an effort to redeem the great sins he has done for the nation and nation of indonesia. the act of the corruptor who caused the greatest sin for him was to betray the goals of the proclamation of the country on august 17, 1945 which had a significant impact on the actions of harming the country's finances and disrupting the economy. corruption phenomenon in indonesia as described above is related to the fact according to the findings of transparency international indonesia (tii) released its data that the corruption perception index (cpi), that the existence of indonesia's position in 2019/2020 shows the score of the indonesian perception index currently at position number 40 with the highest score of 100, cpi assessment is based on a score of 0 (zero) with very corrupt qualifications, and with a score of 100 (one hundred) means a country is free from corruption. when viewed according to the ranking of the position of the countries in the world, indonesia is in the ranking of 85 (eighty-five) of the 180 (one hundred eighty) countries surveyed. the percepcy corruption index refers to the existence of 13 (thirteen) surveys and from expert assessments to measure public sector corruption in 180 countries and territories in the world. according to his findings, that indonesia's position at the level of corruption is the same as 5 (five) countries such as burkina faso, guyana, leshoto, kuwait, and trinidad and tobago, then overtake indonesia. when explored further, that the most corrupt countries according to tii's findings are the countries of somalia, south sudan, syria, yemen and venezuela. the opposite situation, countries clean of corruption according to the results of an initial survey in 2020 with a score of 87 is in the countries of denmark and new zealand, followed by finland with a score of 86, and there are 3 (three) countries having the same score of 85 , these countries are singapore, sweden and switzerland. related to the amount of state financial losses that cannot be recovered into indonesian state treasury, according to a search from icw (indonesian corruption watch), in the range of 2018 it reached a quite fantastic amount with a nominal value of 9.29 trillion rupiah. and according to icw data, there are 271 cases recorded of corruption that occurred throughout 2019, with state financial losses reaching 8.4 trillion rupiah, with 580 corruptors. as one example of corruption in indonesia that occurred in 2019 involving a public official/ state organizer (in this case the east waringin city regent with the initials sh) with the mode of issuance of mining business licenses which turned out to be fabricated and fictitious resulting in state financial losses ranging 5.8 trillion rupiah (https://nasional.kompas,com/read/2020/01/23/16565951/indeks -persepsi-korupsi-indonesia-pada-2019 naik-jadi-40). based on the phenomena and facts above, it shows that the criminal acts of corruption that occurred in indonesia where the perpetrators involved public officials and state administrators prove that the corruption that occurred as a cause of the decline in national development activities. the amount of state financial losses that have not been returned to the state treasury which is unknown is the main cause of obstruction of the mandate of the opening of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia. the indonesian people who are just and prosperous and prosperous still remain mere dreams and delusions. based on the background explanation above, the problems of this writing are: (1). why are there no corruption perpetrators sentenced to death in indonesia? (2). how is the formulation policy for capital punishment for perpetrators of corruption in the perspective of ius constituendum? this writing is an original scientific paper or it is not the same as other previous scientific papers. the scientific papers related to this topic with other previous scientific papers include: (1). "the criminal law formulation policy in corruption crime mitigation", written by ridwan, from diponegoro university, semarang, with the formulation of the problem: a. what is the policy on the formulation of corruption in the current legislation? b. what is the policy formulation for the upcoming corruption? (2). "the existence of the corruption eradication commission in corruption judiciary in indonesia", written by abdul kholik, m. (2011), from the islamic university of indonesia, in 2011, with the formulation of the problem: a. does the corruption eradication commission need to coordinate with the attorney general's office? b. what is the form of cooperation between the kpk and the prosecutor's office in eradicating corruption in indonesia? (3). "analysis of the corruption criminal prosecution authority by the corruption eradication commission (kpk) and the prosecutor's office according to indonesian positive law", written by syabilal jihad, in 2018, with the formulation of the problem: a. is there no dualism in prosecuting corruption in indonesia? b. what are the criteria in the prosecution of corruption cases carried out by the corruption eradication commission (kpk)? based on the presentation in the form of the title and formulation of the problems that existed in the previous scientific writings above, compared to the writings of the author, both the title and the problem are different. the author presents the title regarding capital punishment for corruptors, with the problem of why corruptors in indonesia are not sentenced to death by law and in the future policies need to have a formulative policy regarding capital punishment for corruptors. https://nasional.kompas,com/read/2020/01/23/16565951/indeks-persepsi-korupsi-indonesia-pada-2019%20naik-jadi-40 https://nasional.kompas,com/read/2020/01/23/16565951/indeks-persepsi-korupsi-indonesia-pada-2019%20naik-jadi-40 57 2. research method this research uses normative legal research, according to i made pasek diantha (2017), stated that normative legal research is a method that examines positive legal rules of internal perspective, the object of research is legal norms. the approach used in this scientific work is in the form of a legal approach and a case approach. sources of legal materials used are primary legal materials related to applicable laws relating to corruption such as the corruption eradication act, the un convention concerning corruption crimes (uncac and uncatoc). secondary legal materials include the results of previous research, legal textbooks, scientific journals, newspapers, and tertiary legal materials such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, and internet sites that are relevant to the problem under study. 3. results and discussion 3.1. essence of corruption and death penalty 3.1.1. terminology, definition, characteristics and impact of corruption the term corruption is etymologically derived from latin, namely "corruptio" or "corruptus" which then appears in many european languages such as english and french, namely "corruption", in dutch "korruptie" which subsequently also appears in the indonesian treasury: corruption, which can mean like being bribed (hamzah, 1995). corruption also comes from the word "corrupteia" or "bribery" which means to give or give it to someone so that the person has done for the benefit of the giver, or also means seducation which means something that is interesting for someone to deviate (koeswadji, 1994). the interesting thing is usually associated with power, which is generally in the form of bribery, embezzlement and the like. the term corruption in the indonesian general dictionary as concluded by poerwadarminta is a bad act such as embezzlement, receipt of bribes and so on. regarding the term corruption itself, according to sudarto (2007), it began to be general in nature and only became a legal term for the first time in the military ruling regulation number prt/pm/06/1957, concerning eradicating corruption. in the legal sense as affirmed in act number 31 of 1999 concerning eradication of corruption, as amended by act number 20 of 2001 concerning amendment to law number 31 of 1999 concerning eradication of corruption. corruption is a disease that often occurs especially in developing countries like indonesia, where the development of indonesia's corruption is considered by some experts to be very alarming. m. abdul kholik (2011) stated: "for the indonesian people, it seems to have been destined as a problem that seems to never run out to be discussed". even the working team of the national commission on human rights noted, there are fundamental issues for hampering the fulfillment of the protection and respect for human rights and placing corruption as the main factor hampering such protection (amidhan, 2006). thus the acute corruption in indonesia, azhar (2009) stated: "that corruption is a social disease that is universal and has occurred since the beginning of the human journey". such a broad impact on corruption will basically be a very serious threat to the survival of the nation and state. even romli atmasasmita (2005) stated: "that the problem of corruption has become a serious threat to the stability and security of the national and international community". on the basis of such conditions there is a lameness in the portion of income received by various groups of people referred to as relative inequality or there is an absolute level of poverty. (absolute poverty). such conditions are certainly the most disadvantaged are the people at the grassroots level, which should receive welfare guarantees in accordance with the guarantees set forth in the constitution. this is confirmed in article 33 paragraph (3) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia: "the earth, water, and natural resources contained therein are controlled by the state and used for the greatest prosperity of the people. constitutionally the people's welfare is a human right that must be realized by the government as the organizer of the state, one of the efforts is the utilization of existing natural resources, which in its use is for the greatest prosperity of the people (ridwan, 2009). as a rich country with all abundant natural resources, it is inappropriate for the indonesian people to live in poverty and misery with a variety of sadness, from malnutrition to the problem of inability to fulfill decent living needs and adequate health. corruption with such a broad impact that according to the un convention in the uncac-2003 protocol (united nations convention against corruption-2003) which is a translation of the united nations convention on uncatoc (united nations convention against transnational organized crime-2000), that corruption crime is interpreted as a crime serious because according to tom obokata (2015): "that corruption according to the convention is intended to get directly or indirectly financial or other material benefits". the qualifications of corruption crimes besides being classified as extraordinary crimes have also penetrated jurisdictions across national borders. transnational crime is given meaning or understanding by passas n. (2003) as follows: "cross-border crime is behavior that endangers the interests protected by law in more than one national jurisdiction and is criminalized in at least one of the countries or jurisdictions related ". 58 corruptors often run and hide outside the jurisdiction of their home country to make it difficult to find them to be arrested and processed legally. so the corrupt home government requires cooperation between countries and between law enforcers through bilateral and multilateral legal means among countries parties to the 2003 uncac convention. in fact, according to harkristuti harkrisnowo (2002): opportunity or means available to him". according to marella buckley (2003): "corruption is the misuse of public office for personal gain through bribery or illegal commissions". in line with the opinion above, indriyanto seno adji (2006) stated: "it is undeniable that corruption is a white collar crime with actions that always undergo dynamic mode of operation from all sides so that it is said to be invisible crime whose handling requires criminal law policies". this criminal law policy must certainly have the characteristics of the values of justice that can be felt by all indonesian people, so the main consideration is in favor of the people's economic interests or the public interest. regarding actions that include corruption, carl j. friedrich, as quoted by martiman prodjohamidjojo (2009), argues that: "the pattern of corruption can be said if a person holds the authority that is authorized to do certain things such as an official who is responsible through money or some other kind of gift that is not permitted by law; persuading to take steps that help anyone who provides gifts and thus truly endanger the public interest." responding to this corruption problem, robert klitgaard (2008) critically states that "corruption exists when someone illegally places personal interests above the interests of the community and something entrusted to him to do so. corruption takes many forms and can range from small to monumental. corruption can involve misuse of policies, tariff provisions, and credit, irrigation and housing system policies, law enforcement and regulations relating to public safety, contract implementation and loan repayment or involve simple procedures. that can happen to the private sector or the public sector and often occurs in both sectors simultaneously. it can be widespread, in a number of developing countries, corruption has become systemic. corruption can involve promises, threats or both; can be started by a civil servant or community concerned, can involve illegal or legitimate work; can be inside or outside public organizations. the boundaries of corruption are very difficult to define and depend on local laws and customs". according to the author, the formulation given by robert klitgaard above shows that corruption is a crime that is of extraordinary quality and quantity and can significantly undermine the interests of the people's economy. ronny rahman nitibaskara (2005) even stated: "corruption in our society has become endemic which is difficult to overcome. corruption is not an extraordinary crime, only the quality and quantity of breeding is extraordinary". 3.1.2. existence of death penalty and its relationship with corruption in the legal literature, not enough is found in the notion of capital punishment by scholars or legal experts. most notions of capital punishment are found in language dictionaries, which also use the term "capital punishment". yon artiono arba'i (2012), uses the term death sentence and interprets it by quoting the meaning of the big indonesian dictionary. according to him, the death sentence was defined as "a sentence carried out by killing a guilty person". in addition to using the term death sentence, in the big indonesian dictionary also found the term death sentence which is interpreted as: "criminal form of revocation of the life of the convict". a death sentence can also be interpreted as a criminal or reaction to or misery in the form of death imposed on a person who commits a criminal offense, whereas the meaning of death taken from the word basic death means the loss of a person's life or no longer alive. this death will occur through the failure of the function of one of the three pillars of life (modi of death), namely: brain (central nervous system), heart (circulaty of system), and lungs (respiratory of system)" (amri, 2007). capital punishment is the heaviest of all types of basic crimes, so that it is only threatened against certain perpetrators. so far the need for capital punishment to be threatened against perpetrators raises many opinions. capital punishment is exceptional in nature, meaning that capital punishment is only handed down by judges if absolutely necessary. capital punishment is always threatened alternatively with other basic crimes, this is the choice of the judge so that the death penalty is not carried out arbitrarily. if a person is found guilty by a judge found guilty of a serious crime as a crime threatened with capital punishment, the judge can impose capital punishment. in practice, the execution of capital punishment can be postponed until the president gives fiat execution, meaning that the president approves the implementation of capital punishment to the convicted person (lumintang, 2010). in law enforcement for crimes that are extraordinary and serious in nature, capital punishment sanctions are still relevant to be carried out, according to hendarman supandji (2008) indonesia still requires capital punishment as a threat to prevent and frighten potential criminal offenders. the same thing is also illustrated that capital punishment sanctions need to be maintained in order to prevent and eradicate serious and other serious crimes such as 59 narcotics abuse and other extraordinary crimes (winandi & lukito, 2010). based on the history of capital punishment is not a criminal form that is relatively new in the course of the indonesian nation. this death sentence has been known since the days of the kingdoms. in positive indonesian law we recognize the existence of capital punishment or capital punishment. in the criminal code chapter ii regarding criminal law, article 10 states about various types of criminal acts, which consist of basic and additional crimes, and capital punishment including the main criminal types which rank first. other laws and regulations in indonesia also include threats of punishment in the form of capital punishment, for example ri law 7/drt/1955 concerning economic crimes, ri law 35/2009 concerning narcotics and psychotropic crimes, republic of indonesia law number 31 of 1999 as amended by republic of indonesia law number 20 of 2001 concerning eradication of corruption, indonesian law number 26 of 2001 concerning crimes against human rights and indonesian law number 5 of 2010 about terrorism. roeslan saleh (1978) said that the indonesian penal code limits the possibility of capital punishment for a number of serious crimes. what is meant by serious crimes are: 1. "article 104 (plots against the president and/or vicepresident); 2. article 111 paragraph 2 (inducing a foreign country to be hostile or to fight, if hostility is carried out or become a war); 3. article 124 paragraph 3 (assisting enemies during war); 4. article 140 paragraph 3 (treason against the king or head of friendly countries planned and resulting in death); 5. article 340 (premeditated murder); 6. article 265 paragraph 4 (theft by force resulting in serious injury or death); 7. article 368 paragraph 2 (extortion with violence resulting in serious injury or death); 8. article 444 (piracy at sea, coast and river resulting in death)”. debate arose when many people began to ask whether capital punishment was still relevant or appropriate as a punishment in indonesia. the question was asked not without reason, but most of them consider capital punishment violates human rights (ham), namely the right to life. that right is contained in the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia nad article 28a which states: "every person has the right to live and has the right to defend his life and life". based on this understanding they assume that the right to life is the most fundamental right and cannot be reduced under any circumstances (non derogable rights) (lubis & lay, 2009). both the pros and cons, the reasons given all rely on human rights (ham). it is necessary to elaborate on the arguments for both, of course by still referring to national law (waluyadi, 2009). the tendency of experts who agree with capital punishment is still maintained, generally based on conventional reasons, namely capital punishment is needed to eliminate people who are considered endangering public or state interests and are deemed irreparable, while those who are contravened of capital punishment usually make excuses capital punishment is contrary to human rights and is a form of crime that cannot be remedied if after the execution is carried out an error is found in the sentence handed down by the judge. regarding human rights (ham), in indonesia also protects it with laws and regulations. this is indicated by the existence of a law regulating human rights, namely ri law number 39 of 1999 concerning human rights (hereinafter referred to as the human rights law). in this human rights law, the right to life is listed in article 9 paragraph (1) which states: “everyone has the right to life, maintain life, and improve their standard of living. the right to life is even inherent in newborn babies or people sentenced to death. in cases or circumstances that are extraordinary, namely in the interest of his mother's life in an abortion case or based on a court decision in a capital punishment case, then the act of abortion or capital punishment in that case or condition, may still be permitted. only in these two cases can the right to life be restricted”. at a glance the article above does not mean the meaning of the provisions of article 28a of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia which states: "every person has the right to live and has the right to defend his life and life". based on the explanation of article 9 paragraph (1) of the human rights law, it can be underlined in the sentence ".... based on the court's decision in the case of capital punishment, the act of abortion or capital punishment in this case or condition, can still be permitted ..." so that it can the conclusion is drawn, that in these circumstances the right to life can be removed. that in the context of indonesia was confirmed in the constitutional court decision number 2-3/puu-v/2007 concerning judicial review of law number 22 of 1997 concerning narcotics which states that in the future the formulation, implementation, and implementation of capital 60 punishment should pay attention to the four important things, namely: 1. "first, capital punishment is no longer a basic crime, but as a special and alternative crime; 2. second, the death penalty can be sentenced to a tenyear probation which if the convicted convict behaves can be amended with a life sentence of 20 years; 3. third, capital punishment cannot be imposed on minors; 4. fourth, the execution of capital punishment against pregnant women and mentally ill people is suspended until the pregnant woman gives birth and the mentally ill convict is declared healed”. at present in the criminal code bill, capital punishment is a specific primary crime and is always threatened by alternatives. although not included as a principal crime, capital punishment is still recognized as a special form of primary crime. 3.1.3. policy on the formulation of death penalty threats in the corruption eradication act according to robert r. mayers and ernest greenwood, as quoted by sultan zanti arbi and wayan ardana (1997), the term "policy" is taken from the terms "policy" (english) or "politiek" (dutch). related to the substance of criminal law policies, according to barda nawawi arief (2002): basically, the problem of criminal law policy is not merely legal engineering work that can be done in a normative and systematic dogmatic manner. besides factual juridical approaches can also be in the form of a sociological, historical and comparative approach, even requiring an integral approach to social policy and national development in general. barda nawawi arief (2002) further stated, the pattern of the relationship between penal policy and crime prevention efforts must be used with an integral approach and there is a balance between "penal" and "non-penal". prevention and crime approach by means of "penal" is a "penal policy" or "penal law enforcement policy" whose function is through several stages, namely: a. "formulation (legislative/legislative policies); b. application (judicial/judicial policy), which is the stage of applying criminal law by law enforcement officials from the police to the court, which can also be referred to as the stage of judicial policy; c. execution (executive/administrative policy), which is the stage of implementing criminal law which can also be called the executive or administrative policy stage” (mulyadi, 2012). efforts and policies to make good criminal law regulations in essence cannot be separated from the purpose of overcoming crime by using criminal penalties. crime prevention efforts with criminal law are essentially also part of law enforcement efforts (specifically criminal law enforcement). because of this, it is often said that criminal law policies are part of the law enforcement policy. the policy of regulating death penalty formulations in the corruption eradication act is currently only 1 (one) article that regulates it, namely in article 2 paragraph (2) and supplemented with the elucidation of article by article in article 2 paragraph (2). the full article cited again in article 2 paragraph (2) and its explanation in the corruption eradication law, namely: article 2 paragraph (2): "in the event that a criminal act of corruption as referred to in paragraph (1) is carried out under certain circumstances, the death penalty may be imposed". elucidation of article 2 paragraph (2): "what is meant by certain circumstances in this provision is a condition that can be used as a reason for criminal prosecution for corruptors, that is if the crime is committed against funds intended for the handling of a state of danger, natural disaster national level, countermeasures due to widespread social unrest, overcoming the economic and monetary crisis, and repetition of criminal acts of corruption ". it must be admitted, with the inclusion of the formulation of capital punishment in the corruption eradication act on the one hand shows the seriousness and serious intentions of the government and also the parliament to eradicate or at least reduce the crime of corruption, which is in the statutory regulations the existing regulations on capital punishment were never stated. nevertheless, it must also be stated honestly, the formulation policy or formulation of the death penalty listed in the corruption eradication act thus gives the impression of "seriousness" of the legislators to implement the death penalty and contains several weaknesses. some weaknesses in the corruption eradication act related to the formulation of capital punishment (article 2), according to the author, can be summarized in 2 (two) types of weaknesses, namely: 1. formal weakness; 2. material weakness (substance). 61 formal weaknesses, i.e. weaknesses related to the problem of compilation and/or editorial choice of sentences, namely in the case of: the use of the phrase "certain circumstances" and "can" be dropped. that the formulation of "certain circumstances" which is the reason for the imposition of a criminal offense for the death penalty can not be formulated clearly and clearly in the formulation of the article. in various formulations of the law both inside the criminal code and outside the criminal code, "certain circumstances" which are the reasons for criminal charges are generally formulated explicitly and clearly in the formulation of the relevant offense. in the criminal code for example, criminal charges for abuse in article 356 of the criminal code and criminal charges for theft in article 365 of the criminal code, all of them are stated explicitly and clearly in the formulation of these articles. likewise, the formulation of articles which includes capital punishment in the narcotics act or the terrorism act. the formulation of "certain circumstances" contained in article 2 paragraph (2) of the corruption eradication act which is the reason for the imposition of capital punishment was not formulated explicitly and clearly in the formulation of the article, but was included in the elucidation of article 2 paragraph (2) of the eradication act corruption crime. this condition creates a blurring of norms because an explanation both general explanation and article by article explanation in a statutory regulation cannot be used as a basis for making new regulations and may not contain or create new norms. this is in accordance with appendix i of ri law number 12 of 2011 concerning formation of laws and regulations number 177, which is explained explicitly: "explanation cannot be used as a legal basis for making further regulations and may not include formulations that contain norms". the formulation of the phrase "can" be dropped stated in the formulation of article 2 paragraph (2) of the corruption eradication act also has clearly caused bias in its implementation because it depends on the subjectivity of law enforcement, in this case the judge who hears and decides cases of corruption the. the formulation of the phrase "can" in its implementation will be interpreted "can be applied" or "can also not be applied". in this context the judge can use his authority to interpret the phrase "can" as "can be sentenced to death" or vice versa "can not be sentenced to death". as an illustration in ri law number 30 year 2014 concerning government administration, article 23 letter a and its explanation are stated: "one of the discretion of a government official is characterized by the word" can "which means a choice to implement or not implement a decision and/or action. sounds article 23 letter a and the explanation as follows: article 23 letter a: government officials' discretions include: 1. "decision making and/or action based on statutory provisions that provide a choice of decisions and/or actions"; explanation of article 23 letter a: "choice of decisions and/or actions of government officials is characterized by the word can, may, or be given authority, rights, should, be expected, and other similar words in the provisions of the legislation. whereas what is meant by the choice of decree and/or action is the response or attitude of the government official in implementing or not implementing government administration in accordance with the provisions of the legislation". material weaknesses (substantial), namely weaknesses related to the substance or content of the article, namely: 1. according to barda nawawi arief (2012), capital punishment as a criminal charge is only threatened for certain corrupt acts as in article 2 paragraph (1) of the corruption eradication act, namely: "committing acts of enriching oneself or other people or corporations in violation of the law". when referring to the general explanation of the law on the eradication of corruption, the aim of the law on the eradication of corruption is to eradicate "every form of corruption". with the formulation of the death penalty in the corruption eradication act only for the types of acts as stated in article 2, it means that capital punishment is not possible to be imposed on criminal acts other than and the rest. 2. the formulation of criminal threats in article 2 paragraph (2) of the law on the eradication of corruption is a criminal offense against offense in article 2 paragraph (2) which is threatened with life imprisonment or a maximum prison sentence of 20 years. corruption is threatened with life imprisonment or a maximum imprisonment of 20 years in the corruption eradication act not only criminal offenses as stated in article 2 above. some formulations of types of criminal acts contained in the corruption eradication act which are threatened with life imprisonment or a maximum sentence of 20 years imprisonment include: abuse of authority/opportunity/facility/because of office or position 62 (article 3); acceptance of bribery (passive bribery) by civil servants/state administrators, judges and advocates (article 12). when viewed from the nature of corruption as an offense for office, the act of "abusing the authority of the office/position" (article 3) and "accepting bribes by civil servants/state abuse, judges and advocates" (article 12), the substance is more reprehensible than "enriching themselves" , or at least it must be viewed as equal and therefore also deserves to be threatened with capital punishment, especially the offense of bribery is the most prominent in various corruption cases so far. 1. the imposition of capital punishment in article 2 paragraph (2) is only aimed at "people". there are no criminal charges against corporations that commit acts of corruption in "certain circumstances" as mentioned above. although capital punishment cannot be imposed on corporations, there should also be criminal charges for corporations whose weight can be identified with capital punishment, for example by revocation of business licenses for ever or corporate dissolution/closure. 2. the formulation of the existence of "certain conditions" required in the elucidation of article 2 paragraph (2) of the ptpk law is very difficult to fulfill or rarely occurs. "certain circumstances" according to barda nawawi arief are "conditional/situational reasons". these conditional/situational reasons include: the state is in danger, there is a national natural disaster, and there is a monetary economic crisis. according to the author, "conditional/situational reasons" as stated by barda nawawi arief mentioned above will indeed be difficult to realize or occur. this is based on the juridical meaning and the opinions of scholars regarding "certain circumstances" namely: hazard management; the regulation regarding the state of danger or "state emergency" is regulated in article 12 of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia which reads "the president declares a state of danger. the conditions and consequences of the hazard situation are determined by law. " at present the applicable law is law (prp) number 23 of 1959 concerning dangerous conditions. article 1 paragraph (1) states: "a state of danger with a degree of civil emergency or military state or state of war, occurs when: 1. security or law order in all regions or parts of the republic of indonesia are threatened by rebellion, riots or due to natural disasters, so that it is feared that they cannot be handled normally by equipment; 2. the war arises or the danger of war or the rape of the territory of the republic of indonesia is feared in any way; 3. the life of the state is in danger or from special conditions, it turns out there is or is feared that there are symptoms that can endanger the life of the state ". provisions regarding compulsory urgency are also contained in article 22 paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia which reads: "in the case of compulsory urgency, the president has the right to stipulate government regulations as a substitute for the law." the meaning in the provision of article 22 paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia nri mentioned above, the constitutional court has provided an interpretation of the "compelling urgency" in the constitutional court's decision number: 138/puu-vii/2009. in the ruling, the constitutional court is of the opinion that there are 3 (three) conditions for forced coercion as referred to in article 22 paragraph (1) of the 1945 nri constitution, namely: 1. "there are circumstances namely the urgent need to resolve legal issues quickly under the law; 2. the required law does not yet exist so that there is a legal vacuum, or there is a law but it is not adequate; 3. the legal vacuum cannot be overcome by making the law in the usual procedure because it will require quite a long time while the urgent situation needs certainty to be resolved ". national natural disasters; the requirements for determining national disasters are regulated in ri law number 24 year 2007 concerning disaster management (disaster management law). article 7 paragraph (2) of the disaster management law states: "determination of the status and level of national and regional disasters as referred to in paragraph (1) letter c contains indicators which include: a. number of victims; b. property losses; c. damage to infrastructure and facilities; d. wide coverage of the area affected by the disaster; and e. the socio-economic impact caused ". countermeasures due to widespread social unrest; 63 regarding the meaning of "social unrest", sulaeman munandar (2009) gave the following definition: "that in fact the phenomenon of social unrest that often arises lately is an indicator of the ongoing process of social transformation, in the form of representation of the clash of social values and religious values and that there is a shift in the setting of mastery of strategic resources in the form of power or politics and the economy". as a result of this social unrest cannot be underestimated, this is because social unrest can break the foundation of the existence of the indonesian people themselves by reason of differences in ethnicity, race, religion and class. so that acts of corruption carried out in these circumstances will muddy the social atmosphere of the indonesian people. mitigation of the economic and monetary crisis; according to economists, the understanding of the economic crisis is simply: "a condition where a country whose government cannot be trusted by its people, especially financial problems (sari, 2016). identification of variables that potentially cause a monetary crisis, namely: a. "economic growth; b. exchange rates (exchange rates); c. total money supply; d. inflation; e. interest rate; f. composite stock price index; g. balance of payments; h. debt payment ratio (debt service ratio (dsr)" (www.bi.go.id:http://www.go.id). barda nawawi arief said, related to "certain circumstances" in the form of "crime countermeasures" (recidive) which he referred to as juridical reasons, the most likely to occur. in this case the authors disagree. in terms of meaning, repetition of a crime or known as a recidive is the behavior of someone who repeats a criminal act after being convicted by a decision of a judge who has permanent legal force because the criminal act has been committed first. a person who often commits a criminal act, and because of his actions that have been sentenced to a criminal even more often sentenced to a criminal is called a residivist. if the residive shows the behavior of repeating a crime, then the residivist refers to the person who commits the repeat of the crime (ali, 2015). in the context of repetition of corruption, this is very difficult to do. this is because the repetition of corruption is also influenced by one of the positions held by the perpetrators, in this case the residivist of the criminal act of corruption must be in the same position as in the previous corruption. based on the explanation above related to the formulation of the death penalty in the corruption eradication act which left many weaknesses, according to the author, the policy of the formulation of the death penalty in the corruption eradication act is very difficult to implement so it is not surprising since the enactment of the corruption eradication act in the year. 1999 up to now, which has been running for 20 (twenty) years, there has not been a single person who has committed a criminal act of corruption (corruptor) who has been sentenced to death. therefore, it becomes a very urgent need to immediately amend the corruption eradication act which regulates the death penalty formulation policy in the corruption eradication act more explicitly, clearly and comprehensively. in order to better anticipate the future (futuristic) so that it will not be more tragic repetition of corruption cases until there is a verdict free of corruptors from a judge who examines and decides the accused of corruption, if a verdict occurs (vrijspraak) in a criminal act of corruption will clearly bring a bad impression and precedent for the world of justice, ordinary people of the law are still difficult to accept the existence of a free verdict (vrijspraak/acguittal) if the defendant is a corruptor. there have been many studies on acquittal in corruption cases, but it has been hindered from being able to influence the facts and phenomena concerning criminal acts which are classified as very detrimental to the nation (pasaribu, et al. 2008). 3.2. legal construction of death criminal threats in corruption perspective ius constituendum the criminal law formulation policy in the framework of tackling future criminal acts of corruption has actually been pursued, namely through the drafting of a law (ruu) on the eradication of corruption (2015 ptpk draft bill) (http://reformasihukum.org/file/peraturan/rutipikor). the draft bill refers to the 2003 united nations convention against corruption (uncac) convention, in which the consideration of the corruption eradication bill was emphasized: "whereas with the 2003 united nations convention against corruption (uncac) ratification (2003 anti-corruption nations convention) with ri law number 7 of 2006 concerning ratification of the 2003 united nations convention against corruption (2003 anti-corruption nations convention), then ri law number 31 of 1999 concerning eradication of corruption http://www.bi.go.id:http:/www.go.id http://reformasihukum.org/file/peraturan/rutipikor 64 crimes as amended by ri law number 20 of 2001 needs to be adjusted to the 2003 anti-corruption nations convention". the department of justice's national legal development agency in the national criminal law reform symposium, said that: "the renewal of criminal law is one of the major problems in the development of national law facing the indonesian people. renewed criminal law is a comprehensive change that includes renewal of material criminal law (substantive), formal criminal law (criminal procedural law) and criminal implementation law (strafvollstreckungsgesetz). the main purpose of criminal law reform is to tackle crime as it is well known that the three areas of law are very closely related. according to the "vom psychologishen zwang" theory related to the principle of legality of von feurbach, this theory basically recommends that in determining the acts that are prohibited in the regulations not only about the types of actions that must be written clearly, but also about the kinds of crimes that are threatened. in this way, then the person who will commit the prohibited act beforehand has known what criminal will be imposed on him if later the act is committed (moeljatno, 1978). in the 2015 corruption eradication bill, the definitions or use of terms regarding certain matters in chapter i (general provisions) are as follows: article 1 of this law is meant by: 1. "corporation is a group of people and/or assets that are organized, whether they are legal entities or not legal entities; 2. public officials are: a. everyone who holds legislative, judicial, or executive positions that are appointed or elected permanently or temporarily is paid or not paid regardless of that person's seniority; b. everyone who carries out public functions including for the benefit of a public agency or public company or who provides public services based on statutory regulations; c. everyone who is appointed as a public official in the legislation. 3. foreign public officials are: a. everyone who holds an executive, legislative or judicial position of a foreign country based on appointment or election, including all levels and sections of government; b. everyone who carries out public functions for the benefit of a foreign country, including public agencies or foreign public companies; or c. any official or representative of an international public organization. 1) official of a public international organization is any international civil servant or any person who is given authority by that organization to act on behalf of that organization; 2) wealth is any form of assets, whether corporate or non-corporate, movable or immovable, tangible or intangible, and legal documents or instruments that prove the rights or interests of these assets; 3) confiscation is a series of investigative actions to take over and/or keep under his control movable or immovable, tangible or intangible objects for the purposes of investigation, prosecution and trial; 4) deprivation is a permanent takeover of assets by a court decision or other authorized body; 5) original criminal acts are every criminal act that results in a criminal offense that is the object of another crime; 6) criminal action results are any assets obtained directly or indirectly from a criminal act; 7. gifts or promises are any forms that provide benefits or enjoyment for those who receive" the definitions set out in chapter i (general provisions) mentioned above seem to adjust to the editors at the 2003 uncac convention, namely: article 2. use of terms: for the purposes of this convention: a) “public official” shall mean: (i) any person holding a legislative, executive, administrative or judicial office of a state party, whether appointed or elected, whether permanent or temporary, whether paid or unpaid, irrespective of that person’s seniority; (ii) any other person who performs a public function, including for a public agency or public enterprise, or provides a public service, as defined in the domestic law of the state party and as applied in the pertinent area of law of that state party; (iii) any other person defined as a “public official” in the domestic law of a state party. however, for the purpose of some specific measures contained in chapter ii of this convention, “public official” may mean any person who performs a public function or provides a public service as defined in the domestic law of the state party and as applied in the pertinent area of law of that state party; b) “foreign public official” shall mean any person holding a legislative, executive, administrative or judicial office of a foreign country, whether appointed 65 or elected; and any person exercising a public function for a foreign country, including for a public agency or public enterprise; c) “official of a public international organization” shall mean an international civil servant or any person who is authorized by such an organization to act on behalf of that organization; d) “property” shall mean assets of every kind, whether corporeal or incorporeal, movable or immovable, tangible or intangible, and legal documents or instruments evidencing title to or interest in such assets; e) “proceeds of crime” shall mean any property derived from or obtained, directly or indirectly, through the commission of an offence; f) “freezing” or “seizure” shall mean temporarily prohibiting the transfer,nconversion, disposition or movement of property or temporarily assuming custody or control of property on the basis of an order issued by a court or other competent authority; g) “confiscation”, which includes forfeiture where applicable, shall mean the permanent deprivation of property by order of a court or other competent authority; h) “predicate offence” shall mean any offence as a result of which proceeds have been generated that may become the subject of an offence as defined in article 23 of this convention”. some of the articles on corruption in the 2015 corruption eradication bill seem to be adjusted to the editors of the 2003 uncac convention, which are regulated in several articles, including: article 2 of the corruption crime eradication bill: 1) "any person who promises, offers, or gives directly or indirectly to a public official an improper advantage for the benefit of the official himself, another person or the corporation, so that the official does or does not do anything in the performance of his post; 2) public officials who request or receive directly or indirectly an improper advantage for the benefit of the official himself, another person or the corporation, so that the public official does or does not do anything in the performance of his duties." the formulation of a criminal offense in article 2 of the above ptpk bill is an editorial adjustment in article 15 of the 2003 uncac convention which is as follows: a) "promises, offers, or giving to public officials, directly or indirectly, undue benefits, for public officials in their official duty capacity or other persons or bodies so that officials act or stop acting in carrying out their official duties ; b) requests or acceptance by a public official, directly or indirectly, undue benefit, for the public official in the capacity of his official duties or other persons or bodies so that the official acts or stops acting in carrying out official duties". as a step in criminal law policy in tackling corruption, the draft bill of the 2015 criminal code formulates criminal acts of corruption in chapter xxxii regarding criminal acts of corruption, as stipulated in article 680, article 681, article 682 (scope of bribery). article 683, article 684, article 686, article 687 (scope of abuse of authority that harms state finances). in other parts of the category as a criminal act of corruption, it is also regulated in the concept of the 2015 criminal code bill regarding position criminal acts regulated in chapter xxx article 655, article 658, article 659, article 660, article 662, article 663, article 664. as a step in criminal law policy in tackling corruption, the draft bill of the 2015 criminal code formulates criminal acts of corruption in chapter xxxii regarding criminal acts of corruption, as stipulated in article 680, article 681, article 682 (scope of bribery). article 683, article 684, article 686, article 687 (scope of abuse of authority that harms state finances). in other parts of the category as a criminal act of corruption, it is also regulated in the concept of the 2015 criminal code bill regarding position criminal acts regulated in chapter xxx article 655, article 658, article 659, article 660, article 662, article 663, article 664. the nature of the formulation of corruption with the scope formulated in the 2015 draft criminal code draft is sufficient to provide a deterrent or countermeasure against corruption, especially for white collar crimes involving state officials, including law enforcement, as outlined in article 660 concept 2015 criminal code bill. capital punishment in criminal law reform is still recognized, especially in the context of the criminal code bill. the preservation of capital punishment in the renewal of criminal law is based on the idea of avoiding community demands/reactions that are revenge, emotional, arbitrary, uncontrolled, or extralegal execution. the provision of capital punishment is intended to provide emotional channels/demands of the community, the unavailability of capital punishment in the act, is not a guarantee 66 of the absence of capital punishment in reality in the community, therefore to avoid emotions of personal/community revenge that are not rational, it is considered more good and wiser if the death penalty is still maintained its existence in the act (arief, 2012). death penalty charges against perpetrators of corruption have been carried out throughout the course of law enforcement against perpetrators of corruption in indonesia. this was done by the prosecutor/public prosecutor to the defendant ahmad sidik mauladi iskandardinata alias dicky iskandardinata in the decision of the south jakarta district court no. 114/pid.b/2006/pn. jak cell. that has permanent legal power with the judicial review decision is decision number: 114 pk/pid.sus/2008. based on the decision, it was found that the defendant was legally and convincingly guilty of committing a criminal act of corruption which was carried out jointly and continuously. the case of the defendant above is carried out jointly and continuously is a reason that aggravates the criminal, so it is not wrong if the prosecutor/public prosecutor in his lawsuit demands the defendant with capital punishment or death sentence. decision handed down by the judge in the south jakarta district court against the defendant ahmad sidik mauladi iskandardinata or dicky iskandardinata is a 20-year prison sentence upheld by the decision of the jakarta high court no. 175/pid/2006/pt.dki and the cassation ruling namely the supreme court's decision no. 181 k/pid/2007 and the judicial review decision is decision no. 114 pk/pid.sus/2008, with a sentence of 20 years imprisonment means that the demands submitted by the public prosecutor/prosecutor were not granted. observing from what has been explained above, it is difficult for the judge to give a death sentence to a defendant in a corruption case who commits a criminal act of corruption other than with the reasons stated in the explanation of article 2 paragraph (2) of the corruption eradication act. according to the author there are a number of things that should be considered or justified in constructing the formulation of the threat of capital punishment in eradicating future criminal acts of corruption (the corruption eradication bill), namely: 1) “in the formulation of articles governing acts of corruption with capital punishment in the future not only formulated with 1 (one) article provisions but can be formulated with several article provisions, such as regarding the concept of "certain conditions" contained in the explanation of article 2 paragraph ( 2) the current act on the eradication of corruption, namely the handling of dangerous situations, national natural disasters, countermeasures due to widespread social unrest, handling of economic and monetary crises, and repetition of criminal acts of corruption. the norm arrangement that regulates the limitative conditions must be the norm rather than the substance contained in the explanation so that in imposing capital punishment to the perpetrators of corruption that have fulfilled certain elements of the said condition, it can be implemented properly or imposed. 2) if a criminal act of corruption is carried out in an organized manner and continues to be organized; the point in this case is that the act was carried out by more than 1 (one) person in a way that is used very neatly to cover up an act which causes a loss of state finances or the state's economy in large enough quantities. the continuing action referred to in this matter is the act carried out continuously so as to cause financial or economic losses to the country. according to the author, if a criminal act of corruption is carried out with elements that aggravate the crime, namely that together and continuing it is appropriate to be threatened and sentenced to death. 3) if a criminal offense is committed by a state official; that the understanding of state officials as regulated in article 1 number 4 of the law of the republic of indonesia number 43 of 1999 concerning amendment to the law of the republic of indonesia number 8 of 1974 concerning personnel of personnel, state gazette number 169 of 1999, supplement to state gazette number 3890 is: "the leaders and members of the highest/highest state institutions as the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia and other officials are determined by the law. according to the author, if a criminal act of corruption is committed by a state official, it is appropriate to be rewarded or sentenced to death. 4) if corruption is continued with money laundering; whereas criminal acts of corruption and money laundering constitute 2 (two) criminal acts which are currently rife, not a few people who commit criminal acts of corruption are followed by money laundering, this is done with the intent to clean up the money they get from criminal acts. according to the author it is also appropriate if someone who commits corruption and is aggravated by the crime of money laundering is sentenced to death. 5) by providing a minimum sentence of 20 years imprisonment, life imprisonment, and capital punishment. each refers to the value of the state loss. for example, the state of china which is a capital punishment for perpetrators of criminal acts of 67 corruption based on the provisions of article 386 and article 838 of the chinese penal code which is no less detrimental to the country 100,000 yuan or rp. 200,000,000.00 (two hundred million rupiah)” (https://www.kompasiana.com/rekamahrdika/55010e e1a333113e095111e5/perbandingan-uptodatehukum-cina-dan-indonesia-terkait-korupsi). by taking the parameters of the value of corruption as applied in the state of china, then if it is applied in indonesia with the state loss value model for example rp. 10,000,000,000 (ten billion rupiah), then this will certainly make state officials think again about committing criminal acts of corruption. it also needs to be understood that in the imposition of severe criminal sanctions such as capital punishment many factors such as the ideologicalpolitical-sociological-legal aspects (syamsudin, 2010). 4. conclusions based on the descriptions of the chapter above, conclusions can be drawn to answer the problems contained in this scientific paper, namely: 1. the threat of capital punishment in the current laws and regulations on corruption (ius constitutum) is regulated in article 2 paragraph (2) of the republic of indonesia law no. 31 of 1999 jo. ri law number 20 of 2001 concerning eradication of corruption crimes. since the ratification of the corruption eradication act, no corruption actor has been sentenced to death, this is due to weaknesses in the corruption eradication act related to the formulation of article 2 paragraph (2), namely the phrase "state certain "reasons for criminal prosecution were not formulated explicitly in the formulation of the article, also the phrase" certain circumstances "in article 2 paragraph (2) is further regulated in the elucidation section of article 2 paragraph (2) of the corruption eradication act. such formulation or construction of article 2 paragraph (2) creates a vague norm. in addition, the existence of the phrase "can" in article 2 paragraph (2) of the law on the eradication of corruption, gives an understanding that the imposition of capital punishment can be applied or may not be applied. 2. the threat of capital punishment in the laws and regulations of corruption in perspective ius constituendum, is associated with the policy formulation of criminal law in the context of overcoming the criminal act of corruption that will actually have been attempted in the process of drafting the law (ruu) on eradicating corruption compiled based on the 2003 united nations convention against corruption (uncac) convention. the death penalty should be handed down to corruptors if the criminal act of corruption is carried out in an organized manner, if the criminal act of corruption is carried out by state officials, if the criminal act of corruption is followed by money laundering. references 1. ali, m. 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republic of indonesia state gazette year 1999 number 140; supplement to the state gazette of the republic of indonesia number 387 43. law of the republic of indonesia number 30 of 2002 concerning the corruption eradication commission; republic of indonesia state gazette year 2002 number 137; supplement to the state gazette of the republic of indonesia number 4250 44. law of the republic of indonesia no. 7 of 2006 concerning ratification of the united nations convention against corruption, 2003; republic of indonesia state gazette year 2006 number 32; supplement to the state gazette of the republic of indonesia number 4620 45. law of the republic of indonesia number 46 of 2009 concerning corruption criminal court; republic of indonesia state gazette year 2009 number 155; https://nasional.kompas,com/read/2020/01/23/16565951/indeks-persepsi-korupsi-indonesia-pada-2019%20naik-jadi-40 https://nasional.kompas,com/read/2020/01/23/16565951/indeks-persepsi-korupsi-indonesia-pada-2019%20naik-jadi-40 69 supplement to the state gazette of the republic of indonesia number 5074. references 41 foreign language learning anxiety among low intermediate level efl students: a comparison of the anxiety levels of students attending three different turkish state universities dr. sc. esen spahi kovaç prizren university “ukshin hoti”, faculty of education, turkish language department, esenspahi@hotmail.com article history: accepted 26 july 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: students, anxiety, efl, foreign language. a b s t r a c t the present study examined the general foreign language classroom anxiety of preparatory school students according to the type of university and gender. the sample consisted of 282 students from three preparatory schools. the students were from anadolu univeristy, osmangazi university and dumlupınar university. there were 150 male and 132 female students. one-way anova showed that there were no significant differences among the level of foreign language anxiety of preparatory school students from different universities. in addition to considering anxiety in a gender differences t-test showed that female students have been found much more anxious than mail students in foreign language anxiety. 1. introduction foreign language anxiety is the fear or negative emotional reaction occurring when a learner is expected to perform in the foreign language (oxford, 1999; macintyre, 1999). anxiety is a complex psychological construct consisting of many variables; therefore, it is difficult to explain these variables into a single definition (sellers, 2000). sovel defines anxiety as fear or concern towards something or uncertainty (sovel, 1991, p:13). in the literature, it is seen that foreign language anxiety has been generally defined as "tension during second language learning" (macintyre and gardner, 1994, p. 284). many studies have revealed that anxiety complicates language learning. according to horwitz (1996) language anxiety includes many variables such as beliefs, negative self-perception, and feelings. the researchers have analyzed various variables that may affect a learner’s foreign language learning. affective variables are really useful in the way that explains the difficulties encountered in learning a foreign language. the affective variables include motivation orientations, learning strategies and anxiety states of the learners (dörnyei, 2003). according to macintyre and gardner (1989) that language learners do not originally have anxiety when they start learning. anxiety is developed in the course of language learning. it is a “learned emotional response”. a teacher does not immediately see anxious learners in the first meeting with a class. it occurs inside the students after starting to form impressions and attitudes towards language learning. if students’ first impressions about language learning are negative, anxiety may begin to form. it is claimed by macintyre and gardner (1989) that the negative effects of language anxiety disappear as proficiency increases and more positive experiences begin to accumulate. in their investigation they search the reason of anxiety not in the student but in the language learning experience, which indicates that the teacher of anxious students may be doing something unnatural leading the development of anxiety in his/her students. according to horwitz (1991); in general, students may experience disappointment in a foreign language they do not know exactly, especially when they try to speak. students may experience some difficulties with this situation. in such cases, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3122-2592 42 involuntary actions such as stuttering, trembling, or rejection of speech can be observed in the students with anxiety. according to wilson (2006); the most important power that affects anxiety is the students' beliefs. students may feel anxious if they have a negative bias about language learning. according to gaudry and spielberger (1971) anxiety level can be determined in a variety of ways; such as verbal reports, psychological indications and general behaviour. “a student may refuse to make a speech of thanks to a distinguished visitor who has addressed the school assembly. the reluctant speaker may state that he refused to take on task because he gets so nervous in such situations that he has great difficulty in marshalling his thoughts. or he may state that he shakes and trembles so much that he becomes incapable of commencing or completing his speech”(gaudry and spielberger, 1971). while observing the classrooms nearly in all language classes there are a few test-anxious ones who can be easily noticed. these students mostly feel that anything except from a good grade from a test is a failure. also test-anxious students experience more difficulty in language classes than other classes as there are lots of tests and quizzes. in the literature, it was stated that the anxiety of learning foreign languages was based on communication, exam anxieties and fear of negative evaluation. rather, it is a distinct complex of students' attitudes, beliefs, emotions and behaviors towards the unified language learning process (horwitz & cope, 1986). according to macintyre (1999), the high level of fl anxiety affects success in learning a foreign language. "what can be done to reduce students' anxiety collectively?" a lot of research has been done since the early 1980s to answer this question (horwitz, 2001). 2. literature review 2.1. anxiety and language learning many students with a lack of self-confidence are more anxious than other students. they are concerned about the criticism and the negative evaluation of their classmates. negative verbal communication that may occur between students is their most important causes of stress (ellis, 1994; frantzen & magnan, 2005; koch &terrell, 1991; matsuda & gobel, 2004; young, 1991). horwitz and his colleagues have developed a scale for measuring language anxiety. this scale is known as flcas (foreign language classroom anxiety scale). the scale includes three main factors. these; communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation. many researchers have investigated different dimensions or processes of anxiety. some researchers investigated anxiety about foreign language writing skills (daly & miller, 1975; cheng & horwitz & schallert, 1999), some researchers investigated anxiety about foreign language reading skills (saito & garza & horwitz, 1999), some investigated anxiety about foreign language listening (kim, 2000; vogely, 1998 quoted in: pichette, 2009). some students are always in anxiety. even if the teacher wants something simple from them, they feel inadequate and weak. they have a negative bias and defend against the question of the teacher. students with constant anxiety say excuses because they believe they will fail. it strives to prove that these excuses are justified. even if teachers organize non-stressful activities, these students may tend to not participate in these activities(lindgen, 1980). a lot of research has been done to reveal the relationship between anxiety and foreign language learning performance. in their study, macintyre and gardner (1994) have recorded a video while students learned the vocabulary task in french. the anxiety level of the students who were recorded in the video was found to be elevated. they also revealed that their success performance decreased significantly. sparks and colleagues used horwitz's flcas scale in one study. they selected the sample group from university and high school students. they also grouped them with high, average, and low anxiety. they tried to determine whether there is a difference between mother tongue skill and foreign language skill. as a result of the research, those in the low and average anxiety groups performed better in reading and speaking skills than those in the high anxiety group(ganschow, sparks, anderson, javorsky, skinner, & patton, 1994). sparks and ganschow repeat this research in 1996 to a larger sample group. the result of this research supports the first research. they revealed that the group of students with high foreign language anxiety scored lower in measurements such as reading, spelling, speaking, and vocabulary. 2.2. sources of language anxiety young (1991) stated that foreign language anxiety was fed by six powers. these are: 43 1) personal and interpersonal anxieties, 2) learner beliefs about language learning, 3) instructor beliefs about language teaching, 4) instructor-learner interactions, 5) classroom procedures, 6) language testing. students generally tend to compare their abilities with someone else. if the student evaluates his / her ability negatively as a result of the comparison, his/her anxiety level increases (price, 1991). however, if the student has reached a positive evaluation result, this feeling helps her learn foreign languages (macintyre, gardner, & clément, 1997). the student's belief is an important factor in learning a foreign language. in wang's (1998) research; it has been revealed that chinese students believe that learning english is difficult. the students mostly believed that their abilities were insufficient to learn english. students declared that they can learn english if they go to an english speaking country. in 2005, cheng investigated the relationship between teachers' attitudes and students' foreign language learning anxiety. as a result of the study, it was concluded that when the teacher was smiling, patient and comfortable, the level of anxiety of the students is decreased. in addition, the teacher performing the exam without informing revealed that the students increased their anxiety level. in another study, it was done on the way teachers correct students' mistakes. in this research, it turns out that if teachers stop their students speaking to correct their mistakes, they lead to a negative attitude development in students (aydın, 2001). according to von worde (1998); the sources of anxiety are listed below: 1) low self-esteem of students, 2) negative judgments against foreign language learning, 3) relationship between teachers and students, 4) teachers' tendency to constantly correct mistakes during speaking, 5) students are inadequate preliminary preparation, 6) teachers reflect their concerns to students, 7) frequent trial exams, 8) use of inappropriate education method, 9) speaking activities without motivating students. 2.3. measuring language anxiety there are three different methods to measure anxiety. these are; behavioral observation: it is based on measuring the actions of a person; physiological tests: it is based on measuring the physiological symptoms in the person; self reports: based on collecting information about people's concerns with a data collection tool. the self-reports method is easier to use in anxiety data collection than other methods. for this reason, the self-reporting method is frequently used by researchers (scovel, 1991). horwitz et al. in 1986 have developed a scale to measure students' anxiety to learn foreign languages. this scale consists of 33 items in total. while developing this scale, the authors assumed that students' perceptions, emotions, beliefs, and behaviors affect foreign language learning performance. 2.4. gender and efl anxiety wilson (2006) conducted a research with the participation of 40 learners. he examined the relationship between students' foreign language anxiety and variables such as age, gender and time to start learning english. as a result of the research, it was revealed that female students are more concerned than male students. when the literature is analyzed, there are very few studies on foreign language learning anxiety by gender. in the research of aydın and takkaç (2007), the anxiety scale was applied to 114 students. as a result of the research, a meaningful relationship was found between gender and test anxiety in the context of distrust, discomfort and negative motivation caused by test anxiety. no significant relationship could be detected in other dimensions. in some studies, female students compared to male students it was determined that he had higher levels of foreign language anxiety (daly, kreiser & rogharr, 1994; onwuegbuzie, bailey & daley, 1997). in berger and shechter's (1996) research, it was determined that “female students are more vulnerable in situations of anxiety and discomfort than male students. 3. methodology 3.1. significance of study in the research foreign language learning anxiety among low intermediate level efl students were measured. also, it aims to find out if there are any differences between genders. identifying the anxiety levels of preparatory school students’ will help them to decrease anxiety levels before attending to their own department. the results of the research can help educators better understand their students' anxieties. it can also provide insight into whether student anxiety varies by gender and school. 44 3.2. research questions the study aims to find answers to the following questions: 1. are there any differences between the students of different schools in foreign language anxiety? 2. are there any significant differences between genders in foreign language anxiety? 3. are there any significant difference between the genders in terms of foreign language learning anxiety on the basis of the schools in which they are educated? 3.3. setting this research was carried out in the academic year 2017-2018. this research was conducted in three universities: anadolu university, osmangazi university and dumlupınar university. the participants of this study were drawn from among efl students enrolled in preparatory classes. a total of 300 students were surveyed. as a result of the evaluation of the questionnaires, 18 questionnaires were eliminated by the researcher. a total of 282 questionnaires were taken into consideration. 3.4. instruments flcas was developed by horwitz et al. (1986). there are three main factors in this assumption: communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation. considering these factors, a person's anxiety to learn a foreign language is determined. flcas was translated into turkish by aydın (2001). the scale consists of 33 items. this scale is in the form of a 5-point likert scale. the scale includes a total of 24 positive expressions and 9 negative expressions. during the analysis, negative expression values were reversed. cronbach alpha measure was found 0.87. 3.5. data collection the relevant data for this study was collected in the spring term in 2017-2018 academic years. the precautions were taken in order to administrate the applications of scale. to distribute the questionnaire (flcas) to the participants, permission was taken from anadolu university, osmangazi university and dumlupinar universitiy. the students were informed in detail before applying the flcas. during the application students filled the blanks of scale in teachers’ room. after the application the researcher thanked to students for their contributions to the research. 4. data analysis, findings and results first of all, the statistical analyses were done according to ‘statistical package for the social sciences (spss 18, 0 for windows)’. the collected data was analyzed by using the statistical techniques below. the overall scores of flcas were calculated in order to answer whether there are any significant statistical differences between universities. therefore, in this section it was used the one-way anova. primary hypotheses were tested and normal distribution criteria were provided before the administration of one-way anova. the levene test was used to identify whether there were significant differences between groups of variance. if the statistics of levene test is more than 05 it indicates the homogenous of variance groups. (field, 2005). also, the overall scores of flcas were calculated in order to answer whether there were any significant statistical differences between genders. therefore, in this section it was used the independent samples and ttest were used and the homogenous of variance were measured by levene test. 4.1. findings this section includes descriptions of the sample group, answers to the research questions, and findings. table 1. gender * university cross-tabulation university name total anadolu dumlupına r osmangazi gender female count 48 49 35 132 % within gender 36,4% 37,1% 26,5% 100,0 % male count 51 49 50 150 45 % within gender 34,0% 32,7% 33,3% 100,0 % total count 99 98 85 282 % within gender 35,1% 34,8% 30,1% 100,0 % a total of 99 students from anadolu university participated in the research. 48 of them are women and 51 of them are men. a total of 98 students from dumlupınar university participated in the research. 49 of them are women and 49 of them are men. a total of 85 students from osmangazi university participated in the study. 35 of them are women and 50 of them are men. research question 1: are there any differences between the students of different schools in foreign language anxiety? in order to, find out whether there were any significant differences among the three preparatory schools students in foreign language anxiety, the one-way anova was conducted in table 2. table 2. flcas scores according to universities the resources of variance total sum of squares sd average of squares f p among groups in groups total 517,841 92588,318 93106,160 2 279 281 258,921 331,858 ,780 ,459 as seen from table 2, in the one-way analysis of variance, no significant difference was found between the groups. [f (2-279) =0.780, p >,05]. it can be said that there is no significant difference between the foreign language learning anxiety of students studying in different universities. in other words, the p-value was higher than 0.05, which means there were no significant differences among the level of foreign language anxiety of preparatory school students from different universities. research question 2: are there any significant differences between genders in foreign language anxiety? in order to, find out whether there were any significant differences between genders in the foreign language anxiety of the preparatory schools students, the independent samples t-test was conducted in table 3. after using the levene test it was found that there was the homogeneous of variance [f= 1.42, p> .05]. table 3. flcas scores according to gender gender n x s sd t p female 132 98,96 18,69 280 3,78 .000 male 150 90,93 16,94 as seen from table 3, according to the gender variable, foreign language learning anxiety differs significantly. [t (280) = 3,78, p< .01]. total average scores of students’ foreign language anxiety in females (x = 98, 96) are more than males (x = 90, 93). it can be said that female students are more anxious than male students. research question 3: are there any significant difference between the genders in terms of foreign language learning anxiety on the basis of the schools in which they are educated? one-way anova was performed to find out whether there is a significant difference between the genders according to the school in which foreign language anxiety is studied. the result of this analysis is shown in table 4 and table 5. 46 table 4. distribution of variables descriptives n mean std. deviation std. error 95% confidence interval for mean min max lower bound upper bound anadolu (f) 48 99,04 21,456 3,096 92,81 105,27 48,00 138,00 anadolu (m) 51 92,37 17,835 2,497 87,35 97,38 53,00 129,00 dumlupınar (f) 49 99,51 17,338 2,476 94,53 104,49 53,00 130,00 dumlupınar (m) 49 86,16 14,870 2,124 81,89 90,43 51,00 111,00 osmangazi (f) 35 98,08 16,882 2,853 92,28 103,88 54,00 124,00 osmangazi (m) 50 94,14 17,216 2,434 89,24 99,03 60,00 124,00 total 282 94,69 18,202 1,083 92,55 96,82 48,00 138,00 table 5. results of one way anova analysis sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups (combined) 6302,620 5 1260,524 4,008 ,002 linear term weighted 16,738 1 16,738 ,053 ,818 deviation 6285,881 4 1571,470 4,997 ,001 within groups 86803,540 276 314,506 total 93106,160 281 as a result of the analysis, there is a significant difference between the groups (sig <, 05). post-hoct tukey test was performed to determine which groups these differences were. as a result of the analysis, it was determined that the foreign language anxiety levels of dumlupınar university preparatory class male students is significantly different from female students at their own universities and other universities were. it has been determined that dumlupınar university preparatory class male students have lower anxiety levels than the others. 5. discussion in this study, foreign language learning anxiety level was analyzed in terms of gender. as a result of the research, it was determined that female students were significantly more anxious than male students. the result of the study reached similar conclusions with the research of daly et al. (1994), berger and shechte, onwuegbuzie et al. (1997), huang's (2004), wilson (2006). when the details of the study were examined, dumlupınar university male students' foreign language anxiety level score was found to be the lowest. a detailed study should be conducted on the beliefs, emotions and behaviors of these students. besides, how these students perceive the teaching method, what kind of teaching method is made, the approach style of the teachers should be examined. when an accurate analysis is made, it can be determined in which situations the anxiety of learning a foreign language is low. thus, the authorities can come up with new solutions to increase foreign language learning success. 6. conclusions the current study has examined to what extent foreign language anxiety influence language learners. 1. there were no significant differences among the level of foreign language anxiety of preparatory students from different universities. 2. there were significant differences between genders in foreign language anxiety level of preparatory school’s students from different universities. foreign language anxiety in female students is higher than mail students. references 1. aida, y. 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(1991). creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: what does language anxiety research suggest? modern language journal, 75, 426–439. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericdocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1b/56/64.pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericdocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1b/56/64.pdf 33 assessment of environmental noise in cities, a theoretical approach daniel isaí gonzález gómez ¹ rebeca de haro mota ²* susana marceleño flores ³ ¹ universidad autonoma de nayarit, academic unit of agriculture, daniel_31187@hotmail.com ² universidad autonoma de nayarit, academic unit of agriculture, deharo@uan.edu.mx *correspondent author. ³ universidad autonoma de nayarit, academic unit of agriculture, susana.marceleno@uan.edu.mx article history: submission 24 august 2020 revision 24 september 2020 accepted 18 november 2020 available online 31 december 2020 keywords: city, pollution, map, environmental noise. a b s t r a c t environmental noise is a major problem with increasing presence in cities; its effects are not only assimilated into the environment, but also impact on human health. noise sources are part of the city's daily life and it has not yet been given due attention, although prolonged exposure causes often irreversible physiological and psychosomatic damage. this paper presents a theoretical approach from several authors that expose the different tools that can be used the measurement and evaluation of environmental noise. these authors, to explain the causes and effect of environmental noise in cities consider various variables such as: sound pressure levels, weather conditions and urban structure. 1. introduction cities are strategic spaces for societies to move towards sustainable development. according to the world bank today (2020), about 55% of the world's population, or 4.2 billion people, live in cities. the quality of life of the inhabitants of a city is closely linked to its environment, however, all cities face a worrying environmental degradation, with high levels of pollution (eclac and un-habitat, 2017). a report issued by the world health organization (who) indicates that environmental noise is the second leading cause of disease due to environmental reasons, behind air pollution and not only as an environmental nuisance, but also a public health problem of the modern world (fritschi, brown, kim, schwela, & kephalopoulos, 2011), as it generates cardiovascular disease and contributes to harmful effects on the health and well-being of the population (podor & borsfoldinagy, 2018). who (2011) recognizes that the acoustic quality of the city's sound environment is not simply an aspect of the urban environment, but a public health problem. exposure to environmental noise, meanwhile, causes physiological and psychosomatic damage often irreversible to more than 120 million people worldwide and 13 million in the member countries of the organization for economic cooperation, oecd (birgitta, lindval, & schwela, 1999). in 2002, the european parliament defined the concept of environmental noise as that unwanted or harmful external sound generated by human activities, including noise emitted by means of transport, by road, rail and air traffic and by industrial activity sites ("directive 2002/49/ec", 2002). noise-generating sources are part of the daily life of the city, however, due attention has not been paid to environmental noise pollution because its effect is not immediate (garcía rodríguez, 2006). the world health organization (who, 2011), in the burden of disease from environmental noise report warns that the civilization of noise is in the face of health, and although the excess sound that alters normal environmental conditions in a given area is not cumulative or transferred, it has a serious impact on people's quality of life if not adequately controlled. http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 mailto:daniel_31187@hotmail.com mailto:deharo@uan.edu.mx mailto:susana.marceleno@uan.edu.mx https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2729-8604 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6067-4013 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0430-8128 34 faced with this challenge, several countries have made efforts to regulate the allowable maximum noise emission limits in the environment through regulatory regulatory frameworks on noise pollution. that is why it is necessary to quantify the level of noise emissions in cities. the aim of this paper is to highlight common methods of environmental noise assessment. by studying the level of environmental noise pollution in cities through the sound pressure level, updated information on the existing noise situation would be generated based on a noise indicator, indicating places where there is excess of any relevant limit value in force, the number of people affected or the number of dwellings exposed to certain values of a noise indicator, for decision-making. 2. addressing the problem of noise pollution related to environmental noise in the world, different studies have been carried out to approach the problem represented by noise, where the affected or exposed population has been characterized, works with empirical or simplified approaches, identifying sources and making maps. an assessment of urban environmental noise was carried out in the la candelaria neighborhood, located in the interior of the municipality of medellín, colombia. the information was processed in the spss 11.0 program and information was obtained through surveys on the degree of noise disturbance, noise sources and days and times of increased noise presence. sound pressure levels were measured in this neighbourhood and compared to the permissible limits set out in resolution 8321 of 1983. a 200 meter by 200 metre rettier mesh was used for the selection of measuring points, superimposed on the prado neighbourhood, and the center of each grid was determined as a measuring point; measurements were made at each point on wednesdays, fridays and sundays for 12 continuous hours, from 7 am to 7 pm. these points were located near the facades of the houses, not less than one meter from any reflective surface, with the microphone in the direction of the public roads and between 3 and 4 meters high above ground level; in addition, the weather conditions and other standards in this regard provided for in colombian regulations and the international organization for standardization (iso 1996) were taken into account. measurements were made with a quest q-100 dosimeter. the data obtained by the dosimeter was processed in excel, then in a geographic information system by interpolating three points noise maps of the prado neighborhood were obtained. (ortega & cardona, 2005). in the city of cartagena, colombia, the determination of noise levels was made in the second section of transcaribe. measurements were made at four different times (10:00 am, 11:00 am, 12:00 am and 1:00 pm) for a period of six days with the help of a cel sonometer, model 573; which was used in the environmental measurement mode by octave bands, performing measurement episodes of at least 15 minutes per hour, and recording the values obtained for further processing. measurements were made by installing the equipment on a tripod at 1.5 m high and the equipment was calibrated before and after each measurement day. the continuous sound level of decibels per hour (laeq) and the maximum recorded per hour was recorded. the results were compared to the benchmarks raised by the ministry of environment, housing and territorial development (castro, tirado, & manjarrez, 2007). in the city of lima, a study of noise pollution from vehicle noise was carried out on javier prado avenue, the main road and of greater vehicle congestion. to learn about the impact of the noise, both passers-by and drivers were found along the avenue at 07:00-09:00 and 15:00-19:00 hours. information on noise and noise sources was obtained (santos de la cruz, 2007). environmental noise assessment was carried out in the city of puerto montt, chile, carrying out an empirical study, with noise measurements at different points in the city, and a subjective study on community noise, using a survey. finally, an average annual noise map was developed for the evaluated area of the city, and the perception and degree of discomfort of the environmental noise that the inhabitants have was obtained (lobos vega, 2008). in the city of medellin, colombia, a methodology was developed with the support of geographic information systems to model environmental noise, through a spatial database, called sigcares, a multi-crime spatial analysis model was subsequently designed for the location of the most vulnerable areas and, finally, a noise map was developed in a vulnerable area with leqa values , through a spatial analysis model called signas, developed with the model builder tool of esri's arcgis program (tafur jiménez and castro castro, 2008). the noise produced by motor transport on aguilera street in the historic center of santiago de cuba, cuba, was evaluated. first, the peak time was considered in the day and monitoring was carried out on weekdays. the method consisted of obtaining the noise level with a model cr: 272 cirrus branded integrator sonometer made by british. measurements were made as close to the source; 1.0 m from the street and 1.20 m above the level of the street. wind speed was deemed not to exceed 3 m/s. for the implementation of this method, the dependencies between traffic density (number of vehicles per hour) and statistical levels of 35 acoustic pressure (fajardo-segarra, 2012) were taken into account. a study was conducted on environmental pollution from noise and emissions of particulate matter associated with mobile sources in the pereira dosquebradas conurbation, manizales, colombia, with the aim of analyzing the health relationship with these pollutants. measurements of vehicle flow and environmental noise were performed at three sites of interest for vehicle congestion. from this data, models were developed to estimate environmental noise from vehicle flow conditions and two simulation models are proposed bringing out characteristics of population growth dynamics, vehicle flow and possible emissions of particulate matter, to estimate the potential effect on health and induced costs associated with pollution. (morales pinzón & arias mendoza, 2013). acoustic pollution from fixed and mobile sources was determined on the road to samborondón in ecuador. the extech 407730 – sound level meter sonometer and garmin 60 csx brand gps were used to measure the sound pressure levels of the avenue, while for data collection the automatic scale of the sonometer was programmed, with a "slow" time weighting of one second. the sonometer was located at point 0, at a height of 1.5 m from the ground at each site, three periods were selected based on the high vehicular concurrence of the city; these are: 08:00-12:00 h, 13:0017:00 h and 17:0121:00 h. the results are expressed based on compliance with the regulations permissible according to the tulas and the percentage increase between the day and night period (guijarro peralta, terán narváez, & valdez gonzález, 2015). the level of noise pollution of vehicular origin was evaluated in the town of chapinero, bogota, colombia, performing measurements of vehicular noise on the intersections with the highest vehicle flow 36 x 2 samples of 10 minutes were taken, time that was defined, from a presampling, as sufficient to stabilize the continuous equivalent level (laeq). measurements were carried out during peak hours during working days, without rain and with dry pavement. an integrative type ii sonometer equipped with a windproof display, with a and slow weights, located on a tripod at 1.2 m high, 1 m from the track and more than 2 meters from the facades, pointing to the center of the intersection. the descriptors evaluated included the continuous (laeq), maximum (lmáx), minimum (lmín) and 10th (l10) and 90 (l90) percentiles equivalent levels.on the information gathered, descriptive statistics were carried out that were confronted with national regulations (resolution no. 627 of 2006; mavdt 2006) contemplating land use in each station. additionally, two averages comparison tests were conducted through student's t-statistic to compare the sound pressure level (noise) with the presence and absence of buses, and between morning and afternoon measurements. the indicators of intensity laeq/lnorma, variability l10 / l90 and risk (fuzzy conjunction of the previous two) were also calculated, proposed by ramírez (2011; cited by gonzález, antonio, & calle, 2015) using the programs spss v.15, kyplot v.2.0, matlab and past v. 1.89. noise pollution was assessed in the historic center of matamoros city, tamaulipas, mexico, in two stages; the first was to assess noise levels and the second stage collected information on people's perception of environmental noise. all fieldwork was carried out from monday to friday. for the assessment of noise levels, a 50 m long reticular mesh by 50 m wide was drawn on a plane, covering a total of 139 km2. the screen in the plane determined a total of 75 points for the development of the measurements. for data collection in relation to noise levels, five different periods were determined at one-hour intervals at each point, within a 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. for the measurement of noise levels, the sonometers were located 3 m from any facade that could reflect the sound; at the height of 1.5 m. the equipment used were integrator sonometers type i, brand quest technologies, model sound pro se/dl. acoustic calibrators of the same brand, model qc-10/qc-20 were used each start and end of each measurement day. these equipment were programmed to provide measurements in a-weight and low rapid response (f), obtaining the following units of measurement: laeqt, maximum sound level (lmax), minimum sound level (lmin) and data recovery was through questsuit professional ii software. with the laeqt value calculated in each hour the daytime sound level (ld) was determined for a period of 10 h, which is obtained by integrating the five samples obtained from each interval (zamorano gonzález, peña cárdenas, parra sierra, velázquez narváez, & vargas martínez, 2015).. the second part of the study was to assess people's perception of environmental noise pollution. an adaptation of the questionnaire "assessment of urban noise" (barrigón, et al., 2002b) was used for this purpose. a noise map was developed in the urban area of the city of cuenca, ecuador, using the ordinary kriging geostatistical interpolation technique. the study proceeded with the determination of sampling sites based on traffic density, then recorded environmental noise measurements and subsequently systematized and evaluated the information raised through the statistical method "ordinary kriging" (delgado & martinez, 2015). a simplified method was evaluated and applied to generate a traffic noise map of the city of valdivia, chile. experimental design involved simplifying cartographic information in 36 buildings by grouping houses into a block, and classifying vehicle traffic flows into categories to generate a low-cost noise map. the streets were classified according to the official road classification of the country. the segregation of light, heavy and motorbike vehicles was done to account for the flow of traffic. in addition, a number of traffic noise models were compared with many measurements, and therefore the rls-90 road traffic model was chosen to generate the city noise map using computer-aided noise reduction (cadnaa) software. the methodology developed in this study seems to be desirable in developing countries to obtain accurate approximations to develop low-cost traffic noise maps (bastián-monarch, suarez, & arenas, 2016). a noise map was produced for the metropolitan area of mexico city (zmvm), the noise maps in the azcapotzalco delegation and the specific case study of the hidalgo garden. the process involved the collection of data in situ, equipped with a general sound level meter to obtain the leq and laeq parameters, in a minimum period of five minutes based on iso 1996-1:2003 for mexico; the construction of simulation models on noise maps, based on urban, geographic and statistical information; field data validation dentre; simulation model with the use of the cadnaa specialist programme and the prediction of results (rodríguez, garay, lancón, & gerardo, 2016). the spatial characteristics of road traffic noise were analyzed at morning, afternoon and evening weather intervals on different road networks in dhanbad city, india. the basic instrument for recording noise levels was a bruel & kjaer 2238 integration sound meter and for noise contour maps the arcgis version 10.3 geographic information system (debnath & singh, 2018) was used. exposure to noise of vulnerable population groups in the city of barcelona, spain, was assessed. the assessment of noise levels was carried out using two methods of analysis, real measurements and simulation, long-term measures were made, with a minimum duration of 24 hours, and short-term measures, with a minimum duration of 15 minutes, highlighting the sources causing and giving a typology to the streets. a fourth lden index was also calculated as recommended by directive 2002/49/ec (lagonigro, martori, & apparicio, 2018). a method was developed to assess a population exposed to urban traffic in the main urban area of guangzhou, china. the method was based on points of interest (pois) and the execution of a cluster analysis for regions according to the properties of the pois, with the functional regions of environmental noise (nfr) of the urban area presented. then the surrounding pois were used to infer the type of buildings, and according to the attraction of the different types of buildings and the entire population of the region, the distribution of the population was calculated at the level of the building. (wang, chen, & cai, 2018). the level of exposure of the population to traffic noise was evaluated in the pinheiros neighborhood, located in the municipality of sao paulo, brazil. the study was conducted in two parts: 1) noise assessment, with the creation of neighborhood noise maps under study, and 2) the application of a questionnaire to determine the perception of neighborhood residents about the effects of this exhibition (mary paiva, alves cardoso, & trombetta zannin, 2019). 3. conclusions the regulation of asset confiscation sanctions in the kup law, based on the type that the tax crime is a white collar crime, so that in law enforcement there must be resistance against the perpetrators by adding sanctions of asset confiscation in the kup law in order to create a deterrent effect and benefit. alternative assets confiscation in the kup act can be through the model of criminal base forfeiture (cb) and non-criminal base forfeiture (nsb), as stated in law number 31 of 1999 jo law number 20 of 2001 concerning eradication of corruption crime by placing seizure assets as additional crimes, as well as the state can still make a civil suit against perpetrators of criminal acts of corruption. considering the huge state loss caused by this tax crime, a strategy to save state losses is needed, both in the level of investigation, prosecution and execution stage. for example, a country can still conduct a civil suit if the suspect dies during an investigation, prosecution or execution. methods like this have not been regulated in the kup law. though this method is very important considering the state is very dependent on taxes in developing the country. asset saving model in the future kup act can be through cb and nsb, considering the state is very dependent on taxes, so efforts to save assets due to criminal acts must also be extraordinary. for example, in law number 31 of 1999 jo law number 20 of 2001 concerning eradication of corruption crimes includes articles to pursue and save state financial losses including by conducting a civil suit if the suspect/defendant dies before the case is decided by a judge. even the state can still file a lawsuit against the property of a convicted person obtained from the results of a criminal act of corruption, if the assets are found later and have not been seized when the case has been decided by a judge. references 1. arellano avelar, m. a., orozco medina, m. g., preciado caballero, n. e., & figueroa montaño, a. 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(2015). contaminación por ruido en el centro histórico de matamoros. acta universitaria, 25(5), 20–27. http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=41642117003 39 the impact of digitalisation on human resources development ardelin lumi university of prishtina “hasan prishtina”, faculty of economic, ardlin.lumi@gmail.com article history: submission 08 august 2020 revision 12 september 2020 revision 22 september 2020 accepted 05 november 2020 available online 31 december 2020 keywords: hrm, digitalisation, artificial intelligence, process, technology. a b s t r a c t the paper is a summary of the studies conducted by several authors on the impact of digitalisation on human resource management. in the paper the filtering is done by classifying the authors according to the data and results. the first division presents a general summary of the positive and negative aspects of digitalisation in hrm processes. the second section talks about the impact of digitalisation on the recruitment process, its impact on the recruitment process, the changes which happened in the improvement aspects. the latest part emphasizes the impact of digitalisation on the training and development process, on the importance of digitalisation in training in this case in the hotels’ sector. the literature used in the paper is mainly taken from prestigious journals to increase the quality of the paper, as well as geographical filtering of the works which has been done in this relation, taking works by authors from different countries. digitalisation is one of the essential processes of technological change, changes that affected every hrm process. the drastic changes made in human resources have created and accelerated many other changes in hr processes. most authors point out that digitalisation and technological developments have created an ever-changing era, some of them emphasize the importance of digitalisation at work, and some others think that the hrm course has changed completely. russian authors discuss the impact of the digitalisation process on employees by discussing the aspect of negative sides. nevertheless, all the authors agree that digitalisation and technological change are inevitable and that investing in this aspect is indisputable. as the world rotates, everything is in motion. 1. introduction the world is continually changing, every moment circumstances change (situation, environment, technology, etc.), any change affects the organization, whether in decision making or any area of the organization's management. we are witnessing enormous changes brought by technology hence creating a completely different flow; it changed the approach and business prospects. in fact, every day we have a fusion of technology within every sphere of life, in every day more and more we adapt our daily actions according to these changes, and as a result, technology facilitates our life in general. this made it one of the most current and studied topics continuously. any organization tends to have in its ranks people with the right skills and abilities to perform the certain tasks, but this is only one of many requirements of the hr department. an obvious problem in all organizations today is the human resources management, the maintenance of the employees, fluctuation stoppage, evaluation etc. today organizations use advanced methods and systems for human resource management. the impact of technology especially the information technology is very emphasized in the economy knowledge where information is the primary input. human resource management has changed over the years from the traditional style of hr creating a human resources strategy, to the impact of technology on improving the quality of human resource performance. 2. literature review about the impact of digitalisation in human resources development http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8464-7957 40 regarding the impact of digitalisation on human resource development have been conducted several essential research papers by various authors. researchers have generally tried to identify the importance of digitalisation in increasing employee performance as well as the growth of effectiveness of the work they perform. alena federova, anastasia zarubina, yulia pikulina, aleskey moscovskikh, tatiana balandina, tatiana gafurova in their research digitalisation of the human resource management highlight the fact that: digitalisation, automation, and robotization have a significant impact on labour market transformation. new technologies are changing the usual functionality of workers in various professional fields. digital tools are introduced in business processes, including human resources management processes (federova, alena zarubina, anastasia pikulina, yulia moscovskikh, aleskey balandina, tatiana gafurova, tatiana, 2019). jane indira ja emphasizes that: digitalisation is a tool that speeds up the communication process by reducing cost, and helping organizations be more productive and work more efficiently and be more effective. (indira, jane, 2020). jeroen meijerinka, mark boonsb, anne keeganc and janet marlerd found that: hrm is affected indirectly from how digitalisation developments may affect the future of work. digital technologies will change the organization and nature of work (meijerinka, jeroen boonsb, mark keeganc, anne marlerd, janet, 2018). camila bengston, moa bloom found that: perceptions of changing customer preferences are only a small fraction when viewed through a wider lens, as digitization changes general human behaviour; it gives the sense that everyone is affected (bengsston, camila bloom, moa, 2017). deotima saha and deepika pandita in their research found that: employees of the industrial revolution known to be manual workers and those of the information age as employees of knowledge, employees in today's technological era are a new type of generation known as native digital (saha, dontima deepika, pandita, 2017). pratyush tripathi found that: e-hrm allows all performance appraisals to be done online, on the corporate web interface. this means that the manager and employee can submit performance data directly to the human resources department in electronic form. this practice, although is criticized for lack of written evidence, reduces paperwork. receipts are used for both directors and supervisors, and they can significantly reduce time and cost for the hrm department (tripathi, pratyush, 2013). digitalisation is a natural development at work. the digital office covers all the technologies that people use to work both currently in operations. (aradhna, yadav jacob, alexander veenam shenoy, 2007). digitalisation in human resource management helps enterprises to modernize human resource functions and provides them with a competitive advantage (anastasiia mazurchenko, kateřina maršíková, 2019). alena federova and olga koropets in their publication digitalisation of human resource management practices and its impact on employee wellbeing among others found: according to that, the following data are taken. the majority of respondents (86%) fear work stoppages associated with sudden power outages and "freezing" of computer equipment; 52.6% of respondents fear that the elderly will lose their jobs due to difficulties in mastering new technologies; 17.5% of respondent’s point to the high cost of new technologies and low-quality software they use. the risk of unemployment due to robotization worries 21% of respondents; 14% indicated potential risks of damaging database loss. there have also been individual concerns about the degradation of thinking ("a computer will think of us and our thinking will degrade"), a negative impact on the ability to express our thoughts grammatically and synthetically correctly, and the fear of the fall of "humanity" in the social sphere. (federova, alena koropets, olga, 2019). table 1. an example of a narrative analysis of the thematic core "potential concerns about the introduction of information and communication technologies in organization of work). concerns keywords quotes technology malfunction electrical energy, glitches program, technical errors, freezing, e impossible for him "i work as a teacher. devices can fail at any time, computer can be turned off, an energy failure can occur, and animation will not work due to change in-office program. therefore, it is not a fact that the classic board is not useful. "only you have to turn off the electricity, and all the work in our office is on paralyzed.” 41 worked unappropriate quality of equipment cost, price, quality of small software, quality equipment “the quality of the equipment is not always adequate; our organization cannot afford expensive equipment and high quality software. " "unfortunately, for the full digitalisation of work, there are no programs qualitative enough. the ones that work available slowly and freeze.” difficulties in possession technology faced the elderly retirement age skills difficulties for mastery, the elderly, adaptation of pensioners, adult generation "the elderly will find it harder and harder to find one job because they have little in terms of digital skills. " "the adult generation does not adhere to technologies (given the growth of retirement age, it is difficult to adapt)" unemployment for due to extinction of works robotization of job losses, eradication of unemployment professions "robotics threatens the extinction of several recruitment functions." "i am afraid that a number of professions will disappear because of robotics and digitalisation, and i will have nowhere to work. " loss risk of data hackers, data loss, data theft of personal information "in our work, there is always the risk of data retaliation, theft of copyright technologies. "once, an employee in our office, when fired, copied the client base for his personal use and it was not possible to prove anything. " source: federova, alena koropets,olga, digitalisation of human resource management practices and its impact on employees’ well-being, 2019. according to deloitte of this year study, only 38% of companies are even thinking about digital hr, and only 9 % are fully ready. nearly three-quarters of companies, or 72 %, believe this is a significant priority, and 32 % identify it as very important so that it will be a large area of opportunity for hr in 2016. see the figure 1 for our survey respondents' estimates. the importance of digital hr in global regions and selected numbers. 42 figure 1. digita hr: percentage of respodents rating this trend “important” or “very important”. source: digital transformation and its impact on organizations’ human resource management eshan and binoy (2018) in their work emphasize that digitalisation has a great impact on the recruitment process and on the training-development of the workforce: 1.1 digitalisation in recruitment: recruitment and selection are the first and most important functions of hrm. the hrm process starts with the recruitment, followed by the completion of the selection of the candidate. now the global human resource employment revolution has become easy and cost-effective due to the online social network. electronic recruitment is designed to make the recruitment process more efficient and effective. the candidate can complete their necessary information (resume) name, email, experience, qualifications and skills after completing all the details that the candidate can upload the resume. the company recruitment team will shortlist, and they will inform the candidate again. even with the help of digitalisation, many companies use social media platforms like facebook, linkedin, skype (video conferencing) etc. 1.2 digitalisation in training and development: is one of the constituent parts of the star hotel industry. proper training and development provided to employees will lead to the success in the goals and objectives of the organisation. in the past, hotel training and development took place through demos, lectures, book references, which took time usually time and effort for management to engage staff in training and development. however, due to digitalisation in training and development, the human resources department has moved forward. modern technology which has been used like displaying work-related videos, online courses, computerised learning methods, reading through soft copies has revolutionised teaching techniques. once the employee joins the hotel, management creates employee documentation and creates a personalised account for that employee. all sops (standard operating procedures) of hotel operations are stored on the computer, and any employee who feels difficult in performing the work can refer to the sop fed into the system and move forward with his tasks. (mr.eshan, dr.binoy, 2018). author pranjali gagali in another research, pays attention to the impact of digitalisation on social networks as well as its significant impact, which has managed to bring a new reform in business. in recent years, digitalisation has deepened confidence in data analytics, social networking, and mobile technologies, and has dramatically reformed the role of communication in business. to take advantage of technological advances towards stakeholder engagement as well as adaptation to digital transformation, some organisations have taken substantial steps to develop a strategic framework for organisational priorities. business executives have played a vital role in including paradigms by fostering newer perspectives on human communication, reducing functional hierarchies, and supporting the engagement of internal and external stakeholders. it is clear that while digitalisation has brought many challenges, it has also allowed organisations to reformulate their public image, build meaningful value-based dialogue on public platforms, and strengthen their objectives through a well-designed function, of human resource management (pranjali galgali, 2018). author volker stein on digitisation states that; taking a closer look at digitalisation, it is defined as the digital representation of signals, information and objects in binary code, enabling computer processing as underlying technology and propulsion of convergence between technological applications of different application fields. digitalisation has penetrated all spheres of today's business world or contemporary automated manufacturing. in terms of flow effects, it also offers benefits to traditional spheres by making more effective and efficient resources available. industry 4.0 (cyber system), the internet of 43 things or ubiquitous computing make it a digital megatrend. nevertheless, digitalisation also has a dark side, as it created new inequalities between individuals, social groups, organisations and nations over digitalisation infrastructure, investment in technology equipment and digitalisation capabilities the socalled "digital divide" (volker stein, 2015). meanwhile, according to the e-commerce europe report for eastern europe, the lowest level of e-commerce business use among european countries is observed in eastern european countries. in 2012, e-commerce turnover in the emerging economies of russia, bulgaria, romania and other countries reached 13.4 billion euros, an increase of 32.6% compared to 2011. the leading country also in terms of population the most promising in the e-commerce market in this part of europe is russia, with a growth of 33%. in 2013, online sales of goods and services across eastern europe were estimated to have reached 19.3 billion euros, which is significantly lower than in western european countries but with an increase from a year ago. (sherifi, idaver, 2015) 3. study purpose and methodology 3.1. study purpose the purpose of this research is to analyse the importance of technology on human resource development, the strengths and weaknesses that arise—seeing that we are living in an age of technology where everything is changing. the impact of technology is irreplaceable always a need for analysis of the impact of technology management. ensuring competitive advantage in the market is one of the main challenges of organisations, and this priority is made by human resources, their selection, recruitment, management, evaluation is yet another challenge. a connection between these factors is made possible by technology. in the knowledge market, information is the primary source, and this source is easily accessible through the use of technology. for these reasons, analyses on the impact of technology on human resource management are numerous, because technology provides facilities in human resource management. 3.2. study methodology on the methodological aspect of the paper, this paper was prepared using analytical methods with secondary data obtained from previous papers related to the digitalisation process in human resource management. the paper is constructed from secondary, descriptive data and presents a general summary of some papers; the papers are filtered classifying them by similarity. 4. results of secondary data human life and technology are closely linked; technology has been and is continuously making human life more comfortable. there is a strong correlation between them that has revolutionized the economy, leading every process towards digitalisation, creation, transfer, storage, dissemination of information, transcending time limits and reducing costs. providing human resources for companies changed its access, expanded the market, eased access to data, increased performance monitoring and many other things provide digitalisation "new era" and these changes began to become competitive advantages for businesses, providing advantages competitive through human resources. regarding the impact of digitalisation on the development of hr, many researchers have been applying it which emphasizes the importance of digitalisation in some processes in hr, emphasizing the positive and negative sides of digitalisation. a. federova, a. zarubina, y. pikulina, a. moscovskikh, t. balandina, t. gafurova in their research digitalisation of the human resource management pointed out that: digitalisation, automation, and robotization have a significant impact on labour market transformation while j. indira emphasizes that: digitalisation is a tool that speeds up the communication process while reducing costs and helps organizations to be more productive and work more effectively and efficiently. j. meijerinka, m. boonsb, a. keeganc and j. marlerd point out that those digital technologies will change the organization and nature of work. pratyush tripathi found that: e-hrm allows all performance appraisals to be done online, on the corporate web interface. digitalisation in human resource management helps enterprises to modernize human resource functions and provides them with a competitive advantage, emphasizes a. mazurchenko and k. marsikova. all the authors mentioned above have emphasized the importance of digitalisation (technology) in the management process of the hr management process in the transformation of the labour market, process acceleration, communication, efficiency, effectiveness, changing the nature of work, evaluation of performance. all of these are practices already proven by many companies, known as the benefits of digitalisation. all life today is digitalized, but there are groups of people who think differently about digitalisation and its impact. in the research of alena federova and olga koropets digitalisation of human resource management practices and its impact on employee wellbeing among others found: according to the thematic essence "possible concerns regarding the introduction of information and communication / digital technology in the organization of work", the following data were obtained. the majority of respondents (86%) fear work stoppages associated with sudden power outages and "freezing" of computer equipment; 52.6% of respondents fear that the elderly will lose their jobs due to difficulties in mastering new technologies; 44 17.5% of respondents point to the high cost of new technologies and the low-quality software they use. unemployment risk due to robotization worries 21% of respondents; 14% indicated potential risks of damaging database loss. these data from the research of alena federova and koropet conducted in russia show a disturbing fact that not all societies are ready for the digitalisation process. digitalisation also has a dark side, as it created new inequalities between individuals, social groups, organizations and nations over digitalisation infrastructure, investments in technology equipment and digitalisation capabilities the socalled "digital divide" says volker stein. digitalisation in recruitment: recruitment is one of the first and most important processes of hrm. the impact of digitalisation (technology) is more pronounced in this process where the recruitment process has completely changed. mr eshan and dr binoy in their paper emphasize that the candidate can complete their necessary information (resume) name, email, experience, qualifications and skills after completing all the details that the candidate can upload there resume and that most of the companies today use social networks like facebook, linkedin, skype (video conferencing) etc. for recruitment. today there are different platforms in terms of recruitment platforms which thanks to rapid technological developments are continually changing, and it must be said that digitalisation has increased the effectiveness of the recruitment process. digitalisation in training and development: but due to digitalisation in training and development, the human resources department has moved forward. modern technology which has been used as the display of work-related videos, online courses, computerized learning methods, reading through soft copies has revolutionized teaching techniques, says mr eshan and dr binoy in their research on the impact of digitalisation of training and development in the hotel sector by making comparisons with the previous time, where training and development in hotels took place through demos, lectures, book references. while now managers have created accounts on the computer where they store training and where they can serve as a reference for specific problems. 5. critical evaluation the future is often a myth, unpredictable, but we have to be prepared for everything. those who think that they can escape the "new age" are wrong. digitalisation should be understood as a technological process that has already taken place, while the technology itself represents the new human era, which for many societies sees it from a negative perspective because they are not ready for change. it must be understood that adaptation is the primary weapon against change and that some things are inevitable. human nature has always been divided into two camps in terms of technology, the "optimists" who have embraced this change and the "pessimists" who continue to oppose it, but everything has to do with the point of view of how we see things. technology has its impact in every field, be it social, economic or social life itself today is technology, we live in a time when everything is related to technology. nevertheless, nothing can replace the human mind; always, the creator is superior. the world's economy has embraced the spirit of change, where everything is adapted to it, and where change has affected the field of human resources in almost all its processes such as recruitment, selection, performance, training and development, monitoring and processes others. digitalisation has dramatically improved human resource management by making it more efficient and effective by facilitating any process. technology is changing so fast that what gives you an advantage today after a while may be a weakness for you. we can say that technology has broken the essence of time and space, where everything happens in relation to time and space, where the world is more connected than ever. digitalisation has almost completely changed the management of human resources where all processes have been improved were providing the right people for the job is no longer a problem. however, many organisations continue to avoid the digitalisation process, and this penalises them in the market. businesses need to invest more in this aspect. most authors emphasise on digitalisation and technology in general, in internal focus, not once should we use people as tools, the primary basis of an organisation is the people, and the tools are for you to use not people. digitisation is not created to underestimate human being, but to support him/her, to facilitate his/her work. in the business world, everything is a chain link where all processes are interconnected, where the market is the arena (place) of war, where the consumer is the central pillar (target, trophy), where the company is the tool and where the people of the company are the engine its like a race track. 6. conclusions and recommendations 6.1. conclusions the digital transformation of human resource management is completely changing the course of the process, radical changes in technology, automation and digitalisation have changed the traditional form of work, the introduction of artificial intelligence in hrm processes has facilitated problem-solving and automation of some processes. the world economic forum study highlighted the competencies that by 2020 will become the highest priority for employers, namely: the ability to solve complex tasks, critical thinking, creativity, ability to manage people, ability to collaborate with others, emotional intelligence, prudence and decision making, service orientation, negotiation 45 skills, cognitive flexibility (gray, 2016). the correlation that exists between technological processes (digitalisation, automation ..) and hr processes (recruitment, selection, performance ...) is extremely pronounced. radical, rapid change is rapidly increasing the need for an advanced workforce in both its use and adaptation, making this link between digitalisation and human resources a productive power that resists stiff competition and frequent changes. hrm processes have undergone significant changes which continue today, the recruitment and selection process has changed, with digital platforms, international connections, globalization, social networks and many other aspects that have influenced, training and digital forms of communication have shown its importance even in crisis and pandemic situations such as the current covid pandemic situation19. nevertheless, we must not stop discussing the achievements of digitalization, they must be practised, and every innovation every method, successful strategy must be implemented, organizations must allocate funds in terms of technological developments. 6.2. recommendations although much research has been done on the impact of digitalisation and other technological processes on human resource management, the main power of technological developments remains in large organizations, the multinational ones which dominate the global market, due to the financial strength many enterprises cannot invest in these changes and stay out of the market, the transition countries also have significant problems which face difficulties in technological adoptions, therefore the state should support enterprises in this regard. organizers need to share tools and people in the digitization of processes. in the market time is everything, keeping pace with constant change for many 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(2013). digitalisation in performance management. p. 0-72. avaible at: www.ircjournals.com 14 advantages, disadvantages and the performance of foreign direct investment in the republic of kosovo 2008-2019 getoar lubeniqi, phd. c. ¹ ¹agricultural university-plovdiv, faculty of economics, department of economy and management, getoar.lubeniqi@hotmail.com, article history: accepted 11 january 2020 available online 31 april 2020 keywords: republic of kosovo, direct foreign investments, business environment, economic development, doing business. a b s t r a c t economic development is an aspiration for every country in the world including kosovo. foreign direct investment (fdi) plays a very important role in the economic development of kosovo which is in the process of transition. for kosovo, it is essential to have an accelerated pace of economic growth, lower unemployment, higher quality of life, lower demographic migration and lower poverty rates, thus attracting fdi has a direct and very important role to play. although kosovo has a large number of advantages for attracting foreign investment, there are also a number of challenges or disadvantages that are very evident which negatively impact on current and potential investors in the future. based on the data analysis, the overall trend of fdi has declined in recent years, therefore it is very important for kosovo to develop further steps to improve the business climate in kosovo and attract foreign investments. the purpose of this paper is to analyze the performance of fdi in kosovo 2008-2019, to analyze the advantages and disadvantages of doing business in kosovo, to identify where kosovo stands in terms of doing business and what is new for kosovo in a way that improve the business environment and attract foreign investment. to achieve this goal of comparative analysis and identification, the integrative review method was used. 1. introduction given the fact that kosovo is currently facing various problems and obstacles that directly affect the slacke of economic development, fdi plays a very important role for kosovo. kosovo currently has a general lack of financial insufficiency, while on the other hand there is an urgent need to address the unemployment problem and the socio-economic aspect in general. fdi is very important for the state of kosovo and plays a key role in many different aspects, such as new technologies, new capital, positive impact on marketing and management as well as western experience plays a very important role, therefore as a result this would help economic growth, generate new jobs, increase exports and improve the deficit market (shkodra, xhemili, badivuku-pantina 2015, 82). fdi is closely linked to economic growth in different countries and thus fdi plays a very important role for countries in transition such as kosovo and this is due to the great need these transition contries have for attracting fdi and exploiting them effeciently in the most strategic sectors of their respective economies (badivuku-pantina, zogjani 2015, 28). according to ilia kristo (2004), fdi represents the takeover of various investment operations and they represent the influx of many organizations that include international investment. fdi has its positive and negative aspects in the host country. the host country should have a close relationship with foreign investors and should value their contribution to the economy of the country concerned. fdi is followed by positive and negative aspects in a given country. positive aspects consist: 1. capital formation; 2. new technologies; 3. geographic and regional development; 4. entrepreneurship and internal competition; 5. employment. whilst, negative aspects include: 1. individual dominance; 2. mailto:getoar.lubeniqi@hotmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1389-4985 15 technological dependence; 3. economic plan concerns; 4. cultural changes; 5. avoidance of local government. the western balkans consists of 6 countries: north macedonia, kosovo, albania, bosnia and herzegovina, serbia and montenegro which have political, economic and social similarities. western balkan states, including kosovo, have many natural and human resources, but are still not being treated seriously by international investors (jusufi, lubeniqi 2019, 168). however, the impact of the global financial crisis that reached its peak in 2008 has also been transmitted in the reduction of fdi in the western balkans including kosovo, due to the fact that the eurozone countries have been most affected by this crisis and are countries that provide the largest sources of fdi inflows. the emergence of this crisis made these countries face economic hardship and as a result reduced fdi. (badivuku-pantina, alishani 2015, 264) in october 27, 2015, in strasbourg, kosovo signed the stabilization and association agreement. the agreement enables kosovo to liberalize trade with all european union (eu) member states, strengthen regional co-operation by aligning its political and economic preferences with eu member states and implement an appropriate institutional framework in order to increase kosovo's competitiveness. this agreement also includes cooperation between the parties to promote and protect overall investment by focusing on fdi, domestic investment and creating a favorable climate for overall investment, which is very important for kosovo to revitalize its economic development. (group for legal and political studies, 2017). according to world bank group doing business (2019), kosovo is ranked 44th in doing business. while according to world bank country snapshot (2019), kosovo's mediumterm growth outlook is positive, but the country needs to create a sustainable political environment and create a better business climate by attracting investment. in order to attract fdi, kosovo should take the following measures: systematic increase of political stability, fight against corruption, increase of constant contacts with the kosovar diaspora, reduction of bureaucracy, facilitation of administrative procedures, strengthening of the legal environment (riinvest, 2002) this paper is organized into five sections. the first section begins with an introduction. the second section is about the advantages of doing business in kosovo. the third section analyzes the disadvantages of doing business in kosovo. the fourth section analyzes fdi performance for the period 2008-2019. at the end is the section of conclusions. 2. the advantages of doing business in kosovo kosovo has a very favorable and strategic position because it is located in the heart of the balkans. distance to regional countries places kosovo as a very attractive place for attracting fdi and kosovo offers easy access by road, rail and sea ports such as thessaloniki to greece: 329 km, durres to albania: 262 km and bar to montenegro : 299 km (ministry of trade and industry [mti], kosovo investment and enterprise support agency [kiesa]). the recent investments of the republic of kosovo in highways have positioned kosovo as a very attractive place for foreign investments, the highways with albania and northern macedonia have positively impacted the reduction of transport time to three hours and one hour respectively. prishtina international airport contains regular flights and is connected to almost all international countries. the workforce which constitute 65% of the population is considered to be the cheapest in the region, multiethnic country and the knowledge of foreign languages make kosovo very attractive for foreign direct investment (group for legal and political studies, 2017). kosovo is the youngest population in europe, with an average age of 30.2 years. this workforce is well-trained and this makes kosovo attractive to foreign investors. there are a number of aspects that make kosovo attractive for fdi, noting that kosovo had consistently an average gdp growth rate of 3.5% for 20092018. this positive performance is also foreseen for 2019 at the rate of 4.4%, while in 2018 gdp increased 4.1% (kosovo reform and economy program 2019-2021). kosovo's economy has continued to increase above the average of the western balkans after the global financial crisis. gdp per capita increased from us $ 1,088 in 2000 to us $ 4,108 in 2018. (the world bank in kosovo country snapshot, 2019). kosovo has dynamically made efforts to stimulate the formal economy and boost investment, therefore in 2015 kosovo implemented the new fiscal package aimed to promote the formal economy and attracting different investments. this package is also extremely attractive for fdi where corporate income tax of 10% (mti kiesa) is foreseen. in addition, the law on strategic investments that aims to facilitate market access for investors in key sectors has also been ratified: 1. energy with infrastructure and mining; 2. transport and telecommunication; 3. tourism; 4. processing industry; 5. agriculture and food industry; 6. health; 7. industrial and technological parks; 8. wastewater and waste management. the law on strategic investments aims to identify priority sectors that affect economic development, contribute to employment growth, the applying new technologies, increase 16 exports, reduce trade deficits and increase welfare of citizens in general. (strategic investments in the republic of kosovo, 2017). in addition, in kosovo there is a large number of sectors that can attract fdi, a very important sector is information and communication technology (ict), while on the other hand there is a huge investment potential for the metal extraction and processing industry. also, the natural potential is rich with: coal, zinc, ores and lead, therefore all these assets make kosovo very attractive for fdi. (çollaku, 2018). 3. the disadvantages of doing business in kosovo although kosovo has a large number of advantages for attracting foreign investment, there are also a number of challenges or disadvantages that are very evident and which negatively impact on current and potential investors for the future. it is very important for kosovo to develop further steps to improve the climate of doing business in kosovo and attract foreign investment. kosovo is currently very limited in attracting fdi due to poor communication and lack of information sharing with international markets and the international economic environment. unstable political stability, high corruption, lack of transparency, slow reforms to the business environment, poor perception of foreign investors and citizens of the kosovo diaspora are all challenges and disadvantages faced by current and potential foreign investors in kosovo. (group for legal and political studies, 2017). kosovo is currently facing a lack of rule of law and this is a very important aspect of kosovo's position with a bad and unattractive perception for foreign investors (çollaku, 2018). kosovo does not stand well in the informal economy either, which according to southeast european leadership for development and integrity (seldi), (2016) the informal economy is estimated at 31% of the gdp. group for legal and political studies cooperated with the european investors council (eic), (2017), conducted a study with foreign investors operating in kosovo, with the aim of identifying foreign investors' perceptions of investments in kosovo and the climate of doing business in kosovo. the paper will focus on highlighting only the aspect of disadvantages that respondents have highlighted. a total of 16 investors have been randomly selected from european union (eu) and european free association (efta) countries. the survey was conducted during july-september 2016 and the respondents were those investors who started investing after 2000 and after 2005. the disadvantages of the respondents were as follows: table 1. investors perception negative positive neutral infrastructure 37.50% 0 62.50% labor-related matters 12.50% 12.50% 75% political factors 93.75% 0 6.25% rule of law 93.75% 0 6.25% socal factors 18.75% 37.50% 43.75% financing 25% 6.25% 68.75% source: group for legal and political studies -institutional incompetence, weak rule of law, corruptin, weak legislative implementation, frequent legislative changes. -lack of incentives, adequate treatment and security for investitors. -ambiguous and inconsistent regulations, weak contract enforcement -lack of functional administration, incompetent courts, corrupt public procurement, immature guverment -market instability, lack of standards, lack of guverment will towards creating favorable environment, bureaucrycy, ethinic tensions. -clientelism -kosova’s image -education. 17 4. the performance of foreign direct investments in the republic of kosovo 2008-2019 given the positive impact that foreign investments have on the economy, developing countries are interested in attracting fdi. over the last decade, kosovo has been maximally committed to attracting fdi by making various reforms to improve the business environment in order to affect economic growth, increase employment and welfare and aim to reduce poverty. foreign investment during the period 2008-2019 has not been positive. the trend of fdi during this period has steadily declined and this has been due to many factors according to the report (group for legal and political studies, 2017). the decline in fdi has been a result of high corruption, the lack of rule of law, organized crime, and the unstable political stability facing kosovo, while on the other hand, the slow process with many problems within the privatization process have had a negative impact on foreign investments. nevertheles, according to nadie ahmeti (2019), political instability has been one of the factors that has adversely affected fdi. however, the impact of the global financial crisis that reached its peak in 2008 has also been transmitted to the reduction of fdi in the western balkans including kosovo, as a result of the fact that the eurozone countries have been most affected by this crisis and are countries that provide the largest sources of fdi inflows, then with the emergence of the crisis these countries have faced economic difficulties and as a result fdi has decreased (badivuku-pantina, alishani 2015, 264). the trend of fdi over these years is shown in the table below: table 2. foreign direct investment – based on economic activity investments’ value within the reporting period: in millions of euros years t o ta l a g r ic u lt u r e m in e s in d u st r y e n e r g y c o n st r u c ti o n t r a d in g s e r v ic e s h o te ls a n d r e st a u r a n ts t r a n sp o r t a n d c o m m u n ic a ti o n f in a n c ia l s e r v ic e s r e a l e st a te o th e r s e r v ic e s o th e r a c ti v it ie s 2008 369.9 8.5 17.4 53.7 16.7 16.5 10.1 2.1 51 109.6 62.2 2.1 23 2009 287.4 13.1 7 57.6 8.7 35.5 16.2 2.4 21.9 75.3 43.9 2.7 3.2 2010 368.5 0.9 17.7 101.1 54.2 6.8 -15.9 39.4 75.5 1.3 87.6 2011 384.4 0.6 -5.2 46.9 0.2 133.1 11.6 0.2 29 33 60.5 11.3 63.2 2012 229.1 0.3 -25 27.4 2.2 31.1 9.3 0.5 32.4 22.4 115.7 1.8 11 2013 280.2 0.4 -14.1 11.5 48.8 17.3 14.6 0.8 51 4.4 136.1 3.3 6.2 2014 151.2 0.2 4.2 -34 13.4 -19.9 8.4 0.4 -9.1 41.9 142.1 2.2 1.4 2015 308.8 1 -36.9 20.7 11.9 46.3 12 0 -6.1 64.3 189.6 4.5 1.4 2016 220 1.2 -19.1 4.6 3.4 28.2 14.5 0.7 -9.4 19 167.6 9.4 -0.6 2017 255.4 -1.3 -4.9 5.7 -1 5 10.3 0.8 -7.9 55 187.2 4.9 1.6 2018 272.1 0.1 -2.7 -16 26.2 24.8 20.2 1.8 -16.6 14.5 207.5 10.3 2 2019 229 1.4 -1.6 -4.1 16 12.1 -8.6 1.1 1.7 11.2 173.8 5.9 7.3 source: central bank of kosovo according to statistical data analysis, the value of fdi for the reporting period 2008-2019 has decreased. based on chronological analysis, if we compare the last three years of the reporting period, the trend of foreign investments has been approximately the same. however, if we rely on the general trend of fdi, the highest amount of investment was in 2008 with 369.9 million euro invested, while the lowest amount of foreign investment was in 2014 with 151.2 million euro. real estate, financial services and construction are among the most important sectors where the highest value of investments by foreign investors is achieved. according to the chronological analysis, in the real estate sector from 2008 to 2019, the value of investments has been increasing year after year. in the financial services sector as the second most attractive sector, the value of investments was large but does not reflect any trend of progressive growth, however the trend of investments in this sector has been the same. while in the construction sector as the third most important sector for foreign investments, the lowest value of investments was in 2014, while the highest in 2011, but as a general conclusion the trend of investments in the construction sector has been the same. foreign direct investment has consistently been driven by many international countries that have directed capital flows into 18 kosovo. the country of origin of these investments varies in the general trend. the following table shows the fdi origin according to the analysis for the period 2008-2019: table 3. direct investment by countries the value of investments within the reporting period, in millions of euros years a u st r ia g e r m a n y s lo v e n ia u k s w it z e r la n d t u r k e y n e th e r la n d s u s a f r a n c e 2008 51.3 44 44.3 36.6 32.1 23.8 25.9 4.8 3.5 2009 15.5 75.2 50.8 6.2 22.7 14.5 23.1 11.8 6 2010 21.1 91.5 34 38.9 35.1 4.9 17.2 12.6 3.8 2011 19.6 66.6 16.2 80.1 30.9 34.7 4.7 14.3 0.2 2012 0.2 49.2 8 14.3 39.7 62.7 -26.7 8.5 6.9 2013 10.7 21.7 7 10.7 41.7 88.6 -0.1 12.7 3.8 2014 30.3 39.4 -9.4 -39.5 38.2 20 -7.8 14.7 3.3 2015 33.5 45.3 5.6 26.6 72.9 55.4 -36.4 25 3.2 2016 9.9 25.7 -4.5 13.6 61.8 42.7 -23.1 23 2.8 2017 20.3 55.9 1.2 27 50.6 29.5 -14.1 20.3 3.6 2018 11.2 60.3 -8.7 57.4 71 12.2 -39.7 35.5 5.6 2019 3.2 57.4 10.3 -10.3 39.5 4.7 -4.1 28.6 2.8 source: central bank of kosovo based to chronological data analysis, the greatest investing countries are germany and switzerland, followed by turkey and the uk. over the years, the flow of investment originating from germany and switzerland has been increasing, while it is interesting to note that the netherlands has had a negative investment trend since 2012. it is very important to note if we focus on the united states of america (us) that the overall trend of investment is constantly increasing. the value of the largest investments from germany was in 2010 with 91.5 million euros, while the lowest value was in 2013 with 21.7 million euros. on the other hand, if we look switzerland, the highest value of investment was € 72.9 million in 2015, while the lowest value of investment was € 22.7 million in 2009. 5. conclusion based on the data analysis, the performance and trend of foreign direct investment has been negative, over the years the trend of foreign direct investment has declined. according to the comparative period data analysis, the most important sectors to invest by foreign investors have not changed. the most important sectors that have absorbed most investments remain real estate, financial services and construction. however, all three sectors have declined since 2017, and this is an indication that the market is saturating. according to data analysis, germany, switzerland and turkey remain the leading countries with most investments during this decade. the high level of investment from turkey is directly linked to the privatization of electricity distribution and investment in the new airport terminal. while the other two countries that have been leading the fdi, germany and switzerland, the investment flow is also due to the concentration of the kosovar diaspora in these countries. fdi remains vital to kosovo's economy, therefore the kosovo government needs to develop a concrete strategy and plan for attracting and protecting foreign investors. the government of kosovo should dynamically and as quickly as possible begin the process of reforming the business environment, aiming to improve the ranking and doing business at the national level in a higher and more positive order. kosovo has many advantages and natural resources for attracting foreign investors, but on the other hand kosovo lacks specific fdi attaractive policies. kosovo should start the fight against corruption and organized crime as soon as as possible in order to become attractive for fdi. if kosovo institutions do not address the fight against corruption as the first and most important step, then kosovo will not be able to improve the image for attracting fdi. in order to achieve a better ranking of doing business in kosovo and to gain the attraction and positive perception of foreign investors, it is crucial that kosovo succeeds in overcoming a large number of long term challenges that it faces, therefore it is very important for kosovo to achieve political stability, combat and reduce the informal economy, have reliable electricity supply, strengthen the rule of law, and achieve normalization of relations with serbia. on the other hand, it is very important to improve the education system with the aim of improving and enhancing the quality of the workforce, matching them with the needs of employers and the needs of the market in general. 19 kosovo institutions should have the support of everyone, including every citizen of kosovo in order to improve the environment and climate of doing business. everyone should bare in mind that without fdi, kosovo will not be able to have economic development in general. references 1. ahmeti n. (2019), “foreign investments decline in kosovo” [online]. available from: https://www.evropaelire.org/a/investimet-e-huaja-kosove/29978901.html, [accessed 13 january , 2019] 2. badivuku-pantina m. & alishani a., (2015), “the history of financial crises global financial crisis”, prishtina: artini publishing. 3. badivuku-pantina m. and zogjani j., (2015), “the role and impact of remittances on the economic growth kosovo case study” iliria international review, vol 5, no 2 (2015) pg. 28. https://doi.org/10.21113/iir.v4i2.32 4. central bank of the republic of kosovo monthly statistical bulletin, (2019), [online]. available from: https://bqkkos.org/repository/docs/2018/bqk_bms_219_al.pdf, [accessed 16 january , 2019] 5. çollaku p., (2018), “kosovo’s problem with foreign direct investment” [online]. available from: https://wiiw.ac.at/kosovo-s-problem-with-foreign-directinvestment-n-339.html, [accessed 03 february , 2019] 6. group for legal and political studies, (2017), “how ‘friendly’ is kosovo for foreign direct investments: a policy review of gaps from a regional market perspective” prishtina. 7. jusufi g. and lubeniqi g., (2019), “an overview of doing business in western balkan: the analysis of advantages of doing business in kosovo and north macedonia” iliria international review, vol 9, no 2 (2019) pg. 168. https://doi.org/10.21113/iir.v9i2.512 8. kristo i., (2004), “international business ”, tirana: pegi, 2nd edition. 9. ministry of trade and industry [mti], kosovo investment and enterprise support agency – [kiesa] republic of kosovo, “reasons to invest” [online]. available from: https://kiesa.rksgov.net/page.aspx?id=1,15, [accessed 05 january, 2019] 10. ministry of european integration – republic of kosovo, “stabilisation and association agreement”, [online]. available from: https://www.meiks.net/en/stabilization-association-brprocess-, [accessed 14 january, 2019] 11. official gazette of the republic of kosova, (2017), “law no. 05/l-079 on strategic investments in the republic of kosovo” prishtina, [online]. available from: https://mzheks.net/repository/docs/law_no._05_l079___on_stra tegic_investments_in_the_republic_of_ko sovo.pdf, [accessed 25 january, 2019] 12. kosovo economic reform program 2019-2021 republic of kosovo, [online]. available from:https://mf.rks-gov.net/desk/inc/media/85f252d8feae-46bf-8cbdf110bba0b8ee.pdf, [accessed 10 january, 2019] 13. riinvest. & cipe., (2002), “foreign direct investments in kosovo economic policy, environment and promotion strategy” . 14. shkodra n. xhemili n. and badivuku-pantina m., (2015), “challenges and problems in the kosovo reality related to foreign direct investment” iliria international review, vol 5, no 1 (2015) pg. 82. https://doi.org/10.21113/iir.v5i1.6 15. southeast european leadership for development and integrity [seldi], (2016), “hidden economy in southeast europe: monitoring and policy implications for good governance” [online]. available from: https://www.cin.ba/wpcontent/uploads/2017/02/policy-brief-hiddeneconomy.pdf, [accessed 17 january , 2019] 16. world bank country snapshot, (2019), “an overview of the world bank’s work in kosovo”, prishtina. 17. world bank group, (2019), “a world bank group flagship report: doing business-training for reform”, 16th edition. 69 the concept of law and justice ilir qabrati university “ukshin hoti” prizren, faculty of law. ilirqabrati1@outlook.de article history: submission 07 august 2020 revision 12 september 2020 revision 25 september 2020 accepted 30 november 2020 available online 31 december 2020 keywords: law, justice, state, society and norms. a b s t r a c t from the views and changes that have followed the dynamism of our society, undoubtedly, law and justice have played a crucial role as a very abstract term that has been consumed almost from the first beginnings of human society to our modern days. beyond the events and circumstances that societies in the past have had and organized by defining and choosing the way of life, and often times the right has been personalized by a certain group of people, or by a military division that has given rights and has created justice, in certain interests and for personal and charismatic purposes it has been denied a certain part of society, and has often been deformed in scandalous ways by reflecting, on the fact that the giver of this right has often been pointed out to be the man, but this convulsion in no case has lasted long, and often this theory has remained unrealized, reflecting that right is something natural and that the individual gains at the moment of birth and enjoys it to death, this divergence and complexity of the way of perceiving the law has often resulted in wars and the acquisition of this vital right. through this paper we will draw philosophical and legal paradigms, analyzing from a retrospective way of the application of law and the applicability of justice, as an important mechanism of regulation of social relations. law and justice have a common path of development, one by regulating the way of life of the people, that is, by issuing norms and the other by giving justice to the relative complexity and cohesion of interpersonal relations. 1. introduction the topic chosen for analysis, which is entitled the concept of law and justice, basically contains an extension of a concept which addresses both from a philosophical and legal point of view, and above all expresses the abstract concept that our consciousness judges in relation to a right, or share a justice if not from an institution, then anyway from our private life, to the separation of justice from our institutions. this topic from the philosophical treatment in its background, has drawn deep thoughts by analyzing those of philosophers and ideators who have dealt with this issue from the past to the present day, and at the same time i have drawn paradigms of a personal judgment regarding justice. as far as the legal side is concerned, we have dealt with a part of the legal structure which this right finds its basis only in written leagues, and which for each of the citizens it becomes mandatory in terms of its observance. and it is precisely these rights that maintain our balance in a society. 2. on the law when we talk about law, we must return to the vital origin of its history, the philosophical point of view of law as the basis of philosophical and scientific articulation where it is rightly called that the subject of philosophy is law itself, therefore the study of law has never been easy, and in particular kant's view when synchronizing the idea of disregarding jurists, and between the lines he emphasizes that law is still being sought, by philosophers, jurists, and the individual. regarding the law from the philosophical point of view, and using the a priori method i am involved in some names starting from the one which is evident "the right", through this name we understand the norms that are sanctioned by the state or with a formal-legal definition, we can understand: that norms are a set http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8007-1639 70 of rules, that society has regulated its behavior, through these rules, and for violators of these norms sanctions are applied, or the democratic and legitimate apparatus of the state, thus the applicability of legal norms (osmani, 2004). among other things, we have the opinion of the famous philosopher a. kaufman, where according to him the right has its existence, it is positive because it is created through the law, it also has its own brand or content, it has justice, regularization (lukiq, 2008). it is an opportunity of logical understanding when human consciousness attributes to the creation of a norm with rule content when it modifies the relations in a certain society, in different forms as for each case with special satributes gives a certain solution. we also find another concept on law in the great philosopher h. kelzen, where he says that positive law is the right itself, those legal norms, which are quite concretized, and actualized can be accurately recognized and applied. so it is about norms that are understandable, with clear meaning, in determining human behaviors (kryeziu, 2011). contrary to these concepts, which are confronted from different points of view and currents of thought, where we find almost a greater part of the thoughts that match each other considering the right as a norm itself, but a facticist theorist of south america, carlos kosiji, develops the second realistic factual option, and according to him, law is not the norm, but really the behavior of people and this not only of official persons, and other bodies but is of all ordinary subjects of law. he presents this type of distinct phenomena by proclaiming the following phenomena: ideal, natural, cultural and metaphysical. the law-the right kaufman calls law, and according to this concept he says that people should debate about how fair it is, whether it is a good, fair law, and try to give the best in the perfection of the law. to understand law in a realistic relationship, there is another example, typical when law is attributed to human consciousness: law + court + case = solution 3. the law so through the right (law), which has its own existence, in the strict sense that law is a normative phenomenon, while norm is a mandatory social rule for the behavior of people brought (or) sanctioned by the state, respectively e protected by the state apparatus. it means that the social rule for the behavior of people can also be created by the state, when it is brought by the competent state body, or the state to sanction certain social norm (moral, customary) that exists. the power and importance of the legal norm stems from the fact that it is protected by the state apparatus. this fact also distinguishes it from other social norms, respectively their implementation is not provided by the state. so in the formal-legal sense this different norm is also called law. law is a lower legal act than the constitution, which regulates a general sphere of relations in a given society. regardless of how the legal norm is expressed (law, bylaws, custom), it consists of three elements or constituent parts: hypothesis, disposition, and sanction. the hypothesis is that part of the norm that provides: the circumstances in which the legal norm operates. it is a precondition, without the existence of which the legal norm is not implemented, does not apply. the disposition is that part of the norm that provides for the content of the rule of conduct itself. the sanction provides for a restrictive measure, in case of non-implementation of the norm. (gurakuqi, 2009). 4. the court the court is a governmental institution, with the authority to adjudicate legal disputes between the parties and to administer justice in matters pursued formally and those with individual initiation. courts treat all persons equally and no one can be discriminated against on the basis of race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, connection with any community, property, economic, social status, sexual orientation, birth, disability or any other personal status (law no. 06 / l-054 on the courts). this connection between the law and the court leads us to understand that initially human actions are provided by legal norms and they are sanctioned by law, before they go to trial, this also means a legitimate relationship of state authority, legitimizing his actions in restricting human freedom if it conflicts with existing laws or norms. 5. the case all those actions that violate the good of a person or the life of people in a certain society, and face legal norms, become the object of sanctions that the state has imposed on those who violate these legal rules, based on the fact these actions are sanctioned by the state and as such, are also provided by law. so, the case is an interaction of the interpersonal subjectivity itself that affects, an action in society which action is illegal, or hits a legal good, and exactly the creation of a case, affects the law + court when an action has caused the case or has violating the norms or laws in force, and fulfilling the responsibilities, will be ascertained with 71 the development of the procedures exercised by the institutions and the norms in force of the state. 6. the solution the settlement is an effective action and result, which comes as a result of an activity related by the court, for a certain issue that is now subject to review in the procedure, of a human action and ends with a formal legal action, written decision thing which fulfills the formula listed above: law + court + case = solution. law is driven by two main factors from the real world: the one (anthropological) factor and the social (sociological) factor. one is a free factor and a creative being who, by his actions, limits or impairs the actions of others. being free in his actions, he decides according to his own motives what he will do, the motivation does not deny his freedom, but only puts him into action. human freedom is a motivating condition for the existence of social norms, and even law for two reasons: first, man without norms would not know how to behave, the non-existence of these norms would reflect another reality in our society. second, the free man would not take proper care of the general social interest, and would harm it with his own conduct, so that all social norms and even these legal ones are a kind of instruction on how man should act but at the same time, it is also a means of society to put pressure on me to act in the general interest (lukiq, f. 76). life practices and the very history of legal norms have often violated the will of a majority, but in most cases this violation of free will has been done with deliberate reasons to protect the basic and elementary values of human existence such as: internment from the state, punishment of family members, imprisonment in the insane asylum, or quarantine for infectious diseases. in these most flagrant cases of the disappearance of free will, you can no longer hold the human being accountable if it can be called that. unlike rousseau, milli does not give much weight to social circumstances. the quality of free will in him means that "the will, unlike other phenomena, is not largely determined by the past, but dictates itself " (ruso, 1998). since we have managed to conceive of freedom and will as one of the essential elements of the norm, now we cannot avoid the ethical element which is reflected in almost every part of our lives, this expresses a way of socio-cultural awareness, which a society has for norms. to come to the notion of ethics, the prominent and lavish representative of this powerful current is spinoza, who defines ethics as: a mental, and spiritual, individual and common exercise, and as such it cannot “read” but only to live. (spinoza, 2015). this would affect a relationship between norm and consciousness, social where the observance of legal norms determines the level of social education, so the higher the human awareness, the lower is the violation of legal norms. as for the influence of human rights, it affects many directions, not only disciplining and socializing it, subjecting it to society, but also seeking to adapt to it. on the other hand we have the state that represents and constrains it, while on the other hand we have free society, based on its own consciousness. conflicts of interest, and the separation of man from society, have been necessary to represent the state. so far we have discussed the positive law and its relationship with man, now we will see the right in the objective relationship, we encounter the first thoughts about the objective law since ancient greece, this phenomenon has been developed by sophists started by hippie, antifooni, they have claimed that the violation of natural law is harmful, for the offender himself who cannot avoid the bad consequence, while the violator of the positive right can succeed in avoiding the self-created consequence. natural law has its options, starting from the opinion that natural law is a kind of law of experience, or the right of god, because it is the true creator of nature, whether of man or human society. the most important feature of natural law is that it is rather the right of experience, (which means an object which has never been subject to the process of experience, such as god). from a political and legal point of view, it is the result of the struggle for positive law, as a political tool in the struggle for change in political relations in a society, and that the content of law varies, depending on the real social circumstances they use as a tool in political warfare (lukiq, 2008a). we find views on natural law in christian times in toma akvinsky, in his work "suma of theology", the right in the narrow sense, connects with man as one of the means by which god influences man to do good deeds. according to t. akvinsky, there are four kinds of law: eternal law, the law of nature, the human law, and the laws of god (lukiq, 2008b). eternal law is the law according to which the whole universe is governed, which only god knows, as the creator of everything in the world, because with the creation of the world he has also created its laws. the law of nature is the participation of the eternal law of mindreason, this law according to t. akvinsky (1938) can be understood in two ways: either in the subject who measures it, and if the subject is regulated and proportioned, on the basis of that who participates in the rule of regulation or measure. according to t. avinsky (1938), human law derives from natural law, if it is contrary to it, it is not a law, only a shadow of the law, an evil law, the law can be distinguished from the natural law by 72 two natures: first, the conclusions from its own principles, even as the closest definition of general notions. as well as the law of god, which is necessary because man has to fulfill in one way his supernatural purpose, the other world, the fulfillment of which is done by law, because man errs in his attitudes, so he needs strong support in the law of god (lukiq, 2008). all these laws in the past have been powerful tools that have regulated the way of life in most of the countries where the church has been an institution or a state in terms of the applicability of customary and written law. as for the conception of law by the romans, they have made many definitions of law, one of the philosophers celsions defines right, "ars boni et aequi" (as the art of good and law), so as can be seen that in the first period of its development, it had a religious character because it has been interpreted by ecclesiastical clergy. the romans used the term "ius" to describe the totality of legal norms that applied to state-sanctioned social regulation. “ius” therefore applied roman law, in the objective sense as a system of norms, which regulated various human behaviors, while in the subjective sense, it consisted of two authorizations, or opportunities for the subject of law:  first, each entity personally performs certain actions to meet its interests in accordance with legal norms.  the second is to ask the obligated subjects to perform or not to perform a certain action.  objective law is a necessary condition for subjective law, without which the latter cannot be applied (kryeziu, 2017) . in addition to the term right to the romans, the term “leges” or law was used, which meant laws and was distinguished from law, as it constituted a separate law, throughout the justice system. also in the first period of development, the main role was played by legal rules of a religious nature, we should also mention the customs, which were unwritten rules that were gradually born in society generation after generation, in a relatively long time, and since cases of non-compliance with them caused social sanctions (kryeziu, 2017). law represents its existence from the very beginning of social organization, achieving its moderation and advancement since the twentieth century vii bc at that time the roman state from a city of little importance, passed into a state, then into a very great persecution, creating and bringing about a revolution in terms of reform and the creation of a vital foundation for the system which today operates in the world, thanks to the roman state. 7. the continuity of law and justice right and justice, in everyday life each of us and that with full mouth expresses a good, righteous man, that justice is in the soul, these are stereotyped satributes, which every individual thinks from the aspect of consciousness. however, taking into account the complexity of the issue, jurists and most people from the ordinary world consider it a collection of norms that are sanctioned by the state through the democratic mechanism, the law has its own existence and is positive, because it is created through law, it also has its own brand, applying all these rights establishes justice or regularization in a given society. law and justice live in a cohesion between each other, creating opportunities and another justice at a certain time. the law itself is what the authorities do in case of disagreement, and through this right it provides what the court will do in case of resolving a certain dispute. according to socrates, it is necessary to discover the essence of justice and injustice, and at the same time to clarify what is the source of justice and injustice, and from this fact must be started and sought, the perfect paradigm or model, which includes states and people, in to the extent that they are right, it is not important that perfection be fully realized. it would be crucial to have something perfect, to measure real states, and people (malnes & midgaard, 2007). law is the primary norm that determines sanctions, which is created by human consciousness or we can call it a positive right. to go deeper into the subjective aspect, it is that the subjective right is a concrete right, which belongs to a certain person, as opposed to the objective right where, as we have already mentioned, it is a set of norms for the regulation of social relations, the implementation of which is provided through the implementation of the sanction. from all the above, the state has set norms that regulate how we should behave in society, restricting us and allowing us a right that is forbidden to another and allowed to us. as a right guaranteed by a positive right for every individual is the right to life, the right to property, and at the same time a justice is created that implies the will of the people, that everyone should be given what belongs to them. natural law has a different approach to positive law, which we can call ideal, which is found in human nature as a rational being, it is a set of rules, which nature dictates to human reason. violation of natural law is detrimental to the offender himself, who cannot avoid the consequences of evil, and in positive law he can succeed in avoiding the consequences. so, are we able to accept the basic principles of justice, according to ulpian, by defining justice in three main pillars: to live with honor, not to harm the other, and to get what belongs to us? it is precisely these 73 virtues that are part of a high interpersonal awareness, that by respecting these revisions we manage to avoid disagreements and norms as such would not have been violated. justice is a troublesome feature not only for the individual but also for the states, from a common point of view it is something between the greatest good (that is, to do injustice without being punished), and the greatest evil (that is, to suffer injustice without revenge for it) (malnes & midgaard, 2007a). in this case, justice has been raised to the highest pedestal, which serves as an orientation for both the legislator and the judge, to use the instruments for the purpose of administering justice, which in this case constitutes the highest rank on the administration of justice. these elements as well as these principles must be used by everyone to be able to, if society believes in such a role, decide correctly and on the basis of moral and legal principles as well as divine principles and justice, if it can be called so with in order for law as a social element to be in coherence with justice. the embodiment of these two premises would certainly give a basic meaning to the notion of law and justice in general. 8. conclusion the reflection of the paper is a trend which reflects on a specification on law and justice, taking into account how broad and difficult the topic of law is. we have managed to highlight some of the features and concepts of many philosophers, and continuing with the intertwined thoughts of both the legal and sociological worlds, seeing the nuances and perceptions of factual theories with a wide range of elaboration and its interconnection with justice, as two virtues that have almost followed humanity, from the first beginnings of tribal creation and regulation, to the modern state. the topic in question has tried to refresh the thoughts on law and justice, as well as the continuity of these two issues in our society, in the scientific spirit and based on the literature document. in the first part of this paper we have analyzed what is right, the first thoughts on the foundation of this notion, as well as its existence as a necessity in regulating our social relations. in particular, we have managed to conceive that law and justice are in a constant coherence when one, according to the philosophical and formal-legal concept, creates norms, and the other gives justice at a certain time, and for each individual case. in conclusion, we can draw conclusions about the importance of the right where the most important part of our rights that we enjoy today are part of a legal system, otherwise called the norm, and the rest justice where both together they create a lasting peace in the relationship and complexity built and the regulation of relations in a given society. references 1. akvinský, t. (1938) theologická summa i-ii. redigoval p.emilián soukup. olomouc: lidové závody tiskařské a nakladatelské. 2. gurakuqi. r. (2009) introduction to public law. camaj-pipa-tirana. p.64 3. kryeziu. k. (2011) introduction to the theory of law. penaprizren. p.20 4. kryeziu. k. (2017) roman law. pena prizren. p.17 5. lukiq. r. (2008) philosophy of law. prishtina. p.36 6. malnes. o. & midgaard. k. (2007) political philosophy. prograf-prishtina. p.25 7. osmani.i. (2004) the beginnings of law. grafo benibotus council of the university of prishtina p.7 8. ruso. j. j. (1998) social contract, luarasi publishing house. tirana. p. 21 9. spinoz.a b. (2015) ethics. point without surface tirana. p.328 10. law no. 06 / l-054 on the courts. prishtina.. p.7. available at: https://gzk.rksgov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=18302 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=18302 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=18302 84 encrypted data service for security electronic communications prof. asoc. dr. naim baftiu dr. sc. ahmet nuredini prof. asoc. dr. samedin krrabaj* *correspondent author: university of prizren “ukshin hoti”, faculty of computer science, samedin.krrabaj@uni-prizren.com article history: accepted 01 september 2019 available online 31 december 2019 keywords: communication security electronic privacy a b s t r a c t the law on electronic communications has so far enumerated a considerable number of natural persons, legal entities as well as public institutions that use code systems and crypto devices during communication. of particular interest is addressing the key role of operators and providers of encrypted data services in combating abuses committed through or against computer systems as the responsible performance of their duties to protect the security of networks and computer systems affects significantly in controlling illegal risks and attacks. in this perspective, the specific legal obligations for the protection of privacy regarding personal data that are processed for the purpose of providing information services are also analysed. the purpose of the paper is, utilizing communication between two parties sharing a common key, implementing a shared key to protect data communicated with different security attributes, role of cryptography in data protection during communication, and focus on privacy. of the data communicated, against their authenticity. introduction cryptography is very important for transferring information from one place to another, and not wanting anyone to read it. with the rapid growth of internet use and all the work being done on it, such as online banking, which is directly related to our money, the need for electronic security is increasing. cryptography is used to enhance the security of online communication such as e-mail messages, online transactions, computer passwords, atm card transactions, computer data and many other private information. 1. symmetric crypto classic definition cryptography is an uncommon science, a scientific discipline that deals with the discovery and advancement of methods for converting open text into digits and figures into open text. in this science, research culminates only when the result provides the confidential information to unauthorized persons, regardless of how they are exchanged. the notions of cryptography, with the notion of open source, mean information dedicated to one or more collaborators involved in the unique communication system. by the notion of digits, we mean the incomprehensible (encrypted) text for unauthorized persons not found in the unique system of secret communication. by the notion of decoding we mean the reverse coding action, by which we know the encryptiondecoding method to convert the cipher into open text (hamit 2011). if the cipher is transmitted to the receiver, in the hands of unauthorized persons it is called a cryptogram. the action to open that cryptogram without knowing the encoding-decoding method is called decryption. by key notion we mean the secret word (password) which roughly defines the way of deciphering. in cryptography the key will play a crucial role in determining the cryptographic value of a system. the encryption is done by applying certain methods, which should be known only to the sender and receiver of the secret information. only in this way mailto:samedin.krrabaj@uni-prizren.com 85 can the sender and the recipient exchange information, the confidentiality of which is guaranteed. the advantage of encrypted information is that even if it falls into the hands of unauthorized persons, they will understand nothing from noninformation (hamit, 2011). figure 1. scheme basic communication the symmetric encryption scheme has five components: •plain text the original or original message to be sent is known as open text. •cipher text the message on which the cipher is applied is known as the cipher text. in cryptography the initial message "hello" can be converted to such incomprehensible form "ajd672 # @ 91uk". encoding the process of converting an open text into encoded text is known as encoding. cryptography uses encryption techniques to send confidential messages over an unsecured line of communication. the coding process requires two things: a coding algorithm and a key. the encryption algorithm means the technique used and the encryption occur on the sender side. •decoding an inverse process of decoding is known as decoding, where the encoded text is converted to the original text. cryptography uses decoding techniques on the recipient's side to retrieve the original message from the encoded text. •key a key is an alphanumeric text or may be a special symbol. a source produces a message clearly, e.g. x = [x1, x2... xm]. a key of the form k = [k1, k2... kj] is generated. if the key is generated at the message source, then it must also be secured to the destination via a secure channel. alternatively, a third party may generate the key and deliver it to the source and destination. the cipher text y = [y1, y2... yn] is generated by the encryption algorithm with the x message and the k encoding key as input. the encryption process is: y = e (k, x) this notation indicates that y is produced using the encryption algorithm e as a simple function x, with the specific function defined by the value of the key k. the target key receiver is able to reverse the transformation according to the formula: x = d (k , y) an opponent, observing y but not having access to k or x, may attempt to cover x or k or both. it is assumed that the opponent knows the encryption (e) and decryption (d) algorithms. the opponent can do one of the following. remove x by generating a simple x ^ rating, if the opponent is only interested in this particular message recover k by generating a k ^ rating, if the opponent is interested in being able to read future messages. there are several terms associated with cryptosystems: cryptologist cryptography cryptanalysis and cryptosystems: cryptosystems a cryptographic system or a cryptosystem is a system that enables two parties to communicate securely. a cryptosystem contains five elements (ƥ, c, k, e, d), each of which is described as follows: ƥ represents a finite set of possible initial texts, c a finite set of possible coded texts, k a finite set of possible keys, e a set of cipher functions, d a set of corresponding decoding functions. mathematically a cryptosystem is defined as follows: definition: let ƥ be the open text space, c the encoded text space, k the space of the keys. let c be the decoding function and dk the decoding function. then for each key k є k, there is a decoding function and a corresponding decoding function such that dk (ek (x)) = x for each element xє ƥ. each function must be injected able as the decoding must be unique. there are three types of cryptography forms: 1.hidden key cryptography (des, idea. aes) 2.public key cryptography (rsa, dss, pgp, ecc) 3.hash algorithms (sha, md2, md4, md5) security components: 1.confidentiality of data that provides private data, which is not disclosed to any unauthorized user. 2.data integrity ensures that programs and data are changed only in a specified and authorized manner. system integrity ensures that the system performs its function without damaging anything, free from unauthorized manipulations. 86 3.availability ensures that systems work safely and service is not denied to the automated user. (confidentiality, integrity and availability) cia. additional concepts: authenticity: the property of being true, trustworthy, and capable of being verified. responsibility: the requirement for an entity's actions to be uniquely traced to that entity. security aspects: aspects of information security 1.security attacks any action that endangers the security of information owned by an organization. 2.security mechanism a process designed to detect, prevent a security attack. 3.secure services the security of data processing systems, transfers of an organization. 1.1. the importance of securing data encrypted during communication in some cases the decoding or decoding transforms are characterized by keys and if they are discovered by someone it will not be necessary to design a scheme from scratch but simply switching the key would be enough. frequent switching of the key is in fact considered a genuine cryptographic practice. an indispensable but usually not sufficient condition for the security of a cipher is related to the fact that the key space is large enough to render exhaustive search impossible. what is worth noting is that the size of the key greatly affects cryptography. almost most asymmetric schemes allow for 1024bit keys and more, even according to shamir, the 512-bit keys in the rsa "protect 95% of online e-commerce nowadays". where asymmetric systems are used in the exchange of symmetric keys, the lengths of the public keys are chosen to be resistant to certain specific levels of attack. the length of the secret keys exchanged in the system must be such that it has a level of resistance to a given attack. thus, the three parameters the strength of the system, the strength of the secret key, and the strength of the public key must coincide with each other. this is more widely discussed in rfc 3766 with respect to determining the strength of public keys used in the exchange of symmetric keys. if we consider the size of the keys in the cryptography of the elliptical lines, they turn out to be much smaller than the rsa keys. consequently we have faster processing and less memory and bandwidth requirements. some studies find that elliptic curve cryptography (ecc) is faster than rsa for signature and decoding, but slower for signature verification and encryption. a 256-bit ecc key is as secure as a 3248-bit key in the rsa algorithm. table 1. key length for rsa security there are various algorithms that encrypt information. the greater the number of bits using such key algorithms, the more secure the encryption will be. if e.g. the 32-bit algorithm is used, the number of possible combinations per key is 2 ^ 32 (4294967296). for small companies and most universities, the 40-bit algorithm is used. the safest algorithms used utilize 128 bit encryption, with which (340.282.366.92.938.368.736.424.720.624.720.032.456) key combinations are achieved. so it is very difficult to get into the system and break down such security. because to break such information one has to try so many combinations in sequence! technically impossible to achieve, even with the simultaneous operation of 1 million processors!. recent studies, conducted by independent researchers, have shown that a key with a length of not less than 90 bits guarantees complete security for the next 20 years. the algorithms used to calculate the values of private keys d by public keys e and technology change over time. thus the calculation of wd can result in different values. concerning the security of a cryptosystem there are concepts of information theory which we will see in the following chapter. the kickoffs principle and the shannon principle are among the most popular assumptions in cryptanalysis. in fact, the safest cryptographic algorithms are those algorithms that, being publicly known and constantly subject to cryptanalysis, continue to resist and qualify as unbreakable. the 20th century, and especially the two world wars, took cryptography to new sophisticated levels, using sophisticated coding machines like the german "enigma" that resembled a typewriter. when the operator typed normal text, some electronically connected rotors encrypted the message. the encrypted text was then sent in morse code and decrypted by another enigma machine. however, the errors and carelessness of the redundant operators gave important data to the code breakers, enabling them to decrypt the messages. the length of the key potential categories for finding the key 256 bit potential categories for finding the key 384 bit scientific research groups (university) and cryptographic communities 512 bit governments 768 bit safe in a short period 1024 bit safe for the near future 2048 bit safe for decades? 1.2. communication control 87 in today's digital world, banking, money transfers and various payments, as well as medical, corporate and government data, are provided with complex encryption. the encrypted text is then read by those who have the decryption key needed to restore the data to its original form. 2. modifying s boxes in aes and bluefish static and dynamic boxesmodifying s boxes can be accomplished thanks to different methodologies in cryptographic algorithms. before studying these methods let's look at the construction of s. boxes s boxes can be constructed in two separate ways: static and dynamic. in the static boxes, the values of the input vectors are not changed while in the dynamic boxes their values will be changed. the following are the views of the s boxes in both cases: figure 2. static and dynamic s boxes the properties of the boxes in each case are determined using a specific metric such as entropy, which estimates how random the data are, denoted by h (z) and given as a random variable 'z' (rodwald and piotr mroczkowski, 2006): (z) = σ𝑃 𝑛𝑖 = 1 (zi) log2 (zi -1) the larger the entropy, the harder it is to replace the values. many of the encryption algorithms use static or dynamic boxes. the boxes in des are static and resistant to differential cryptanalysis but if we use certain methods to give them a dynamic nature this would obviously increase their nonlinearity. the camellia algorithm has the avalanche feature and every element of the s boxes in it is polynomial in gf (28) making this algorithm robust against high-order differential attacks. only that integral attack would be carried out very easily against 128-bit camellia (10/11 rounds) (zhang et.al., 2013) . in aes, static replacement boxes define sub bytes transformation that provides nonlinearity and confusion in the figure, thanks to multiplicative inverse functions and affine transformation. but at the same time static values make it easier to perform mathematical attacks on aes and this algorithm turns out to be non-resistant to timing and cache attacks. the bluefish algorithm uses key-dependent dynamic s boxes and is not endangered by linear and differential cryptanalysis methods. but the bluefish algorithm turns out to be weak against the vandenay attack. this attack is due to the presence of weak keys in the figure and this is due to the encounter of the same values in the s boxes in bloopfox, so we can easily apply the attack with the original text selected. in conclusion we can say that dynamic boxes manage to provide more diffusion than static boxes. modifying s boxes to make them dynamic can be accomplished by using chaotic equations of random nature. one of them is the logistic map equation which has the following form (xin-je, 2009) : xn+1 = r* xn (1-xn) xn takes values from 0 to 1, r is a positive number from 1 to 4. in this way a dynamic key dependent s box can be created. the following algorithm can be used for this and changes to the key mentioned in the equation can be applied: for (i=0; i<=dsize; i++) { temp=a; p=k1*(dsize-i); k1= k2*(1-k2) + (k3/p) + (k4/p); k2=temp; system.out.println(a); v=afterdecimal(k1); system.out.println(v); x=v%mdv; system.out.println(“” + x); } the only problem with creating s boxes in this way is encountered in repeating values within s boxes (usually no more than 5% to 10%), but this is resolved by replacing multiple values with others. the security provided by dynamic boxes is commensurate with the values of dmv (dependent modulo) and size (s box size). increasing these values affects the overhead needed by an exhausted attacker to break our cipher. dynamic boxes are prioritized over the s boxes mentioned above in relation to their operation in key algorithms such as aes, bluefish, etc. 2.1. security application sql (structured query language) is a computer language designed for data management in relational database management systems, and originally based on relative algebra. 88 c # (read "as sharp") is a modern programming language for developing software applications. c # is a simple object-oriented language that has roots in the c family of programming languages, which means it is easily understood by the programmers of c, c ++, and java. figure 3. overview of the sql server studio computer language microsoft visual studio supports various programming languages through the language service, which allows the code editor and debugger (scripting program) to support almost any programming language, ensuring that specific language services exist. hash functions are mathematical functions used to encode notes in a computer. these functions, unlike encryption algorithms, have no encryption or decryption keys. md5 divides messages into 512-bit blocks figure 4. view from the microsoft visual studio programming language e-banking modules: -emphasis -deposit -transfer figure 5. e-banking modules to protect this communication between databases we have used encryption to prevent third parties from intercepting them. figure. 6. system encryption 2.2. legal-criminal characteristics of offenses related to cybercrime, according to the criminal code of kosovo in the republic of kosovo, cybercrime-related offenses are not provided by a single code or law, but are dealt with in some laws. some of them are foreseen in the criminal code of kosovo, others in the law on prevention and fight against cybercrime, while such a provision is provided in the criminal code, the law on classification of information and security verification. we think that such a picture, which is found in the kosovo legislation, represents a bad legislative practice that needs to be regulated. the solution is to include all criminal offenses of this nature in a separate chapter in the kosovo criminal code. given their features and features, cybercrime-related offenses can be understood as any activity in which computers or networks serve as tools or objects of attack for the exercise of criminal activity, against which all appropriate preventive legal measures to combat them. the main characteristic of cybercrime-related offenses is their global effect. for this reason, an international focus is required, as the perpetrators of these crimes are consuming and using various methods that are not confined to specific territorial units when consuming these offenses. they may operate in one place, while the object of their crime, the victim, may be in another. such offenses include: unauthorized access to computer systems, illegal interception of computer data, interference with computer data, interference with computer systems, abuse of computer equipment, spread of viruses and other actions that endanger computer programs. 2.3. hacking hacking means the human mind against the computer. it is carried out by specialized people, called hackers, who deal with cyberattacks. hackers have often made a fuss in fictional accounts as people who stealthily manipulated a maze of computer networks, systems, and data to find and access information. a hacker often spends hours examining the types and structures of the systems he intends to infiltrate, using his deception, fraud, and bypassing 89 controls placed on someone else's proprietary information. they build software programs and use them to accomplish their goals. expert hacker is usually the master and master of several programming languages, protocols, networks, and operating systems. also, he skillfully manages to fully master the technical environment of the target computer system. after choosing a system as the target, the likelihood that the expert hacker will successfully enter that system is high. cybercrime of hacking is characterized by unauthorized interference with foreign computer systems, which in the classical sense means violent interference with foreign objects (vula, 2010: 102). in practice there are two ways to accomplish this work. the first involves obtaining the necessary information, with different methods and techniques for successful intrusion into foreign computer systems, such as internet addresses, phone numbers, identifiers, encrypted messages, operating systems, etc. preliminary information pertains to researching classical emails, newsletters, eavesdropping, false presentations, etc. (petrovic, 2000: 118). the second way is based on the principle of "try, make a mistake, put away the mistake". in this way the attacker attempts to intrude on the defensive parameters, for infiltration of the particular information system. the perpetrators of this action are the hackers. 2.4. phishing phishing is one of the oldest cybercrime. the idea of the authors of this work is to pretend to be a trustworthy subject on the internet, trying to get personal information. we are dealing with an email fraud method. the fraudster sends out e-mails that look like official, in search of potential victims, to collect personal and financial information. it is also known that such scams are also used to steal valuable information, such as passwords, credit card numbers, social security numbers, and bank account numbers. during this process, their users, victims, are asked to visit a website to update their personal information via email. clearly phishing is any process designed to extract personal data from the targeted victim. this is often done by e-mail. "a common scenario might involve the author of the work having created a fake website designed to look like a legitimate website, and a financial institution (computer hacking forensic investigator, 2009). 2.5. identity theft in kosovo banks electronic communication identity theft is the process of getting personal information from a person or organization pretending to be someone else. this is often done to obtain credit on behalf of the victim, putting this in financial liabilities. so, it's about stealing a person's identity and then that identity is used to commit fraud with the victim's personal information, such as: insurance numbers, bank accounts, and credit card numbers. identity thieves provide the names, addresses, dates of birth of the victims and can apply for loans on their behalf (easttom, 2011). it is important to consider the means by which identity theft is committed. the most important action for perpetrators is access to personal information so that it can be used in identity theft. there are four main ways in which individuals access personal information: phishing, or spyware hacking, unauthorized data access, and deletion of information. another form is credit card fraud. attackers illegally use someone else's credit card to buy other goods and services online. also, by using different techniques, they can steal personal data in a user's online transactions or simply through social engineering techniques. according to the kosovo banking association, computer system fraud can cause significant damage, so the kosovo banking association presents some recommendations to businesses in order to better protect themselves from cyber-attacks: “to provide computer systems with antivirus, to have installed antivirus and keep it updated regularly. also, other applications such as browsers (explorer, firefox, chrome) keep up to date, not send personal information, in particular username, password and credit card information via email, social media messages ('face book 'etc.). 3. recommendations and conclusions this paper deals with various cryptographic algorithms and techniques that provide data security in various aspects of functional operation. initially their operational structure is given by examining the relevant features that are the basis for a robust cryptographic scheme. certain algorithms have different performances depending on how they are applied and where they are applied but we also know that a symmetric algorithm is faster than an asymmetric algorithm. the level of security is subjective: an algorithm may be very safe but not efficient, or it may be less secure but at the same time more efficient. it depends on what we ask for and can spend. in this paper, the sites of application of cryptography are reviewed. much of the cryptographic attack depends precisely on the computer capabilities of computer systems. a certain number of attacks aim to find deficiencies in the operational structure of a cryptographic algorithm while another part points out weak points in its implementation. powerful encryption algorithms such as aes, rsa and ecdsa, although considered perfect in structure, are somewhat fragile in 90 implementation (it is possible to obtain the key used in encryption). the use of cryptographic algorithms in everyday applications drives us to recognize and focus on today's encryption techniques and even identify potential cases of data protection and communications breaches. for this reason we have attempted to provide a broad overview of the use of algorithms by examining the possibilities of application in different countries. in this way we have tried to identify points and issues that are critical to data protection. references 1. zenullahu,hamit “bazat e kriptografisë” prishtinë, 2011–243f. isbn 978-9952585-99-6 2. dawid kahn, the codebreakers, scribner, new york, ny 10010; 3. joachim beckt, blitz &anker band ii , isbn 3-8334-2997-6; 4. zenullahu,hamit “bazat e kriptografisë” prishtinë, 2011–243f. :isbn 978-9952585-99-6 5. simon singh, geheime botschaften, kmbh & co. kg, munchen, 2001; 6. “a survey of information authentication”, g. j. simmons, editor, contemporary cryptology: the science of information integrity, 379-419, ieee press, 1992. 7. easttom, c. (2011:5), computer crime, investigation, and the law. cengage learning, usa. 8. computer hacking forensic investigator, 2009. 9. easttom, c. (2011:6), computer crime, investigation, and the law. cengage learning, usa. 10. https://www.gazetaexpress.com/lajmekrimet-kibernetike-ne-rritje-ne-kosoveqasur. date 06.09.2019 11. easttom, c. (2011:5), computer crime, investigation, and the law. cengage learning, usa. introduction references 50 immaterial damage and some types of its compensation asmir sadiku, phd. c. ¹ ¹ south east european university, faculty of law, asmirsadiku@gmail.com article history: accepted 30 march 2020 available online 31 april 2020 keywords: damage, causing damage, material damage, immaterial damage, compensation of immaterial damage, criteria for compensation of immaterial damage, types of immaterial damage. a b s t r a c t the purpose of any legal system is the regulation and harmonization of actions between people within their respective societies. now in almost every thesis of this nature you will come across a reference to one of the principles on which the relationship between people should be constructed; the prohibition to cause damage to another, and in case of non-respecting this principle, as it happens in many cases for various reasons, the obligation of indemnity arises, that aims restoring of a situation which was prior to causing of the damage, and the realization of this target is in direct correlation with the nature of the damage caused, and in case of immaterial damage, it is almost unattainable, target, but that does not affect the need to compensate damages of such nature. the issue of immaterial damage compensation is one of the most controversial and current matters in the theory and judicial practice, and this not only because it includes the matters of protecting an individual, his rights to invulnerability as an individual, but even due to the fact that the lack of criteria for the assessment of immaterial damage, influenced to the reference on various criteria, thus creating a change in judicial practice, in regard to the amount of defined compensation for similar cases. this thesis addresses immaterial damage, in regard to its forms of presentation, and then the procedure of immaterial damage compensation and the criteria based on which are assessed; the nature and the extent of the caused damage for the effect of its compensation. 1. introduction beyond the criteria related to the compensation of immaterial damage, the immaterial damage itself is an institute that is new in itself, and as such we initially find it in french jurisprudence, whereas later, this institute was also developed by german legal theory, thus recognizing a gradual expansion of damage notion, and this development is directly influenced by the concept of personality rights, respectively the rights related to personality such as; rights on liberty, life, name, reputation, etc. all these presents a special category of rights and as such are subject to the protection of private law, except criminal and family law, considering from the constitutional protection which the same enjoy as indivisible, inalienable and invulnerable rights. considering protection subject, it can be emphasized that differently from material damage, immaterial damage is a generic concept, almost outlined, so difficult to be defined, considering even the terminology used to refer to it, so it has been defined as all damages which are not material in their nature, most commonly noticed as extra-material damage, non-economic damage, moral damage or ideal damage, but there is an growing tendency for it to objectively define the area of lawfully protected immaterial interests. this uncertainty in the terminology of immaterial damage itself, directly influenced on determining the circle of persons to whom this right is addressed, as well as the nature of adequate compensation for the damage suffered, and this uncertainty is caused up to specific situations from judicial practice, making difficulties in proceeding cases of such nature, by providing of merit basis settlement, where the amount of compensation would be satisfactory to the party who suffered the damage, but also to respond to the liability in adequate extent, of the responsible person who caused the damage. thus, this thesis will address immaterial damage in the light of these difficulties encountered in judicial practice, by referring relevant cases, combining theoretic and practical aspects, respectively in function of identifying the difficulties of applying https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0068-5068 51 of current provisions, but even the needs on eventual changes, with a target to a fairer settlement of cases of this nature that have an highlighted sensitivity, considering the nature of vulnerable rights and caused damages, which in many cases are irreversible, and that respectively this makes it necessary to consolidate in the legal context the full concept of ”moral damage” and the development of a single system for its calculation. 2. meaning of immaterial damage the law on obligational relationships of republic of kosovo, does not provide a detailed definition of immaterial damage, respectively it only refers to the specific types of this damage, whereas the need for its compensation can be derived from general provisions such as the legal provision which highlights that the damage comprises the diminution of property (ordinary damage), prevention of the appreciation of property (lost profits), the infliction of physical or mental distress or fear on another person, and encroachment upon the reputation of a legal person (immaterial damage). immaterial damage it can also be created separately from material damage, but in most cases it comes along with it, and as a wide and comprehensive category, including within the same “any damage suffered by the infringement of non-property rights and interests which are part of human values, and which are not a subject of direct market economic assessment”. the law on obligational relationships of kosovo, provides some types of immaterial damage which can be compensated, setting as a distinguishing criteria not only the type but also the manner in which it is compensated, so in regard to a type of immaterial damage, such as in the event of a infringement of the right of personality, provides the opportunity of achieving the target even in the absence of compensation, whereas for other types of damage which will be addressed in follow up, monetary compensation is foreseen as the only form of compensation, considering the nature of the damage on which compensation is required. 3. indispensable criteria for existence of immaterial damage in any case, either under criteria of proofing of material damage or immaterial damage, it is indispensable the existence of general elements as unlawful action, the damage caused as a result of it, then this action has been committed with guilt and existence of causal link between the action and the damage caused, and that the existence of these criteria which must be fulfilled collectively derives from the legal provision “any person that inflicts damage on another shall be obliged to reimburse it, unless it is proved that the damage was incurred without the culpability of the former”. the damage may be a consequence of acting or omission, but in any case the action is contradiction of interests and rights of the other, protected by legal order or good practice, and respectively affecting of such interests or rights; is the consequence of harmful action or respectively the damage caused to another person, who must prove the causal link between them, as the existence of damage or damage action in itself, does not present grounds for indemnity, as the lack of identification of the action or damage omission, means that the person from whom the compensation will be required is missing, whereas the lack of proof of a respective consequence, makes the claim for damages unfounded. but the lawmaker as a general criteria has foreseen even the existence of the guilt of the causing damage, which may be on purpose and negligence, while from this general criteria has excluded the damage from the objects or dangerous activities, to which are responsible the holder of dangerous object respectively the person dealing with dangerous activity, regardless of the guilt. in this view, it is important to emphasize the fact that from interpretation of this provision it results in the presumption of guilt being therefore taken for granted, and it is the obligation of the person causing the damage to prove that he/she is not guilty, respectively despite that his/her behavior could have been unlawful was found under such circumstances, that it has been impossible for to avoid it. 4. types of immaterial damage 4.1 compensation of immaterial damage due to causing of fear fear is one of the most common forms of immaterial damage, which affects bodily integrity and health damage. the fear presents the subjective element of the injured party, and is a feeling of deep concern, internal psychic experience, unpleasant of the injured party caused by delinquent action of harmful party, in traffic disaster, injuries caused at working place or related to the work. as such, fear can be caused even despite bodily injury and other physical pain. in this way, fear can arise both in the event of an attempted assault but also when the violence is directly caused. the fear can be primary, secondary, direct, indirect, fear of life and fear of healing. to realize the claim for compensation of immaterial damage due to the fear, following criteria must be cumulatively met: a) that the injured subject suffered fear, b) the fear is of high intensity, c) fear has certain duration, fear causes consequences to the injured party, and d) the injured party to file a claim at the competent court for realization of compensation of such damage. when determining the degree of intensity and duration of fear, the judicial expert must consider the person’s age, health status, person’s gender, place and time of injury, etc., as the effects are not the same for all. this is stressed, as it is known that in children, women or persons with poorer health status, the fear may be of a higher intensity and of longer duration than in adults, which as such may cause consequences. all these circumstances 52 presented in the report of the judicial expert, are considered by the judge in a free assessment, formed on the basis of his/her internal conviction when the judgment is announced. in judicial practice there are court decisions in which the courts should consider the extent of bodily injury, duration of fear, experienced intensity, adjudicates to the injured party money compensation. so, in a case the court of appeals of kosovo by judgment ac. no. 2082/2014 dated 18.01.2017, approved the appeal of the respondent, so it amended the judgment of basic court in pristina c.no.2531/2008 dated 06.12.2013, in regard to immaterial damage for sustained psychical pains, thus adjudicated the amount of 2.900 euro, for the suffered fear adjudicated the amount of 2.700 euro, for reducing of life activity adjudicated the amount of 4.600 euro, and on behalf of deformity adjudicated the amount of 2.350 euro. compensation of immaterial damage with money due to causing of fear, presents a satisfaction for the injured party, rather than achieving of any lucrative purpose that is not in compliance with the social purpose of this compensation. it should be highlighted that the right on compensation claim of immaterial damage due to the fear is closely related to the personality of the subject who suffered certain fear. 4.2 compensation of immaterial damage due to bodily injury this form of immaterial damage compensation is manifested in those cases where the victim sustained extremity fractures, rib fractures, injury of fracture of spinal cord, head fractures or other injuries in the body, so the injured person suffers physical pain and psychics suffering. in order to obtain the compensation of immaterial damage due to bodily injury, also at this point, cumulatively, following criteria should be met: bodily harm must be caused, bodily harm should cause physical pain or mental suffering, existence of causal link between the bodily injury and caused physical and psychic suffering of the injured party and the existence of responsible subject. determination for the compensation of this damage is provided by the court, based on the assessment of the judicial expert, as at this point it is very important to ascertain the intensity and duration of the physical pain and mental suffering of the person. 4.3 compensation of immaterial damage due to psychic suffering psychic suffering presents also one of the forms for the compensation of immaterial damage. psychic suffering, as a special ground for the compensation of immaterial damage, presents a sense of deep concern; respectively an unpleasant internal experience that occurs under the influence of an external risk, whereby the person suffers emotional and psychic’s disorders. this form of compensation of immaterial damage is more difficult to be ascertained, as it depends on the psychic constitution and disposition of the injured party, his mentality and other circumstances. law on obligational relationship of kosovo (lor) article 183 paragraph 1 and paragraph 2, provides that “just monetary compensation independent of the reimbursement of material damage shall pertain to the injured party for physical distress suffered, for mental distress suffered owing to a reduction in life activities, disfigurement, the defamation of good name or reputation, the truncation of freedom or a personal right, or the death of a close associate, and for fear, if the circumstances of the case, particularly the level and duration of distress and fear, so justify, even if there was no material damage. upon the decision on the request for the compensation of immaterial damage, as well as for the amount of the compensation, the court shall evaluate the importance of the violation of goods and the purpose to which this compensation shall serve, also in order not to support the tendencies that are not compatible with the nature and the social purpose thereof”. 4.4 compensation of immaterial damage due to deformity deformity as a form of immaterial damage occurs as a result of the infringement of the bodily integrity of the injured subject. deformity is spoil of the external appearance, of the shape of the human body or any part of it, respectively spoiling of the external appearance of any bodily function. in practice, cases of causing deformity are expressed during injuries caused, during traffic injuries, when using dangerous objects or when dealing with dangerous activities, whereby the injured persons sustains face or head deformations as a result of creating bruises, deformation due to injury or rupture of the hand or foot, or even other parts of the body. after the moment of deformity, loss of the beauty of mentioned person is caused and there is psychic imbalance, a sense of inferiority is created in relation to other members of society, and all of this is reflected in a depressive state, by what often there is a stagnation of the injured person in the profession or in daily life. for the realization of this compensation a deformity should exist, bodily deformation of the injured subject, and deformity to cause spiritual suffering of a certain intensity and duration. the right on compensation for immaterial damage from the deformity is personal and does not pass to the heirs of the injured party. in a real case form basic court in peja – branch in klina, by judgment c.no. 418/17 dated 19.12.2018, in regard to the compensation of damage caused by a traffic accident, the 53 court obliged the respondent insurance company scardian, with seat in pristina, to compensate to the claimant the amount of 4000 euro, on behalf of compensation due to bodily deformity. 4.5 compensation of immaterial damage due to causing of death compensation of immaterial damage, due to causing of death, occurs after the death presents a relevant fact to seek the realization of immaterial damage compensation. most of legislation and judicial practice recognizes this type of immaterial damage. law on obligational relationsships of republic of kosovo (lor), provides the circle of close family members who are entitled to the compensation of immaterial damage, in case of death or serious disability of the family member. so, article 184 paragraphs 1 to 4 of lor provide that “if a person dies the court may award just monetary compensation to his/her immediate family members (spouse, children and parents) for their mental distress. such compensation may also be awarded to siblings if there was a long-term union for life between them and the deceased or injured party. in the event of a person becoming seriously disabled the court may award his/her spouse, children or parents just monetary compensation for their mental distress. the compensation specified in paragraph 1 and 3 of this article may be awarded by the court to an extra-marital partner if there was a union for life between the partner and the deceased or injured party”. civil code of republic of albania, article 643 provided that when e death of a person has been caused, the damage to be compensated is comprised off: “a) living and nutrition expenses for his minor children, consort and parents unable to work who used to be under the responsibility of the dead person, completely or partially, and of the persons who used to live in the dead person’s family and who had the right of nutrition by him; b) the necessary expenses of the dead’s funeral, according to the personal and family circumstances of the dead person. the person who has caused damage may claim the same protecting means that he would claim to the dead person. the court taking into consideration all the circumstances of the question might decide the recompense to be given in nature, or in cash, at once or in trances (parts)”. in order to realize the compensation for immaterial damage due to causing of death, the following criteria must be met: the death of a relative is caused, the death causes suffering to his relatives, existence of the causal link between the death caused and the psychic suffering caused, the death to have been caused by unlawful action, and a claim for compensation for immaterial damage must be filed at the court. 5. filing of lawsuit in principle, all rights and interests are protected, even the suit for compensation of non-pecuniary damage may also be filed by anyone claiming the cause of such damage, in which claim must specify the damage it claims to have been caused to him/her by the actions of respondent and the amount of compensation required by the same, as a consequence of the damaging action, since the lawmaker has determined monetary compensation as the only form of compensation, excluding of case of the infringement of a personal right the court may order the publication of the judgment or a correction at the injurer’s expense or order that the injurer must retract the statement by which the infringement was committed or do anything else through which it is possible to achieve the purpose achieved via compensation. considering even the nature of such cases, the lawmaker has provided that in addition to the general territorial jurisdiction, the lawsuit may also be filed in the court in whose territory the damaging action has been committed or the court in whose territory the consequence of the damage arose, whereas in cases of death or serious bodily injury, the lawsuit may also be filed with the court in the territory of which the claimant has his/her residence, respectively the emplacement. from the reading of the legal provisions, it results that in cases where the injured party accepts the compensation offered by the insurance associations or special compensation funds, the same is not entitled to claim through the lawsuit additional compensation for the damage caused, but there are exemption situations related to the unawareness of parties on the consequences of accepting such amounts of compensation, and in this respect the european court of human rights has in some cases found that the parties’ disability that through legal remedies in this case a lawsuit, to seek additional compensation , constituted a violation of article 6 (1) of the european convention (the right to a fair trial), arguing that the circumstances under which the victims acted, was reasonable to believe that they had the right to start or continue using legal remedies even after the acceptance of the compensation offer, whereas were not sufficiently clarified on consequences caused by accepting of available funds. 5.1 lawsuit statutory limitation on damage compensation the institute of statutory limitations is an important civil law institute, through which legal deadlines have been settled within which judicial protection might be seek for an alleged right. in this regard, lawmaker has foreseen that compensation claims for damage inflicted shall become statute-barred three (3) years after 54 the injured party learnt of the damage and of the person that inflicted it, known even as subjective deadline, as it is related to injured party knowledge and its causing party, whereas in each case the claim shall become statute-barred five (5) years after the damage occurred, which is objective deadline, as it is related to the event as objective circumstance, from where the deadline begins. however, there are two exceptional cases of these preclusion deadlines, initially considering a totally specific circumstance related to the juvenile age in the case of created damage by the act of sexual abuse, it is provided that statutory limitation of the claim in this case is fifteen (15) years after the juvenile has reached the age of maturity and secondly, it is related to claims for compensation of damage caused by criminal offences, where the statutory limitation deadline is conditioned by the time set for statutory limitation of criminal prosecution, always if a for a criminal prosecution a longer deadline of statutory limitation is provided. 5.2 burden of proof in court proceeding, the court should require the parties to present evidence of any facts on which the conduct of the proceeding depends or any decision making during this process and in the case of filing a lawsuit, the plaintiff must attach all evidence to the lawsuit, through which he/she claims to prove his/her allegations, respectively in the present case, the damages caused by the respondent, either in their nature and also at the height of the intensity they do have. in this regard, the plaintiff must, through the evidence presented or those proposed to be administered, prove that the damage actually occurred as a result of the respondent’s adverse action, but does not mean that the consequence of the damage, respectively the effects have been fully manifested, but as such must be manifested, that is, projectable in a reasonable future, then the damage must be specified, so as to be related to the plaintiff specifically and individually, and the damage must also be ”quantifiable”, indeed the exact monetary value of the alleged damage must be stated, even tough the court is not bound by the parties’ allegations, but has freedom of action to assess the amount of the damage itself, which is almost in all cases it does so by engaging of an independent expert. but, considering the subjective nature of this damage and particularly its character-appearance, whether in the form of personality infringement, pain or spiritual suffering, it must be assessed as proven by the plaintiff’s own proving of the unlawful fact of the third and the link of this fact with the moral infringement suffered, according to the principle of causal regularity, although even the lawmaker itself has related to specific reports and circumstances, the amount of compensation, which is certainly due to the nature and intensity of the pain since the mere presumption that the closer the family or coexistence of sex is, the more severe the emotional distress and pain of the relative of the injured party or victim, thus, the higher the amount of moral compensation to be imposed by the court is. in this regard, it is important to mention the fact that in cases of damage caused by a criminal offense, and where there is a meritorious decision in the criminal proceedings in respect of that event, and the compensation of damage is required in civil proceedings, then the existence of the damage and causing of it, it is taken as proven and that in civil proceedings, only the amount of damage should be set, and in this case, the plaintiff, when filing of the claim, also attaches the final decision of the relevant court issued in criminal proceedings. however, in addition, the plaintiff bears the burden of contention (onus contestatio), which means that the plaintiff must declare about the allegations of the opposing party, as in another situation, these facts can be considered uncontested by the court. 6. expert engagement almost in all european systems, medical reports serves as ground for the assessment of the damage caused. the law on contested procedure provides that ”whenever for proving or clarification of facts or certain circumstances, there is a need for professional knowledge that case judge does not have”, an expert of certain activity should be appointed, and this should be done as result of proposal of parties in proceeding, which are interested of obtaining of evidence through expertise. the role of the expert in court proceeding of this nature, respectively in cases when the civil proceedings takes place for lawsuits on damage compensation, it is very important, since there are respectively experts those who determines the nature and extent of the damage. some of the most common types of expert witnesses on personal injuries includes the accident reconstruction experts, who uses engineering principles to describe how the accident happened and to determine the most likely cause of the accident, medical experts who concludes the cause and extent of injuries, the most likely cause of pain and current condition, and the need for future medical care, financial experts concludes financial losses by qualifying such items as loss of earning capacity, future medical expenses and permanent injuries, mental health experts, who concludes emotional-psychological or psychological damage due to the damage caused, the manner how this will affect your life. the opinion of the expert or experts is assessed by the court as any other evidence, when it does not convince their opinion it must justify the refusal in the final decision, but may also engage another expert. 7. criteria for imposing of damage as much as it is clear that no price can compensate a pain, that no amount of money can restore lost function, just as the existence of consistent theoretical criteria or principles in assessing damages of this nature is unclear, apart that compensation should 55 be aimed at achieving a dual purpose, in one hand the victim’s satisfaction and on the other the punishment for causing of damage. the lawmaker in kosovo was satisfied by conditioning the settlement of compensation based on case circumstances, in particular their intensity and duration of the caused pain, declaring that the court must take care of the importance of infringing the good and the purpose whom this compensation serves, that the same should be in compliance with its nature and social purpose. in this regard, it is important to refer to the regulation on the criteria for the assessment of immaterial damage from auto-liability, drafted by the central bank of the republic of kosovo, as a good majority of cases are due to accidents of this nature and this regulation presents some criteria on the basis of which certain amounts of compensation have been imposed, such that in the case of spiritual pain due to a decrease in overall life activity, as criteria was considered the type of injury, the part of the body exposed to the injuries, the age of the injured person and the percentage of overall activity decrease, at compensation for bodily pain the nature of consequences is taken into account, whether permanent or temporary, in the case when are permanent, if the reduction in life activity is below 30% or above 30%, whereas the amounts within these percentages are imposed based on pain intensity, especially severe intensity, with severe intensity, medium intensity, in case of fear the intensity and duration of the fear related to spiritual pain due to deformity has been considered, as criteria was considered the high degree of deformity, low medium, gender and age of the injured person, whereas in the case of compensation for spiritual pain due to the death or high serious invalidity of a close relative, as assessment criteria for the compensation values was considered the proximity to deceased person or to whom was caused high serious invalidity. although initially it seems that within these criteria a fair assessment of the damage caused can be summarized, in a more concrete review, it is evident that these criteria as such, are superficial and do not reflect fairly whole consequence of the adverse action, although such a regulation with tracking tables does not oblige the court when deciding in context of this nature, judicial practice investigates a corresponding in imposing of amounts that are relatively equivalent to those offered by insurance companies. beyond the intensity and duration, that are objectively approximately quantifiable, taking into account the nature of the injury it can determine even its duration and intensity, there are specific circumstances, that for the authors of this thesis must acquire a substantial weight in determining of the compensation, highlighting the fact that even under the conditions of the existence of infringement of personality rights at a low intensity or short duration, the injured party is entitled to a fair money compensation, since the recognition of such damage, is a satisfaction on itself, beyond the specific amounts that may be set in relation to the damage caused. the assessment of the respective circumstances of the case, such as the subjective conditions of the injured person; age and individual degree of sensitivity to the infringement suffered, his commitment to the moment of infringement, but also the conduct of the causing damage in relation to the event and infringed persons, gives a special dimension to each case, as in all cases the events are experienced in various manners, which are respectively above-mentioned circumstances, that are crucial in this respect, considering that individual characteristics of the victim may increase or reduce the depth (degree) of suffering. if we do refer to aesthetic damage, it is not sufficient only the degree of deformity caused, but also the respective consequences on the life of the injured person, which depends on age, occupation, his engagement, family status, and other elements which determines specific weight of the damage caused, as for a person engaged in the field of modeling even a minimal damage, would be essential as it would deprive him/her of his primary and possibly only engagement in relation to another person, and considering his occupation and his engagement, such injury of that nature and to that degree would be quite insignificant, then, being young and furthermore unmarried, or engaged in any sport, where the appearance has its own significance, suffering of any deformity even at the lowest rate, results with very high consequence. thus, compensation should not be related to the degree of deformity, but its result, respectively the relative consequences that such an event has caused on the life of the person who suffered it. the lawmaker did not specified as a special circumstance the financial situation or economic opportunity of causing of damage to be considered, but such circumstance may be derived considering highlighting of the fact that compensation should not be in contradiction to the social purpose in whose function has been foreseen and in this respect, the economic opportunities of the person causing the damage must be a circumstance which should be considered, because if full compensation would be an oppressive burden on the defendant, the same should be reduced. 8. conclusions it is evident that the amount of compensation should be defined considering that in one hand, the amount of compensation should not distort the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of insurance systems or welfare, and in the other hand aiming the full compensation of the damage caused. surely that agreeing of these two principles, on which this entire process must be structured, due to its subjective and internal nature, can not be calculated on tables and schemes estimated only for this purpose, or criteria which refer under abstract conditions, such as intensity or duration, but that the court, relying on the principle of rendering justice according to its internal conviction, established by 56 considering all the circumstances of the case in their entirety, relying even on eventual normative criteria applicable to the nature of the infringed right or, in their absence, criteria and assessment elements consolidated by judicial practice in solving analogous cases or relevant extrajudicial experience, to define the extent and nature of the compensation in compatibility with the damage caused. references 1. law on obligation relations of the republic of kosovo, law no. 04/l-077, dated 10.05.2012, article: 136,137, 155, 182, 183, 184, 357 2. lubisha milloshevic, law on obligation, pristina, p.,150 3. decision no.12, dated 14.09.2007 of the civil college of high court republic of albania 4. nergjivane dauti, law on obligation, pristina, 2004, p., 197-200 5. afet mamuti, civil liability for damage compensation in macedonia (doctoral dissertation), tirana, 2013, p., 165-168 6. judgment, c.no. 418/17, dated 19.12.2018, issued by the basic court in peja branch in klina 7. judgment, ac.no.2082/2014, dated 18.01.2017, issued by the court of appeal of kosovo in pristina 8. civil code of the republic of albania, law no.7850, dated 29.7.1994, article 643 9. alajdin alishani, law on obligation, pristina, 2002, p., 560 10. law on contested claim of the republic of kosovo, law no.03/l-006, dated 30.06.2008, article 47, 356 11. michel cannarsa, compensation for personal injury in france,p., 11-12 12. altin shegani, ylli pjetërnikaj, valbona nano, e drejta – law, no.1-4/2016, p., 41 13. ina hoxhaj, assertion and silence as a means of proof in civil trial, “lawyer”, no.26, 2018 14. w.v.harton rogers, comparative report in damages for non-pecuniary loss in a comperative perspective 246 (w.v. harton rogers ed.,2001) at 268-75, in g.comande, doing away with inequality in loss of enjoyment of life, op.j.,vol.1/2009, paper n.2 pp.1-18, p., 5 15. regulation on criteria for the evaluation of nonmaterial damage from liability, approved by the central bank of the republic of kosovo, dated 15.09.2016, article 31-34 16. erdelevsky, a.m. (2004). moral damage: analysis and commentary of legislation and judicial practice. 3-rd ed. wolters kluwer, p., 103 17. lars noah, comfortably numb: medicalizing (and mitigating) pain-and-suffering damages, 42 u. mich. j. l. reform 431 (2009). available at: https://repository.law.umich.edu/mjlr/vol42/iss2/5, -p.,452460 1. introduction references 14 gratitude, self-esteem and optimism in people with physical disabilities rini lestari, s.psi., m. si. ¹* maharani fajar, s. psi. ² ¹ universitas muhammadiyah surakarta, faculty of psychology, mailto:rl237@ums.ac.id ,* correspondent author ² universitas muhammadiyah surakarta, faculty of psychology, mailto:maharanifajar59@gmail.com article history: accepted 25 june 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: gratitude, optimism, physical disability, psychological problems, self-esteem. a b s t r a c t the psychological problems experienced by people with physical disabilities are feeling hopeless and uncertain of their future. they feel the future will be dismal. they also feel afraid of not having proper education, jobs, and place in society, not be able to work normally, fail in lives, rejected, and not be able to give the best to their loved ones. this condition indicates non-optimistic. optimism is an essential psychosocial resource for protecting the health and influencing human functioning. the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between gratitude and self-esteem with optimism in people with physical disabilities. the samples of this study were people with physical disabilities, aged 18 35 years old, attended social rehabilitation and totaled 106 people. data collection methods were gratitude scale, self-esteem scale, and lot-r. analysis of the data used multiple regression analysis. the analysis indicates that there is a significant relationship between gratitude and selfesteem with optimism in people with physical disabilities. the contribution of gratitude and selfesteem variables to optimism is 48.1%. people with physical disabilities have optimism and gratitude in the high category, while self-esteem in the medium category. 1. introduction the number of people with disabilities in the world is increasing, at least 10% of the population has physical, mental, social, and 80% of disabilities is in the developing countries (forouzan, mahmoodi, shushtari, salimi, 2013). world health organization's data (who, 2018) show that 15% of the world's population has physical disabilities and ± 100-200 million people aged ± 13 years and above have physical disabilities. the percentage of disabilities in indonesia also continues to increase every year. in 2018, there are 10.2% of children aged 5-17 years and 44% at ages 18-59 years have disabilities (kementerian kesehatan republik indonesia, 2018). a large number of people with disabilities make the government need to pay more attention to assist the problems faced by people with disabilities. there are four types categorizes people with disabilities, i.e., physical, mental, intellectual and sensory (uu ri nomor 8 tahun 2016). people with physical disabilities are referred as crippled, physically disabled, physically handicapped, i.e., individuals who have orthopedic and physical disabilities making it difficult to move normally (merdiasi, 2013; misbach, 2014). this physical disability can be owned by someone from the hereditary (congenital), or not from the hereditary (accident or illness). various physical, social and psychological problems are frequently experienced by people with physical disabilities. for this reason, the government provides a social rehabilitation center that provides services, rehabilitation, resocialization, and further guidance for people with physical disabilities. this social center aims to improve social, physical, psychological, mental functioning, spiritual capabilities and responsibilities of people with physical disabilities as members of the community. in this social center, people with physical disabilities are given education and various skills to live in the community. however, the imperfect physical condition still has serious psychological effects and other negative feelings. the dominant psychological problem experienced by people with physical disabilities is feeling lost, hopeless, and unsure of their future. they feel the http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 mailto:rl237@ums.ac.id mailto:maharanifajar59@gmail.com http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6101-3345 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6163-905x 15 future will be dismal. they also feel afraid of not having proper education, jobs, and place in society, not be able to work normally, fail in lives, being rejected, and not be able to give the best to their loved ones. this condition indicates pessimism or non-optimistic. optimism is essential for life because it becomes a psychosocial resource to protect health and affect human functioning (karademas, 2006; rasmussen, scheier, & greenhouse, 2009). optimism is a cognitive tendency to expect and predict positive outcomes (carver & connor-smith, 2010; scheier, carver, & bridges, 2001; srivastava, richards, mcgonigal, butler, & gross, 2006; srivastava & angelo, 2009). optimism is also the hope that positive events will occur in individuals (carver, scheier & segerstrom, 2010). optimistic individuals will have positive expectations and are confident about their future. optimism will direct human behavior to be more positive (de vries, 2009). optimism is influenced by several factors including gratitude (emmons & mccullough, 2003) and self-esteem (karademas, karvelis & argylopoulou, 2007; seligman, 1991). gratitude is one of the factors, which has a positive impact on humans (emmons, 2007). gratitude is a feeling of gratitude and appreciation for the kindness received. various life experiences can cause feelings of gratitude, but gratitude frequently comes from the perception that someone has received gifts or kindness from other parties (emmons, mccullough, & tsang, 2003). gratitude is done transparently to god, nature, animals, and interpersonal (emmons & shelton, 2002; ruini, 2017). gratitude also means recognition of positive things that happen to individuals (emmons, 2007). gratitude occurs when someone realizes something good has happened to him and other parties are contributing and responsible for the benefits received. something good is not only the benefits that just happened but also those that happened in the past. good things are positive benefits that have appeared in a person's life and can eliminate unpleasant conditions (watkins, 2014). research shows that gratitude is a significant crucial resource for individuals (emmons & shelton, 2002) and contributes to optimism (emmons & mccullough, 2003). individuals who are grateful for the circumstances they receive will have positive expectations for the life to come. optimism is also influenced by self-esteem. self-esteem is an evaluation of oneself and becomes one of the specific components of self-concept (robinson, shaver & wrightsman, 1991). selfesteem concerns with how individuals perceive, feel, and respect themselves realistically (mckay & fanning, 2000; schiraldi, 2007). realistic means the individuals are dealing with the truth, accurately and honestly realizing their strengths, weaknesses, while respecting shows that the individuals have positive feelings. self-esteem includes self-efficacy and self-respect. self-efficacy means confidence that can think, understand, learn, choose, and self-respect means to guarantee something of value; appreciation for life and happiness; comfortable in thoughts, desires, and needs; the feeling that happiness and self-fulfillment are individual rights (branden, 1994). individuals who have positive self-esteem will consider failure as a challenge to face calmly when they fail so that it leads to a positive impression on their personality. it will also facilitate the resolution of other problems and cause a sense of satisfaction with themselves (triwahyuningsih, 2017). this self-satisfaction will trigger more positive hopes for the future. the research on optimism has been conducted on a variety of subjects but it is still rarely done on people with physical disabilities especially those related to gratitude. the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between gratitude and self-esteem with optimism in people with physical disabilities. the hypothesis of this study is that there is a relationship between gratitude and self-esteem with optimism in people with physical disabilities. 2. method 2.1. subjects the subjects of this study were people with physical or noncongenital disabilities (accidents, illness), aged 18 -35 years (average age = 25.3 years), participated in social rehabilitation and totaled 106 people. table 1. distribution of subjects criteria total % gender a. male 79 74 b. female 27 26 level of education a. elementary school 12 11 b. junior high school 26 25 c. senior high school 68 64 source of physical disability a. congenital 57 54 b. non-congenital 49 46 16 2.2. data collection the data collection of this study was the gratitude scale, selfesteem scale, and the revised life orientation test (lot-r). lot-r (carver & scheier, 2003) was implemented to measure the level of optimism of the subject. lot-r consists of 10 items and has a cronbach's alpha reliability α = 0.840. gratitude was measured by the indonesian version of the gratitude scale developed by listiyandini, nathania, syahniar, and nadya (2017), by integrating the fitzgerald gratitude component (emmons, 2004) and watkins, woodward, stone, and kolts (2003). these components are a sense of appreciation for others, god and life, positive feelings towards life owned, and a tendency to act positively as an expression of positive feelings and appreciation that is owned (behavior expression). this gratitude scale consists of 20 items and has a cronbach’s alpha reliability α = 0.887. self-esteem was measured using a self-esteem scale based on coopersmith's theory, with significant, power, competence, and virtue aspects (coopersmith, 1967). the self-esteem scale consists of 21 items and has a cronbach’s alpha reliability α = 0.817. all scales applied have reliability coefficients above 0.80 that indicate high internal consistency (weels & wollack, in azwar, 2018). choice of answers on a scale using the method of a summated rating scale with four answer choices, i.e., very unsuitable (vus), unsuitable (us), suitable (s), very suitable (vs). the term "suitable" is used as a response choice on a scale that measures the state of the subjects so that in responding to the subject items first weigh the extent to which the contents of the statement is a description of their state or a description of their behavior (azwar, 2012). 2.3. data analysis analysis of the data applied in this study was the multiple regression analysis. this analysis was selected because it will examine the correlation between two independent variables namely gratitude and self-esteem with one variable depending on optimism. 3. results and discussion 3.1. results the results of statistical analysis show the value of r = 0.693; p = 0,000 (p <0.01); which means there is a very significant relationship between gratitude and self-esteem with optimism in people with physical disabilities. these results can prove the hypothesis proposed by researchers that there is a relationship between gratitude and self-esteem with optimism in people with physical disabilities. the results of the analysis are shown in table 2. table 2. regression analysis n sd mean r r square sig. (1 tailed) gratitude 106 7.013 64.34 0.693 0.481 0.000** self esteem 6.121 61.24 optimism 2.185 18.16 note: ** p<0.01 statistical analysis also indicates that the value of r1 = 0.518; p = 0,000 (p <0.01); which means there is a very significant positive relationship between gratitude and optimism in people with physical disabilities. likewise, the value of r2 = 0.541; p = 0,000 (p <0.05); which means there is a very significant positive relationship between self-esteem and optimism in people with physical disabilities. the analysis results are shown in table 3. table 3. analysis of gratitude, self-esteem, and optimism correlation variable r sig. (1 tailed) gratitude , optimisme 0.518 0.000** self-esteem, optimisme 0.541 0.000** note: ** p<0.01 the effective contribution made by the gratitude and self-esteem to optimism is 48.1%, so there are still 51.9% of other variables that affect optimism. hypothetical mean gratitude is 50, while empirical mean gratitude is 64.34. hence, the subject's gratitude is categorized as high. the hypothetical mean of self-esteem is 52.5, while the empirical mean of self-esteem is 61.24. thus, the 17 subject's self-esteem is classified as moderate. hypothetical mean optimism is 15, while the empirical mean of optimism is 18.16. hence, the optimism of research subjects is classified as high. 3.2. discussions this research proves that there is a very significant relationship between gratitude and self-esteem with optimism in people with physical disabilities. the analysis also proves a very significant positive relationship between gratitude and optimism in people with physical disabilities (r = 0.518; p <0.01). correlation of gratitude and optimism is strong category (sujarweni, 2014). this results support the research of emmons and mccullough (2003) and bono, emmons, & mccullough (2012). grateful individuals realize other parties have contributed to themselves and will appreciate any gift from god and other parties. people with physical disabilities understand that they have received positive treatment from caregivers, social institutions, and the government who have tried to achieve independence and improve their welbeing through maintenance, rehabilitation, social assistance, and equal opportunities. they also appreciated the government's efforts to develop public facilities that are friendly to people with physical disabilities. this acceptance and appreciation will give rise to positive feelings about their life now and in the future (fitzgerald, in emmons, 2004; watkins et al., 2003). the seriousness and support of the government will foster hope that the lives of people with disabilities will be much better in the future. people with physical disabilities have confidence and hope that they will be able to move better and positive things will happen in the future so that optimism increases (carver et al., 2010). conversely, people with disabilities who are less aware of and appreciate the giving of other parties will still emerge negative feelings and feel marginalized so that they tend to be pessimistic and uncertain of their lives in the future. gratitude is done when there is an acknowledgment that something positive has happened to the individual (emmons, 2007). grateful individuals will thank and appreciate the goodness of others' interpersonal and transpersonal (emmons et al., 2003). this feeling can lead to a life orientation of someone who pays more attention to positive things (wood, froh, & geraghty, 2010) so that they will have positive hopes for the life to come (emmons & mccullough, 2003). people with physical disabilities can be grateful because they can still accomplish their daily activities independently even though their physical conditions are imperfect such as having no hands, feet, and so on. they feel that this condition is a gift from god and believe there is a better plan for god so that they remain optimistic about their future. whereas people with physical disabilities who are less grateful will feel that they are not worthy to live in the world, because they will only distress others and their surroundings so they do not have positive hopes for their future. this study also proves that there is a very significant positive relationship between self-esteem and optimism in people with physical disabilities (r = 0.541; p <0.01). correlation of selfesteem and optimism is strong category (sujarweni, 2014). this result supports the research of purba (2017) and mulawarmani, nugroho, susilawati, afriwilda, kunwijaya (2019). selfesteem is an individual's evaluation of oneself (amirazodi & amirazodi, 2011; robinson et al., 1991). individuals who have high self-esteem will be more willing to take risks to achieve goals despite the possibility of failure. however, individuals with low self-esteem tend to fear being rejected in the pursuit of success and prestige, avoiding risks that make situations difficult for themselves (baumeister, campbell, krueger, & vohs, 2003). thus individuals who have high self-esteem will increase the probability of success, reduce the effects of failure to develop optimism (bastianello, pacico, & hutz, 2014; campbell, chew, & scratchley, 1991). optimistic individuals have sufficient self-esteem characteristics, tend to accept themselves as carriers of positive characteristics that are socially desirable, and have a high level of self-control (tsivilskaya & artemyeva, 2016). individuals who have high self-esteem will respect themselves so that they have positive feelings because they believe in their abilities realistically and feel happy with the fulfillment of their rights (branden, 1994). people with physical disabilities who have high self-esteem will respect themselves and have confidence that they are valuable. they can accept and forgive themselves for all the shortcomings and imperfections they have. they will not feel down when being criticized. these positive beliefs and feelings will influence attitudes and behaviors to be more optimistic about the future. optimistic individuals hope that positive events will occur (carver et al., 2010). it happens because optimistic individuals are frequently more willing to face daily challenges and believe in having the power to overcome challenges by trying to increase their strength and use innovative thinking to achieve success (seligman, 1991). gratitude and self-esteem contribute 48.1% so there are 51.9% other variables that affect optimism. variables that can affect optimism include interest, motivation, self-confidence, successful experiences (seligman, 1991), age, parity status, marital status, health status, education level, family support, stress, coping, selfefficacy (karademas et al., 2007; mosing et al., 2009) and socioeconomic status (carver et al., 2010). 18 the results of this study indicate that the level of optimism of people with physical disabilities is relatively high. it can be high since people with physical disabilities have attended education in social rehabilitation institutions so that they already have the skills to make a living as the main goal of the adult subjects. their skills range from photography, workshop, carpentry, computer, sewing, food, and beauty. social institutions also provide internship opportunities in government and private institutions to provide practical opportunities and increase their confidence. some people with disabilities have also successfully worked in government and private institutions. it is an example for other people with disabilities and motivates them to be able to reveal work and have a better life in the future. one factor that can increase optimism is social support (seligman, 1991). social support can be provided in the form of emotional, appreciation, instrumental, and information support (sarafino, 2006). people with physical disabilities obtain attention, guidance, education, appreciation, information, and physical-social facilities that can provide a more positive sense of security and hope for their future. the government also provides opportunities for people with physical disabilities to obtain equal access to education, health, political, technology, information, communication, and better employment opportunities in the formal and informal sectors. government programs that plan to establish factories that employ and are managed by people with physical disabilities convince them to enjoy the rights without discrimination. people with disabilities also obtain full support from the government with affirmative programs in the form of providing disability cards, individual assistance, social assistance, and independence. the government also gave bonuses to athletes who got or did not get the medals at the 2018 asian games as a form of respect and appreciation for all the dedication and struggle of athletes for the nation and state. this opportunity strengthens the belief of people with physical disabilities that they have good opportunities in the future. the gratitude of people with physical disabilities is also high because they feel fortunate to have the opportunity to get free education, skills, and physical needs provided by the government. when they graduate, they also obtain capital equipment to work such as cameras, sewing machines, and beauty equipment. they understand that not all people with physical disabilities got the opportunity that they obtained so far. religious studies are also conducted routinely so that people with physical disabilities get continuous spiritual learning. this repetitive information will strengthen the subjects to continue to be grateful for gifts given by god (they are healthy, and able to see so they can learn compared to others) or from others (attention, nursing/government facilities, education, clothing, equipment, shelter, friends, caregivers and so on). various life experiences received by these individuals can cause feelings of gratitude (emmons et al., 2003). the more positive experiences, the higher the gratitude. self-esteem is one of the most crucial aspects of personality that can shape identity and affect all life (mulawarmani et al., 2019). therefore, it needs to be improved in various ways. one of the ways undertaken by the government is a commitment to realize disability equality, build an inclusive and disability-friendly, and encourage more participation and active participation in development. however, these efforts have not been able to make the dignity of people with physical disabilities high. their selfesteem is moderate because the physical condition is still a major concern. people with physical disabilities tend to compare their physicality with others when they first meet and sometimes they still have doubts about the acceptance of others because of their imperfect physical condition. several studies also identified that the most essential component and the main predictor of selfesteem is social acceptance and physical appearance in men and women at all age levels (shapka & keating, 2005). the process of forming self-esteem starts with the interaction of individuals with their environment. in their interactions with other people, individuals try to know themselves and others. the picture of themselves will form an organized concept within the individuals. the concept will form a self-image that is the overall perception of the quality, abilities, encouragement, and attitudes they have in interacting with others. it will further shape selfesteem (rosenberg, 1989). self-esteem is influenced by internal factors such as the capacity to love, rationally thinking, the state of one's body (appearance, vitality, and health, mood, performance, level of expertise, and control over events) (schiraldi, 2007), personality trait (amirazodi & amirazodi, 2011), and mindfulness (pepping, o'donovan, davis, 2013). external factors that influence self-esteem are demographic conditions (economic status, sex, race, age), respect, family relationships, popularity (schiraldi, 2007), parenting models, social environment, academic success, social status (mckay & fanning, 2000), feedback from significant people, family disputes and disorders (mann, hosman, schaalma & de vries, 2004), gender equality and cultural values (bleidorn, arslan, denissen, rentfrow, gebauer, potter, 2016) and physical exercise (liu, wu, ming, 2015). the self-esteem of people with physical disabilities still needs to be improved because it is highly crucial for health, the ability to overcome problems, survive, and health (schiraldi, 2007). selfesteem is also a strong motivation to work hard, enhance wellbeing, happiness, adjustment, success, satisfaction and academic 19 achievement (schiraldi, 2007); improve performance, personal relationships, health and a healthy lifestyle (baumeister et al., 2003); marital satisfaction (homaei, bozorgi, ghahfarokhi & hosseinpour, 2016). individuals who lack self-esteem are more likely to experience depression, anxiety, poor social functioning, risky behavior, eating disorders, drop out (mann et al., 2004), anger, chronic pain, decreased immunity, fear to initiate friendships, avoid social contact, incline to isolate, scare to express opinions, act recklessly, passive, aggressive and selfdestructive and various other physical and psychological symptoms that are troublesome (schiraldi, 1999, 2007). 4. conclusion people with physical disabilities frequently feel hopeless and less optimistic about their future, whereas optimism plays an essential role in human health. the optimism of people with physical disabilities can be influenced by gratitude and self-esteem. this research proves a very significant relationship between gratitude and self-esteem with optimism in people with physical disabilities. the contribution of gratitude and self-esteem variables to optimism is 48.1% so there are still 51.9% of other variables that influence optimism, such as interests, motivation, self-confidence, success experiences, age, parity status, marital status, health status, education level, family support, stress, coping, self-efficacy and socioeconomic status. people with physical disabilities have optimism and gratitude in the high category, while their self-esteem is in the medium category. 5. acknowledgement we thank to universitas muhammadiyah surakarta and bbrspdf [balai besar rehabilitasi social penyandang disabilitas fisik], for providing permissions for us to conduct the research. this research receives a specific grant from universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. references 1. amirazodi, f., 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(2018). disability and health. https://www.who.int/newsroom/fact-sheets/detail/disability-and-health 55. https://doi.org/10.1037/10385-009 https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087247 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.143 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.143 https://doi.org/10.22146/buletinpsikologi.9382 http://www.dpr.go.id/dokjdih/document/uu/1667.pdf https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7253-3 https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2003.31.5.431 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.005 32 differentiated teaching strategies with children with learning difficulties prof. ass. dr. shemsi morina universit of prizren “ukshin hoti”, faculty of education, shemsi.morina@uni-prizren.com article history: accepted 01 october2019 available online 31 december 2019 keywords: teaching learning learning difficulties multiply intelligences different styles of learning differentiated teaching qualitative learning. a b s t r a c t teaching process every day and more is changing with a strong evolution, where the use of methods, forms and multiple techniques are transforming teaching in a complex and difficult process on the other hand the teaching process is faced today with a large number of exception and contradiction as: a) teachers often give students the task of exercises, for solution of which required knowledge of many subjects, despite the knowledge provided by the teacher were only on their case, so in this respect should be paid special attention to all stages through which ensure quality teaching and successful learning. b) teachers should be familiar with: difficulties, styles, interests, needs, trends and psychological abilities of each student in order to ensure their walk confidently ahead. c) on the other hand they often have to break and be dedicated to a group of advanced students who have interests much broader than the rest of the class, in this regard have the skills, but the rest of the children have difficulties therefore require constant supervision and help of teachers. these are some of the reasons that make teaching as a difficult and complex process. the teaching process as the learning had their history of development. therefore they passed through the different stages being perfectly constantly. from the very cognitive of these issues, it was concluded that both these processes are correlated with each other, which makes it even more complicated ( raçi, a. gashi, sh. 2001: 3). precisely for these reasons, studies and research on teaching and learning have been and are many today. these studies, as well as the interest accrued so teachers, psychologists, and experts in other fields, coupled with the fact that teaching and learning are continuous processes, such as understanding about them cannot ever finish ( qtka, 2005: 13 ). introduction to search and research methodology 1. presentation of the problem ongoing changes in the field of education, especially in the aftermath of war in kosovo, had intended raising the quality of all levels of education, although the reality today shows an unsatisfactory situation in schools in kosovo. every day more and more in our schools is an increase of children who have difficulties in learning the language prior notions, mathematical skills. in his book ,, differentiated teaching "(tomlinson, 2005: 51) gives practical advice on how to approach and be successful with children with learning difficulties in the learning process, based on the belief that all children they can learn and can be successful, but to do so depends on the insistence of teachers to achieve success, and confidence in the abilities of each child. according to him the basic idea of differentiated teaching is that teachers need to consider not only the subjects that give, but also children. results in teaching, should be seen as an important element of experience in the work of a teacher. the degree of 33 preparation and knowledge of the changes that have children in language, socioeconomic status, race, ethnic background, differences in strengths and weaknesses, abilities and learning difficulties are the key to success in teaching. many teachers feel that grades must include students with different needs, with different educational levels, with different interests and learning styles. in this way, to benefit from diversity, not to disregard it, teaching must necessarily be differentiated. under current conditions, as well as the modalities of teaching that apply now, where the inclusion of students with disabilities, but also the number of children with sn, is growing every day more and more, seen as a necessity increase the accountability of teachers to be we provide quality education for all children, as well as adequate preparation for life and work. such a goal requires the fulfillment of certain conditions as provided in the school practices of other countries as: teachers competent, responsive and well trained to work with children with s.v. and v.n. and trained in pedagogical and psychological terms: customization of the curriculum; tools and diverse enough concretized; number of students in the class to be reasonable; functionality of psychological and pedagogical service; cooperation permanent subjective factors. kosovo in school reality, some of the causes that are impossible implementation of differentiated instruction are: overcrowded curriculum, and disproportionate to the psychophysical capabilities of children; lack of adequate training of teachers, implementation of differentiated instruction; the very high number of students in classes, especially in urban areas; short residence time student in school; not great interest of parents for child's achievement in school; lack of consulting services in school 1.1. hypothesis today the process off teaching in our schools about his adaptation, the specifications of each child is presented with various defects. rise of hypotheses, analysis and confirmation, or not in terms of the knowledge and attitudes of teachers about the necessity of implementing the teaching of the differential in our schools, and factors affecting the teaching in our schools will addressed step by step in this search. the basic hypothesis; differentiated teaching and individual influences more in overcoming difficulties in learning, compared with other types of teaching; auxiliary hypotheses: auxiliary hypotheses 1: women educationalists auxiliary hypotheses, evaluate the usefulness and efficiency more differentiated teaching, compared with male teachers. auxiliary hypothesis 2: teachers with higher education level, the more productive estimate of differentiated instruction, compared to teachers with lower levels of education. auxiliary hypothesis 3: private school teachers have the knowledge, and show the highest level of alert in the implementation of differentiated instruction, compared with public school teachers. auxiliary hypothesis 4: urban teachers, knowledge, and show the highest level of alert in the implementation of differentiated instruction, compared with teachers in rural areas. 1.2. methodology the aim of this study is to diagnose the knowledge, and the willingness of teachers to implement the mode of teaching differentiated children with learning difficulties, and the conditions and technologies that provide schools for successful implementation of this modality, about adapting depending on: the needs, styles, intelligences and diverse difficulties faced by children with sn in the learning process of knowledge in the learning process. this chapter shall submit a research strategy is selected, the instruments used and the population from which the sample was selected appropriate. study on the nature of the collection and analysis of data, a combination of quantitative methods with qualitative research method (shamiq, a. 2009: 60). this methodological approach to our research, more sustainable makes arguments that arise in his conclusion, regarding the factors that affect the implementation of differentiated teaching strategies with children with learning difficulties. the instruments that we use in research are: a) questionnaires; b) interviews; and c) focus group; (mattheus, b; ross, liz; 2010: 201). 1.3. selection of champions the population selected in this search are teachers of primary and lower secondary education, as well as school psychologist and 34 lecturer. limited sampling in the municipality of pristina and its environs. stratification of the sampling is done by two groups: • rural urban • private school public school weighing scale sampling is done on the basis of approximate participation of these groups in the sample population. selection of respondents within strata weighted methodology made by chance (the algorithm randomly in the population register). rough stratification of the population division of teachers: the survey was conducted in three schools in prishtina (urban location, both public and private schools), as well as three schools in rural locations; 75 teachers of primary and lower secondary education were surveyed in three public schools, and 25 teachers of primary and lower secondary education were surveyed in a private school in the city, the total urban location were 100 respondents. while 40 surveys of teachers in primary and lower secondary education are made at three public schools pristina district (rural). a total of 140 respondents. circle from the selected sampling was done intentionally, because the city of prishtina is the place where investing more about the training of various teachers, equipping schools with diverse, in cooperation with parents, in order to raising the quality of teaching and learning, as well as private schools are functional and psychological services of teaching in some schools, which all of these elements may be indicative for successful implementation of teaching differentiated children with learning difficulties. for conducting interviews was selected sampling intentional composed of psychologists and teachers of schools, in schools where it is functional service (private school) champion deliberately focused on those schools where the number of students is very large, and the number children with sn is considerable. also, focus groups were selected for intentional sample consisting of teachers with long work experience and training in this field, but also in the classroom teachers who have a considerable number of children with sn. 1.4. instruments used in the study for lighting empirical problems, differentiated teaching strategies with children with learning difficulties are using these tools: questionnaire: in most studies in the social sciences, are advised to use the survey with self-report of which may include different instruments (mattheus, b; ross, liz; 2010: 202). in this study we drafted a questionnaire, which consisted of two sections. in the first section of the survey were put questions about the teacher data such as gender; the level of education achieved; location of school; and the type of school where he works. except that these data were used as variables in the analysis of data were also used to create a profile of teachers participating in the study. while the second section of the survey is composed of 17 specific questions, through which we aimed to measure the knowledge and assessment of teachers of the benefits of teaching differentiated compared to other types of teaching conditions in schools and readiness their implementation of this mode. 2. teaching differential – definition “the essence of teaching is differentiated adaptation of the contents, processes, methods, forms, techniques, tools, procedures and educational materials styles, intelligences, and the pace of learning of students with the aim of achieving the same goals and objectives" (muka, p; karaj, dh; qela, l. 2002: 9). now the all public opinion is aware that the school has students with learning difficulties, and therefore must find ways to bring assistance to them (kraja, m. 2006: 287). given the fact that this mode of teaching us is an innovation in terms of terminology, but not its implementation, since it has been in education ever, even from infancy before, without names or designations different. its implementation has been an integral part of the school, where classes held respectively in this process, because it was necessary, until the teacher thought and decided not only to the entire class, but also for special students. students have always been different because: (from parents, family circles different interests and different needs, difficulties, styles and intelligences different), but the whole problem is how much and how considering the diversity of students in our schools, against the goals and objectives that society puts school. experience shows that the higher that the intended performance collective, the more deficient del working only with the entire class, and the more necessary is done taking into account the diversity of students in the design and content, the selection of methods, forms, tools, techniques, procedures and educational materials that are used to adapt rhythms, styles, intelligences, and other differences of students, in order to alleviate or eliminate the overall difficulties facing children in the learning process knowledge, creating habits, and skills development. these are the reasons that necessarily must implement differentiated mode of teaching in our schools (muka, p; karaj, dh; oela, l. 2002: 10). below we give a scheme which sets out the fundamental difference between traditional teaching, with differentiated, as above noted in a wider specifics of teaching indirectly, that there is so fundamental difference teaching differentiated, as has differences traditional teaching mode. 35 differences of traditional teaching with differentiated traditional differentiated masked differences between students, or leave when they become problematic, and thus they can not be resolved. differences between students studied to serve as a basis for successful planning in the education process evaluation is common and the end of learning is to understand,, who understand it the assessment is a diagnosis action and made to understand in what way will adapt teaching to the needs of the learner, taking into account any difference to children in the educational process. it dominates a narrow conception of intelligence and other differences that have children it focuses on multiple forms of intelligence, and takes into account any differences that have children in the learning of knowledge prevails a simple definition for excellence perfection is defined primarily as a development that departs from the starting point. interests and needs of students are often not taken into account students occasionally led to the fulfillment of their interests and needs, based on learning needs. considered relatively few options for learning profiles profiles observed many learning options. dominates the whole class teaching, regardless of the changes that have children in the learning process numerous measures in teaching, making it possible for each successful student progress in learning process treatment of teaching from textbooks and curricula determined adaptation of teaching students is regulated by predispositions, interests and their learning profile it focuses on mastery learning of facts and skills, irrespective of the conditions. learning focuses on the use of the most essential skills in order to develop a coherent understanding of the content and its reasoning evaluation forms are unique and dominates the use of an instrument for assessing student achievement constantly used many ways assessmen use of time is less flexible time used flexibly in accordance with students' needs and interests of students. only a text prevails, not given alternative opportunities to increase resources easier learning content materials are diversified in order to meet the needs, interests, and simplification of curriculum content mechanical limited in content acquisition and interpretation of facts become common multiple angles of ideas and events the teacher guides the behavior of students. the teacher supports habits that help students increase confidence in themselves. teacher solves problems students help each other and the teacher to solve problems. the teacher drafts standards for the advancement of the whole class. students work with teachers to put together the goals of learning for all grade and by individuals. in most cases using only one form of assessment. students are assessed in many ways. 2.1. strategies for teaching the differential the basic prerequisites for a differentiated treatment of children with learning difficulties (identification of needs and implementation of appropriate strategies) in connection with the basic prerequisites to differential treatment of children, it is necessary to be identified them, according to these criteria: 1. identify students who have learning disabilities; 36 2. recognition in anatomic-psychological development of the child, advancing with difficulty; 3. recognition of mental-intellectual capability; 4. recognition of educational and cultural conditions and social and material conditions in which the child; 5. date on the condition of the senses of sight, hearing (kraja, m. 2006: 289). after the teacher has the knowledge easier to take steps that will mitigate or even eliminate entirely difficult to have children in the acquisition of any of the fields or program content. 3. findings and results of data 3.1. the results of quantitative and qualitative data metrology core of this study is based on the selection of the study sample by randomly. this means that there is no difference or criteria that determine the selection of respondents or that each interviewee has the same probability of selection. in this way, the results of the sample statistics are valid for the population studied, in this case the municipality of prishtina teachers. random selection is the method applied by the lottery. teacher registry is assigned a serial number, and then by the logarithm of chance (in microsoft excel program) is generated community numbers selected at random. it should be emphasized that this method is applied after determining the strata of the population, according to the study objectives (location where it operates, as well as the type of school). sample weights are predetermined by observation of the actual weights in the population strata. therefore, weight has become a priori the number of respondents, and all analysis results within the group then developed (angl. pooled). this strict selection protocol sample was applied in order to comply with the conditions for statistical interference, emanating from the central limit theorem and the law of large numbers. the sample size is selected, within budgetary limits, recognizing the error margin of 5%, 10% confidence interval, in a population of 1 427 teachers in the municipality of pristina. according to the program for calculating raosoft enough sample size, the sample is supposed to be interviewing 156 attempts, with the assumption that 66% will respond positively to the request to be interviewed. after the interview, the response rate has proved to be 71.7%, that of 156 requests, 112 teachers have agreed to be interviewed. stratification and weight of the sample was made ex-ante, where separation is proportional to the number of schools and teachers engaged in school, among the 17 public schools and 5 private schools in urban areas (with over 65% of teachers engaged) and 24 public schools in rural areas. the entire questionnaire is designed to answer categorical / ordinal, to accelerate the time of the survey and to increase the accuracy of the answers given. all answers given are included under the pre-encoded data in order to avoid errors. as a database, as well as the overall statistical analysis was performed by spss 17.0 statistical program. although he collected data derived from ordinal response, the statistics presented are derived from the frequency percentage categories. the categories are designed to be exclusive, which means that only one option was applicable to respondents, it is therefore a direct interpretation (see the questionnaire in the annex). in statistical testing phase two tests were used. univariat test is used as a binomial test of proportion, as in the bivariate case is using chi-square test (angl. pearson chi square). the significance level predefined in both these tests is selected 5%. statistical analysis of the data is divided into the descriptive analysis, and testing it. in the first part of the analysis presented basic information on the demographics of teachers and basic statistics drawn from teachers' responses to questions via questionnaires. in the second half then proceed with statistical hypothesis testing study, which analyzed the responses of teachers being conditional on their demographic differences, gender, the environment where it operates schools, education level and the type of school where the teacher works. it should be emphasized that the descriptive statistics analysis constantly refer to the outcomes of the sample observations. given that the sample selection is made exclusively randomly, these results can be used for statistical interference within the selected population ie teachers in the municipality of pristina. given the budget limitations of this study namely limiting the number of respondents statistical interference should be interpreted with caution. 3.2. quantitative analysis of data discussing the results of the study aims to identify the realization of the purpose of this study regarding teaching strategies differentiated children with learning difficulties, and the hypotheses raised in the study, if the teaching of differentiated accompanied associated with difficulty lower learning, compared with other types of teaching. factors analyzed in the context of this study will be analyzed with each other, because to us so far no in-depth studies on teaching strategies differentiated children with learning difficulties, which can be compared with research previous. 37 regarding the basic hypothesis: differentiated instruction and individual influences more in overcoming difficulties in learning, compared with other types of teaching. in this study we were worked with various teachers like (different levels of education, with different specifications, such as the type and location of the school where they work, as well as work experience and trainings attended). the analysis of measurement data it was found that no statistically significant differences between them with regard to the first hypothesis. basic statistical hypothesis examination: from the presentation of the results of the analysis descriptive, can already be concluded that according to the teachers of the municipality of prishtina (with interference) teaching differentiated and individual associated with less difficulty in learning, compared with other types of teaching scale adoption of 72.1% . since all the answers in this study were designed according to the survey to be categorical, analysis of variance responses has no statistical significance. however, responses to the questionnaires are ordinal, so they were given from 1 to 5 in case the main question. in the context of the question of the effect of differentiated teaching degree this is translated in accordance with the conclusion, ie 1 (least) to 5 (completely). just because observation, statistical analysis results in an arithmetic average of 4:05 (more than evaluation agree ,,too” with a standard deviation of 0.8 (according to the response rates). to formally test the hypothesis of the study, the variable interest values are reconstructed into a binary variable, where the value 1 is defined ,, success "or the teacher agrees ,, very" or ,, fully "with the hypothesis, or 0 as, , non-success "where the teacher has given approval lesser extent, somewhat ,," ,, little "or ,, no". taking into account the available data that represent ordinal ratings, such a reconstruction of the variable allows for the use of binomial proportion test through statistical z. we note that in case of noncategorical variables, it would be standard for such purposes to be used ,, test ". in this form to conclude that quantitative goals: “more than 2/3 of teachers in the municipality of pristina estimate that differentiated and individualized teaching is associated with less difficulty in learning, compared with other types of teaching " statistical test: the value of the test binomial proportion is lower than 1%, meaning much lower than the margin of permissible error of 5%, therefore we can conclude that there is no statistical evidence to reject the hypothesis, and conclude that differentiated teaching is more effective than the current format. through this test statistic proved that even if the conditions hypothetical interview will be repeated with other samples representative within the population (teachers and pristina), randomly, then the proportion who appreciates the usefulness of teaching differential will still pass two thirds of respondents. auxiliary hypotheses: to better inform understanding of the basic hypothesis in this study were also presented four auxiliary hypotheses which are examined statistically as: 1. gender teacher determines the differences in evaluating the effectiveness of differentiated teaching; 2. the level of education of teachers determines their differences about the usefulness of differentiated teaching; 3. type of school determines the difference in knowledge, and the willingness of teachers to implement differentiated instruction; 4. determines the difference in knowledge, and assessing the utility of teachers for the implementation of differentiated teaching the importance of these auxiliary hypotheses is more detailed understanding of the determinants of attitudes towards differentiated instruction, and the differences have statistical significance can then be used to formulate recommendations for the improvement of teaching method differentiated educational system auxiliary hypothesis 1: gender teacher determines the differences in evaluating the effectiveness of differentiated teaching; 1. from the data presented in the following tabulation variable that defines the basic hypothesis with variable gender of respondents, it appears that there is a higher probability that male teachers teaching to estimate the benefits of differentiated than the opposite sex. while 68% (56 of 82) females have considered teaching differentiated form followed with fewer difficulties in learning, 80% (24 of 30) of male teachers are given the same rating. 38 table 1. tabulation,, high degree of compliance with the basic hypothesis "to,, gender of teacher" tabulation,, high degree of compliance with the basic hypothesis "to,, gender of teacher" gender of teacher total female male the high level of compliance hypothesis no success (no) 26 6 32 succes s (yes) 56 24 80 total 82 30 112 statistical test: formal statistical hypothesis testing of the first auxiliary through chi-square statistical test shows that despite the fact that the descriptive analysis of the results seems to have a tendency to male teachers have the highest rating for the benefit of differentiated teaching; gender differences were not statistically significant rating. p value of the test statistic is 0.225, indicating that there is 22.5% probability of receiving an erroneous hypothesis, well above the predetermined threshold with this study of 5%. auxiliary hypotheses 2: the level of education of teachers determines their differences about the usefulness of differentiated teaching; regarding the difference in the evaluation of teaching differentiated by teachers, conditional on their level of education, tabulation of the data shows that the trend higher to assess the usefulness of teaching differentiated show teachers who have completed level master education (19 of 22, or 86%). however, the relationship is not linear, because the trend is higher among teachers with hps than those with bachelor-level education, 69% to 67% respectively. table 2. tabulation,, high degree of compliance with the basic hypothesis "to,, education level of teachers' tabulation,, high degree of compliance with the basic hypothesis "to,, education level of teachers' the level of education of teachers: total hpsc h faculty master the high level of compliance hypothesis nonsuccess (no) 10 19 3 32 success (yes) 22 39 19 80 total 32 58 22 112 statistical test: however, as in the case of teacher gender, education level of teachers it appears that is not statistically significant, despite the observable differences in sample results. p value of statistical test chi-square is 0.221, indicating high probability that the hypothesis is not true (22.1% probability). auxiliary hypotheses 3: type of school: determines the difference in knowledge, and the willingness of teachers to implement differentiated instruction; more pronounced differences in assessing the usefulness of the resulting differentiated teaching evaluations after conditioning with variable type of school where the teacher is engaged . while the tendency of all teachers engaged in private schools is to evaluate the usefulness of teaching high differential ( 27/27 ) , it is lower tendency to engage teachers in public schools ( 53/85 or 62 % ). table 3. tabulation,, high degree of compliance with the basic hypothesis "to,, type of school where the teacher works" tabulation,, high degree of compliance with the basic hypothesis "to,, type of school where the teacher works" type of school where the teacher works total public private the high level of compliance hypothesis nonsuccess (no) 32 0 32 succes s (yes) 53 27 80 total 85 27 112 39 statistical test: formal testing of observations arising from the results of sample hypothesis that private school teachers have a higher rating than those of public schools for teaching differential is statistically significant. p value of chi-square test is the 0.00, indicating that there is the probability that the hypothesis is much lower than the predetermined margin of 5% (0:05). auxiliary hypotheses 4: school location: determines the difference in knowledge, and assessing the utility of teachers for the implementation of differentiated instruction; the type of location where it operates schools in which the teacher is engaged, there is significant difference in knowledge and appreciation of the benefits of differentiated teaching. more specifically, teachers engaged in the city have knowledge, but also a significantly higher tendency (57/71 or 80%) to assess the usefulness of teaching differentiated compared to teachers engaged in rural location (23/41, or 56%). table 4. tabulation,, high degree of compliance with the basic hypothesis "to,, location of the school where the teacher works" tabulation,, high degree of compliance with the basic hypothesis "to,, location of the school where the teacher works" school location total village city the high level of compliance hypothesis nonsucces s (no) 18 14 32 succes s (yes) 23 57 80 total 41 71 112 statistical test: even in the case of hypothesis 4-of ancillary testing shows selokacioni school formal is definitive evaluation of the usefulness of differentiated teaching. p value of the test statistic is 0.006, which means that the probability of error in accepting this hypothesis is only 0.6%, significantly below the accepted margin of 5%. 4. conclusions and recommendations the findings of the study gave positive answers the first research hypothesis that differentiated instruction is a priority in children's learning with vësntirësi, compared with other types of teaching. study on differentiated teaching strategies in children with vn is one of the few studies done in kosovo, which illuminates some interesting opinions discussed in the study. these represent opportunities, interventions for positive change with regard to the implementation of differentiated teaching strategies in order to mitigate or eliminate entirely the problems faced by children with vn in the teaching process. the benefits of such teaching will be to the benefit of all children, especially children with vn, parents and society in general. such changes would make our goal a reality of our society that every citizen to ensure quality education regardless of their differences in the development of individual, national differences, religious, gender, race etc. some recommendations for education policy and decision makers are: invest in regulation and the expansion of facilities where learning takes place; • invest in all schools in technology (means) varied learning (visual, auditory, visual); • the functional pedagogical and psychological services in schools. • improve efficiency of teacher training system. for this: push materially and encouraged to attend properly to take advantage of training to raise the quality in their work with all groups of children; include in the training which focus on pedagogical and psychological themes, such as the difficulties in learning to children; the funded publications which reflect the concerns of teachers in learning difficulties in children, as well as successful strategies to approach the work in these groups of children. recommendations for schools: • schools should explore the possibilities of the device with multiple tools and opportunities to use ict to create a variety of teaching, in order to facilitate the learning of children, in particular children with sn; • the animated function within training schemes, with special focus on treatments to problems with learning difficulties in children; 40 • to explore the way to permanent cooperation with parents, with the aim of unifying the attitudes and views concerning the treatment of children with sn. recommendations for teachers: • teachers need to implement differentiated teaching to achieve results satisfactory to all children; • the problems of children in learning can be a reflection of inappropriate teaching practices; • teachers need to recognize, interests, styles, intelligences and difficulties of each child in the implementation of differentiated teaching, trusting in the abilities of each child; • teachers must be informed of the reasons of learning difficulties, type, characteristics of children with sn that can build successful strategies; • teachers should consult with pedagogical and psychological service for more in-depth knowledge of learning difficulties in children, as well as possibilities of successful treatment of learning difficulties; • apply the exchange of visits classes to exchange positive experiences in terms of learning difficulties recommendations for parents: • parents must attend school more often in order to be aware of the problems and difficulties faced by their children in the learning process; • parents should consult with teachers tutors and pedagogical-psychological service in order to inform about the situation of the child, as well as opportunities to help children overcome learning difficulties. references 1. muka. p, karaj. dh, & qela. l, (2002). hyrje në mësimdhënien e diferncuar, tiranë 2. qtka, (2005). mësimdhënia me në qendër nxënësin (1), geer, tiranë 3. rraçi. a, gashi. sh, (2001). doracak pune i përgatitjes me shkrim për orën mësimore, prishtinë 4. mathews. b, ross. l, ( 2010 ). metodat e hulumtimit, tiranë 5. eco. u, (1997). si bëhet një punim diplome, tiranë 6. gjedia. r, (2010). trajtimi i fëmijëve me vështirësi në të nxënë, tiranë 7. tomlinson. c, a, (2005). fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classrooms, ascd, virginia usa 8. woolfolk. a, (2011). psikologji edukimi, cde 9. zabeli. n, (2004); vështirsitë në të nxënë, prishtinëgërliq danko, leksikoni i filozofëve (the lexicon of philosophers) „rilindja“, prishtinë, 1986. 42 the right of pledge on movable items (pignus) in republic of kosovo ekrem salihu, phd. c. ¹ ¹ south east european university, faculty of law, ekrem-salihu@hotmail.com article history: accepted 20 march 2020 available online 31 april 2020 keywords: the right of pledge, pignus, mortgage, pledge object, pledge principles, titles for obtaining the right of pledge by the hand item. a b s t r a c t the pledge is an item right based on which its official holder – the pledgee may seek the payment of his/her claims from the item if those aren’t paid within certain time limit. the right of pledge in the republic of kosovo constitutes a complex occurrence which has various relations on which at one side is the pledgee creditor, and in the other side are debtor pledgor and other third persons. the role of pledge and its affirmation is related to most qualitative changes of claims. the right of pledge as item right in foreign item (iura in re aliena) makes a history only to a certain degree of economic and social development. in this degree of development there was a need and necessity to secure the other’s claims even de facto, by the hand item, by “pledging” of an item. the creditor requires that his claims to the debtor be secured by obtaining of a pledge of debtor item. the debtor’s conjunction of creditor by obtaining debtor’s item is safer for the creditor to realize its claims, rather than when the debtor secured these claims by his/her personality, bail, personal insurance. in the kosovo legal system there is possessory pledge, non-possessory pledge and the pledge over the rights. 1. introduction financial turnover in kosovo, as is the case in the countries of the region, is the basis of the modern economy, whereas ensuring the fulfilment of debtor's obligation is of particular importance in terms of financial turnover. it is widely recognized that there are various forms of ensuring the fulfilment of obligations that are personal as well as non-personal. in terms of securing the creditor's property claims, the most appropriate form is securing judicial real rights through the right of pledge. in modern business practice, the use of loans that are secured by the right of pledge, mortgage and pignus is ever increasing. the execution of the claim is a problem that continuously concerns the creditor, not only at the time of concluding the legal relationship but even later at the time of maturity of the claim. the property status of the debtor is vital for the creditor and his ability to execute his claim in the future. the creditor has no guarantee that the property status of the debtor will always be stable and solvent. the creditor cannot directly control the work undertaken by the debtor who may face a situation whereby the execution of his claim becomes questionable. in order to prevent a potential problem regarding the execution of the creditor's claim, the provisions of the substantive law provide for different means, which foresee a safer execution of the creditor's claim. our legal system, as is the case with every other legal system, has various means for securing creditor's claims. substantive provisions foresee the contractual penalty, bail, advance payment, earnest money, surety, penalty, right of retention, and right of pledge. of all means provided for securing creditor's claims, right of pledge (pignus and mortgage) represents the oldest and safest means for securing creditor's claims. right of pledge means creation of any interest on movable property or on any right through agreement or pursuant to the law, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2561-3933 43 whereby the pledgee is granted the right to take possession of that property or use that right in order to satisfy any existing and identifiable obligation secured with the pledge. 2. types of pledge traditionally, the right of pledge is divided into pignus, namely on the right of pledge in movable property, and mortgage, namely the right of pledge on immovable property. when dividing the right of pledge into pignus and mortgage, the type of the property, namely the subject pledged ought to be considered. thus, if the object of pledge is a movable property it is always a pignus. meanwhile, in cases where the pledge object is an immovable property, that means that we are dealing with mortgage as a type of the right of pledge . a pledge may be a pignus and a mortgage. the pignus is a right of pledge on movable property, while the mortgage is a right of pledge on immovable property. the difference between the two types of pledge is not only shown by the object of pledge. another factor that distinguishes the two is that the pignus, according to rules, is handed over to the creditor (pledgee), whereas in the case of mortgage the pledge is recorded in the respective registers . the first person to divide the right of pledge into these two main types, depending on the movable or immovable property, was hugo groitus. back then, he formulated the concept according to which pignus consists of only movable property whereas the mortgage consists of only immovable property. the mortgage is a real right of the creditor on immovable property of others. the creditor, as foreseen by the law, is entitled to request the compensation of his claim from the value of that immovable property against creditors that do not have a mortgage on it as well as against creditors who have got the mortgage on the property after him, regardless of the change of ownership of the claimed immovable property . the mortgage presents the socalled "real means" of securing claims, although the subject of insurance is the property, respectively the immovable property. insurance of claims consists of what the debtor pledges, respectively of the immovable property he owns, for the purposes of securing creditor claims. if, within the deadline foreseen in the agreement made between the creditor and debtor, the latter fails to fulfil his debt towards the creditor, consequently the creditor, through legal means, is entitled to satisfy the claim through the forced sale of the immovable property of the debtor. this concept of pledge has undergone changes in the contemporary law. nowadays, there is also the mobile mortgage which implies the right of pledge that consists of movable property. however, the pledgee's right over the movable property, similar to immovable property, is recorded in the public books. in such cases, the division of pledge into pignus and mortgage, according to the authors, is based on the delivery of the property. in this case, it is vital to know whether the property is delivered to the pledgee or whether the debtor keeps it. therefore, the possession of the property is far more important than the type of property that is subject to possession . law on property and other real rights of the republic of kosovo (hereinafter referred to as lporr) provides for the possessory pledge, non-possessory pledge as well as the pledge over a right in article 134, paragraphs 1, 2, 3, and 4. 3. pignus the pledge over movable properties is called the pignus. it is presented as part of the right of pledge against the right of pledge on immovable property and the right of pledge over rights. pignus is established through a contract whereby the debtor (or a third party) enters into obligation towards the creditor (pledgee) for delivering any movable property with ownership rights in order to secure the claim. on the other hand, the creditor is obliged to keep the movable property and, after the expiration of the claim, return the same to the pledger without any damage. the pledge has been named after the latin word “pignus” which means palm and symbolizes the manner of controlling the property . the pledge represents real means of securing the execution of a contract. it's an accessory contract. this contract is a pledge on the movable property. indeed, the pledge contract is a contract where the debtor or any third person called the pledger has obligations towards the creditor, or the pledgee, to deliver any movable property in which the right of ownership exists and which is valuable enough to satisfy his/her claim to other creditors, if the claim is not to be paid after the expiration of the claim; the creditor, on the other hand, is obliged to keep the property and after the expiration of the claim, return it to the pledger without any damage . pignus is the most ancient right of pledge. it is older than fiduciary, far older than mortgage and other rights of pledge. pignus is a real right on the property of others. the subject of pignus is the movable property, which secures the claim of the pledgee/creditor to the pledger/debtor and is delivered to the pledgee/creditor in retention (in possession), and from its value of the latter satisfies his/her claims. the movable property which comprises the pignus is individually defined. a right can also be the subject of the pignus. upon submission of the movable property in retention, a pledgee/creditor acquires the real right to that property so after the expiration date of the claim, he/she can legally satisfy his/her claims from the value of the property. the pledge property is only the one that is in use and capable of ensuring the pledgee/creditor with the value that is sufficient to satisfy his/her claims. 44 4. titles for obtaining the right to pignus by way of establishment the right to pignus can be: contractual, judicial, and legal. 4.1 judicial work as a legal title for obtaining the right to pignus it is widely known and acceptable that the contract is "titulus turis" built on which the right of pledge is obtained. in addition, obtaining the right of pledge based on the contract rather than the most common legal basis based on which the pledge is incurred and obtained, is a rule . in theory, the contract for pledging the property is a pledge contract and in latin it is called the contraktus pigneraticius which obliges the debtor or any third party (the pledger) to deliver to the creditor, by way of the right of pledge, the designated movable property, while the other contracting party is obliged to take care of the pledge and, upon the termination of the claim expiration date ensured by the pledge, return it to the pledger . the right of pledge has not been substantially established by the contract yet. the contract only presents the legal basis (titulus iuris) for obtaining the right of pledge. it even states that it only paves the way for obtaining the right of pledge. precisely, such a contract is only treated as a precontract. in order to acquire a real right, and in this context, a right of pledge, it is also necessary to undertake another action the delivery (traditio) of the movable property; meanwhile, in terms of immovable property it is required the registration of the property in the public books. this act, which is qualitatively important for acquiring the right of pledge, is called the method for acquiring a right, or modus acquirendi. only the acquisiton or the existence of the titulus iuris and the modus acquirendi simultaneously will result in acquiring the right of pledge . law on property and other real rights of the republic of kosovo, article 136 paragraph 1 and 2 foresees: “the validity of a pledge agreement requires a written document containing the following particulars: 1. the name and address of the pledger and if the pledger is a person other than the debtor; 2. a description of the obligation to be secured; a description of the pledged item; a statement that the purpose of the agreement is to create a pledge in favour of the pledge holder; the signatures of the parties to the agreement; and the date on which the pledger signs the pledge agreement”. 4.2 judicial decision as a legal title for obtaining the right to pignus the right to a judicial pledge on movable properties is acquired by seizure in an enforcement procedure when the debtor has not fulfilled the obligation required and the creditor has proposed compulsory enforcement based on the final decision. this can be an administrative enforcement procedure, and according to some theoreticians, it would be best to call it enforcement pledge right. the right of pledge also arises by a court decision. judicial or compulsory pledge on movable property shall be established based on a court decision taken in the enforcement procedure. upon registration by the judge, the property is individualized. this may be the reason why a delivery act to acquire the right of pledge is not required in case of a compulsory pledge . movable properties that are subject to judicial pledge remain under the possession of the pledger/debtor. however, in such cases, there is a possibility for these properties to be transferred under the custody of the court or of the third person. the decision of the court to establish a movable property is similar to cases of the procedure for securing the claim as a precautionary measure and in the procedure for the execution of movable property for the fulfilment of a monetary obligation. enforcement for movable items is conducted through registration, sequestration, and evaluation, selling of such items and settling the credit from the amount obtained from sale of such items. creditor gains the right of pledge for inventoried movable items. if the inventory is done in benefit of more creditors, the order of priority of the right on pledge obtained through inventory or writing in the register of inventory for the purpose of sequestration, shall be assigned according to the order of receiving enforcement proposals by the enforcement body. 4.3 law as a legal title for obtaining the right to movable property statutory pledge exists based on the law in favour of legal creditors assigned for certain legal claims, without the consent of the debtor . within the right of pledge, in some rare cases, the law is presented as a legal title (legal basis) for the establishment of the right to movable property. this includes cases where after the fulfilment of certain conditions, the law considers that in that case, the right of movable property exists. the conditions for this type of pledge are foreseen by law, and in these cases, the consent of the contracting parties is not required for the constitution of the right of pledge . this means that the right of pledge can exist without publicity. this reflects the weak side of the statutory pledge since third parties cannot know about its existence. so when it comes to movable property, there is no need for the debtor 45 to transfer the property in possession of the pledgee/creditor due to the establishment of the right of pledge, such as the case with the right to voluntary pledge. furthermore, the statutory pledge may also be granted to persons (carriers, commission agents, freight forwarding agents, warehousers) who at one point were under the possession of the property, but not any longer . the fact that the statutory pledge depends on the fulfilment of the facts set forth by the law means that the debtor's consent is not necessary for the establishment of such a pledge. this pledge will be created even if the debtor opposes its establishment. the owner of the apartment (house) in use, the lessor, or put differently, in cases when the lessor leases the apartment to the lessee, there is a greater need for securing the lessor's claim on the lease if the lessee fails to fulfil his obligation. the lessor's statutory pledge consists of movable property of the lessee placed (transferred) in the apartment. the statutory pledge consists of the so-called invecta et illata, movable properties which the lessee has in the apartment or on the arable land . kosovo's lporr regulates the legal pledge with article 135 paragraph 1, 2 and 3. due to the importance of this institute, some cases of legal pledge are mentioned below. one case is the "right of retention" foreseen by article 267 of the law on obligational relationship of the republic of kosovo (hereinafter: the lor), where the creditor of a claim that has fallen due shall have the right to retain anything of the debtor that is in the creditor’s hands until the claim is paid thereto. according to article 643 of the lor in order to secure payment for the work, recompense for the material used and other claims deriving from a contract for work, the contractor shall have a lien on the things made or repaired and on other objects delivered thereto by the ordering party in connection with the work, as long as they are in the contractor’s possession and the contractor does not relinquish them voluntarily. according to article 693 thereof, in order to secure payment for the transport and the refund of the necessary costs incurred by the transport the carrier shall have a lien on the things handed over thereto for transport and in connection with the transport as long as they are in the carrier’s possession or as long as the carrier holds documentation that allows the disposal thereof. article 800 of the lor states the commission agent shall hold a lien on the things that are the subject of the commission agency contract, as long as such things are therewith or with a person that holds them in possession thereof or as long as a document that allows them to be disposed of by the commission agent is held thereby. 5. principles of the right of pledge every right has its own character and characteristics, which distinguish it from others in terms of content, juridical nature, notion. the right of pledge cannot be an exception to it. based on this, it is easier to distinguish the principles on which the right of pledge is based and which express the essence of the existence and the right of pledge as a real right iura in re aliena. had it not been a right on itself, the right of pledge could not have had its own principles and vice versa. the particular principles also distinguish it as a legal institution, as a real right from the other rights, whether it is a real right or obligation . in legal literature different authors differ have different views on the principles of the right of pledge. however, some of these principles are found in the work of most of them. the most important principles of the right of pledge are: 1. the principle of accessority; 2. the principle of officiality; 3. the principle of speciality; 4. the principle of indivisibility, and 5. the principle of priority. 5.1 the principle of accessority the right of pledge, as a real right on other’s property and securing a creditor's claim in relation to the debtor implies the fact that this right results upon the existence of a binding legal-civil relationship. a right of pledge cannot exist if it is not preceded by the existence of a binding relationship between the debtor and the creditor. a right of pledge cannot be created and exist without the creditor, while the latter exists without the right of pledge. the right of pledge exists with the existence of the claim provided. the right of pledge is created to secure such a claim. it is clear that the right of pledge exists only if there is a certain claim, the realization of which is guaranteed by the right of pledge. the right of pledge presupposes the existence of a certain claim, while the latter conditions the first from which it is secured. all this shows that the right of pledge is not a right established on itself; is not a main independent right. it is dependent on the existence of the claim right, which is an independent right . the accessority of the right of pledge is particularly taken in consideration in the case when the claim or the transfer of the right of claim is transferred to the heir, whereby this transfer from one entity to the other implies the continuity of the right of pledge for securing the claim, no matter who the creditor is in this given case. exclusion from the principle of accessority exists in the case of the statutory limitation of the claim that is secured by pledge the pledgee is entitled to satisfy his/her claim from the value of the property pledged if it is under his/her possession or if the right is 46 registered in public books. this exclusion from the principle of accessority is also included in some foreign laws, such as (e.g. german law and swiss law for securing mortgage claims, namely austrian law and polish law in the case of pignus . the right of pledge may be constituted for future claims, which is the case of a bail pledge which is granted for a claim that may, but not necessarily arises, and the credit pledge that is granted for a claim that may arise from contracted credit. this right arises immediately with the constitution of the pledge, although the claim is for the future; if the claim does not arise, the right of pledge is terminated . securing non-existent claims at the moment of the creation of the right of pledge consists of both movable and immovable properties. this at the same time is an exemption from the principle of accessority, according to which, at the moment of the creation of the right of pledge, there must be a claim which is secured by the pledged property and the value which satisfies the claim. 5.2 principle of officiality the right of pledge as property security secures a certain claim of the creditor who is entitled to complete (satisfy) his/her claim from the value of the property, if, upon the execution (maturity) of the claim, the debtor (pledger) fails to meet it; fails to fulfil his/her obligations in due time. legal arrangements explicitly provide that the creditor or pledgee has the right, before other creditors, to collect his/her claims by the value of the pledge if his/her claim obligations are not met. however, it should be noted that the creditor cannot satisfy the claim by selling the pledged property himself/herself, but only through court proceedings. the creditor can only address the court, requesting the judge to render a decision by which the pledged property is to be sold at public auction or according to a certain price, when the property already has a stock price or market price. this is a characteristic feature of the principle of officiality, which is preceded by the lporr of kosovo. article 168 of the specified law stipulates that, upon default, a pledge holder may sell, lease or otherwise dispose the pledged item. a sale of a pledged item can be affected by public auction or in any other suitable manner . in accordance with the principle of officiality, the so-called lex commissoria is forbidden. the pledge creditor is forbidden to collect debt from a pledged property based on the unilateral declaration of will, and similarly any contractual provision is also forbidden, which, at the moment of entering into a pledge contract, foresee that the pledged property be transferred to the ownership of the creditor if his claim is not fulfilled or in such case the creditor may hold the pledged property for himself/herself or sell it at a pre-determined price. this is foreseen in the lporr of kosovo in article 130 paragraph 1 where it is expressly stipulated that” an agreement, entered into before the secured claim has matured, is void if it provides that upon non-payment after maturity of the secured claim the encumbered assets are to become or to be transferred into the ownership of the secured creditor or the encumbered assets are to be sold at a fixed price. in principle, the creditor's ownership of the pledged property is prohibited. however, the exemptions from this principle are contained by most of the contemporary legal systems including the lporr of republic of kosovo. according to article 169 of the law in question “the pledge holder may purchase the pledged item only at a public sale or a private sale if the pledge item is sold in a recognized market, or in cases where commonly known standard prices exist for the pledged item. 5.3 principle of speciality by legal nature, the right of pledge is a real right. real rights are established only on the individually determined property. as a real right, the pledge right cannot be anything else but a property. it is made up of an individually defined property. thus, the pledge property must be individually defined, whether it is movable or immovable. the pledge is an accessory right and as such depends on the essence of the claim, which is provided by the individually determined pledge property. thus, this principle implies that with right of pledge only secures the specific claim of a creditor (and not an indefinite number or indefinite amount), and the right of pledge may only exist on certain properties or on many individualized items. there are some exceptions to the principle of specialty. the first exception is that the right of pledge can secure both future and conditional claims. the right of pledge, can also secure eventual claims, respectively the claim that will emerge or (if emerged) will still exist. this can be the case when a person gives something of his own as insurance for the obligation that may emerge but not necessarily emerges. for example, a person rents the ship on the ocean and leaves his/her watch as a pledge in case he/she damages the ship (bail pledge). such an exception can be found in the lporr of kosovo which in article 131 stipulates that "a proprietary security right can be granted for securing present, future and conditional claims. 5.4 principle of indivisibility by its very nature, the right of pledge is inherent, while the entirety of the pledged property with all its constituent parts secures the claim of the creditor. the principle of indivisibility implies that the entire pledge property secures the claim until it is fully fulfilled. the right of pledge is indivisible, primarily in 47 terms of the claim secured through the pledge, and secondly in terms of the pledge property. the meaning of indivisibility consists in that the creditor holds the right of pledge even after the partial fulfilment of the claim, until the debtor pays all the debt. the right of pledge is indivisible even if the obligation is divisible. the claim is complete and as such is secured; the pledge property is complete and only as such provides security. this means that only as a whole the claim is secured by the pledge and that only the pledge property as a whole can secure the claim. the entirety of the claim consists in securing the pledge with all its parts. meanwhile, the entirety of the pledge property consists in its "ability" to secure the claim with all its components and parts, its accessories and pertinence, as well as harvested and nonharvested (separated) natural and non-natural fruits. in this regard, the lporr of kosovo foresees that "the mortgage extends over all parts of the immovable property unit, including the buildings thereupon that are firmly attached to the ground. the mortgage covers all component parts and natural fruit of the immovable property as long as the latter are not separated from the principal thing. the mortgage secures the secured claim until it is completely paid off. a partial payment does not affect the mortgage. the principle of indivisibility is also dealt with by the most popular civil codes such as the french civil code in article 2114, austrian civil code in article 457, and the swiss civil code in article 889. 5.5 principle of priority the right of pledge exists on the designated property. a certain property may be subject to more rights of pledge. the property is pledged for claims of various entities, which in this case are pledgee creditors. this represents a cumulation of the rights of pledge. cumulation of the rights of pledge may emerge at the same time or at different times. in these cases it is necessary to foresee the possibility of the fulfilment of the secured pledged claims. the creditor acquires the right of pledge based on which he has the right to collect his claims before other creditors and before those who have acquired the pledge over that item after him. the pledge secures the creditor, not only in relation to the debtor, but also in terms of eventual reflections by others in this matter. since more rights of pledge compete over the same pledge property, there is a need to regulate the relationship between them. similarly, acontrario when more creditors have the right of pledge over the same pledge property, from the value of which they are secured, there is a need to establish a relationship between them. the maxim prior tempore, potior iure (first in time, greater in right) has been set long time ago. a particular feature of the mortgage is its range on the registration in public books. it is regulated by the principle of priority, according to which the protection of immovable property rights is determined according to the time of registration in public books. in this way, the order of priority in payments of claims deriving from mortgaged immovable properties is established. this concretely implies that the first mortgaged immovable property will first fulfil the claims of the creditor who first constituted the mortgage, and after that, the claims of the other creditors who constituted the mortgage in that immovable property after him if anything is left, and according to the order. the lporr of kosovo has foreseen the principle of the ranking of real rights with article 118 which stipulates “the ranking of several rights encumbering the same immovable property shall be determined according to their date of entry into the register. rights that were registered on the same day and at the same time have equal ranking”. article 119 of the same law provides for the possibility of changing the order of ranks, but in this case an agreement is required between the holders of the rights that are affected by the ranking change. meanwhile, article 120 of the law in question provides for the possibility of reservation of priority ranking stating that “the owner of an immovable property when registering an encumbrance on such property may make a reservation that grants authority to have a different, clearly defined right registered with priority ranking over the encumbrance. the right of priority is also foreseen by most of the world's legal systems and is regulated by special laws or civil codes/article 1209 of the gcc, article 893 of the scc, article 1056 fcc. 6. entities of the pignus the pledge itself does not emerge or come out of thin air; it is established by the people. it is clearly not established by each and every person socialising with others in a rally, in society, or in gatherings, but only by those who enter together in a specific legal relationship, standing opposite one another, for the purpose of realizing any property interest. a relationship, be it social or legal, cannot be conceived without people, without entities. therefore, it is clear that the people, the entities are needed for the establishment and existence of the legal relationship of the pledge, as for any other civil-legal relationship. one entity is known as the creditor/pledgee and the other is known as the debtor/pledger. the creditor/pledgee is the entity for whom the right of pledge is constituted and who has the right to satisfy his claim from the value of the pledged property. he is the holder of the right of pledge. his right acts on all other persons, is an erga omnes entitlement, which means that it is enforceable towards all, the debtor from the relationship of obligation, the pledger, as well as towards third parties. in this legal relationship the debtor is the 48 person who obliged to fulfil the obligation of the creditor from his/her property, namely the pledger/debtor who has pledged his/her property to secure the claim of the pledgee/creditor. however, the pledger/debtor is not necessarily the same person with the debtor from the obligational relationship because in certain cases there is also a third person who pledges his/her property for securing the creditor's claim for the debtor from the obligational relationship. from the content of article 133 and 134 of the lporr of kosovo it is noticed that the lawmaker names the entities of the right of pledge as the pledger and the pledgee. 7. the subject of pignus in order to constitute the pignus,it ought to have its own subject. the subject of the right of pledge may be any movable property that is in legal circulation, including the share of joint ownership. the property must be individually defined and non-consumable. if the subject of the pledge would be the non-consumable property, then the right of ownership would be transferred to the pledgee who would return the same amount upon termination. in literature, this is called an irregular pledge (irregular pignus). the subject of the right to pignus may also be the right that has a property value. such rights are: copyright and disclosure, other rights to industrial property, the right incorporated into securities, the right to inheritance, etc. subject of the pledge can be properties which were given as the pledge. however, in this case, the pledger shall notify the pledgee and require from him/her to deliver the pledge to the other pledgee upon collection. the lporr of kosovo in article 138 paragraph 1 stipulates that "any movable item or right that is legally transferable can be pledged. property that is jointly or commonly owned may be pledged only if all joint or common owners consent the pledge. subsoil minerals and hydro-carbons and rights to subsoil minerals and hydro-carbons can be pledged in accordance with the provisions for the transfer and encumbrance of subsoil minerals and hydro-carbons or such rights in the applicable law . according to the lporr of kosovo, subjects of the pledge may also be generic things of the same kind and quality as well as pledge of future items and inventory 8. conclusions the right to insurance in the republic of kosovo, as every branch of law has undergone considerable changes, adapting to social transformations and the demands of the modern economy. if the right to legal property insurance of kosovo is comparable to the rights of the countries of the region, it can be inferred that many of the institutions for securing the claims are almost identical. lporr of the republic of kosovo has foreseen the possessory pledge, non-possessory pledge and a right of pledge as a fixture for securing claims. by all means provided for securing the creditor's claim, the right of pledge (pignus and mortgage) is the oldest and one of most secure means of securing creditor claims. the right of pledge is a real right. it is a real right over other’s properties. it is an iura in re aliena right. the pledge is a real right by which its pledgee or creditor may request payment of his claims from the property if they are not to be paid within the prescribed time limit. put differently, the right of pledge is a real right to other’s property, and from this right the pledgee has the power to satisfy his/her claim from the pledged property if the debtor fails to fulfil the obligation assigned at the appointed time. traditionally, the right of pledge is divided into pignus, namely on the right of pledge in movable property, and mortgage, namely the right of pledge on immovable property. when dividing the right of pledge into pignus and mortgage, the type of the property, namely the subject pledged ought to be considered. thus, if the object of pledge is a movable property it is always a pignus. meanwhile, in cases where the pledge object is an immovable property, that means that we are dealing with mortgage as a type of the right of pledge. in the future, kosovo's lawmakers should be committed to establish a right to insurance on a variety of movable properties that are important to business activity in order to facilitate access to credit through a legal regime that is in accordance with international standards such as those set by the united nations commission on international trade law (uncitral) and the world bank. references 1. aliu, a. (2014). “real right (e drejta sendore)”. university of prishtina, faculty of law. prishtina. 2. alishani, a. (1985). “law on obligational relationships (e drejta e detyrimeve)”. universiteti i 3. prishtinë fakulteti juridik. prishtina. 4. dragoslav, zh. (2006). “komentar zakona o hipoteci”. poslovni biro. beograd. 5. klepic, d. (2004). “hipoteka kao realno srtedstvo obezbedjenja trazbine prema duzniku”. beograd. 6. statovci, e. (1988). “e drejta e pengut-aspekte comparative (the right of the pledge comparative aspects)”, enti i teksteve dhe i mjeteve mësimore i krahinës socialiste autonome të kosovës. prishtina. 7. dusko, m. (2002). “zalozno pravo”. banja luka. 49 8. brkic, d. (2007). “nepokretnosti prava na nepokretnostima promet prava na nepokretnostima i upis u javne knjige”. beograd. 9. srdic, m., & prentovic, m. (2010).”svojinskopravni odnosi u republici srbiji”, beograd. 10. obren, s., & miodrag, o. (1996). “stvarno pravo”, beograd, 11. blagojević, b. t., (1989). “pravna encikopedija”. savremena administracija. beograd, p. a4. p. 378. 12. official gazette of the republic of kosovo. (2012, june 19). law no. 04/l-077 on obligational relationships. retrieved from website: https://gzk.rksgov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=2828 13. official gazette of the republic of kosovo. (2009, june 6). law no. 03/l-154 on property and other real rights. retrieved from website: https://gzk.rksgov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=4821 14. the business registration agency. (2012, november 23). law no. 04/l-136 on the registration of a pledge in the registry of movable property. retrieved from website: https://arbk.rks-gov.net/desk/inc/media/fab777bf-4166427c-b33d-16cf9d9e5cef 11 adults impact on the reliability and suggestibility of children’s eyewitness testimony dr. sc. eda ermagan-caglar* prof. dr. nese kocabasoglu** *correspondent author: university of northampton, faculty of health and society department of psychology, eda.e.caglar@northampton.ac.uk **university of istanbul. medicine faculty, department of psychiatry, nesekocabasoglu@superonline.com article history: accepted 19 september 2019 available online 31 december 2019 keywords: child eyewitness testimony reliability suggestibility suggestive interview memory a b s t r a c t the aim of the study was to determine the influence of authority on the susceptibility of child witnesses and the reliability of their testimonies. this study, consisting of experimental and control groups, included 20 girls and 20 boys, totalling 40 children. it took place in two phases; an initial phase (“eyewitness”, “post-event interview”) and, one week later, a final phase (“recall”). in the individual interviews held with the children, a questionnaire consisting of a free narrative question and 18 open-ended questions was used. the free narrative question asked the children to specify the details they remembered about the animated film. the open-ended questions focused on the events and characters in the film. however, 12 of the open-ended questions could be answered correctly since they were about characters and situations in the film that the children had watched, while six of the questions were trick questions that were about characters and situations that were not shown in the film. for data analysis, both quantitative and qualitative methods were used to reach the deeper level of perception and memories that children shared about the film. in conclusion, after analysis, it was found that even when the interview takes place immediately after the event, children are significantly affected by the misinformation given by an adult and their knowledge on the event in question is shaped according to this misinformation. it was observed that children create "a new event" based on the information they receive from an adult. introduction binet observed in research he carried out with children in 1900 that they preferred to give wrong answers about the facts they did not remember about a specific event in order to satisfy the interviewer, even though the first studies of eyewitness testimony were aimed at adults (binet, 1900). he also indicated that children are prone to confirm adults' interpretations of events and replace their own memory with incorrect memory and remarked within the framework of these results that children are open to social suggestion (binet, 1900). varendonck is one of the first psychologists to research directivity in children. in a study he conducted with children, he told them a story about the school garden then asked them to describe a person approaching them in the same garden. he concluded that children's memory could easily be manipulated, because seventeen children out of twenty-two who participated in the study indicated that they had met the fictitious person described in the story (varendonck, 1911). some children not only remembered they had met this imaginary person, but they also named this imaginary person and described what he looked like. lipmann (1911) presented a different opinion in the same year. he indicated in his studies that he believed there were no differences between the memories of a child and an adult. lipmann stated that children remember events and facts differently because they are more attentive to the small details which adults ignore. however, he also specified that children who perceive adult interviewers as an authority tend to agree with the suggestions in questions on aspects, they were not sure about. mailto:eda.e.caglar@northampton.ac.uk 12 the scientific literature about children’s eyewitness testimony, starting with binet (1900) and supported by the contributions of other researchers, developed slowly until the 1980s. at this time, children took part more frequently in the judicial system both as witnesses and as victims due to the increase in child abuse cases, so studies on child witnesses gained importance. foley and johnson (1985) worked with children aged six in their studies on memory and recall. they concluded that children remembered things that did not actually take place when they were asked to describe events (foley and johnson, 1985). another study conducted on children's memory performance was carried out by ceci and bruck (1993). they concluded that children were more easily manipulated than adults, and found it difficult to distinguish reality from imagination. they found that the event memories of children were more influenced by misinformation given after the event (ceci and bruck, 1993) than the event memories of adults. they emphasised that children with weak memories were more vulnerable to misinformation from an external source. and more influenced by orientation when it comes to deteriorating memories. they also found that children said what they thought the interviewer would like them to say. similarly to ceci and bruck (1993), gudjonsson and sigurdsson (2003) explained the concept of "obeying the authority" and emphasized that children tended to make incorrect statements to "satisfy" the interviewer or to act in an expected manner even though they had remembered what actually happened. having called attention to repeated interviews held with child witnesses, gulotta et al. (1996) observed that children could change their statements to satisfy the interviewer even after the first interview. in the light of the research cited that focused on the reliability of child witness testimonies, this study aimed to determine the influence of authority on the susceptibility of child witnesses and the reliability of their testimonies. 1. method 1.1. participants and procedure as the study included individual interviews with children aged 9, permission to interview them was obtained from the institutional ethics committee at faculty of cerrahpasa medicine, istanbul university. in addition, informed consent was obtained from the children's parents and/or fosters. this study, consisting of experimental and control groups, included 20 girls and 20 boys, totalling 40 children. it took place in two phases; an initial phase and, one week later, a final phase. in the initial phase, children were shown a 4-minute animated film called boundin by pixar. this animated film had been used with children aged 6 to 10 in a study conducted by pezdek et al. (2009). each child was then interviewed individually. the first stage of the initial phase was the film-watching session or "eyewitness" stage. the second stage, or "post-event interview" stage, was the interviewing of the children and recording of their responses on a questionnaire. prior to the individual interviews for the experimental group, an assistant researcher was introduced to the children. during the initial phase, straight after the film-watching session ended, the researcher left the room, telling the child that she would return as soon as possible and the assistant researcher would be with the child in the meantime. the period of time for which the assistant researcher stayed with each child was planned so that the assistant researcher could tell them an incorrect version of what they had seen in the film. this was structured carefully so it was identical for every child and included falsified details of the witnessed events and details which did not actually exist in the film. at the end of this period, the researcher returned to the room and the assistant researcher left the room. the researcher then interviewed the child. children in the control group were interviewed by the researcher directly after watching the film. this research design aimed to determine how the misinformation given by an authority figure would affect the child's event memory. one week after the initial interviews, each child was interviewed again in the final phase or "recall" stage of the study. the animation film was not watched again during the final phase, but the same questions as those in the first phase were asked. 1.2. measures in the individual interviews held with the children, a questionnaire consisting of a free narrative question and 18 openended questions was used. the questionnaire used was the questionnaire created by pezdek et al. (2009) translated into turkish. the free narrative question asked the children to specify the details they remembered about the animated film. the openended questions focused on the events and characters in the film. however, 12 of the open-ended questions could be answered correctly since they were about characters and situations in the film that the children had watched, while six of the questions were trick questions that were impossible to answer correctly as they 13 were about characters and situations that were not shown in the film.. 1.3. data analysis the criteria used to score the free narrative question were the same for the first and second interviews. accordingly, it was possible to compare the number of right and wrong answers given by each child to the free narrative question during the first and second interviews. one point was given for every unique piece of information, whether it was correct or incorrect. so, one point was added to the right answer total for each correct statement and one point was added to the wrong answer total for every mistake or invented answer. the answers given were in categories such as event, character, clothing, time and location. if words with a similar meaning were used more than once, only one point was given for these words. for instance, for an answer such as "he was sad, he was sorry," only one point was given. only one point was given for identifying each character in the film, no matter how many times they were referred to. the chronological order of events was taken into account for scoring the sense of time. each statement in which the correct sense of time was indicated received one correct answer point. however, one point was added to the wrong answer total for a mistake in the chronological order. additionally, for the experimental group, it was also examined how many similarities there were between their answers and the false information provided by the assistant researcher. the answer key for the open-ended questions was generated using the film's written transcript. even though a 3-option scoring scale consisting of the answers "true", "false" and "i don't know" was deemed suitable for evaluating the answers at the beginning of the process, it attracted our attention that the answers received from the children consisted of more than one suggestion and/or description (true or false) as the result of the interviews. it was believed that the true or false answers given with a single suggestion and/or description should not be included in the same scoring with the answers that consisted of more than one detail in the context of the aspects we studied within the context of the study, and including different evaluation in the scope would yield more meaningful results. for this reason, a "detailed answer" section was created for true and false answers that consisted of more than one suggestion (the rabbit told the lamb, "it doesn't matter what colour you are, what's important is that you're healthy, don't worry, just jump and play") or more than one description (the rabbit was wearing a black hat with white stripes) according to the purpose of the question for the evaluation of open-ended questions. within this context, for the evaluation of the open-ended questions, a 7-option rating consisting of true and false answers, detailed true and false answers, true and false answers with more than two details, and the answer "i don't know" was used. a scoring scale consisting of the options "false answer with more than two details", "detailed false answer", "false answer", "i don't know, i don't remember", "correct answer", "detailed correct answer" and "correct answer with more than two details" was prepared for 12 open-ended questions that can be answered in relation to the details given in the film. evaluations were carried out according to the options "false answer with more than two details", "detailed false answer", "false answer", "i don't know, i don't remember" and "correct answer" for the 6 trick questions that were not related to the film. however, since some questions had only one correct answer (how many snakes were there, how many owls were there, etc.) no details were sought in these questions. spss 17.0 program was used for statistical analysis. since the obtained data did not show a normal distribution, hypotheses were tested using mann whitney u test, wilcoxon test and marginal homogeneity test. chi-square test was used for comparison between the groups. the level of significance in this study was taken as .05. qualitative data analysis was used to determine the deviation in the interviews of the experimental group, as well. 2. results 2.1. evaluation of free narrative question as the result of the obtained findings, since the p-value for the first comparison of the control group was <0.01 a significant difference was found between the numbers of correct answers of the first and last interviews (table 1). table 1. comparison of the true and false answers in the first and last interviews of the control group 14 ao n sd z p1 control group comparison of the first interview correct answer point_1 7.2000 20 2.56700 -3.535 .000** correct answer point_2 6.1500 20 2.25424 comparison of the last interview incorrect answer point_1 1.4000 20 .99472 -1.732 .083 incorrect answer point_2 1.7000 20 .73270 1:wilcoxon sign test p-value **p<0.01 *p<0.05 ao: arithmetic average sd: standard deviation the average number of correct answers in the first interview (7.2) is higher than the average number of correct answers in the second interview (6.1). however, the incorrect answer average of the first interview in the control group was found to be 1.4 and the incorrect answer average of the second interview was found to be 1.7. since the p-value for the first comparison of the experimental group was <0.01 a significant difference was found between the numbers of correct answers of the first and second interviews (table 2). table 2. comparison of the true and false answers in the first and last interviews of the experimental group ao n sd z p1 experimental group comparison of the first interview correct answer point_1 6.2500 20 2.51050 -3.367 .000** correct answer point_2 4.3500 20 1.22582 comparison of the last interview incorrect answer point_1 2.0000 20 .91766 -2.000 .046* incorrect answer point_2 2.5500 20 1.14593 1:wilcoxon sign test p value **p<0.01 *p<0.05 ao: arithmetic average sd: standard deviation the average number of correct answers in the first interview (6.25) was found to be higher than the average number of correct answers in the second interview (4.35). in addition to this, since the p-value for the second comparison was p<0.01, a significant difference was found between the numbers of incorrect answers of the first and second interviews, unlike the comparisons of the other groups. the average number of incorrect answers in the first interview (2.0) was found to be lower than the average number of incorrect answers in the second interview (2.55). 3. evaluation of open-ended questions 3.1. evaluation of open-ended questions that can be answered as indicated in table 3, it was seen that the number of the "i don't know" answers given to the first interview decreased in the second interview and the number of incorrect answers increased. table 3. detailed comparison of the first and second interview results for the control group questions answers 1st interview 2nd interview test n % n % p1 [1. how many fish were swimming at the beginning of the film?] incorrect answer 4 20.0% 7 35.0% .083 i don't know, i don't remember 3 15.0% 0 0.0% correct answer 13 65.0% 13 65.0% [2. where do the animals in the film live?] incorrect answer 5 25.0% 7 35.0% .157 correct answer 15 75.0% 13 65.0% [4. how many teeth are visible in the lamb's mouth?] incorrect answer 4 20.0% 6 30.0% .157 correct answer 16 80.0% 14 70.0% [5. how many snakes are there in the film?] incorrect answer 4 20.0% 5 25.0% .317 15 correct answer 16 80.0% 15 75.0% [6. what does the lamb like to do?] incorrect answer 3 15.0% 5 25.0% .157 correct answer 17 85.0% 15 75.0% [8. what is it that makes the lamb sad?] incorrect answer 3 15.0% 3 15.0% .89 correct answer 17 85.0% 17 85.0% [10. how did the other animals treat the lamb when the lamb was feeling sad?] incorrect answer 2 10.0% 3 15.0% .317 correct answer 18 90.0% 17 85.0% [11. what colour was the lamb's skin?] incorrect answer 9 45.0% 11 55.0% .180 i don't know, i don't remember 2 10.0% 1 5.0% correct answer 9 45.0% 8 40.0% [12. what colour were the lamb's eyes?] incorrect answer 7 35.0% 9 45.0% .157 i don't know, i don't remember 4 20.0% 2 10.0% correct answer 9 45.0% 9 45.0% [13. what did the rabbit say to the lamb to make the lamb happy?] incorrect answer 3 15.0% 5 25.0% .096 correct answer 13 65.0% 12 60.0% 2 detailed correct answers 4 20.0% 3 15.0% [15. how many owls were there in the film?] incorrect answer 5 25.0% 7 35.0% .165 correct answer 15 75.0% 13 65.0% [17. how often will they cut the lamb's wool?] incorrect answer 8 40.0% 9 45.0% .102 correct answer 9 45.0% 10 50.0% 2 detailed correct answers 3 15.0% 1 5.0% 1: marginal homogeneity test p-value p>0.05 table 4. detailed comparison of the first and second interview results for the experimental group questions answers 1st interview 2nd interview test n % n % p1 [1. how many fish were swimming at the beginning of the film?] incorrect answer 12 60.0% 14 70.0% .157 correct answer 8 40.0% 6 30.0% [2. where do the animals in the film live?] correct answer 20 100.0% 16 80.0% .890 2 detailed correct answers 0 15.0% 3 15.0% more than 2 detailed correct answers 0 5.0% 1 5.0% [4. how many teeth are visible in the lamb's mouth?] incorrect answer 6 30.0% 6 30.0% .900 correct answer 14 70.0% 14 70.0% [5. how many snakes are there in the film?] incorrect answer 3 15.0% 4 20.0% .317 correct answer 17 85.0% 16 80.0% [6. what does the lamb like to do?] 2 detailed incorrect answers 0 0.0% 2 10.0% .033* incorrect answer 5 25.0% 7 35.0% 16 correct answer 15 75.0% 11 55.0% [8. what is it that makes the lamb sad?] incorrect answer 2 10.0% 3 15.0% .127 correct answer 13 65.0% 17 85.0% 2 detailed correct answers 5 25.0% 0 0.0% [10. how did the other animals treat the lamb when the lamb was feeling sad?] incorrect answer 1 5.0% 3 15.0% .022* correct answer 12 60.0% 17 85.0% 2 detailed correct answers 7 35.0% 0 0.0% [11. what colour was the lamb's skin?] incorrect answer 15 75.0% 15 75.0% .890 correct answer 5 25.0% 5 25.0% [12. what colour were the lamb's eyes?] incorrect answer 10 50.0% 11 55.0% .317 correct answer 10 50.0% 9 45.0% [13. what did the rabbit say to the lamb to make the lamb happy?] 2 detailed incorrect answers 1 5.0% 2 10.0% .001** incorrect answer 4 20.0% 11 55.0% correct answer 12 60.0% 7 35.0% 2 detailed correct answers 2 10.0% 0 0.0% more than 2 detailed correct answers 1 5.0% 0 0.0% [15. how many owls were there in the film?] incorrect answer 4 20.0% 7 35.0% .180 correct answer 16 80.0% 13 65.0% [17. how often will they cut the lamb's wool?] 2 detailed incorrect answers 5 25.0% 3 15.0% .140 incorrect answer 4 20.0% 10 50.0% correct answer 7 35.0% 7 35.0% 2 detailed correct answers 4 20.0% 0 0.0% 1: marginal homogeneity test p-value p<0.05 as the test probability value in all questions except for the question 6, question 10 and question 13 was p>0.05 no significant difference was found between the first and second interviews on a question-based assessment (table 4). there was a significant difference between the first and second interviews since the test value in question 6 was p <0.05. for the relevant question item, the incorrect answer rate reached 35% in the second interview while it was 25% in the first interview, and the number of correct answers reached 55% in the second interview while it was 75% in the first interview. in addition, this number was found to be increasing in the second interview although there were no children who answered this question with a detailed incorrect answer in the first interview. on the other hand, it seems that there was a significant difference between the first and second interviews since the test value for question 10 was p <0.05 (table 4). the correct answer rate reached 85% in the second interview while it was 60% in the first interview. it also attracted our attention that the rate of giving two detailed correct answers in the first interview was 35% while this rate was 0% in the second interview. there was a significant difference between the first and second interviews since the test value in question 13 was p <0.05. the incorrect answer rate for this question item reached 55% in the second interview while it was 20% in the first interview. the number of correct answers was 20% in the first interview and reached 55% in the second interview. 3.2. evaluation of open-ended trick questions as the test probability value in the trick questions except for the questions 7, 16 and 18 was p>0.05 no significant difference was found between the first and second interviews on a questionbased assessment (table 5). 17 table 5. detailed comparison of the first and second interview results for the trick questions of the control group questions answers 1st interview 2nd interview test n % n % p1 [3. what is the colour of the boat in the river?] 2 detailed incorrect answers 1 5.0% 5 25.0% .106 incorrect answer 7 35.0% 7 35.0% i don't know, i don't remember 6 30.0% 3 15.0% correct answer 6 30.0% 5 25.0% [7. how were the frogs dressed?] more than 2 detailed incorrect answers 3 15.0% 5 25.0% .020* 2 detailed incorrect answers 5 25.0% 7 35.0% incorrect answer 7 35.0% 6 30.0% i don't know, i don't remember 5 25.0% 2 10.0% [9. what colour were the clothes of the man in the car?] more than 2 detailed incorrect answers 2 10.0% 1 5.0% .467 2 detailed incorrect answers 3 15.0% 7 35.0% incorrect answer 8 40.0% 5 25.0% i don't know, i don't remember 5 25.0% 6 30.0% correct answer 2 10.0% 1 5.0% [14. what did the rabbit say to the squirrel and the moles?] 2 detailed incorrect answers 3 15.0% 7 35.0% .225 incorrect answer 10 50.0% 8 40.0% i don't know, i don't remember 5 25.0% 2 10.0% correct answer 2 10.0% 3 15.0% [16. what colour were the flowers of the plant behind the lamb?] 2 detailed incorrect answers 2 10.0% 1 5.0% .035* incorrect answer 7 35.0% 8 40.0% i don't know, i don't remember 5 25.0% 3 15.0% correct answer 6 30.0% 5 25.0% [18. can you describe the hat that the rabbit was wearing?] more than 2 detailed incorrect answers 5 25.0% .001** 2 detailed incorrect answers 5 25.0% 5 25.0% incorrect answer 7 35.0% 4 20.0% i don't know, i don't remember 5 25.0% 3 15.0% correct answer 3 15.0% 3 15.0% 1: marginal homogeneity test p-value p<0.05 even though there are no significant differences, when we look at the answer distributions of two interviews on a question basis, it is noteworthy that the "i don't know, i don't remember" answers decreased in the second interviews compared to the first interviews, and the numbers of the incorrect answers decreased and were added to the numbers of the detailed incorrect answers. as the test probability value in the trick questions except for the questions 3 and 16 was p>0.05 in the experimental group, no significant difference was found between the first and second interviews on a question-based assessment (table 6). 18 table 6. detailed comparison of the first and second interview results for the trick questions of the experimental group questions answers 1st interview 2nd interview test n % n % p1 [3. what is the colour of the boat in the river?] 2 detailed incorrect answers 0 0.0% 8 40.0% .004** incorrect answer 19 95.0% 12 60.0% correct answer 1 5.0% 0 0.0% [7. how were the frogs dressed?] more than 2 detailed incorrect answers 2 10.0% 5 25.0% .157 2 detailed incorrect answers 17 85.0% 15 75.0% incorrect answer 1 5.0% 0 0.0% [9. what colour were the clothes of the man in the car?] more than 2 detailed incorrect answers 12 60.0% 15 75.0% .617 2 detailed incorrect answers 8 40.0% 4 20.0% incorrect answer 0 0.0% 1 5.0% [14. what did the rabbit say to the squirrel and the moles?] 2 detailed incorrect answers 12 60.0% 5 25.0% .197 incorrect answer 7 35.0% 15 75.0% correct answer 1 5.0% 0 0.0% [16. what colour were the flowers of the plant behind the lamb?] more than 2 detailed incorrect answers 5 25.0% 11 55.0% .008** 2 detailed incorrect answers 10 50.0% 9 45.0% incorrect answer 5 25.0% 0 0.0% [18. can you describe the hat that the rabbit was wearing?] more than 2 detailed incorrect answers 4 20.0% 7 35.0% .366 2 detailed incorrect answers 12 60.0% 9 45.0% incorrect answer 4 20.0% 4 20.0% 1: marginal homogeneity test p value p<0.05 as the probability value in questions 3 and 16 was p<0.05 it was determined that the answers given by the subjects to these questions in the first and second interviews were different from each other. it was seen that 1 child (5%) gave the correct answer and 19 children (95%) gave the incorrect answer to question 3 in the first interview, and these numbers turned into 0 correct answers, 12 incorrect answers (60%) and 8 two detailed incorrect answers (40%) in the second interview. in question 16, there were 5 incorrect answers (25%), 10 two detailed incorrect answers (50%) and 5 more than two detailed incorrect answers (25%) in the first interview, while these numbers were found to be 0 incorrect answers, 9 two detailed incorrect answers (45%) and 11 more than two detailed incorrect answers (55%) in the second interview. another result that is important for this group according to the numerical data within the scope of the study is that the answers given by children show similarity with the manipulative information given by the assistant researcher. it was found according to the numbers obtained via qualitative data analysis that 12 children (60%) in the group indicated that they saw "a blue car" in the first and second interviews in the context of the free narrative question. all children agreed that there was a "frog" in the film, and 11 out of 20 children (55%) said the frog was wearing striped pants or a sweater. the gender of the person who comes to take the lamb in the film is not clear, only an arm extending out of a car is visible. however, in line with the misinformation given by the assistant researcher, all children said they saw "a man" (5 children (25%) even stated they saw more than one man) and once again in parallel with the manipulative information given to them, 5 children (25%) indicated that "the man was wearing a white sweater (or shirt), green pants and a red hat". it was noted that 4 children (20%) used two of these three details, 4 children (20%) used one of the three details, and these 8 children gave answers similar to the manipulative information using different colours. 19 when the answers similar to the misinformation about the rabbit were examined, it was seen that only 2 children (10%) said that the rabbit was "black". however, it was noted that there were 18 children (90%) indicating that the rabbit "was wearing a hat" and 11 children (55%) indicating that the hat was "a red hat with a feather". 4. discussion the reliability of the statements of child witnesses, which is still studied today with regard to various factors, has been chosen as the main theme of the study, and this study tries to explain how the event memories of child witnesses are affected by the information given by adults. when we examine the findings we have obtained from this study, we see that the number of the correct answers received in the first interview for the free narrative questions in both groups decreased in the second interview, and the number of incorrect answers received in the first interview increased in the second interview. when we look at the results of the open-ended questions, we see a similar result. it was observed that the number of correct answers given in the first interviews decreased in the second interviews, and the number of incorrect answers increased similarly. in addition, it was seen that the detailing rates of incorrect answers given in the second interviews increased, while the number of "i don't know, i don't remember" answers given to the trick questions in the first interviews decreased. as a result of the aforementioned findings, firstly, we conclude that statements change as the amount of time passing after the event took place increases. other studies discussing the negative effects of time on memory and therefore on the statements of witnesses (loftus, 1975; ackil & zaragoza, 1998; bruck, ceci & hembrooke, 1998; zaragoza et al., 2001; gudjonsson & sigurdsson, 2003; zaragoza, rich et.al. 2016) also support our result. for this reason, it is concluded that it is important to perform the judicial interrogations in the shortest time period after the event takes place regarding the reliability of a child's statement. in addition, the detailing rates of the incorrect answers given in the second interviews led to the result that passing time causes the memory to drift away from the actual event and in time children may create a new reality regarding the event they witnessed. this emerges as an important detail within the scope of the findings of this study. however, since the answers given by children for trick questions are not approached within the scope of detailing criterion in other studies conducted on this subject (ackil & zaragoza, 1998; zaragoza et al., 2001; stolzenberg & pezdek, 2013; otgaar, howe, memon and wang, 2014; wilford, chan, & tuhn, 2014; baumgartner, strandberg & eslick, 2015), they do not include results on how much the memory drifts away from reality and therefore the obtained results cannot be scientifically compared. another dynamic that is observed to negatively affect the reliability of the child witness testimony according to individual interviews is that the child witness has difficulty in resisting the interviewer (adult). the results obtained in this context can respond to the actual starting point of this study. first, even though it was stated before the interviews that the children could give the answers "i don't know, i don't remember" for questions they are not able to answer, very few such responses were received in the control group. however, it was seen in the distribution tables that children in the experimental group avoided giving the answers "i don't know, i don't remember" when a second adult was included in the process. at this point, the children were observed to be hesitant to state that they do not know or do not remember what happened in front of the interviewer, and they answered all questions including the trick ones to satisfy the interviewer and look good in front of the authority figure. the studies in the scientific literature (sporer, 1982; yates, 1987; ceci, ross & toglia, 1987; gulotta et al., 1996; zaragoza et al., 2001; schwarz & roebers, 2006; gombos, pezdek & haymond, 2012; stolzenberg & pezdek, 2013; otgaar, howe, memon and wang, 2014) support this result we obtained. when we discuss the contents of interviews held with the children in the experimental group, it is seen that children were significantly affected by the manipulative information given by the assistant researcher and the answers they gave to the questions were in accordance with the misinformation obtained from the adult. when we compared the contents of the answers received from the children and the story flow which were prepared for the interview to be held with the group in question and included incorrect information, it was seen that 12 children stated they saw "a blue car" in the answers they gave to the free narrative question in the first and second interviews. however, it was observed that all children agreed they saw a "frog" and 11 children stated that the frog was wearing striped pants or a sweater even though there were no frogs in the film they watched. even though in the film they watched, there is only a car that comes to take the lamb and only an arm extending out of the car is visible, children expressed that they saw a "man" in line with the misinformation they received from the assistant researcher. additionally, in parallel with the manipulative information, it was seen that 5 children stated that "the man was wearing a white sweater (or a shirt), green pants and a red hat", 4 children used two of these three 20 details and 4 children used one of these three details. lastly, in parallel with the information provided by the assistant researcher, it was seen that only 2 children indicated that the rabbit was "black", 18 children stated that the rabbit was "wearing a hat," and 11 children indicated that the hat was "a red hat with a feather." however, the rabbit in the film is brown and is not wearing any clothes or hats. as the result of this contextual comparison, it is concluded that even when the interview takes place immediately after the event, children are significantly affected by the misinformation given by an adult and their knowledge on the event in question is shaped according to this misinformation. it is observed that children create "a new event" based on the information they receive from an adult. from another point of view, these results are parallel to the results obtained by schwarz and roebers (2006) which state that children are influenced by social pressure when they testify about a certain event. 5. conclusion as a result of the study, it was seen that the use of guiding questions in judicial interviews held with child witnesses and the repeated interviews negatively affected the reliability of the statement given by the child. therefore, it is recommended to pay attention to these aspects in interviews held with children to provide the information that is the most factual possible to be used in the judicial mechanism and to use free narrative questions that allow the child to express every detail they saw instead of guiding and yes-no questions. however, even a week-long time interval can cause children's memory to lose the details of an event that took place. this shows us that the first judicial action to be taken with the child must be taken immediately after the event or as soon as possible. from another point of view, evaluations should be conducted considering that the child may be mistaken as more time passes after the event takes place. lastly, even when it takes place immediately after the witnessed event, it is seen that adult guiding has a strong influence on the change of the child's reality about the event. even though we cannot always control the adult information which we stated to have the power to change the reality of the judicial process, awareness can be created among judicial workers. most essentially, judicial workers who will be in contact with the child in the judicial process may avoid giving details about the event during the interview held with the child, and may remain neutral in relation to the details given by the child. acknowledge: this research was funded by tubitak 2211-a national scholarship programme for phd students. references 1. ackil, j.k. and zaragoza, m.s. 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(2001). “interviewing witnesses: forced confabulation and confirmatory feedback increase false memories.” psychological science, vol. 12, no. 6, pg. 473477. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00388 22. zaragoza, m.s., rich, p., rindal, e. and defranco, r. (2016). “forced fabrication and false eyewitness memories.” in. false and distorted memories (eds. robert a. nash, james ost). london: psychology press. 84 urgency of the public services supervision on the regional government implementation ida ayu ketut karyani ¹* i wayan parsa ² ¹ udayana university, faculty of law, doctoral program of legal studies, karyani.fhud@yahoo.com, *correspondent author ² udayana university, faculty of law, doctoral program of legal studies, wayan_parsa@unud.ac.id article history: accepted 05 august 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: supervision, public service, regional government. a b s t r a c t this study examined the supervision of public services as stipulated in law 25 of 2009, namely regarding public services and law 23 of 2014 concerning regional government. supervision carried out in the law is to give authority to each of the existing institutions or institutions, causing overlapping existing authority. giving authority to officials will give birth to the rights and obligations to achieve the goals and intentions specified in the legislation. the rise of corruption cases occurs because of the weakness of existing supervision of government administration, especially in public services. in this case corruption will foster public distrust of public services. the form of maladministration carried out by public service providers is always associated with behavior in services performed by public officials and the norms of behavior of officials in public services. in addition, these problems are also caused by the opportunities and authority given to be abused and the low quality of public services in various service sectors. supervision of public services can provide certainty about the public services provided by the government whether it has been running according to targets and objectives and is a way to find out as early as possible maladministration that might occur so that effective and accountable government can be realized. 1. introduction the state has an obligation to serve every citizen to fulfill their basic rights and needs within the framework of public services which is mandated by the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia. building public trust in public services by public service providers is an activity that must be carried out in line with expectations and demands of all citizens and residents related to improving public services. public service as stipulated in law number 25 year 2009 article 1 states that what is meant by public service is an activity or series of activities in the framework of fulfilling service needs in accordance with statutory regulations for every citizen and resident of goods, services, and / or administrative services organized by public service providers. philosophically, public service is the fulfillment of the basic rights of the community as the recipient of the service and the apparatus as a public servant. the nature of public service is the provision of excellent service to the community which is an embodiment of the obligation of the government apparatus as a public servant (suryadi, 2012). there are 3 (three) main tasks of the government bureaucracy, namely (lumintang, 2013): public service, empowerment, and development. public service, is providing routine public services to the public such as providing services. empowerment, is empowering the community to achieve progress in a better life, such as providing guidance, assistance, consultation. development, is to carry out development in the community, one of which is by building transportation infrastructure. public services in this case include the implementation of public good and public regulation. public good relates to the provision of infrastructure, goods and services which includes core public services which are the main tasks and functions of the central http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 mailto:karyani.fhud@yahoo.com https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6911-1508 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6911-1508 85 government or regional governments. public regulation related to the formation of laws and policies in the framework of creating peace and order (hardiyansyah, 2015). public services are still faced with conditions that are not in accordance with the expectations and demands of the community. the difference in services provided in public services can foster distrust of the community. the community has the right to receive equal and fair services. however, in reality the government has not been able to fulfill it optimally, which can be seen from the absence of services requested but somehow it would still be served, the community is made as an object, and there are no clear benchmarks regarding the provision of good services. the existence of complicated procedures, slow service, and corruption in various forms can lead to distrust of the public in public services. in addition, the rise of corrupt practices will have an impact on public services provided, which is supported by the opportunities and authority given to be abused and the low quality of public services in various service sectors. in connection with the occurrence of maladministration, it is necessary to supervise the actions of the apparatus in order to avoid the occurrence of acts that are detrimental to the community, at least to minimize the occurrence of such acts as minimum as possible. problems faced specifically related to public services, according to kwik kian gie, (2003) are among others due to the high abuse of authority in the form of kkn (corruption, collusion, nepotism), inefficient government organizations at the central and regional levels, poor quality of public services and weak functioning of supervisory institutions. weak supervision means that the more possible the implementation of work that is not optimal, so that the objectives to be achieved will be increasingly difficult to realize and more opportunities for abuse of power. and vice versa, with the stronger control or tight supervision, the more optimal the implementation of work so that goals can be achieved and abuse of power can be avoided which ultimately people's rights can be realized. the optimization of the implementation of regional government supervision has not been carried out as it should because of various factors, including the availability of human resources, the budget factor and the commitment factor (political will) of the governor, regents / mayors as direct superiors who are responsible for the implementation of regional government supervision. supervision of the implementation of public services is regulated in law of the republic of indonesia number 25 of 2009, namely regarding public services in article 35, which determines that: (1) supervision of public services implementation is carried out by internal and external supervisors (2) internal supervision of the public services administration is carried out through: a. supervision by the direct supervisor in accordance with statutory regulations; and b. supervision by functional supervisors in accordance with statutory regulations (3) external supervision of the public services administration is carried out through: a. supervision by the public in the form of reports or complaints from the public related to the public services administration; b. supervision by the ombudsman in accordance with statutory regulations; and c. supervision by the house of representatives, provincial regional house of representatives, regency / city regional house of representatives. several provisions in the law of the republic of indonesia number 23 of 2014 concerning regional government regulate supervision. article 35 paragraph (3) and (4) regulates the participation of the community which in this case is the participation in the administration of public services and participation in the form of supervision. likewise, the inspectorate as one of the regional apparatuses has the task of assisting regional heads in fostering and overseeing the implementation of government affairs which are under regional authority. further, the inspectorate is regulated in article 216. the supervision of the implementation of provincial regional government is contained in article 377 which formulates that: (1) the minister carries out general supervision of the provincial governments administration; (2) technical ministers and heads of non-ministerial government agencies carry out technical supervision of the implementation of provincial regional governments in accordance with their respective fields of duty and coordinate with the minister; (3) supervision as referred to in paragraph (1) and paragraph (2) shall be carried out by the government internal supervisory apparatus in accordance with its function and authority. the existence of several laws and other regulations that provide the same authority in supervision, bring negative consequences in 86 the form of overlapping authority in supervision which can further hamper the government in realizing public services in accordance with statutory provisions. to realize a clean regional government, good, efficient, effective, and responsible, it is necessary to conduct professional, accountable and independent supervision. based on the background of the problem as described above, the legal issue raised in this study is as follows what is the urgency of the public services supervision in the regional government implementation? 2. research methds in connection with this legal research, the type of research used was normative research. in this case, legal research method is: normative legal research methods that examine law viewed from an internal perspective with the object of research is the legal norm (diantha, 2017). according to morris l. cohen and kent c. olson (2000), they state that: ”legal research is the process of finding the law that governs an activity and materials that explain or analyze that law”. in this study, the most basic approach method used was: the legislative approach, which is an approach that is carried out by examining all laws and regulations relating to the legal issues to be examined. this approach was used to analyze the legal norms in legislation relating to this research topic. 3. results and discussion improving public services in an effort to reinforce the rights and obligations of every citizen and the realization of state responsibilities in the delivery of public services requires legal norms that provide clear regulation. this is an effort to improve the quality and guarantee the provision of public services in accordance with the general principles of government and to provide protection for every citizen from abuse of authority in the administration of public services. related to authority in the administration of state and government, there is legitimacy within it, namely the authority granted by law. therefore the substance of the principle of legality is an authority (ridwan, 2006), “het vermogen tot her verrichten van bepaalde rechtshandelingen”, namely the ability to take certain legal actions. furthermore, the authority of supervision will be discussed as stipulated in the legislation. 3.1. supervision authority in laws and regulations in the provisions of the constitution of the republic of indonesia in article 18 paragraph (2) and paragraph (5), it confirms that the regional government has the authority to regulate and manage its own government affairs according to the principle of autonomy and duty of assistance and is given the widest possible autonomy. the granting of the widest possible autonomy to the regions is directed to accelerate the realization of people's welfare through improved services, empowerment and community participation. in essence, regional autonomy is given to the people as a legal community unit that is given the authority to regulate and manage their own government affairs given by the central government to the regions. autonomy is implemented by the regional head and the dprd (local people's representative council) with the help of regional authorities. the authority possessed by the state as the holder of people's sovereignty, one of which is to conduct surveillance, which as a whole aims for the prosperity of the people. supervision of the implementation of local government is a process of activities aimed at ensuring that local governments can run in accordance with the plans and provisions of applicable laws and regulations. supervision of the implementation of regional government is carried out by the government which includes: supervision of the implementation of government affairs in the region. in terms of authority, it can be seen from the type of authority delegated to the regional government in the decentralized system. the authority of the delegation means that the regional government accepts the duties and functions of the functions delegated to the region. the implementation of provincial and district / city regional government consists of the head of the region and the dprd assisted by the regional apparatus. in carrying out the development and supervision of the administration of government affairs which are the authority of the regency / city area and the task of assistance by the regency / city area, the president is assisted by the governor as the representative of the central government. this is confirmed in the provisions of article 91 of law number 23 year 2014. it is the same as the provision in article 96 which confirms that the provincial dprd has a supervisory function. the supervisory function in question is the supervision of the implementation of provincial and governor regulations, the implementation of other laws and regulations related to the administration of the provincial government, and the implementation of the follow-up to the results of audits of financial statements by the audit board of the republic of indonesia. 87 the provincial apparatus consists of the regional secretariat, the dprd secretariat, the inspectorate, the service and the agency. regional inspectorate has the duty to assist regional heads in fostering and overseeing the implementation of government affairs which are the authority of the regions and the task of assistance by regional apparatus. the supervision of the regional government implementation is intended to ensure the implementation of the regional government runs effectively and efficiently in accordance with the provisions of the legislation, which includes general supervision, technical supervision and supervision of the regional head of the regional apparatus and other supervision activities. 3.2. the forms of supervision on public services supervision of the government is an effort to prevent mistakes either intentionally or unintentionally as a preventive effort, or also to correct them if a mistake has occurred as a repressive effort. there are several forms of supervision in the government administration. the form of supervision on public services will be reviewed in the next section. the forms of supervision on public services as stated in the law of the republic of indonesia number 25 of 2009 concerning public services in article 35 mentioned that: (1) supervision of public services implementation is carried out by internal supervisors and external supervisors. (2) internal supervision of the administration of public services is carried out through: a. supervision by the direct supervisor in accordance with statutory regulations; and b. supervision by functional supervisors in accordance with statutory regulations (3) external supervision of the administration of public services is carried out through: a. supervision by the public in the form of reports or complaints from the public related to the public services administration; b. supervision by the ombudsman in accordance with statutory regulations; and c. supervision by the house of representatives, the provincial regional house of representatives, the regency / city regional house of representatives. internal supervision is supervision carried out by officials in the organization / government itself. internal supervision conducted by the government is to develop a monitoring system as an integral part of the institutional work procedures. the responsibility for the operation or not of this internal control system rests with every supervisor, which is then known as direct supervisor supervision or inherent supervision. this embedded supervision is intended to control every activity of the apparatus so that it can be maintained in accordance with the plans, provisions, and applicable laws (sujanto, 1996). meanwhile, external supervision is supervision carried out by supervisory institutions that are outside the government bureaucracy / organization. external supervision of the administration of public services is carried out by the public. community supervision is supervision carried out by the public in the form of evaluations carried out by representative institutions, non-governmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, as well as complaints and giving information both directly and through the mass media or public opinion regarding services to the community and government administration. 4. conclusions supervision on the public services is very important to ensure that public services provided by the government are running well and meet service standards. even in this case supervision must also be strengthened in the implementation of regional government. supervision plays a role in ensuring that public services are running as targeted in accordance with the vision and mission and desired goals. this is done in order to prevent maladministration as early as possible. through the existence of task arrangements and clear authority, it will create effective and accountable local government. thus, justice, certainty and benefits for the community in achieving national goals can be realized. references 1. cohen, kent c. olson, morris l. (2000). legal research, united states of america, west publishing co., st. paul, minn. 2. diantha, p. (2017). metodologi penelitian hukum normatif dalam justifikasi teori hukum. jakarta, prenada media group. 3. hardiyansyah. (2015). komunikasi pelayanan publik konsep dan aplikasi. yogyakarta, gava media. 4. kwik, k.g. (2003). reformasi birolrasi dalam mengefektifkan kinerja pegawai pemerintahan. jakarta. 5. lumintang, d. (2013). rekonstruksi regulasi pelayanan kependudukan dan pencatatan sipil oleh birokrasi pemerintahan dalam implementasi undangundang no.32 tahun 2004 tentang pemerintahan daerah, vol.i/no.2 april-juni /2013. 88 6. sujamto. (1996). aspek-aspek pengawasan di indonesia. jakarta, sinar grafika. 7. suryadi. (2012). pengembangan kinerja pelayanan publik. bandung, pt. refika aditama. laws and regulations 8. law of the republic of indonesia number 25 of 2009 concerning public services (state gazette of the republic of indonesia number 112 of 2009 supplement to the state gazette of the republic of indonesia number 5038); 9. law of the republic of indonesia number 23 of 2014 concerning regional government (state gazette of the republic of indonesia of 2014 number 224, supplement to the state gazette of the republic of indonesia number 5587). references 67 plato`s ideas on poetry merxhan avdyli, phd. c. universit of gjilan “kadri zeka”, faculty of education, merxhan.avdyli@uni-gjilan.net article history: accepted 01 august 2019 available online 31 december 2019 keywords: plato aesthetics poetry idea the beauty ideal philosophy time creation culture imitation dialogue literature a b s t r a c t in his most important and most voluminous creation “the state” (republic, politeia), plato included the most characteristically philosophical concepts which were an expression of his interests. apart various fields of teaching, such metaphysics, theology, ethics, psychology, pedagogy, state system, which result from this creation, art and poetry could not go without being included as well (including the music). otherwise, the plato himself, in young age, except with mathematics he also dealt with poetry by believing that he is going to be more dedicated to it. but, it seems that acquaintance with the socrates since he was 20 years old changed his mind and he was fully committed to the philosophy. his general philosophical reviews sublimating his philosophical ideas, which arise on the basis of the idea, as an alpha and omega of every human been in the world, took plato away from poetry by making him more and more torrential in philosophy and more and more critical, even more cynical towards the poetry. introduction plato (427-347 b.c) is one of the most prominent thinkers and philosophers of greek antiquity. the real name of plato was aristokle. he was named plato based on the greek word “plato” which means “wide”. it se said that he named “plato” due to his athletic body. but, apart well build body; plato had also well-built wider thinking. he was athenian which came from a reach family. he was even known as a founder of the academy in his town of birth on the doors of which he had written: “let no one ignorant of geometry enter” (gerliq, 1986). the plato’s influence on general philosophical thinking is great and universal. his dialogues are popular which remained as philosophical works are prominent due to their stylistic aspect as well, where we have a meeting point of philosophical thinking and esthetical approach. sometimes it seems that the border between the philosophy and art vanishes. this conclusion is reached also by historians of aesthetics, gilbert and kun, by dividing the plato`s idea into small parts, where they say that “if the art is weak philosophy, the philosophy is an excellent art” (gilbert, 1969). in his most important and most voluminous creation “the state” (republic, politeia), plato included the most characteristically philosophical concepts which were an expression of his interests. apart various fields of teaching, such metaphysics, theology, ethics, psychology, pedagogy, state system, which result from this creation, art and poetry could not go without being included as well (including the music). otherwise, the plato himself, in young age, except with mathematics he also dealt with poetry by believing that he is going to be more dedicated to it. but, it seems that acquaintance with the socrates since he was 20 years old changed his mind and he was fully committed to the philosophy. his general philosophical reviews sublimating his philosophical ideas, which arise on the basis of the idea, as an alpha and omega of every human been in the world, took plato away from poetry by making him more and more torrential in philosophy and more and more critical, even more cynical towards the poetry (ibid). however, plato is the first philosopher which raised the issues of poetry in his writings: relation between the poet`s poetry and the state and society. but, he is also first greek philosopher which emphasized divisive elements between philosophy and poetry. 68 it cannot be said precisely what made plato to abandon his poetical world, to move away and to deal fully with the focus on the idea in his philosophical reviews and puts on the stinger of the critics of his poetry. in the focus of our interest this time are not his poetries, nor his general reviews on the idea and matter, but only his idea on the poetry and poets, respectively on his ripples towards the poetry and poets. plato`s, which in the fundamentals of the development of his concepts puts the idea, he dealt with the concept of good, the concept of beauty and art. in his reviews, in his popular dialogues, which are known for their eloquence of expression, the tendency of persuasion and argumentation, one may notice that his thoughts, despite the essence and simply philosophical orientation take esthetical characteristics. furthermore, the beauty is fundamental esthetical category and according to plato they should be raised over all other philosophical and esthetical concepts. despite the sublimation of this category, the metaphysics of beauty contravenes his theory on arts, by seeing it completely in the service of the ideal state, which he attempts to build. in this state, according to plato, poets should have no place. this is the most concrete exclusion done to the poets for which he has his reasons which he excludes from his reviews. so, even the life of poets, due to their importance, ranks it in the sixth place, after the philosophers. 1. the rise of plato against poetry and poets plato, in his idea for the creation of ideal state, could not avoid other societal activities. in this respect, he speaks about poetry with the greatest contempt, while about the poets he speaks as for destroyers, not only of the idea of establishing an ideal state, but also as destroyers of the youth. thus, it is not only the poetry that disturbs the plato`s ideal state, the poets are those that should be excluded from a state as conceived by him. in this context, plato is very conservative. his exclusivity is pointed out especially in his very destroying opinions on poets. almost in the entirety of his reviewing dialogues, where he gets the opportunity to speak, or to express an opinion about poets, he does not hesitate to express himself with contempt which derives from his lack of contravening refrain towards the poets, whom he considers as a category which knows to write beautifully, but does not know to think, which say their opinions in a very beautiful manner, but in the essence they are deceivers and people which with use their pathetically side to cheat on wider masses. perhaps, the plato`s disagreement is exactly the floor of poetical expressions, which can be overflowing instantly, but, they do not have any core conceptual form in the essence where the society should be influenced, especially the youth. plato does not hesitate to draw attention to negative impact that the poetry and those who write verses could have. he, does not to attack homer and his poetic style which he attempts to censure by marking some parts of his creation which according to plato should have no place in the homer`s iliad and odyssey. there are several reasons why plato was positioned against poetry and poets as a bearer of this, according to him, evil in the society (platon, 1980). initially, the dilemmas must be removed as regards plato`s lack of knowledge on poetry, but his attention was focused more in the conception of the idea for creation of basis for an ideal state, almost utopic one. therefore, his views on establishing a state are not equivalent with what the poetry lays down. this was probably influenced also by his withdrawal from poetic writings apart from its highly refined aesthetic feelings. although, the imitation (in latin: imitatio) is “one of the key problems of the entire antique art philosophy”(gerliq, 1986) , however, plato`s understanding of arts, simply as an imitation or the shadow of the shadow (plato, 1980) , has the basis for his contemptuous attitude towards art their bearers, furthermore towards the poetry and poets. plato deals with the issue of poetry in the third book of “state”. through his dialogues, initially philosophical ones, he enters in the issue of reviews of the poetry in which by seeking an ideal purity he asks the poets to somehow not rush to write what it does not correspond to the truth. he is highly critical towards those poets which do not hesitate to present the goods with an image that does not correspond to the reality. in his request for the poets to have self-censorship and to not display in such a brutal manner their views towards the goods, he requests that even the top poet of antique greece homer to give up some verses, which according to plato not only do not honour him, but they can also have negative influence on weakening the ideal state to which he is committed and in the demise of society, especially the young part of the population. before all other motives, it is the preservation the state`s and society’s honour that motivated and incited plato`s aversion towards the poetry and poets. by further expressing of his idea on poetry, plato, says that the poetry is imitation of imitation of essences in order to express openly regarding this issue that “the pleasure is the greatest deception”, with which he expresses the lack of consideration for poets and the poetry and to conclude that the poetry is equivalent with the pleasure and the pleasure is not equivalent with the value, says plato, by decreasing thus even more the importance and the value of poetic art, which derives from the poetry as well. 69 it has already been said above that plato had good knowledge on the poetry. he also had a sense to write poetry. even most of his philosophical reviews, notwithstanding what is about, has great meeting points with the poetry. the plato`s attacks and opposition towards the poets are also expressed in the creation “protection of socrates”. by analysing the inspiration of poets plato distinguishes their inspiration, but by emphasizing that they, despite this, often are not able to know what they say, because according to plato, the poets do not receive inspiration form their inner but from outside, it is the muses which inspire them (ibid). meanwhile, to reinforce his opinion of breaking the youth's voyage by poets, plato states that "poets are incorrect typewriters," he adds, "poets believe they are in other actions in the wise, but they are not " (platon, 1976). plato also deals with this issue in the dialogues of ijon, in which the main hero is now the poet interpreter. even here plato by opposing the traditional view that poets are wise and human teachers emphasize the blindness of poets and performers of their works. in this plane plato's poetry's work compares it with the attractive and unconscious magnitude of the magnet (gilbert, 1969). after all, plato is convinced that not only poetry but all art is just a mirror and nothing else. his tendencies towards the poets and poetry plato expresses and emphasizes also in "feast", but not directly, such as "state" or "iyon", as "feast" more deals with beauty in general (ibid). 2. plato`s requests towards homer in most of plato's dialogues, poetry and poets, the central place of voice homer and his epic, for which plato has special requirements, demands that in order to complement the moral codes of being of the idealistic state are defined as censorship and self-censorship. therefore, seeing in this light plato's request to homer not to present the gods by crying or laughing, it can be said that this is a requirement that in some way precedes further trends in the literary developments of censorship and self-censorship, although this, in this case, is mainly concerned with plato's attitude to the creation of the idealistic state. thus, plato, seeking from homer and other poets to remove various parts from their works, he urged them "not to be angry at why these and similar places are deleted, not why they are not poetic, and why they are not content with them, but because they are more poetic, the less they should listen to the boys and the people who need to be free and who should rather have fear of slavery than of death" (platon, 1980). plato poses clear demands, especially to homer, disagreeing with many of his work and demanding the removal of all those parts, whether terrible or frustrated, or those that plato considers to be unstable or even untrue, by mentioning any part of the actions of zeus, achilles, hector, patroclus, priam, tezeu etc. therefore, plato's attack on homer's work, based on idealism and on the protection of some kind of abstract morality, becomes even tougher when plato can sublimate his opinion on the subject in these words, arguing that "the poets and myths makers, for the most part, speak badly about people” (ibid). 3. do poets identify with imitation and do they touch the truth? it is interesting to point out and emphasize plato's approach to the appearance, by the poets, of the actions of the good and the unworthy or the bad, as he shares it. plato is of the opinion that the poet during the imitation phase, as it is said, of the actions of the good people is worth identifying with them, somehow, while not worthy of the poet, which in any way be identified with the action of unworthy or bad people, saying that with such irritating imitation should not be made his mirror (ibid). much more specific and clearer in his attacks on poetry and poets, plato is in the tenth "state book", where he is presented with the firm demand that in state building he has clarified the position of poetry and poets, which pose great risk to the ideal state. plato for this says: "if she (monaural poetry: m.a.) imitates, we did not want to accept it. now that we have examined each and every kind of soul, as it seems to me, it is even clearer that such poetry should not be accepted at all” (ibid). in the section about plato's mimetics, he continues to pose numerous issues and dilemmas for poetry. in his review, speaking on the subject, he raises the dilemma whether it is possible that the poet as imitator who is able to answer even in the spheres and areas for which he is willing to write. he in one case calls sophisticated poets, even magicians. meanwhile, it raises the dilemma of whether poets can do what they imitate. plato compared a doctor's healing work and imitation of the poet's words to the doctor, addresses homer and other poets, asking whether any of the poets have come to cure someone as asclepius (ibid). in reviewing this issue, he further ironizes homer's work by posing direct questions about his imitations, as plato expressed, about their wars and development, the rule of state, and the education of people, reducing the value of positive influence on 70 society and public life, not only of homer, but of all the poets. to illustrate this, plato, attacking homer considers that his influence and other poets in public life is trivial, for he adds "as homer and hesiod had been able to teach virtue to people, then their contemporaries certainly will not let the rhapsodist to wander around the world, hold them stronger than the gold themselves, and force them to stay in them, and if they do not want to do so would go after them wherever they would go, until they gained enough education” (ibid). further, plato gives an interesting conclusion after all his contemplation of imitation: "all the creators, beginning with homer, are just imitators of the images of true virtue and all that they sing for songs, and the truth does not even touch it” (ibid). do the poets really touch the truth, it is unknown even today. references 1. bart, rolan, književnost, mitologija, semiologija (literature, mythology, semiology), belgrade, 1971. 2. eco, umberto, si bëhet një punim diplome (how to become a diploma), "attempt", tirana, 1997. 3. lotman, j. v., predavanja iz strukturalne poetike (lectures from structural poetics) "matica hrvatska", zagreb, 1965. 4. lotman, j. v., struktura umetničkog teksta (structure of the art text), "nolit", belgrade, 1976. 5. slamnig, ivan, disciplina mašte (discipline of imagination), zagreb, 1971. 6. welek, rene austin warren, teoria e letërsisë (theory of literature), "onufri", tirana, 2015. 7. gërliq danko, leksikoni i filozofëve (the lexicon of philosophers) „rilindja“, prishtinë, 1986. 8. everet gilbert, katarina helmut kun, istorija estetike (history of aesthetics) “kultura», beograd, 1969. 9. platoni, shteti (state), “rilindja”, prishtinë, 1980. 10. gërliq, danko, estetika – historia e problemeve filozofike (aesthetics the history of philosophical problems), “rilindja”, prishtinë, 1986. 11. platon, odbrana sokratova – fedon ijon (socrates' defense fedon ion), bigz, beograd, 1976. 12. zejnullah gruda “e drejta ndërkombëtare publike”, publishing house “furkan”, skopje, 2007. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; september-december 2017 / issn: 2616-387x 1 optic fibers as a broadcasting media jusuf qarkaxhija aab college-faculty of computer science jusuf.qarkaxhija@aab-edu.net abstract fast brodcasting of an information is always a challange from our daily activities. through fast broadcasting of the information always created pre-eminence in military activities, business, researching, etc. from ancient times we know that information was orally and hand in hand broadcasted which in most of the times casused in loss of information and due to this also in loss of activities which are mentioned above. due to information technology notably computer networks and internet overtime information started broadcasting faster. information started broadcasting through copper wires and through wireless. big applications started to develop with the increased use of internet, high quality broadcasting (hd), video on demand broadcasting (vod), triple pay broadcasting (three services on a medium), etc., then these two mediums couldn’t complete all these requests. therfore after these problems, optic fiber began to be used as a broadcasting medium which eleminated all the defects of other mediums. importance of this paper work is telling developing stages of optic fiber, it’s characteristics and it’s losses. then it is shown that which devises enforce the signal of fibers and in the end all three mediums that we mentioned are compared on the basis of attributes. findings form the paper will only enforce that knowledge we had before about optic fiber, the best broadcasting medium. key words: broadcast, medium, information, optic fiber, etc. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; september-december 2017 / issn: 2616-387x 2 1. entry optic fibers technology developing for communication networks, medicine applications and for other fields shows a unique union of physics, electro and mechanical engineering disciplines. today, the amount of optic fibers installed all over the earth is equivalent with 70 journeys across moon, and this technology is ready to be used as an internet post, as a global infrastructure of broadcasting, and like a base harassment for new resplendence developing, images, sensing and controlling. by increasing this area, a huge number of participants with a past in electrical engineering and physics started working in some optic fiber departments. servicing technicians used to working with copper wires are retrained and learned to install optic wires. apart of the others that started working on this field, the students also began to follow the first lectures of this field. meaning of optic fibers bases is essential for application designers and researchers, therefore this copy has a lot of full references available. 2. stages f optic fibers development laser invention and it’s presentation dates from 19601. in 1966 it was clear that optic fiber is the best way of using lasers light for optic communication, in the same way as electrones are transfered through copper wires. biggest problem at the beginning in optic fibers was loss of 1000 db/km . a big invention happened in 1970 when losses were reduced in 20 db/km. real stage of optic fiber communication research started in 1975, and this progress has its oun stages through years. first stage first stage of light waves system has operated nearly 85 nm and has used laser semi-conductors gaa with multimode fibers. after some tests between 1977-1979, this type of system was released for commercial use in 1980. they have operated in 34-45 mbps and space of repeater 1 malcolm johnson, “optical fibres, cables and systems”, geneva 2009, pg 5 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; september-december 2017 / issn: 2616-387x 3 was 10 km away. unlike koaksial wire needed a repeater only 1km away, which reduced costs of instalatin and maintenance. second stage second stage of optic fiber communication system, based in laser semi-conductors and ingaa detectors that has operated nearly 1300 nm, was made available in 1980 and they have operated in a borderline below 100 mbps because of multimode fiber dispersion. this borderline was overcome through single-mode fibers. in 1988, second generation of light waves system has been operated in bits line up to 1.7 gbps with repeater placed 50 km away. signal weakening in this stage was 0.5 db/km. third stage in third stage which has operated in 1550 nm, laser semi-conductors ingaas became unfit because of dispersion and longitudinal oscillations modes of waves. dispersion problem is overcome through dispersion-shifted fibers. in 1985, laboratory experiments have shown a chance of information broadcasting from 4gbps in a distance near 100 km. third generation of optic fiber communication system has operated in 2.5 gbps and was used commercially in 1992. this system was able to operate up to 10 gbps. forth stage forth stage enables optic amplifier usage that enables broadcasting in a distance even larger also wdm-wavelength division multiplexing for increasing broadcasting line. this type of amplifier operates in c line (1565 nm) and was developed for commercial use in 1990. in 1992 experiments have shown that there is a possible way for broadcasting above 21.000 km in 2.5 gbps line and above 14.300 km in 5 gbps line. this performance shows that all broadcasting based on amplified fibers available intercontinental communication. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; september-december 2017 / issn: 2616-387x 4 fifth stage in this stage optic fiber broadcasting was increased. commercial terrestrial system has 1.6 tbps capacity (160 optic channels in 10 gbps line). 3. optic technology applied in telecommuniction networks based on the fact that first generation of this system had a capacity of 34 to 45 mbps dor a fiber in 1980, capacity of optic system was increased for 10.000 times through a 20 year period. in the same time, optic technology was applied in a progressive way that short distances were increased for some kilometers in very long distances of backbone networks, completely replacing traditional copper wires2. broadband of the application is based not only on the development of optical fibers and sytems but also it is very necessary to develop and specify many other aspects of practical implementation of optical fibers. optical fiber cable should be inserted into cables which are provided in different ways, buried, in ditches, air, sanitation, submarines, etc. for each of these ways of distributing, it is necessary to accurately design the cable to comply with the defined conditions as mechanical and environmental ones. at the same time it is necessary to define installation techniques as well as to maintain its tensions to a maximum permissible value in order not to reduce the estimated life time of the fiber. 4. optical fiber characteristics multimode optical fibers are non-conductor waves regulators who may have many ways to spread. light spread like trails by seen in the following figure where the numbers 1, 2 and 3 are shown as core, inner layer and outer mantle. the inner layer of glass has the index of refraction of the light rays less than the index of refraction of the core. for fiber used in communications 2 malcolm johnson, “optical fibres, cables and systems”, geneva 2009, pg 17 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; september-december 2017 / issn: 2616-387x 5 systems, the difference between the index of refraction of the core and the inner layer is 0.0020.0083. fiber in the first image is called "scale fiber" as fleeting changes refraction index from the middle layer in core. as a result, all rays (modes) within a certain angle will be reflected fully in the boundary core-middle layer. from this we see that the modes reach the end of fiber at different times causing signal limites to be broadcast. different modes speeds can be approximated by using the "fiber classified" (middle picture). here, refractive index varies smoothly from the center out in a way that causes the travel times of different rays to be approximately equal, even when they have different paths. by reducing the diameter of the fiber core and changeing the refraction index of the core and the middle layer in just a beam, then the fiber is a single mode (third figure). 3 ulf l. osterberg, “optical fiber, cable and connectors”, academic press 2002, pg 38 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; september-december 2017 / issn: 2616-387x 6 diameter of the middle layer of all fiber types used for telecommunications is 125 μm. core diameter for multimode fiber is 50 µm, while for single mode fibers from 8 to 10 µm. 5. losses in fiber losses during installation it is appropriate that link to be divided into two areas: the loss during installation and power available.losses during insallation refers to optical losses associated with losses while placing the connectors in the optic cable and fiber loss during ascent(spice loss). available optical power is the difference between the transmit outout power of the power received at the entrance, minus additional losses during the noise in sources. -losses during transmission loss during transmission is the most important feature in an optical fiber as it directly affects the length of the fiber that will be used. while maximum optical power which enters the optical fiber is defined by international safety standards for laser, the number of optical regenerator repeaters use is determined by the loss. the mechanism responsible for this loss includes absorbing material (absorption) as well as linear and nonlinear dissemination of light by impurities in the fiber. attenuation and wavelength while fiber loss varies with wavelength, changes in the source of the waves cause additional losses. a model of the exact loss in fiber as a function of wavelength is very complex, and it has to include effects such as linear dissemination, absorption of the material because the edges ultraviolet and infa red and absorbing material due to impurities common (phosphorus)4. the loss coefficient is found by beer's law5. 4 casimer m. decusatis, & carolyn j. sher decusatis, “fiber optic essentials”, elsevier inc. 2006, pg 109 5 govind p. agrawal, “fiber-optic communication systems” third edition, john wiley & sons inc. 2002, pg 74 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; september-december 2017 / issn: 2616-387x 7 p dz dp  )exp( lpp inout                in out p p lkm db 10 log 10  where, α-the loss coefficient l-length of fiber pin-power signal in entrance of the fiber poutsignal strength at the end of the fiber for example, if we take the fiber with 100m (100 m = 0.1 km) length we have pin = 10 μw and pout = 9 μw, then signal attenuation will be as follows: always, the loss in optical fibers denoted by the term db / km. negative sign means loss 6. repeaters and optical reinforcements to expand communication net in very large distances, then we use optical reinforcements (amplifiers). however, the noise in the background while also strengthening, then there are limitations to this approach. optical repeaters (repeater) can be used for remeasurement of the time , reformation and regeneration of the optical signal, providing even greater distance than optical reinforcements do it themselve. sometimes these functions are built within the switch 6 nick massa, “fundamentals of photonics-fiber optic telecommunication”, university of connecticut 2000, pg 299 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; september-december 2017 / issn: 2616-387x 8 (key) which convert the optical signal into electronic form, and then rebroadcast the signal with a high level of optical power. it is desirable that the optical telecommunication net distances between nodes to be much longer without the use of repeaters. optical repeaters or key in general terms convert optical signals into electronic form, and then rebroadcast the signal different optical fiber. there are optical amplifier, which have the capacity to reinforce directly any optical signal that can be in fiber without converting it to electronic form. some devices may also support transmission over great distances using optical amplifier as a pre-amplifier, post-amplifier or as a gap space. amplifiers that have the capacity to increase the optical signal power are called optical power amplifiers and can be placed directly after the signal source to increase its power. pre-reinforcement are placed directly in the front of the signal receiver (receiver), and are characterized with a very little noise and the opportunity to work with a very weak signal. repeaters and enforcers are needed to overcome the different effects of optical communication network. special problem is the noise in optical enforcers produced during spontaneous empowerment, which is created by increasing the strength of the empowerment of the desired signal but also unwanted instant noise. not all of these effects can be overcome simply by increasing signal strength. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; september-december 2017 / issn: 2616-387x 9 source: http://www.nature.com/nphoton/journal/v2/n1/fig_tab/nphoton.2007.261_f1.html 6. optical repeaters to carry optical signals across large distances, repeaters or regenerator are always used. these devices receive the modulated optical signal (usually high signal), converting it into an electrical signal in the same signal, ratchet (amplify) signal, and rebroadcast the signal in optical form. so, we can say that the repeater has three main parts: an optical receiver, an electronic amplifier , and an optical transmitter. repeaters amplify optical wave only, and can be placed in every 4050 km or by the network communication standards7. devices that only support the amplification, which is an optical amplifier, it can be called device 1r. devices that support the functions of regeneration (known as amplification and ensures that the output signal is powerful enough to reach the destination), reshaping (eliminating distortion of the shape of the signal caused by dispesion or dispersal) is called repeater "2r" while those devices that support the remeasurement of time (retiming)are called repeater "3r". generally, longest distance and greatest reliability of financial statements was possible using repeaters "3r". 7 casimer m. decusatis, & carolyn j. sher decusatis, “fiber optic essentials”, elsevier inc. 2006, pg 124 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; september-december 2017 / issn: 2616-387x 10 it is worth mentioning that they can be configured as repeaters that convert multimode fiber in single mode fiber allowing multiple types of cables. this is possible because, unlike climbing or splicing, optical repeater has a receiver, demodulator and located districts , and broadcasters who send the signal to other nodes. in this way, repeaters contain elements similar to those of the receiver transmitter (transceivers). by selecting a suitable transmitters for new types of fibers, the signal will have the highest reliability. in fact, signal repeaters can convert from copper cable to fiber also that well. 7. optical amplifiers optical amplifiers (enforcers) are designed as a more simplified alternative of repeaters to overcome the weakening in optical fibers. similarly on an electronic amplifier, these optical signals give a definite increase (the ratio between the input and the output power measured in db). its function is as follows. source: http://www.ee.ryerson.ca/~courses/ee8114/optical-amplifiers-venkat.pdf while such a device can be seen below prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; september-december 2017 / issn: 2616-387x 11 source: http://www.ee.ryerson.ca/~courses/ee8114/optical-amplifiers-venkat.pdf optical amplifiers enable signal to remain in optic form throughout network connecting. their priority is to allow repeaters to change without affecting the signal of statements in amplifiers,or transmits multiple signals in a single fiber at different wavelengths, and always achieve the desired strengthening. one of the two types of optical amplifier is a semi-conductive optical amplifier. 8. bandwidth regarding the transmission of optical signals, the two most important parameters of fiber (not just the fiber) they are bandwidth (transmission band) and signal attenuation. the basic reason why we use fiber instead of copper cable is that bandwidth is far greater. bandwidth is the difference of frequencies between the highest and the smallest information that can be transmitted from one system. the bigger the bandwidth means a larger capacity to carry information channel. bandwidth is tested using very fast and sensitive (sensitive) reciever laser. the software analyzes the difference between input and output pulse, and calculates bandwidth in fiber8. bandwidth is also dependent on the design, for example bandwidth "interval of multimode fibers" (~ 125 mhz) is smaller than the bandwidth of "multimode fibers classified" (~ 500 mhz)9. 8 hill k. “fiber bragg gratings”, osa press 2000, pg 29 9 casimer m. decusatis, & carolyn j. sher decusatis, “fiber optic essentials”, elsevier inc. 2006, pg 24 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; september-december 2017 / issn: 2616-387x 12 if we talk about links within objects, then small signal attenuation and wide bandwidth of optical fibers are not the only factors of use. for such cases, optical fibers are used primarily because of other priorities such as the immunity to interfering electromagnetic waves. the situation is different for intercontinental links thousands of kilometers in length. in transoceanic systems small signal attenuation and wide bandwidth of optical fibers are important factors for reducing total unit costs during transmission. 9. fiber vs copper vs wireless in the beginning of internet, connections were made through copper cable but with technology development they have also developed other transmission media such as the wirelessand fiber. source: http://www.alanptlau.com/research.html whereas in the table below we are going to record some other feature comparable between these three technologies. fiber coper wireless quality ✓ little x cable maintenance not needed periodic x future ✓ x x prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; september-december 2017 / issn: 2616-387x 13 interference x ✓ ✓ bandwidth 10240 mbps 24 mbps 24 mbps security ✓ x x 10. conclusions from the above description and table we noticed that optical fiber as a transmission medium is indispensable. this was a confirmation of our hypothesis submitted at the beginning of the paper. it all has to do with the most significant case during the transmission which is information security transmission (the last table). taking into consideration those who we have described is not accidental connection with underwater optical cable between the uk and france. tirana and prishtina are also connected directly with optical cable all the way. references: malcolm johnson, “optical fibres, cables and systems”, geneva 2009, pg 5 ulf l. osterberg, “optical fiber, cable and connectors”, academic press 2002, pg 38 casimer m. decusatis, & carolyn j. sher decusatis, “fiber optic essentials”, elsevier inc. 2006, pg 109 govind p. agrawal, “fiber-optic communication systems” third edition, john wiley & sons inc. 2002, pg 74 nick massa, “fundamentals of photonics-fiber optic telecommunication”, university of connecticut 2000, pg 299 hill k. “fiber bragg gratings”, osa press 2000, pg 29 67 public policy on safety and security railroad system in indonesia dr. suwardi, s.h.*, dr. rossa ilma silfiah s.ag, s.h. *, heru kuswanto sh., m. hum* narotama university, faculty of law, maswad0634@gmail.com article history: accepted 20 may 2019 available online 17 july 2019 keywords: policy safety railway passengers a b s t r a c t implementation of the new law on railways are yet to be seen due to government regulation as executors being discussed. government regulations mandated by law no. 23, 2007 set as fast as 1 (one) year from the entry into force of the act. nevertheless in his closing conditions stated that at the time the act came into force. all the implementing regulations of law no. 13 1992 declared still valid this does not contradict or replaced under the act contained in law no. 23 of 2007 in line with the implementation of regional autonomy and decentralization intended by the act no. 32 of 2004 on regional government and government regulation no. 38 2007 on delegation of authority from central to local governments. the quality of rail services, especially in economy class lately felt worse. headway uncertain security condition, and the level of safety continues to decline. train accident rate continues to rise, where in 2007 there were 116 accidents, an increase from the 2006 total of 107 times. more than 90% of accidents that occurred in 2007 caused by a train derailment or overturned (directorate of railways, 2008). introduction in the provision of railway management responsibilities should not all be under the central government, but can be decentralized to regional governments, particularly for domestic passenger services. it is intended to bring rail transport services by rail users. the local government as the regulator and organizer of railway transport is expected to further improve service quality, as well as to integrate the rail transportation system with a network of transportation modes other cities so that the efficiency and effectiveness of service can be improved. components in the depot were imported from more than eight countries; eg rail from japan, carriage from japan and germany, lathe from france, and the locomotive from america. the diversity of train components causes difficulty in treatment, because not all of the specifications of existing components in accordance with the needs and conditions of the rail network in indonesia. the inability of pt train (indonesia railways persero) in determining the appropriate components and similar in order to better facilitate treatment railway technology due to the procurement of infrastructure and facilities under the authority of the department of transportation. therefore, various components of the existing trains, the cause of the accidents caused by means of railway transport mode is very easy to understand. so that the cause of the accident from the means of transport to get the largest portion of that 34% of all causes of accidents existing trains. ntsc in the year 2017 has delivered a variety of causes of railway accidents. 1.1. formulation of the problem a. how the system of government policy in ensuring the safety of passengers? 68 b. how the transportation system able to function as a public service? 1.2 special purpose research the specific objectives of this study are as follows: 1) collecting data train accident during the period of 2014-2017. 2) calculating the rate of accident on railway accidents in the period year 2014-2018. 3) classify the various factors causing train accident during the period 2017-2018 4) analyzing the causes of railway accidents in the period year 2016-2018 1.3 urgency (virtue) research private vehicles, especially cars is a mode of transport that is not efficient due to the low passenger levels. the transport system is designed for car use is inefficient, especially because of the use of space and a low operating speed to achieve optimal system. from this perspective, it is understandable why the government is seeking ways to implement policies that aim to reduce the use of private vehicles and supports modes of transport that are more environmentally friendly such as public transport by train (commuter train, tram or monorail). train is an alternative transport which had an advantage, it is competent to serve as a transportation solution in the problem of congestion. because train has haulage and relatively efficient using fuel and land compared to other vehicles. in table 1.1 it can be seen below that the train has an advantage compared with other modes of transport. table. 1.1 advantages train against other transportation modes criteria train car motorcycle bus unit use of land 0.37 0.47 0.2 0.57 ha / billion km-pnp energy consumption 135 765 425 965 kcal / km billion-pnp air pollution 19.6 387.5 247 587.5 gram co-eq / km-pnp noise 16.5 23.5 12.5 33.5 %impact security level 0.8 20 14 12.5 kcl / billion km-pnp social costs 14 78 44 24 % transport fee source: east java provincial transport department (2010) train facilities superior in energy consumption of air pollution, security level, and social costs. while the category of land use and noise, train had ranks in 2nd compared with other transportation modes. for haulage, train also has a special specification. for the transport of goods, it could take up to 10 carriages which is equivalent to 20 containers of 20 feet for one trip. as for the transport of railway passengers were able to accommodate 800 people for a departure. for cities with a population over 1 million, for example surabaya, it is most definitely help decrease congestion number of surabaya when the passengers of private vehicles to switch to mass transit such as trains. from the above explanation, it shows how important the railway for the transport system indonesia in times to come. this is because in the future, the ministry of transportation has launched a multi mode integration of freight and passenger consisting of buses, trains, ships and airplanes. as for the mode of transportation cars and motorcycles are not related to the proposed multi mode integration as has been proclaimed by the ministry of transportation. this is evidenced by the impartiality of the government for car and motorcycle modes related to rising gasoline premium of rp. 4.500, to rp. 6.500, in the year 2017. the increase in fuel prices will continue till the government does not bear the burden of subsidizing fuel prices continue to soar on the world market. at the national medium term development plan iii (2017 2019) stated that the government through the ministry of transportation will meet the availability, reliability and accessibility of efficient transport infrastructure and ppp scheme (public private partnership) productive. implicitly, an efficient transport in this case is the railway that results of this study also support the national medium term development plan of the ministry of transportation from 2017 to 2019. transport in rpjmn iii (medium term development plan) year 2017 2019 (source: ministry of transportation (2013) 69 ministry of transportation in rpjmn iii 2017 2019 also plans to support the indonesian economy strong and advanced by holding a transport infrastructure and reliable services. the phrase reliable services is related to the safety and security of the railway system in indonesia. train role will be increasingly important in the years to come, so we need a public policy development related to safety and security of the railway system in indonesia which will be appointed for particular goals. 1.4 innovation targeted innovation targeted in this study is to support the safety and security of the railway system in indonesia. train in recent years often in scapegoats as a mode of transportation that is often experienced such accidents fell from the rail, train collisions and collisions with other modes of transport such as cars and motorbikes or trucks. minimum service standards for mass transit is linked with departures and arrivals precise, security crime and safety in railway passenger and freight trains to various accidents that may occur (infid, 2008: 10). while that happen within this decade is still the news of the accident and the level of safety of passengers and goods using railway transportation services. public policy related to safety and security of the railway system in indonesia is very important because the train is one of the leading mode of transportation future will be prioritized by the government to address the high incidence of accidents on highways and toll roads. public policy is also very important because it indirectly when the level of safety and security using the railway is very high, then the personal vehicles do not hesitate to choose the railway as a mode of daily transport and will lead directly to a reduction in the level of congestion in major cities in indonesia. train also reliable for transport of goods and passengers in large numbers which of course will support the construction and development of science and technology sociocultural. 2. literature review 2.1 public policy islamy (2016) explains that public policy is essentially a decision to select a value the best value of many existing value. the selected best value is the value that is in accordance with the public interest. policymakers (policymakers) not only serves to create a balance between different interests (muddling through or balancing interest), but he also had to serve as assessor (valuer). that is, he must be able to create the value that can be agreed upon based on the judgment rational judgment (rational judgment). it is right in order to achieve maximum results. inability to articulate the value the value (especially values values that are contrary) would mean the realization of the interests of society. or in other words, so that a public policy can be implemented successfully, the policy must be flexible in the implementation process. design policies or policy decision not a price that can not be done revisions or changes. it is possible to dynamically made changes and improvements to the adjustments referring to the reality on the ground and give priority to public interest considerations. 2.2 stages of the public policy formulation the series of public policy formulation is a series that is very important to understand, it will be exposed to public policy formulation stage as follows: a. problem formulation (defining the problem) winarno (2002: 82) explicitly states that we often find less appropriate problem-solving, rather than finding the right problem. the formulation of the problem is a source of public policy, with the understanding and identification of problems that both the planning policy can be structured, problem formulation made by those affected by the problem or someone else who has the responsibility tanggug and policy makers must have the capacity for it. public policy process begins with activities to formulate the problem correctly for success in the formulation of public policy or failure in carrying out the formulation is very influential in the formulation of policy matters. b. policy agenda wahab (2004: 40) states a problem to fit into the policy agenda must meet certain conditions, namely: first, the issue has reached a critical point; second, the issue reached a certain level that can be causing any partikulatitas right impact is dramatic; the third issue concerns the specific emotion seen from the interests of the people; fourth, the issue of questioning authority and legitimacy (legitimacy) in the community; fifth, the issue concerns a fashionable issue where his position is difficult to explain but easy to feel his presence. c. alternative selection policies to solve problems according islamy (2003: 92), the formulation of policy proposals (policy proposals) is the activity of preparing and developing a series of actions necessary to solve the problem. the process in this activity include: firstly; identifying alternatives; second, defining and formulating alternatives; third, assess each of the available alternatives, and choose alternatives that satisfy or most likely to be implemented. 70 d. stage formulation of policies according islamy (2003: 100) for the validation of the policy is the process of adjustment and acceptance together against the recognized principles and measures are acceptable. in the process there is a policy validation activities undertaken. according to anderson in islamy (2003: 100), the approval process begins with kegiataan policies: (a) persuasion, that attempts to convince others about something the truth or value of one's position and they will accept it as one's own; (b) barganing, a process in which two or more persons shall have the power or authority to set / adjust at least the goal, the goal that not agree in order to formulate a series of actions mutually acceptable but not ideal for them. barganing includes agreements (negotiation); reciprocity (give and take); and compromise (compromise). at this stage, we can know that the actors struggled that his alternative was received and also interaction with other actors that gave rise to persuasion, and bargaining. alternative measures taken primarily the result of a joint decision of the various interest groups involved in the policy-making, so as to set a policy. in addition, the policy-setting is done so that a policy can have binding legal force and adhered to by anyone, and shape policies that generated such legislation legislation, jurisprudence, presidential decrees, ministerial decisions and so forth. 2.3 infrastructures according to indonesian dictionary (980: 786) understanding of the means is anything that can be used as a tool in achieving the goal or intent. etymologically the word means indirect tool to achieve the goal. in his book organization and administration (1988: 82), suharsimi arikunto explains that "facilities are all things that can facilitate and expedite obviously given weight of a business". from these limits concluded that the tool is something complementary facilities are indirectly used to facilitate the activities of the organization in achieving goals. means, something that can facilitate can launch the organizations activities can be objects or money (capital). according suharsimi arikunto (1988: 82) outlines the supporting infrastructure divided into two types, namely: 1) physical facilities, ie everything that can be objects or materialize, who have a role to facilitate and expedite business. physical facilities also called the material means, for example: vehicles; communication tool; viewer tool; etc. 2) money facilities, ie everything that is makes it an activity as a result of the workings of the value of money. meanwhile, the infrastructure is all that is the main supporting the implementation of a process (indonesian dictionary, 980: 786). that is, the infrastructure is a facility used to support and to achieve business or organizational objectives. in other words, the infrastructure is everything needed in the activities of a permanent or fixed such as buildings, courts, halls and so on in an organization or company. based on the above, it can be concluded that the infrastructure and facilities are all facilities and tools that can be used as equipment to be used in the implementation of the organizations activities. meanwhile, the availability of good infrastructure and ideal in the organization, the business activities can be run well. for facilities and infrastructure that do not support will not work optimally in the organization. 2.4 definition of railways in the general provisions of article 1 of law no. 23 of 2007 on railways stated that "railways is an integrated system consisting of infrastructure, facilities, and human resources, as well as the norms, criteria, conditions and procedures for the provision of rail transport". meanwhile, in the opening of act no. 23 of 2007 mentioned that the railway as a mode of transportation in the national transportation system that has the characteristics of the transport of mass and its own advantages, which can not be separated from other modes of transport, need to develop their potential, and enhanced its role as a link region, both nationally and internationally, to support, encourage, and drive the national development in order to improve people's welfare. in line with the above explanation, according to nasution (1996: 64) train contribution to the development of the economy and society is enormous. train apilah who started transportation of goods in large quantities at low cost, which stimulates the growth of industry, mining, trade, and other activities in the community. railway transport has several advantages compared with other types of transport, namely: a) capable of transporting cargo in large numbers b) being able to travel long distances. increased far distance becomes more efficient and lower cost. c) travel itinerary with a high frequency can be implemented. d) rarely congestion because all the facilities are owned by one perusahaan so that the provision of services more assured smoothness. e) can provide a better level of service than the bus. 71 from the above explanation can be concluded that the railway is one mode that has the characteristics and special advantages primarily in its ability to transport both passengers and goods in bulk, saving energy, saving in the use of space, has a safety factor is high, and the level of contamination is low and more efficient compared with other modes of road transport to transport over long distances and for dense traffic areas, such as urban transportation. goal of railway development is prioritized to improve the performance of services, especially the safety of transport, through a reduction in the rate of accidents and fatalities due to accidents at level crossings with roads and security management operations on all the main traffic is solid, and the smooth mobilization of transportation of goods and services. broadly speaking railway development objectives are: 1) recovery reliability with strategic priorities and a solid track 2) optimal and recovery of existing networks, development of new networks and increased capacity 3) revise legislation in the field of railways 4) increasing the quality of planning and funding 5) the increasing role of local government, state enterprises and the private sector in the field of railroad; 6) increased human resources and mastery of technology 7) standardization of national railways in an integrated manner so that the continuity of investment, operation and maintenance of national railway infrastructure and facilities can be achieved efficiently. the direction of development of railways, among others, as follows: a) improving transport safety and quality of care through the restoration of conditions of service and means of transport railway infrastructure. b) performance audit of the infrastructure and facilities as well as human resources of the railway operator. c) enhancing the role of national and local railway transportation, and d) improve transit service strategy more competitive in intermodal and intramoda. e) improve service capacity and quality, especially in saturated corridors and strategic corridors with reference to sistranas f) increase frequency and provide affordable railroad (ka/train) transportation services. g) carry out the planning, financing and performance evaluation of integrated railways, and supported sustainable development of data systems and more accurate information. h) continuing reforms and institutional restructuring and bumnserta revision of legislation in the field of railways (act no. 13 of 1992 and its implementation regulations). i) increasing the participation of local governments and private in the field of railways. j) improving railway human resources and technological development of the national railways. 2.5 definition of railway infrastructures in act no. 23 of 2007 on the management of the railways in article 1 stated that railway vehicle is a vehicle that can move on the rail road. by type railways facility as mentioned in article 96 consists of: a. locomotive; b. train; c. carriages; and d. special equipment. based on the above understanding, that means the train is anything that can be run in the activities of railways and as a major factor implementation of railway activities, such as trains and locomotives. in this case, trains and locomotives as a means of transportation to move move move from one place to another. railway facilities is the main organizer and principal in the activities of the railway, the railway activities can be conducted properly depending on the management of the railway facilities. under the general provisions of law no. 23 of 2007 on the management of railway infrastructure mentioned in article 1 of railways is a railway line and railway operation facilities so that trains can be operated. the railway line itself is a path consisting of a series of plots of track that includes the benefits of space railway lines, railway lines owned space, and a railway line supervisors, including the top and bottom, which is intended for rail traffic. organizers of railway infrastructure itself is a party to organize railway infrastructure. organizers of the public railway infrastructure as defined in article 18 of law no. 23 year 2007 72 conducted by enterprises as an organizer, either individually or through cooperation. in the absence of entities that organize railway infrastructure, the central government or local governments could organize railway infrastructure. it can be concluded that the railway infrastructure is everything that is needed in railways activities and as a major factor implementation of railway activities which are permanent, such as railway and other railway operation facilities. that is, the permanent infrastructure can not be moved from one place to another. it can be concluded that the railway infrastructure is everything that is needed in railways activities and as a major factor implementation of railway activities which are permanent, such as railway and other railway operation facilities. that is, the permanent infrastructure can not be moved from one place to another. according to article 1 of law no. 23 of 2007 on railways explained that the train operating facilities are all necessary facilities so that trains can be operated. railway operation facilities include signaling equipment and telecommunications equipment. rail infrastructure is supporting the organization of the railway. commit to the user. based on the description above railway infrastructure can be defined as everything that shaped the facilities and tools used to support the implementation activities of the railways that are able to move that train and locomotive and permanent such as rail and other railway operation facilities. 2.6 transportation safety and security in sistranas minister of transportation has issued regulation of the minister of transportation no. km 49 year 2005 on the national transportation system (sistranas). sistranas was issued with the intention of setting guidelines and the development of transportation, in order to achieve effective implementation of national transport and efficient. the sistranas formulation also take advantage of opportunities and constraints attention internationally, regionally and nationally, both in terms of regulators, operators, service users, as well as from the community, with the goal of realization of the implementation of an effective and efficient transportation. sistranas is organized transport order system of unity consisting of road transport, railway transport, river and lake transport, pedestrian transport, sea transport, air transport, sistranas purpose is the realization of an effective and efficient transportation to support and simultaneously drive the dynamics of development, increasing trainn mobility of people, goods and services, helped create a national distribution pattern of stable and dynamic, as well as supporting the development of the region, and further strengthen the development of the society, nation and state in the context of the embodiment of the archipelago insight and improved international relations. sistranas target is the realization of the implementation of an effective and efficient transportation. effective in the sense of safe, high accessibility, integrated, insufficient capacity, orderly, smooth and quick, convenient, timely, convenient, affordable rates, orderly, safe, and low pollution. efficient in the sense of the public burden of low and high utility in one unified national transport network. congratulations, in the sense of avoiding the operation of transport of transportation accidents due to internal factors. the situation can be measured which are based on a comparison between the number of occurrences of accidents on the amount of movement of vehicles and the number of passengers or goods. safe, in the sense of avoiding the operation of transport of transportation due to external factors in the form of natural disasters, human disturbance, and other disorders. source: km communications no. 49 (2005: 9) in the section on sistranas problem identification precisely on page 61 indicated that the safety and security of transport is a problem no. 2 after the network infrastructure and services. this shows that the government is committed to give priority to safety and security for the people of indonesia in terms of transport. this is because the government is aware that: a) level of safety and security of transportation is still quite alarming both for passengers and goods. b) the role of transport in support of national security, prevention of smuggling, drug eradication and prevention of terrorism is still not optimal. the government also strive to increase the safety and security of transport in the following ways: a. transport safety improvement 1) improve transport safety a) realizing the high level of transport safety. b) acquaintances of potential safety issues and their causes are carried out by continually improving the reporting system concerning the accuracy of data and information relating to symptoms of irregularities. c) review (safety audit) for each new design of transportation to detect possible problems regarding safety, and conduct special studies for facilities and infrastructure that 73 already exists if there is happen problem that is considered serious about safety and accidents. d) ensuring a continuous basis so that the government, law enforcement agencies and the private sector to coordinate and allocate a greater source of funds for the areas of safety, including public awareness, law enforcer and training of public and private sector workers related to improving safety. e) provision of transport must meet the eligibility requirements, safety, security and traffic rules by observing laws and international conventions in force and has been ratified. f) striving for the maximum increase public awareness and vehicle crews, selecting and testing the crew serta enforce the law violators. g) reduce the risk of accidents for workers in the transport sector h) increase the coverage, quantity and quality of data / information meteorology and geophysics in particular for shipping and aviation activities. i) improving search and rescue capability shipping and aviation accidents. j) each service provider (operator) required transportation insurance cover to bear the risk of the safety of passengers and goods transported. k) increase empowerment weighbridge function as a means of controlling overload that can result in damage to the road and traffic safety. b. transportation security enhancement 1) improving transport security in support of national security and defense. a) plan of transport as far as possible the entire facility is suitable and can be used to support the implementation of state defense and security. b) to work together to identify and prepare for the transportation needs in the event of natural disasters and other accidents. 2) improving transport security in support of the eradication of drugs. a) increase the ability of prevention of entry of drugs through ports, airports and roads. b) to coordinate to prevent the movement of illicit drugs in the country. 3) improving transport security to prevent terrorism. a) applying the tools of new generation explosives detection sensitive to detect and thwart terrorism. b) to work together to analyze and improve security facilities against terrorist attacks, pirates and other criminals. c) applying international standards and conventions to enhance transport security. 2.7 preliminary study preliminary study on public policy related to railways revitalization has been carried out in 2014. the essence of the preliminary research that has been done is as follows: the construction of railways in indonesia has entered a new phase with the enactment of law no. 23 of 2007 on railways. enforcement has a huge impact on the railway operation, not only at the operational level but also at the institutional and policy aspects. given the complexity of the problems facing the national railway system, it is necessary to determine policy priorities. this material is trying to formulate a national railway policy priorities which should be taken in the application of law no. 23 of 2007. the determination of the policy priorities based on expert opinion and processed using ahp. the results show that the policies that get the biggest priority is improving safety and security of train travel, followed by the standardization of railway infrastructure. the experts chose the policy as a priority because of the impact of significant and lasting impact. this research is expected to contribute in two areas, namely ensuring that the policy paper on the railways and provide input for the railroad directorate general in the preparation of regulatory and policy railways. 3. research methods 3.1 flow chart research (fish bone diagram) in the year 2013, the research team conducted a study identifying the urban transportation system planning policies surabaya. this research resulted in that to surabaya, which already has a population of 3 million, the research team recommends urban transport ideal is to utilize modes of transport trams, previously never existed until 1976 for the corridor north south of surabaya and suggested the construction of monorail tracks for corridors east west surabaya. in 2014, the research team has been studying the prioritization of railway policy in east java province. this study resulted in that the government has not siding fully on road-based public transport ie railway tracks. so that the budget allocation for the development of railway infrastructure is still very limited. it 74 makes railway services for passengers and goods have not reached the ideal level. so that passengers still prefer to use transport cars and motorcycles to make visits to various cities in east java. it certainly would cost the country in terms of subsidies. for the years 2019 2021, the research team will conduct research with the title as follows: 1. 2019: public policy priorities about safety and security systems railways east java, the research sites: east java province, the measured results indicators: the formation of policy documents railway safety and security systems in east java. 2. 2020: proposed policy land transport safety and security in east java province, the location of research: east java province, the measured results indicators: the formation of policy documents land transport safety and security in east java province. 3. 2021: proposed management system development and the national transportation in east java, the research sites: east java province, the measured results indicators: establishment of document proposal management system development and the national transportation in the province of east java. 4. discussion 4.1 railways in indonesia railway means of transport such as vehicles powered by motion, either walking alone or coupled with other vehicles, which will or is moving on rails. train is a means of mass transportation that generally consists of a locomotive (vehicles with running own dynamics) and circuit wagon or carriage (coupled with other vehicles). the series of trains or carriages are relatively wide so as to accommodate the passengers and goods on a large scale. because of its nature as an effective mass transit, some countries try to utilize the maximum as the primary means of transportation overland transport both within the city, intercity, and between nations. indonesia railroad conditions the train is one of mass transportation, train their purpose is to facilitate the movement of people or goods in bulk. thus, the function of railways for public services. but there are still many problems or challenges still faced by railways. the balance in the public interest, means service not only pay attention to commercial interests, or serve only partially certain segments of society, but also for public services and all segments of society. there are 4 main railroad pillars namely: safety, punctuality, service and comfort. there are several of its products: 1. kereta api (train) passenger, which is divided into three classes (executive, business and economics). 2. train travel, to support tourism, pt. kereta api (persero) provides services charter a special train tours are also a variety of purposes such as meetings, weddings, birthdays, etc. on top of railways towards various destinations. 3. goods trains, trains specially tailored to the specifications of the product, which is pt. kereta api (persero) has a carriage that is used for coal, pulp, crude palm of oil, fuel, container, parcel bhp, over night, cement. 4. asset utilization, addition of passenger transport and freight, pt. kereta api (persero) also empowers non-production assets to be commercialized to external parties. some products rental of non-production assets. in java, there are three main service traffic, namely: jakartabandung, jakarta-semarang-surabaya (called across the north), and jakarta-yogyakarta-surabaya (called across the south). while in sumatra, there are three sub-networks train separated from each other namely: a sub-network of northern sumatra, a sub-network of west sumatra, and a sub-network of southern sumatra. indonesian railroad conditions is experiencing a cyclical decline. although some modern locomotive has been said, but the trains management system is still very bad. this is evident from the management of railways is not maximum. there are a lot of poorly maintained locomotives, train cars so dirty and unfit for use, to the poor condition of the rail. public services are also lacking professional, is evident from the inability of pt. kai (indonesian train persero) overcomes the explosion of passengers that occur every day. pt. kai has not been able to become a facilitator for people in public transport. supposedly pt. kai must find a solution of the overcomes that could cause injury or death, if the cargo train beyond normal limits to the number of passengers riding on the roof of railways. however railways in indonesia still have to be developed in the future, both for long-distance transportation as well as at the local level. however, the problem is quite disturbing railway today is the high rate of accidents. 75 quite the high loss of life and socio-economic losses due to the train accident has caused the service image and railways management declined. safety performance increasing the demand and the attention that must be improved. the cause of the high rail accident is an accumulation of many factors, including regulatory issues, management, infrastructure conditions and facilities. railroad facilities include locomotives, trains, cars, krl (electricity train), and krd (diesel train). rail road infrastructure that exists today in general are still single track. new double track is available in the jakarta-cikampek, jakartabogor, padalarang-bandung, and surabaya kota-wonokromo. existing rail line has a load of between 9 to 18 tons, which is capable of supporting train speeds between 60-110 km / h. length of the railway in java that still operated along 3. 216 km and in sumatra along 1,348 km. most of the track condition was less worthy of operation so it is prone to accidents. in order to reduce the number of railway accidents, train safety factor issue the highest priority, to establish improved safety there are four strategies as follows: 1. reducing the frequency of train accidents by maintaining the quality of infrastructure and facilities, as well as related quality of human resources. 2. control of passengers on the roof of the train through law enforcement and sterilization station. 3. application of no go item explicitly. 4. socialization safety culture. if the strategy to reduce the level of accidents is only normative as has been done previously which does not reflect a sense of crisis, the efforts to suppress the accident rate will not be effective. 4.2 railway services in indonesia service is something that really determines the comfort of the community which will influence the interest of the community to choose the public transportation equipment that will be used. if the service provided is bad, it will minimize the interest of the community to use the transportation. while if the service provided is good, it will increase the interest of society. particularly railroad field in indonesia, many services provided related to two aspects, namely services intra (within) and extra services (outside) trains. although different, but both of these things are interrelated in increased convenience for rail users. if just one of these aspects that look good, it can be ascertained degree of comfort and satisfaction train service users in indonesia will remain low. each period, the operator of rail services in indonesia continues to clean up and improve their services. one way that has been done by pt. kai is to provide ticket booking services using the online system. this method is used so that people no longer need to spend time waiting in line for hours just to get a ticket. in addition other forms of reform undertaken by pt. kai is to open a new class, namely ac (air conditioner) economy class. this class is indeed a very powerful breakthrough to increase the interest of the community to use the services of pt. kai. even so there are still many things that the society should be corrected. starting from ticketing system. although it uses the online service system, but the public is not satisfied. because it is still inadequate number of tickets given to the public. it can be seen from the facts on the ground. there are still many passengers stranded due to lack of public knowledge about this online system. if the services provided by pt. kai has been able to serve the community to provide satisfaction in accordance with what was expected, while that of services provided can be said to be satisfactory. 4.3 external services railway one of the facilities is provided relating to the railway is the railway station to place the up and down of passengers. according to law no. 23 railways train station as referred to in paragraph (1) letter b serves as the trains leaving or ceasing to serve: 1. up and down passengers 2. loading and unloading goods; and / or 3. requirements for train operations article 133 paragraph (1) of law no. 23/2007 mentions in organizing the transport of persons by rail, organizer of the railways facility shall prioritize the safety and security of persons, services in the public interest, to adhere to the scheduled departure of the train. in article 137 of the same law states the transport services by rail must meet minimum service standards ranging from service at the station of departure, en route, to arrive at the destination station. but the implementation is still a lot of complaints from consumers regarding spm krl (train minimum service standard). (yudi, 2012). 76 for the situation of railway companies who have recently suffered a setback, service and infrastructure also contributed to decline in quality. starting from ticket selling service, safety, comfort, order and the attitude of the station attendants. the decline in service at the station is influenced by several factors, among others, the lack of discipline of both officers and passengers, or catastrophic natural factors and individual behavior that is in the station. the security must be considered in the station includes crime that threatens the security of the property. it is given that in the crowd of passengers at the station there is the thief that threatens possessions passengers. in addition to the crime, and broad platform helped shape a contributing factor to the decline in the level of security at the station. 4.4 internal services railway mirroring both the poor quality of service can be seen from the facilities on the train. although trains have their own classes (economic, business, executives), all class must equally meet the standards of passenger comfort and satisfaction. especially rail has the distance away. comfort must be considered in comparison with rail travel is near. 4.5 solution problem railways in indonesia raised the issue of the problems mentioned above is derived from a trivial matter to an issue which requires further treatment. problems are resolved gradually to prioritize urgent. the solution may soon be done is, rejuvenation of aged railway with handling technicians in detail to the whole train, from the train body, engine, until the supporting facilities in the train. route system is an important factor in the improvement. with state of the rail that is still sturdy and long-lived, will reduce the threat of accidents. on the other of the above, the multiplication of the fleet train with the same route will facilitate the arrival and departure control systems without having wait too long. stations are less suitable for use can be a significant problem. on the other hand the natural problems which may come suddenly, despite being predicted to also be a difficult problem to deal with, just be anticipated. government budgeting more, preferably for improved infrastructure for railway trains can be one alternative to ease traffic congestion in major cities. with more attention to train, will bring surplus to the government, if a lot of people who prefer to use the train for mobility. worse yet if it enters the atmosphere widths more passengers choose to use the train should be further enhanced comfort. the problems to be those reluctant or less interest in using rail services are supporting facilities in the train. they think that if they get less amenities to create a comfortable during the trip. providers should be more facilities to maintain good and make it comfortable. cleanliness is one of the reasons of discomfort in the train. different classes, different treatment facilities are also clean, although his seharus permanent differences existing standards. conclusion the number of accidents in indonesia from 2007 to the year 2011 experienced ups and downs. in 2007 and 2011 respectively are 14, 8, 8, 10 and 1 accident. there were 10 accidents in 2010 with the number of 42 victims died and 47 were injured. while the average index of the highest train accident occurred in 2007 which amounted to 0,302. train accident type is divided into three namely plummeted / rolled (64%), collision between trains (29%) and other causes as much as 7%. while the cause of the accident can be divided into 5 that the means (34%), infrastructure (32%), human resources / hr (17%), operations (10%), and external (7%). the goal is to try to propose the development of policy related to the safety and security of railways in indonesia in terms of facilities, infrastructure, human resources, operations and external causes that the number of railway accidents in the premises is at its most minimal. while specific targets to be achieved in this research is to attempt to synergize the fields of science and civil engineering transportation law to provide policy-related view of the safety and security of railways in indonesia. the stages to be examined are analyzing elements of government policy related to the security and safety guarantee system in utilizing train services and its legal basis. recommending the legal aspects of the safety and security policy system for users of railroad transportation services in indonesia so that they will get a guarantee of higher public awareness for using train facilities. the method used in this research is to collect the facts railway accident causes both secondary and primary data. after the train accident facts gathered, it will be implemented sorting cause of the accident and provide solutions and anticipation of the above-mentioned causes of railway accidents. 77 from the results of this study will be expected that indonesia government had a very big effort to favor rail transport modes. the effort is good for the allocation of new technology investment funds for facilities and infrastructure and also for training and human resource development. so that future train accident causes of facilities, infrastructure and human resources can be minimized and the cause of the accident is likely to occur only on operational and external causes. suggestion judging from the number of accidents in the world a wide range of transportation in indonesia today require the transportation management control, especially on how the role of the control or supervision of the government and society as transport users. plus more if the terms of some of the information as well as real data in the field that exist today, for example: 1. the reality on the ground in the discovery of the use of train parts that have been used turned out to be more use of secondhand goods, in terms of the process of replacement of parts train components, only able to using obsolete spare parts and then repaired again and reused as spare parts replacement. example: data obtained from pt kai to mention that for parts railway wheels used on the train in economy class and business class on average use of spare parts railway wheels used, which is where the parts repaired of the wheels which only strong for 8 years restored for use for decades. then some of the railroad cars that exist today, even reaching up to the executive class, there are some train cars that used to be old railroad cars that are very outdated and then the remodel is formed in such a way as to form executive-class carriages and in the end to be reused with labels new train carriage. 2. the reality in the field needs to be an increase in resources and an increase in overall transport capacity in the sense that increasing resources here is able to increase transportation needs in terms of the number of existing fleets, until the fulfillment of spare parts capacity is repaired. best to be used as a means of transportation and this will impact on reducing the level of risk of accidents that exist in rail transportation equipment and other means of transportation. increased resources can also be interpreted as an increase in human resources, for example as follows: the government as a determinant of transport policy to be able to know overall how the level of human resources who work on the processing of transport services are able to work well, not only in accordance with service procedures transportation but also able to understand how to control the prevention of accidents there to reduce the error rate will be undertaken by humans. by doing educational and training to improve the work ethic of the perpetrators manager of transportation services. examples of the need to increase human resources in the sector of transportation management in indonesia: ntsc (national transportation safety committee). recently made some very fatal mistakes, for example giving permission to a place that is dangerous for journalists just to find the most recent news, so from here we can conclude that ntsc needs to improve the quality of work by not ignoring the safety of the people who work for improve transportation quality and transportation users. 3. the reality in the field is that there are still many illegal payments (illegal levies) on railroad transportation facilities, for example at the rangkas belitung train station, the service operator pt. kai provides a ticket fee for the rangkas department to belitung in the amount of rp. 1500-rp. 2000, but the reality in the field is that there are wild ridges in addition to the cost of the ticket, so the cost of one passenger is rp. 2000-rp. 4000. this shows that the management of the station is still far from the perfection of existing regulations. the main thing that must be done to improve the quality of processing railroad transportation and being able to reduce the level of accidents is by conducting "supervision". in this case the role of supervision can be carried out both by the government and the community as users of the transportation service. however, according to the legislation in force in this country, the main proposition in the process of supervision and the main person in charge is the government, so the government is the policy maker in the supervision and management of transportation. in addition to accelerating existing transportation improvements, overall there needs to be a change in the basic management of transportation management in indonesia, or the need for "regulatory reform" in the sense that there is a need for very poor management improvements at this time. the main points that can be done in the near future are: the need for evaluation is how the role of the government, especially in determining the direction of policies to improve the quality of resources and the quality of facilities and infrastructure supporting transportation in indonesia. 78 references 1. dunn, william n. (1981), public policy analysis: an introduction, london: prentice hall international, inc. 2. dunn, william n. (1999), public policy analysis, yogyatrainrta: hanindita 3. hardian, mo, gani, az and sutarman (2008), determining national railways policy priorities, jatrainrta: department of industrial engineering university gunadarma 4. islamy m. irfan (2001), monograph series public policy: policy analysis, ppsub 5. islamy, m. irfan (2002), principles principles of state policy formulation, second edition, first printing, jatrainrta: bina script 6. ministry for research and technology (2006), indonesia from 2005 to 2025, a white paper on research, development and application of science and technology on technology and transport management, jatrainrta: ministry of research and technology 7. nasution, hmn (1996), transportation management, jatrainrta: ghalia indonesia 8. sulistio, eb and dian traingungan (2012), policy formulation study of urban planning sistemtransportasi in bandarlampung, bandarlampung: department of public administration, faculty of social and political imu 9. wahab, abdul solichin (1997), policy analysis, jatrainrta: earth literacy 10. winarno, bob (2002), theory and public policy process, yogyatrainrta: media pressindo 11. yustitrainsari, malinda (2011), management of railway infrastructures pt. kereta api indonesia (persero) regional operations (daop) vii madiun, suratrainrta: department of administrative sciences faculty of social and political sciences, university of march 89 some criminogenic factors affecting the appearance of corruption in kosovo msc. agnesa beka european college “juridica”, department of law, agnesa.beka@yahoo.com article history: accepted 10 july 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: corruption, economic crises, transition, unemployment, poverty, war, migration. a b s t r a c t corruption as a phenomenon, not only destroys the economic base of a country, but it violates the basis of its legal system, legislation, judiciary, public-private institutions, cultural and health institutions, social policies of society and others. in order to know and study the phenomenon of corruption, we must definitely stop at some criminogenic factors which have a significant impact on the appearance of the occurrence of corruption. thus, corruption as a criminal occurrence is present throughout the history of the state and human society and as such has always been considered as an immoral and harmful social occurrence. corruption is especially expressed in times of crisis of certain societies, but also along with the strengthening of the state, the development of business activities, the interference of the state in the economy and the bureaucratization of society it has found its housing of presence as a criminal occurrence. today, the occurrence of corruption has become one of the obvious problems in most countries almost all over the globe. factors that have influenced the appearance of this occurrence are numerous, such as: the transition of society, economic crises, unemployment, poverty, mass media, the war and the circumstances of the war, the unresolved housing problems, etc. for this, in recent times, corruption has been characterized as one of the most negative social occurrence. cooperation between relevant state institutions and citizens for this type of criminal activity is extremely important for detecting corruption as a criminal offense. 1. general overview of criminogenic factors in the science of criminology, we often encounter the use of the notion "criminogenic factor" in the sense of determining the causes that affect the occurrence of crime and that have an etiological significance. today, all criminologists dealing with the study of the etiology of criminality agree that the appearance of specific forms of criminality is a consequence of the influence of certain criminogenic factors. factors of objective and subjective nature, which are mutually related to each other, have a great influence on the appearance of corruption. thus, the studies of such factors have an important role in determining the manifestation and appearance of this occurrence. in this topic, among others, are analyzed some of the criminogenic factors that affect the appearance of corruption in kosovo. 2. the impact of some criminogenic factors on corruption in kosovo criminogenic factors are all those causes, conditions and circumstances that influence the occurrence of crime and various criminal behaviors in a society, i.e., criminogenic factors represent the occurrences and causes that have an impact on crime (halili, 1995).the appearance of corruption is influenced by many criminogenic factors of a subjective and objective nature, but we will analyze only a few key factors that influence the appearance of corruption in kosovo, such as: a) difficult housing conditions; b) war and the circumstances of war; c) economic crises; d) migration of people; e) the transition of society; f) public communication means, etc. http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 mailto:agnesa.beka@yahoo.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3077-5574 90 2.1. difficult housing conditions difficult housing conditions as criminogenic factors occupy an important place in the empirical research of criminal etiology. the problem of housing and especially the lack of adequate housing choices are related to the process of population migration, its concentration in centers and cities, mass movements from rural areas to urban and industrial areas. due to large population movements and spontaneous arrival in urban and industrial centers, a situation of lack of residential space is created (halili, 2016). from the criminological research of this factor it is noticed that in inadequate flats and rooms are placed some families with many members, so the stay and living in them is very difficult. this situation affects juveniles and young people, often due to difficult housing conditions, to leave the family, to seek other solutions by dealing with various criminal behaviors and actions, including various corruptive actions, especially those in various public procurement processes, where these are part of such a public-state process. 2.2. war and the circumstances of war one of the objective factors influencing the emergence of corruption is the war and the circumstances of the war. thus, the impact of war circumstances on various criminal manifestations can be viewed in three phases of combat activities. there is talk of the influence of circumstances in the phase of war preparation, in the phase of war development and in the post-war phase (halili,1995). in the researched period of corruption 2012-2017, kosovo experienced the two phases mentioned above (before the war and after the war). in the first phase, that of preparing for war, the whole of kosovo was occupied by the military, police forces and the corrupt serbian administration, which had forcibly established its power in all segments of life in kosovo. based on the searches made in the records of the courts of kosovo, we have not managed to find any case of conviction of a senior official for corruption. this means that the "dark and gray number" of corruption has been extremely high during this period.the war in kosovo has presented one of the most serious catastrophes for the attacked albanian population. in kosovo, during the war period (1998-1999) over 100,000 residential and commercial buildings were destroyed and burned by the serbian occupying forces, over 13,000 people were killed, old people, women, innocent children, etc. this period is characterized by uninterrupted war and the circumstances of the war, therefore despite the fact that even in these circumstances there were various criminal acts, including corruption, the current kosovo institutions do not possess any evidence of such corrupt affairs of this time period, as the public records of courts and prosecutors' offices were taken away by the serbian government during its departure from kosovo (1999) after the entry of western allied forces into kosovo.from all this, we can conclude that war and the circumstances of war are criminogenic factors, with great influence on the appearance of corruption. 2.3. economic crises economic crises are one of the main factors affecting the occurrence of crime in general. kosovo has also had its ups and downs in the economic field. the most difficult economic period in kosovo was dominated by the period of suppression of kosovo's autonomy march 28, 1989 onwards, until 1999. this was the period of economic survival of the albanian people in kosovo, because it was suppressed its autonomy with the constitutional changes of 23.03.1989, made by the violent serbian government, in order to subjugate the albanian people especially in the economic and political aspect. this difficult economic situation pushed a large number of citizens, despite the desire, to enter into corrupt relations, the absolute majority due to the imposition of such a corrupt relationship by the existing serbian government itself. to prove the influence of serbian state institutions in the criminalization of economic life in kosovo, we have not managed to find in the district courts of kosovo any weighty evidence of criminological science. this is not a fact that there have been no such cases, but it is a proof which shows that the serbian government has intentionally avoided the judicial evidence of such cases, given that one of the vital interests of the violent serbian government in kosovo was the application of the principle: “destroy (criminalize) every pore of life, but leave no trace (beka, 2007)!” the difficult economic situation in kosovo continued in the postwar period (after 1999), when kosovo was in the phase of emergency assistance, and later of reconstruction and development. this stage is also characterized by a high degree of economic crisis, where most factories were out of order, as a result of their destruction and looting by the violent serbian government installed in kosovo during the period 1989-1999 (beka, 2007). this phase is characterized by the resumption of numerous corruption scandals in kosovo, especially during the period of assistance and investment from foreign entities that helps the recovery of kosovo and its development. this period is also characterized by many corrupt affairs that have occurred in 91 kosovo, where the perpetrators are also persons in high official state positions, such as: corrupt passport affair, hotel grandi affair, numerous corrupt affairs in kek (kosovo electricity corporation), ptk (post telecom of kosovo), corrupt affairs during the sale of socially owned real estate by kta kpa (kosovo trust agency privatization agency of kosovo), etc. 2.4. migration of people the occurrence of migration is a factor which has a great impact on the life psychology of migrated persons. this occurrence is greatly helped by their difficult integration into society and the new environment. kosovo is characterized by a high degree of density and population growth. in 1989 it had 1,941,937 inhabitants, with a territorial area of 10,906 km2(ksa, 1988).therefore, socioeconomic conditions in kosovo have caused a reduction in the fund of arable land as a result of the construction of numerous buildings, housing, business facilities, etc. this situation has created many problems of social and economic nature, especially there is evident the large workforce, not engaged in economic and social life. therefore, in kosovo all statistics show that there is no official evidence regarding the rate of migration of people in the village-city relationship for the period 2012 2017. but, giving up life in the countryside and migrating to the city (in the new environment), being positioned in different positions in public institutions state and private companies, has created enough space for some people from this category to enter into corrupt affairs, especially in the field of public procurement, but also in other public services. 2.5. the transition of society kosovo in 1999 was liberated from the serbian occupier. despite this, the post-war period represents a difficult stage in the political, social, economic field for kosovo and its people. this was the period when it was thought that kosovo would advance rapidly in all stages of its development. in 2008 kosovo declared its independence. this strengthened the belief that kosovo is on the right track to overcome the transition period. 20 years after the end of the war, kosovo is still in various phases of transition, which will last, as a result of the general crisis that exists: economic, social, political, social, moral crisis, etc. that has attacked kosovar society. this period is characterized by marked changes in the political system, with major transformations of socially owned property into private ownership (during the privatization process, transformation of socially owned enterprises into public-private enterprises, etc.), but attacked by the occurrence of corruption during such transformations performed. the consequences of such actions in kosovo are still evident today. this and many other abuses have slowed down the transition phase of kosovar society in all pores of life. from this we can conclude that: kosovo is going through a difficult transition towards a free market economy. this economic situation is affecting the committing of criminal acts and the breach of security in general (latifi, 2002). 2.6. public communication means citizens often fall victim to the occurrence of corruption through deception and misrepresentation against them through the media: television, radio, various portals, etc. this is a recent feature in the media in kosovo, for example: on various televisions and internet portals, various physical and legal entities are advertised that have benefited millions of euros from the processes of "tender mania" (public procurement), which entities at once raise the standard of living, up to enormous levels (luxury cars, expensive wardrobes, build large commercial and collective residential facilities, spend uncontrollably financial means in various manifestations, etc.). such (public) actions push citizens to increase the desire for large and rapid acquisition of financial capital, which can be done in principle through misuse and various corruptive processes in such a society, with criminalized elements. that is why the mass media and crime are at the center of discussions of criminologists and sociologists, who acknowledge the existence of a direct connection of some mass media with different interest and crime groups. when we talk about media, we mean not only electronic media the internet, but also tv, radio, print media, etc (hysi, 1984). in this regard, we would emphasize the necessity of creating and comprehensive support of anti-criminal behaviors and first of all educating the public in order to stay away from crime and to report it. therefore, in order to realize this education, a special role is played by the mass media electronic and print media (hysi, 1984). 3. conclusions the occurrence of corruption in kosovo remains one of its main challenges. corruption as an occurrence which is suffocating the kosovar society day by day, poses a permanent threat to the economy and the democratic society in general. corruption is one of the specific forms of organized crime that endangers the economic, political, legal, cultural and other important values of society. in addition to the development of international economic 92 relations, corruption takes on new forms of presentation, perfecting and utilizing the various tools and methods used by perpetrators. corruption, presented in contemporary forms, has not bypassed the economically fragile kosovo and in the process of new state formation, has slowed down and weakened its development. the consequences of corruption are dangerous, both economic, political and social. corruption, in whatever form and in whatever plane it appears, thus severely violates the fundamental values of society and democracy. the occurrence of corruption causes great social, political, economic and security consequences. corruption severely damages the credibility of a state both domestically and in the international arena. a challenge in itself is to identify the causes of corruption in order to prevent and combat it as effectively as possible. judicial, prosecutorial and free media institutions, especially investigative journalism, play an important role in combating this occurrence. all these factors affect the prevention and effective fight against the phenomenon of corruption in kosovo society. kosovar society, state institutions, civil society face a challenge called corruption. this challenge can be overcome to some extent only if the relevant state institutions, assisted by civil society and citizens, manage to seriously investigate the factors that have influenced the appearance of corruption in kosovo and eliminate these causes to the extent that affect the reduction of this criminal occurrence in kosovo society. references 1. beka a., (2007), “abuses in the field of real estate in kosovo criminological aspect”, prishtina: aab university. 2. gjinovci a., (2016), “economic crime and ethics in contemporary organizations”, prishtina. 3. halili r., (1995), “criminology with penology”, prishtina: law faculty, university of prishtina. 4. halili r., (2016), “criminology”, prishtina: university of prishtina. 5. horvatić ž., (1981), “elementarna kriminologija”, rijeka: liburnija. 6. hysi v., (2010), “criminology”, tirana: university of tirana. 7. latifi v., (2002), “problems of organized crime in kosovo, cooperation at national, regional and international level in the fight against organized crime”magazine "law", no. 4. p. 30. 8. salihu i., (2012), “economic crime national security challenges in albania, kosovo and macedonia, in the face of economic crime”, skopje: print isb. 9. statistical yearbook of the former sac of kosovo, (1988), prishtina: statistical agency of kosova. 8 psychometric properties of the georgian version of the grit scale natalia sordia, phd.c. ¹* prof. asoc. dr. khatuna martskvishvili ² ¹ivane javakhishvili tbilisi state university, tbilisi, georgia; department of psychology, faculty of psychology and educational science, natia.sordia900@pes.tsu.edu.ge, *corresponding author ²ivane javakhishvili tbilisi state university, tbilisi, georgia; department of psychology, faculty of psychology and educational sciences article history: accepted 21 november 2019 available online 31 april 2020 keywords: grit, personality traits, creative activities, creative achievements, psychological well-being. a b s t r a c t the concept of grit refers to an individual’s tendency to keep perseverance and passion for long-term goals despite setbacks or obstacles. the present research examines the psychometric properties of the georgian version of the grit. 431 individuals participated in the study. results from the confirmatory factor analyses (cfa) supported a two-dimensional higher-order structure of grit. the relationship with big five personality traits, creative activities, creative achievements, and psychological well-being demonstrated the construct validity of the georgian version of the grit scale (g-grit). the georgian version of the grit scale seems well suited for future research purposes. 1. literature review why do some individuals accomplish more than others with equal intelligence? to answer this question duckworth and colleagues (2007) introduced the concept of grit as a higher-order personality trait expressed in perseverance and passion for long-term goals (duckworth, peterson, matthews, & kelly, 2007). one of the factors of grit consistency of interests reflects an individual’s tendency to maintain focus on the accomplishment of the personally meaningful goals for a long period of time. people with high scores on another factor of grit perseverance of effort pursue those goals with sustained effort despite setbacks or obstacles (duckwort et al., 2007; duckworth & gross, 2014). those with high scores on grit make fewer career changes, than less gritty individuals; the overall score of grit might increase over the life span as older individuals tend to be higher in grit, then younger ones (duckworth, peterson, matthews, & kelly, 2007). grit is considered to be more than just one of the big five personality traits (namely, conscientiousness), as it entails the capacity to sustain both, effort and interest in long-term projects (duckworth, peterson, matthews, & kelly, 2007). however, besides the similarity between the definitions of grit, on the one hand, and conscientiousness, on the other hand, recent metaanalysis (credé, tynan, & harms, 2017) demonstrate that the relations of grit and its factors to conscientiousness is very strong and positive. emotional stability and self-control (often addressed as one of the facets of conscientiousness) are strong positive correlates of grit as well (credé et al., 2017). agreeableness and extraversion are positively related to both of the factors as well as the overall score of grit, while perseverance of effort solely correlates with openness to experience (butz, hanson, schultz, & warzynski, 2018; duckworth et al., 2009). beyond the talent that is necessary for being successful in a particular domain, the gritty individuals are most likely to engage in the amount of deliberate practice that is required for having a good performance (duckworth, kirby, tsukayama, berstein, & ericsson, 2011). grit is considered to be a significant predictor of a performance on well-defined tasks, but not on ill-defined ones, where creativity and the readiness to give up unsuccessful strategies is required (credé, tynan, & harms, 2016). general score of grit is positively related with performance and success in domains of sport (larkin, o’connor, & williams, 2015), military services, sales, academic and everyday life (eskreis-winkler, duckworth, shulman, & beal, 2014; credé et mailto:natia.sordia900@pes.tsu.edu.ge https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3299-9683 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2611-3655 9 al., 2017; duckworth et al., 2007). however, the latest studies aimed to examine whether grit is a domain specific or domain general personality trait, have demonstrated mixed results supporting both domain specificity and domain generality of grit (cormier, dunn, & dunn, 2019; clark & malecki, 2019; schmidt, fleckenstein, retelsdorf, eskreis-winkler, & mӧller, 2017). general grit as well as academic grit scores are positively related to life satisfaction (credé et al., 2017; clark & malecki, 2019; vainio, & daukantaitė, 2015). life satisfaction demonstrates a higher correlation with the perseverance of effort, than with the consistency of interests’ scores (credé et al., 2017). the relationship between grit and different aspects of well-being is partially mediated by a sense of coherence, on the one hand, and authenticity, on the other hand (vainio, & daukantaitė, 2015). people experiencing psychological well-being (pwb) focus on a personal growth, they seek for a purpose in life, which might require motivation to pursue long-term goals – characteristic of the gritty individuals (ryff & singer, 2008; vainio, & daukantaitė, 2015) who seek happiness through engagement and meaning, but not through pleasure (von culin, tsukayama, & duckworth, 2014). although the debate about the predictive validity of grit in explaining various outcomes over and above intelligence or some personality traits is ongoing, there are several instruments developed to measure grit; a 12-item original grit scale (grit-o; duckworth et al., 2007) and an eight-item short grit scale (grits; duckworth & quinn, 2009) provide domain general scores, while development of the domain specific measures of grit are in the spotlight (i.e. cormier et al., 2019). these instruments are translated and validated in different countries in europe and asia (i.e. li, zhao, kong, du, yang, & wang, 2016; schmidt, fleckenstein, retelsdorf, eskreis-winkler, & moller, 2017) and support the higher-order factor structure of the grit scale. 2. present research the aim of the research is to examine the psychometric properties of the georgian translation of the 12-item original grit scale (grit-o; duckworth et al., 2007). the 12 item grit scale provides two different factors assessing the consistency of interests (“my interests change from year to year”), on the one hand, and perseverance of effort (“setbacks don’t discourage me”), on the other hand. the items are rated on a 5-point likert-like scale from 1 not at all like me to 5 very much like me. the psychometric properties of the georgian version of the grit scale, specifically, the factor structure, reliability and the relations with other constructs such as big five personality traits, creative achievements, and psychological well-being are examined in the study. 2.1 method 2.1.1 participants the data collection was based on the three independent samples. as the presented results, depending on the relationships with variables under examination, involve either one or two samples, we report only the total sample size, mean age, and reliability coefficients (cronbach’s alphas) for each of the instruments. altogether, 431 volunteers (241 females) participated in the study (aged from 17 to 66). no compensation has been offered. participants gave their informed consent and had the possibility to drop out at any time. 2.1.2 instruments the grit scale. prior to the present study, two experts prepared independent translations of the grit scale. after discussion, the two translated versions were combined to create the first georgian version of the grit scale (g-grit). next, the questionnaire was back-translated to check whether the content of items matched the original content. next, an initial administration of the test was conducted (n = 30) to assess item coherence, as a result of which, several items have been modified. personality traits. ten-item personality inventory (tipi; gosling, rentfrow, & swann, 2003) was used to assess big five personality traits of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness. participants rated 10 items on a 7-point likerttype scale from 1 (disagree strongly) to 7 (agree strongly) based on their degree of agreement with each item. the instrument was translated and validated in the framework of the unpublished research report (sordia & martskvishvili, 2019). psychological well-being. psychological well-being was measured by the psychological well-being scale (pwb; diener, wirtz, biaswas-diner, tov, kim-prieto, choi, & oishi, 2009) which consists of eight items describing important aspects of human functioning (i.e. “i lead a purposeful and meaningful life”). each item is rated on a 7-point likert type scale from 1 strongly disagree to 7 strongly agree. the inventory provides one general score of psychological well-being. the instrument was translated and validated in the framework of the unpublished research report (martskvishvili, 2015). creative activities and achievements. creative activities and achievements were assessed by the georgian version (martskvishvili & sordia, 2019) of the inventory of creative activities and achievements (icaa; diedrich, jauk, silvia, gredlein & neubauer, 2017), which provides creative activities and achievement scores for eight different domains (literature, 10 music, arts and crafts, creative cooking, sport, visual art, performing art and science and engineering). the creative activity scale consists of six items per domain and asks how frequently a certain activity has been performed in the past 10 years (i.e. “wrote a piece of music” or “wrote a blog entry”). answers are given on 5-point likert-type scale (0 = never; 1 = 1–2 times; 2 = 3–5 times; 3 = 6–10 times; 4 = more than 10 times). the creative achievement scale assesses past 10 years’ achievements for eight domains on the 11 levels of attainment ranging from i have never been engaged in this domain to i have already sold some work in this domain. the icaa provides the domain-specific scores as well as the domain-general scores for creative achievements. table 1. means, standard deviations, and reliability coefficients of the measures n item n chronbach’s α m sd tipi openness 98 2 .43 10.37 2.76 conscientiousness 98 2 .57 10.69 2.88 extraversion 98 2 .64 8.38 3.57 agreeableness 98 2 .28 11.11 2.38 neuroticism 98 2 .65 8.37 3.45 creative achievements 254 88 .84 5.81 5.22 creative activities 254 48 .95 1.54 0.69 psychological well-being 248 8 .82 43.30 7.14 note. tipi = ten-item personality inventory 3. results 3.1 factor structure the cfa for the two-dimensional higher-order model did not fit the data sufficiently: χ2 (53) = 209.65, cfi = .90, rmsea = .08. due to high modification indices, we allowed the correlation between item residuals of three items (item 1, 6, and item 8). as the items were similar, these modifications seemed to be theoretically sound. the modified two-dimensional second-order model of grit appeared to fit the data well [χ2(25, n = 431) = 133,525, p < .001]. the comparative fit index (cfi) = .95, the tucker-lewis fit index (tli) = .93, and the rmsea = .06. the two sub-scales consistency of interest (ci), and perseverance of effort (pe) were first order latent factors loaded on the first order factor. the factor structure and factor interrelations are presented in figure 1 and table 2, respectively. figure 1. standardized factor loadings for the model 3.2 descriptive statistics and internal consistencies minimum, maximum, skewness, and kurtosis of the two factors, and the global grit score are reported in table 2. also, mean and standard deviations are provided for men and women, indicating that there are no significant gender differences in terms of grit. the global construct of grit as well as consistency of interest, and perseverance of effort display acceptable reliabilities. 11 table 2. descriptive statistics, internal consistencies and inter correlations of the grit scale(n = 431) m sd chronbach’s α item n skewness kurtosis woman man m sd m sd t ci pe ci 3.10 .90 .79 6 -.09 -.78 3.08 .89 3.11 .91 .36 pe 3.68 .80 .80 6 -.47 -.04 3.70 .80 3.65 .80 -.68 .25** grit 3.39 .67 .80 12 -.09 -.41 3.39 .65 3.38 .70 -.16 .82** .76** note. **p< .01; * p< .05; ci = consistency of interests; pe = perseverance of effort. 3.3 construct validity correlations with other constructs are provided in table 3. global score of grit as well as its both factors are positively correlated with big five traits of conscientiousness. the relationship between psychological well-being and grit is positive and significant. creative achievements are positively related with the overall score of grit as well as its factor of persistence of effort. table 3. correlation matrix ci pe grit pwb .18** .56** .43** creative achievements .04 .18** .13* creative activities .06 .17* .14* tipi neuroticism -.35** -.17 -.33** conscientiousness .23* .37** .36** openness .04 .24* .17 agreeableness .05 .04 .06 extraversion .07 .29** .21* note. *p<.05 **p<.01; pwb = psychological well-being; ci = consistency of interests; pe = perseverance of effort 4. discussion the present study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the georgian translation of the grit scale (duckworth et al., 2007). confirmatory factor analyses supported the two-factor structure of grit; consistency of interest and perseverance of effort both were the first-order factors. the result is consistent with the theoretical framework of the concept, where grit is considered as a higher-order construct with two lower order facets (duckworth et al., 2007; duchworth et al., 2009). inter-factor correlation of the scale is similar to the results of the previous studies (i.e. clark & malecki, 2019) indicating that factors of the grit scale; consistency of interests, on the one hand, and perseverance of effort, on the other hand, are interrelated but distinct constructs having different correlates (credé et al., 2017). unlike the meta-analysis (credé et al., 2017) indicating the very strong correlation between conscientiousness and grit, in the present study, the relationship between conscientiousness and consistency of interests as well as the perseverance of effort scales are positive but moderate. as the big five personality traits are measured by the ten-item personality inventory and conscientiousness is assessed by the only two items, it could be speculated that all the facets of the conscientiousness are not captured by the inventory used in the present study. those facets, namely, self-control can strengthen the correlation between grit and conscientiousness. both factors of grit are positively related to psychological wellbeing. the relationship between psychological well-being and perseverance of effort is much stronger than the relationship between psychological well-being and consistency of interests as demonstrated in the previous studies (i.e. credé et al., 2017; vainio, & daukantaitė, 2015). the relationship between grit and educational achievements is thoroughly examined topic, where grit is considered as a significant predictor of performance and success (credé et al., 2017; duckworth, kirby, tsukayama, berstein, & ericsson, 2011). in our study grit was examined as a correlate of creative performance measured by creative activities and achievements. according to the results only the perseverance of effort was related to creative activities as well as creative achievements. creative activities and achievements are distinct from creative ability and consist of everyday creative activities and real-life creative accomplishments acknowledged by others (eysenck, 1995; wallach & wing, 1969; diedrich et al., 2017). creative achievements are predicted by intelligence, creative activities, 12 emotionality, novelty, and openness to experience (batey, furnham, & safiullina, 2010; jauk, benedek, & neubauer, 2013; runco, millar, acar, & cramond, 2010; sordia, martskvishvili, & neubauer, in press; torrance, 1969; torrance, 2003; wallach & wing, 1969). for attaining creative achievements a willingness to overcome obstacles (sternberg & lubart, 1991), an intention of being creative (nickerson, 1985), and to understand and influence other people’s emotions are necessary (sordia et al., in press). thus, the way to creative achievements might be full of obstacles and gaining creative accomplishments can be related to the individual’s tendency to follow personally meaningful goals and overcome any kind of obstacles or setbacks in the way to the goals. 5. limitation and conclusion the main limitation of the present study is related to the measurement method of personality traits. we 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(1969) the talented student: a validation of the creativityintelligence distinction. new york: holt, rinehart and winston. 22 psychological factors influencing adjustment to retirement prof. ass. dr. agron hoxha heimerer college, agron.hoxha@kolegji-heimerer.eu article history: accepted 01 october 2019 available online 31december 2019 keywords: aging life satisfaction psychological well-being perception personality and respect. a b s t r a c t the quality of aging or life after retirement is determined by levels of psychological well-being and life satisfaction. the levels of psychological well-being and quality of life satisfaction can be influenced by multiple factors including personality, perception of individuals about aging and the quality of respect they get from others. this study was conducted with 170 elderly individuals ranging from 65 to 85 years of age. the results showed significant relationships between dependent variables such as psychological well-being and life satisfaction, and the independent factors including personality, perception of aging and respect from others. introduction today’s generations of the world population are becoming older than former generations and projections show that by 2050 older adults (aged 60 or over) will represent about 20% of the population (harper, 2014). this demographic phenomenon will pose demanding socio-economic and health challenges to the societies. in order to deal with it, it is of crucial importance to study and understand the needs of older adults and to evaluate what affects their quality of life. aging is a universal phenomenon but not necessarily in a uniform pattern. adjustment to retirement represents a developmental phenomenon that must be reconstructed within the context of life-long development. generally, older people in are often characterized as being less satisfied and low in psychological well-being. however, no study has been conducted to find out what are the factors that influence their levels of psychological well-being and life satisfaction. some elderly people think that retirement transition is easy and requires a little planning. however, for some other elderly people retirement is a major life change that, despite the freedom and excitement it offers, also requires personal adjustment to a new life stage (osborne, 2012; barrow, 1996). therefore, the main purpose of this study is to investigate the factors and reasons why people have different views about later life or adjustment to retirement. the proposed factors that could lead elderly people to have different adjustments to retirement were personality, health, social resources, religiosity and socioeconomic status. people who reported to have higher psychological well-being and good life satisfaction were considered to have good adjustment to retirement (van solinge, 2006). adjustment to retirement refers to the process of getting used to retirement as a new stage of life (van solinge, 2006). in the present study, adjustment to retirement refers to life after retirement, which is termed as later life or older age. it is often said that people get sick and die shortly after retirement but, studies do not support this thought (barrow, 1996). retirement alone does not lead to low psychological well-being and low life satisfaction; there are other factors that influence elderly people’s adjustment to retirement. some people adjust well to retirement whereas others have problems adjusting to retirement. one man reported this: ‘i turn 80 next february. it’s always a milepost, i suppose, but no big deal. i retired about 75 percent at age 65 and then fully retired at age 70. it was easy, very easy, for me to retire. i like the freedom to do what i want, go where i want. i never understood these people who are restless and unhappy in retirement. it seems to me that they have not got much imagination’. (barrow, 1996: 162). 23 people like this man have no problems with adjustment to retirement. however, others do have problems with adjustment to retirement. as mentioned above, there are other factors that influence elderly people having problems with adjustment to retirement. in the below section, the researcher will elaborate on the psychological factors that have significant influence on adjustment to retirement including life satisfaction and psychological well-being.. 1. psychological factors influencing adjustment to retirement this part intends to present studies related to psychological wellbeing and life satisfaction. theories of aging and retirement will also be discussed to show how aging and retirement are associated with psychological well-being and life satisfaction. finally, the conceptual framework of the present study will be presented. 1.1. psychological well-being psychological well-being is a complex term that confuses people about the meaning of the term psychological well-being. because, generally speaking well-being means feeling physically and mentally healthy and having a good life (kibret and tareke, 2017). well-being of elderly people depends on how positive or negative people’s experience is perceived, including feelings of happiness, sadness, anxiety, or excitement (tinkler & hicks, 2011). many studies have focused on psychological well-being in correlation to older age. psychological well-being is a variable that has different meaning for different social scientists. however, one definition that would be acceptable for most scientists would be what researchers often term subjective wellbeing. subjective refers to personal evaluation based on how the person feels about him/herself. therefore, combining the definition of subjective and well-being would refer to a person who feels physically and mentally healthy about him/herself and not what others would diagnose them. in addition, we can say that subjective well-being and psychological well-being mean the same for most of the time (barrow, 1996). although psychological well-being is important for all age group, it is particularly more relevant to older people for several reasons. it was estimated that in 20 years’ time, nearly a quarter of the population in the uk will be aged 65 and over (medical research council, 2010). as life expectancy increases, the issue of maintaining psychological well-being and morale at older ages is becoming more important. since maintaining is becoming more critical and more important every, it is more effective to divert people’s attention to take preventive measures rather than maintaining psychological well-being at older age. it is more important to find out what influences quality of psychological or subjective well-being. what influences psychological well-being is another issue; for the last 60 years scientists have attempted to find out what decreases psychological well-being in later life. one of the findings by cagney and lauderdale (2002) suggested that elderly people with higher levels of education, income and wealth reported higher psychological well-being as compared to elderly individuals with lower levels of education, income and wealth. in addition, psychological well-being was found to be associated with spiritual beliefs and health. it was reported that people who were weak in health (mental and physical health) showed lower levels of psychological well-being. furthermore, elderly people who were involved in religious activities reported having higher levels of psychological well-being compared to people who were not involved in religious activities (edison, boardman, william and jackson, 2001; kirby, coleman and daley, 2004). there are certain factors like religiosity, social activities and exercises which elderly people could improve in later life, but, there are some other factors that should be considered before feeling old enough. for example, education, knowledge to share, health and many other factors that everyone should consider in advance. there are studies that found psychological well-being lower at older age as compared to younger generation, but these studies were contradicted by other studies (zaninotto, falaschetti, and sacker (2009). it is not the age itself that leads people to lower quality of psychological well-being; there are other factors that influence the quality of well-being. therefore, it was found that once controlling factors like health, socioeconomic status, and psychological factors, there are no overall cohort differences in quality of life between older adults and younger adults. it is not appropriate to say that as people get older; their quality of life gets lower. factors that had a negative impact on quality of life over time were depression, functional limitations, poor wealth, not being in paid employment, not perceiving positive support from one’s spouse, children and friends, and having a small social network of close friends and family. these factors can have impact on younger generations as well, only those younger generations have more time to make up and improve the quality of those factors. therefore, the researcher is suggesting that in order to people to have better quality of aging, they must be aware of the factors that have stronger impact on the quality of psychological well-being than the aging itself. 1.2. life satisfaction life satisfaction is one of the strongest criteria for describing the ageing process. higher levels of life satisfaction in later life predicts higher quality of aging process. in addition, previous researchers have made no difference between life satisfaction and 24 quality of life (george and bearon,1980). happy elders reported to have higher levels of life satisfaction and quality of life. life satisfaction can be defined as a sense of satisfaction or pleasure about one’s present and past life. one view of successful aging accepted by social gerontologists is the life satisfaction approach which maintains that people have aged successfully is they feel happy and satisfied with their present and past endeavors. according to eid and diener (2004) the focus of subjective wellbeing has been to try to explain how people experience their lives, their cognitive assessment, emotional reaction and adjustment to later life. in most cases, life satisfaction is considered to be a cognitive feature of subjective well-being, implying a judgmental process where elderly people perceive their present life situation in comparison to their desired life satisfaction (krause, 2004). these findings suggest that it is the cognitive perception of elderly individuals about their later life, it is the expectations they have at the later stage of their life. the challenge for elderly people seams to lie on their life expectations and desired outcomes; therefore, it is suggested that people in general need to be more realistic and understanding about what they expect and desire. furthermore, in order for people to have a better life satisfaction in later life, they need to prepare themselves in advance. for example, one of the main factors that determines the level of life satisfaction is type of personality. retirees who reported high in extraversion as compared to introversion, reported higher life satisfaction and were more active during retirement (osborne, 2012). extraverts tend to be more outgoing than introverts and thereby tend to make friendships more easily. although retirees may score higher on introversion, having control over when and how one retired facilitates well-being (lockenhoff, terracciano, & costa, 2009). 1.3. personality and perception of aging personality has been noted to be playing an important role across all stages of life. similarly adaptation in old age is also influenced by biological and social changes. biological changes may interfere with the brain's functioning. social changes can lead to isolation or feelings of worthlessness. hence personality is undeniably very important aspect of in successful ageing. people who feel and perceive themselves with higher self-esteem and are more optimistic are more likely to integrate in social activities and hence experience better psychological well-being (herero and extremera, 2010). there are five types of personality traits that have direct influence on how individuals perceive aging. these five personality traits are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism johnson and spinath (2013). openness refers to people who are open and motivated to learn new things and enjoy new experiences. people who score high in openness are associated with traits like being insightful and imaginative and having a wide variety of interests. conscientiousness on the other hand explains people with higher levels of reliability. people who score high in conscientiousness are reported to be more organized and detailed than people with lower levels of conscientiousness. extraversion refers to outgoing people, people that get their energy from interacting with others, while introverts get their energy from within themselves. these people tend to be more energetic, talkative, and assertive as compared to people who score higher in introversion. agreeableness explains individuals that tend to be friendly, cooperative, and compassionate. people who score low in levels of agreeableness may be more distant and isolated. people who score high in agreeableness tend to be kinder, affectionate, and more sympathetic than individuals with lower levels of agreeableness are. neuroticism refers to degree of negative emotion of individuals. sometimes, neuroticism is also known as emotional stability. individuals that score high on neuroticism often experience emotional instability and negative emotions such as being moody and tense. it is reported that people in general have their own traits of personality and that they cannot change. this study does not intend or suggest for people to change, but awareness about what personality trait is expected to show on certain situations and with certain people is very important. each individual must be aware of their own personalities and understand the impact that each personality trait can have in relation to quality of life. therefore, it is very important that individuals understand and acknowledge different styles of personalities’ people may have, hence, be aware of what is expected of yourself despite of your actual personality type. for example, you may not be an outgoing person (extrovert), but on certain occasions and with certain people you should go out, even though you happen to be more introvert (not an outgoing person). because, it is well experimented that people who are more extroverts experience more successful aging than introverted individuals do (osborne, 2012). previous studies indicated that low scores on neuroticism and high scores on extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness are significantly helpful for successful aging. higher levels of emotional stability, 25 agreeableness, and conscientiousness were positively related to higher levels of cognition, higher likelihood of engaging in volunteer work, higher levels of activities of daily living, and higher levels of subjective health. extraversion and openness to experience were also positively associated with cognition and engaging in volunteer work (baek, martin, siegler, davey and poon, 2016). some people can be lonely because they lack companionship and not because of their age, and still they may attribute it to the aging process which is actually not true. sometimes personality affects the perception of aging; some individuals perceive aging as natural, even if they face stressful events. isaacowitz and smith (2003) studied 516 participants aged 70 and older in berlin. this study’s main purpose was to find out what predicts positive affect in old age such as happiness, joy and satisfaction in later life on the one hand and negative affect such as distress, fear and anger on the other hand. personality was found to be a strong predictor of the aging experience; it was even stronger predictor of aging experience than was health (isaacowitz and smith, 2003). individuals who scored high in extraversion were reported to have more positive experiences of aging, whereas individuals who scored high in neuroticism were reported to have more negative experience of aging. thus, it was concluded that extraversion predicted positive affect and neuroticism predicted negative affect in later life (isaacowitz and smith, 2003). extrovert adults were reported to be less lonely in later life. they were reported to have larger social networks than adults who were not extrovert. extroverts were warmer and more sociable. their social network could provide them emotional support even after the death of a spouse or if lacking family interaction (lang and martin, 2000). older people who had high self-esteem reported having good control and the ability to maintain their health. it was concluded that individuals who evaluated themselves as high in self-esteem were less likely to suffer from chronic illnesses (bailis and chipperfield, 2002). featherstone and hepworth (1991) suggested two types of aging images which are distinguishable among elders. the first one is called ‘heroes of aging’ which refers to elders who have a positive attitude towards aging. they usually take care of themselves and do not act like being old but on the contrary try to be young all the time in their daily actions, bodily posture and general behavior. these people are regarded as optimists in other studies; they perceive aging and stressful events as challenging and not as threats to their life. people like ‘heroes of aging’ and optimists are more likely to show improvement in psychological well-being and have better physical health. the second image of aging is that some elders experience severe bodily decline through disabling illness to the extent that the outer body is seen as misrepresenting and imprisoning the inner self. this type of image is called ‘mask of aging’ and shows the more disagreeable aspects of the aging process and a negative attitude towards aging. they perceive aging and the problems that come with aging as threats to their life. these people are more likely to decline in their physical health and life satisfaction (featherstone and hepworth, 1991; uskul and greenglass, 2005). as people age, their extrovert personality type declines whereas introvertness increases. they are more likely to stay home and not be involved in usual activities as compared to before when they were younger. extroverts were more likely to have their own social network, which was reported to help them cope with aging (field and millsap, 1991). 1.4. respect in the words of kofi annan, secretary-general of the united nations: “trees grow strong over the years, rivers wider. likewise, with age, human beings gain immeasurable depth and breadth of experience and wisdom. that is why older persons should not be only respected and revered: they should be utilized as the rich resource to society that they are.” (powell, 2005). before we discuss the value of older people it would be necessary to present some statistics prepared by simon powell (2005). the statistics show that the world is getting older because the number of people over the age of 60 will triple over the next 50 years, growing from approximately 600 million to nearly 2 billion. this is due to a combination of factors including a significant decrease of birthrates (below replacement level) and an increase in longevity. currently, one in every ten persons is 60 years and older; by 2050, this number will grow to 1 in 5. at that point, nearly 80% of the world’s older population will be living in less developed regions of the world. it was suggested that the more compassion and personal vitality young people attributed to elderly people, the older adults would be respected and not avoided. it was also suggested that, higher respect for older people and lower avoidance of older people would be associated with higher life satisfaction. some studies have shown that the way older people are treated by the younger generation and peers as well can have a significant impact on their reports of life satisfaction and self-esteem (powell, 2005). therefore, it is recommended to treat older adults fairly and with dignity regardless of disability or other status, because it was reported that polite talk from young adults can help them by having benefits on psychological well-being. respecting old 26 people the way they expect will help them cope with aging. the purpose of this article was to ensure that older adults are treated fairly and with dignity until the end, to respect them and to fulfill their needs when necessary in all stages of their life (powell, 2005). 391 older people from six european countries were examined. the participants were aged 60 and older and from a range of educational, social and economic backgrounds. these participants were examined to find out their views on human dignity in their lives in association to self-esteem and well-being. when a person was pain-free, washed, in a clean bed and clothes and had contact with other people, this made him/her feel cared for and well respected. feeling cared for and respected in later life enhanced the self-esteem, self-worth and well-being of elders. understanding the dignity of later life, and applying it to older people by respecting their needs and communicating with them enhanced their self-esteem and well-being. in other words old people were more satisfied and had more positive perceptions of aging when they felt cared for and respected by others (bayer, tadd and krajcik, 2005). the way the younger generation or peers responded to the older generation was reported to have a significant impact on life satisfaction and psychological wellbeing in later life. the more politeness young adults showed to older adults, the more benefits elders gained in life satisfaction and psychological well-being. in this way older people reported being more respected and not avoided by their peers and younger generation. it was concluded that politeness and positive communication were associated with life satisfaction and psychological well-being in later life (mccann, dailey, giles and ota, 2005). theories: aging and adjustment to retirement this section highlights the main theories which explain the psychosocial factors to influence aging and adjustment to retirement. regarding life after retirement havighurst (1986) reported: “the decrease of interaction proceeds against the desires of most aging men and women. the older person who ages optimally is the person who stays active and who manages to resist the shrinkage of his social world. he maintains the activities of middle age as long as possible and then finds substitutes for work when he is forced to retire and substitutes for friends and loved ones whom he loses by death” (quadagon, 1999: 161). since the 1960s interest in studying the post retirement population in terms of their aging image has increased gradually (featherstone and wernick, 1995). the number of professional and scientific journals about gerontology also increased during the last decade. some of the possible reasons for this increased number of professional journals would be the increasing number of old people, their increased lifespan and the ever-growing burden on society for their care (rogers, 1986). according to sarah and pat (1989) by the late 1960s it was accepted that the normal period of full-time employment would stop for most of the population at the age of 60 or 65. at these ages most people, especially men, stop working and as a result this created a major crisis of identity. as people age their occupational and physical status changes to the extent that they come to understand that they are no more the prime movers within their family or at work. parsons (1942) described the problems that retirement brings to people by postulating: “in view of the very great significance of occupational status and its psychological correlates, retirement leaves the older man in a peculiarly functionless situation, cut off from participation in the most important interests and activities of the society…. retirement not only cuts the ties of the job itself but also greatly loosens those to the community of residence. it may be surmised that this structural isolation from kinship, occupational and community ties into the fundamental basis of the recent political agitation for help to the old. it is suggested that it is far less the financial hardship of the position of elderly people than their “social isolation” which makes old age a “problem” (parsons, 1942:616). levinson (1980) suggested that after retirement people should learn how to pass their leadership to the younger generation because they cannot be the prime movers in the family or at work anymore. as levinson (1987) reported, old people should take the “back seat” at their later stage of life and let others lead in the family or work. this process was termed as view from the bridge. levinson suggested that elderly people should pass their duties and responsibilities to younger generation and learn to agree with younger generation. it is not necessary for them to avoid all of those cares and duties that they had before but they could hand over some of those duties and cares to other family members or younger friends. (stuart-hamilton, 1994). levinson identified four overlapping stages in the life cycle of people with each stage lasting about 25 years and each stage having its own psychological, physical and social issues (stuart-hamilton, 1994; and rogers, 1986). it is the last stage of life which starts at the age of 60 and over, when individuals experience more life distractions. during this time older adults experience higher levels of stress and anxiety because of their physical decline that occurs to them and also because they are labeled as old people after their sixties. in this stage people are recommended to accept the realities of their past, present and future in order to be satisfied 27 with their lives. however, if they come to reject these realities, they would be more vulnerable to psychosocial and physical problems (hayer, rybash and roodin, 1999). old age is usually referred to the last stage of human life. erik erikson proposed eight stages of life span. each life stage has specific issues which were generalized to all people who go through the stages. the first six stages included the years from birth to young adulthood. the seventh stage includes individuals aged 26 to 50. this is the stage of generativity versus stagnation, generativity results when individuals try to satisfy their needs by turning towards others such as bearing children and trying to contribute to the younger generation by mentoring and guiding them. however, stagnation results when individuals at this stage do not get satisfaction from others, in other words their contribution to others results in frustration or lack of fulfillment (quadagon, 1999). regarding generativity levinson (1996) reported: “most of us during our forties and fifties become “senior members” in our own particular world. we are responsible not only for our own work but also the development of the current generation of young adults. . . . . it is possible in this era to become more maturely creative, more responsible for self and others, more universal in outlook, more capable of intimacy than ever before” (quadagon, 1996: 20). the eighth and final stage of life starts from the age of sixty and above. this stage of life encounters the issues of ego integrity versus despair. in later life, erikson argued that individuals who reached the last stage of their lives are characterized by a psychological conflict between ego integrity and despair. individuals with ego integrity would appraise their old age and will acquire wisdom, acknowledge the universal nature of humanity and accept the fact of mortality. here is how erikson described individual’s ego integrity: “it is a post-narcissistic love of human ego---not of the self---as an experience which conveys some world order and spiritual sense. . . . it is the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be and that, by necessity, permitted of no substitutions. . . . it is a comradeship with the ordering ways of distant times and a different pursuit . . . [but] the possessor of integrity is ready to defend the dignity of his own life style against all physical and economic threats. . . . ego integrity, therefore, implies an emotional integration which permits participation by followership as well as acceptance of the responsibilities of leadership” (belsky, 1990: 268-269). according to erikson’s theory, the person who has reached ego integrity should be able to accept the past and death (blesky, 1990). in this stage people get to be more aware of the fact that death for them is approaching. this is the stage when old people look back at what they have done and achieved during their life period. individuals who perceive that their seven former stages as proposed by erik erikson were successfully accomplished, were reported to have had a meaningful and satisfying life, which is ego integrity. however, some other people reported being not satisfied with their life and not having had a meaningful life during the seven former stages. these people were categorized under despair. these people were not happy with their lives, so they blamed themselves for their disappointment, thus despair (rogers, 1986). despairing old people may become withdrawn and hesitant or destructive in their old age. regarding the stage of ego integrity versus despair erik erikson (1968) reported: “a meaningful old age, then. . . serves the need for that integrated heritage which gives an indispensable perspective on the life cycle. strength here takes the form of that detached yet active concern with life bounded with death, which we call wisdom. . . to whatever abyss ultimate concerns may lead individual men, man as a psychosocial creature will face, toward the end of his life, a new edition of the new identity crisis which we may state in words, “i am what survives me”. (rogers, 1986: 140--144) based on the role theory, the main task for men is their work, and with retirement their main task is finished, so it is this time when disengagement begins (fennell, phillipson and evers, 1988). as individuals age, members of their social network start dropping off one by one. their neighborhood as well starts disappearing, and as a result old individuals may give up their social or external resources and instead turn themselves towards their inner resources. older individuals in fact automatically distance themselves from society and external resources. further, disengagement theorists reported that this disengagement process is universal, normal and natural (belsky, 1990). disengagement has been defined as an inevitable process in which many of the relationships between a person and other members of society are severed, and those remaining are altered in quality (belsky, 1990). according to disengagement theory, retirement is the time for elders to relax and maintain higher morale in old age, in other words disengagement suggests that old people should stop getting involved in their daily activities. disengagement involves the process of social and psychological withdrawal of an individual from society. disengagement occurs when “the individual becomes sharply aware of the shortness of life and the scarcity of time remaining to him, and if he perceives his life space as decreasing” (quadagon, 1999: 215). disengagement usually leads to reduction of daily activities and ego energy in later life. 28 this view has been challenged by the gerontologists whereby they disagreed with disengagement theorists because disengagement theory challenged the traditional view about the importance of maintaining high levels of activity and interaction in old age. the alternate theory that was proposed was the activity theory, which proposes that happiness in later life is to stay as involved in life activities as possible (belsky, 1990). the contradiction between disengagement and activity theory is that, according to disengagement theory, older adults should be withdrawn from their daily activities and focus on maintaining higher morale and avoid life activities, whereas gerontologists insist that older people should remain active for as long as possible. in one of the largest studies conducted, the duke project involving 250 individuals aged 60 and older. it was concluded that older individuals who reported the highest activity levels scored highest in life satisfaction, contrary to what disengagement theory would predict. disengagement theory would suggest that in older age people who score high in daily activities would score low in life satisfaction (quadagon, 1999). gerontologists suggest that, in order to avoid certain psychosocial and health declines, older adults should continue pursuing their usual life activities and not disengage from them (fennell, phillipson and evers, 1988). gerontologists suggested that disengagement theory should be rejected because this theory in some way forces people to withdraw from society and life activities in older age which according to activity theory harms the psychosocial and physical health of individuals in later life (belsky, 1990). in conclusion, old age was reported to be a very complicated stage whereby older individuals face higher levels of stress, anxiety, depression and health problems as compared to the younger generation. so, they come to face different problems in trying to adjust with those psychosocial and physical problems. erikson and levinson proposed theories explaining differences at different stages of the lifespan. erikson proposed eight stages of life but we focused more on the last stage which is ego integrity versus despair. ego integrity results when an old person accepts the past and death, whereas despair on the other hand results when an old person is not satisfied with his past and does not want to accept that death is approaching. different theorists suggested different ideas about adjustment in later life such as disengagement theory suggesting that retired people should decrease their life activities and relax. on the other hand activity theory suggests just the opposite of disengagement theory which is not to withdraw from life activities, but instead keep life as active as possible. thus, this is both agreement and disagreement on the most appropriate approach to coping with adjustment to retirement. 2. methodology the main study was conducted in kosova and focused mainly on elderly individuals. the measures used were those that had been previously validated in the pilot study. the main purpose of the present study was to assess the factors that influenced the retired or elderly people’s levels of psychological well-being and life satisfaction. 2.1. participants in the main study 170 elderly individuals participated. 106 of the participants were males and 64 were female. participants were randomly selected from different institutions and locations. participants were aged between 60 to 89 with a mean of 68.7 (sd=6.2). the majority (113) of the participants were married, 48 were widowed, 8 were divorced and only one participant had never married. in terms of education, 29 participants were uneducated, 86 had primary school or 8 years of school, 41 had secondary school, 12 of them had completed their first degree and only 2 had second degrees (post graduate). 127 participants were living together with their children, 31 were living with their spouses alone and 12 were living in the institutions. 2.2. procedure in this study the researcher decided to distribute the questionnaires to participants who could read and understand only in order to avoid the interviewer bias. surveys were conducted in institutions for the elderly, houses, villages, religious institutions and other random places. permission to enter the retirement houses in kosova was taken from the main director of the retirement house in prizren. this person’s permission was recognized in all retirement houses of kosova. 2.3. measures in the present study, structured interviews and self-administered questionnaires were utilized to measure the association between symptoms of psychological wellbeing, life satisfaction and participants’ personality and perception of aging among elderly people at their post-retirement period. psychological well-being the affect balance scale (abs) is a scale developed by bradburn (1969) to measure the psychological well-being of the general population. in the abs 10 items in series was used to ask people about their positive and negative feelings with “yes” or “no” answers. the final psychological well-being scale used for the final study consisted of 7 items. the correlation coefficients of the psychological well-being scale ranged from .23 to .64 with a cronbach’s alpha of .72. 29 life satisfaction the life satisfaction scale (lss) is an instrument that measures desired and achieved goals of elderly individuals. the lss was developed by neugarten, havighurst and tobin (1961). these researches had developed three main scales to measure life satisfaction among elderly people aged 50 and above. the final life satisfaction scale used for the final study consisted of 12 items. the correlation coefficients ranged from .30 to .61. the cronbach’s alpha of the life satisfaction scale was .79, which indicates high internal consistency between items. personality and perception of aging the items were combined from different scales related to introvertness and extrovertness (robinson and shaver, 1991).the final personality scale used in final study consisted of 8 items. the correlation coefficients of personality scale ranged from .26 to .40. the perception of aging scale that was used in the final study consisted of 10 items and the correlation coefficients ranged from .27 to .56. the cronbach’s alpha for the perception scale was .73 which indicates high internal consistency between items. religiosity this religiosity scale of seven items was developed by the researcher to assess the importance of religious activities and practices in later life. the items were developed based on religious requirements, what is required and what is practiced by them and if the practice helped them adjust with retirement. the items were in question form and the answer was from 0=not at all to 10=extremely. 1 to 10 response set was used because the greater range of possible answers made it was easier to rate the level of religiosity. for example one of the items was “do you feel that religion gives you spiritual support”? 3. results the analysis of psychometric properties of the scales revealed that the measures of personality, perception of aging and respect used are reliable and valid instruments. similarly, the measures used to determine the levels of psychological well-being and life satisfaction among elderly individuals in kosova were also reliable and valid. in addition, the results revealed that perception of aging was significantly correlated with psychological well-being and life satisfaction. similar results were found with regard to the association between personality and psychological well-being and life satisfaction. furthermore, the results revealed that respect was significantly correlated to life satisfaction and psychological well-being. 3.1. the relationship between personality, psychological well-being and life satisfaction on the relationship between personality and the dependent factors, the findings indicate that there are significant relationships between personality, perception of aging and psychological well-being and life satisfaction. the personality type of the participants was associated with dependent factors. elderly individuals who were extroverts in personality tended to have better psychological well-being and life satisfaction which was consistent with the study of isaacowitz and smith (2003) in berlin. extroverts reported having better experience of aging. similar relationships were observed between perception of aging and the dependent variables. individuals who reported having more positive perceptions about aging showed better psychological well-being and life satisfaction which is consistent with studies of personality whereby people who perceived aging and stressful events as challenging and not threats to life were observed to have improvement in psychological well-being and to be more satisfied with their lives (uskul and greenglass, 2005). people who showed more positive perceptions about aging in later life reported having better psychological well-being and life satisfaction. 3.2. the less respect the elderly individuals get lower levels of life satisfaction and psychological well-being the findings from pearson correlation revealed that respect is significantly related to the total scale scores on psychological well-being, and life satisfaction. the results reveal that the strongest correlation was observed between respect and life satisfaction, (r=0.35). psychological well-being showed significant but more moderate association with respect. 3.3. regression analysis the regression correlation revealed that psychological well-being was significantly measured by the total scale score of personality scale, beta=.168, n=170, p<.015. the results reveal that personality measures the level of psychological well-being among elderly people of kosova. overall, the results of regression analysis revealed that 33% of variance in life satisfaction and 39% of variance of psychological well-being are explained by the model. on the other hand, using multiple regression analysis in predicting the power of personality and respect on life satisfaction 30 was found that the model explains 33% of the variance in levels of life satisfaction (r square=.329). life satisfaction was found to be predicted by the personality and the level of respect elderly individuals in kosova were sharing with others. the regression correlation revealed that life satisfaction was significantly measured by the total scale score of personality scale, beta=.174, n=170, p<.001, by the total scale score of perception scale, beta=.416, n=170, p<.001 and by the total scale score of respect scale, beta=.243, n=170, p<.002. the results reveal that personality, perception and respect were found to predict the change in the level of life satisfaction among elderly people of kosova. 4. discussions the analysis of psychometric properties of the scales revealed that the measures of personality, perception of aging used in this study are reliable and valid instruments. in addition, the results revealed that perception of aging was significantly correlated with psychological well-being and life satisfaction. similar results were found with regard to the association between personality and psychological well-being and life satisfaction. personality was found to be the strongest predictors of the levels of psychological wellbeing. this result indicated that personality does influence the levels of psychological wellbeing which could be supported by isaacowitz and smith (2003) who reported that personality is a strong predictor of the aging experience; the more extroverted the person the more positive experiences of aging reported. similarly, personality and perception of aging were found to be the stronger predictors of life satisfaction. the result indicated that personality and perception of aging predicts the levels of life satisfaction. one explanation could be that personality and perception of aging are interrelated. personality type of elderly people influences the perception of aging, then perception of aging determines the level of life satisfaction. extroverted individuals could have more positive perception of aging which in turn is associated with higher life satisfaction. the findings indicate that there is a strong positive association between respect and life satisfaction indicating that elderly people are more satisfied with their life if they get enough respect from others. in other words, respect in later life plays a very important role for determining the level of life satisfaction. this finding is consistent with a previous study which suggested that the way older people are treated by the younger 132 generations as well as peers can have a significant impact on their reports of life satisfaction and psychological well-being (powell, 2005). in addition, bayer, tadd and krajcik (2005) reported that elderly people are more satisfied when they feel respected and cared for by others. 5. conclusion the present study measured the relationship between personality, psychological well-being and life satisfaction in kosova. the results indicated that type of personality and level of respect have strong influence in adjustment to retirement among elderly people of kosova. the findings indicated that more attention should be given to elderly 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(2009) age trajectories of quality of life among older adults: results from the english longitudinal study of ageing. quality life research;18(10):1301-9. 94 legal protection for apartment buyers due to action of the default developer dr. suwardi, s.h., mh narotama university, law faculty , maswad0634@gmail.com article history: accepted 18 june 2019 available online 24 july 2019 keywords: buyers apartments legal protection a b s t r a c t act no. 20 of 2011 on the towers to make the legal basis for vertical residential building whose ownership is shared objects, piece together and ground together. with improved and national economic growth are positive also helped encourage and spur improve the provision of residential development condotel in several major cities in indoenesia this happens because of the looseness of the government's policy on the provision of building vertical form of the apartment plus more because of market demand and the people who continue to increase, especially for the middle to high society and it is believed developer these conditions will continue to increase and grow as global developments that occurred in the decade as it is today. thus the government, especially the ministry of housing (kemenpera) must anticipate on these developments to immediately find a solution. fulfillment of the housing needs in the form of building vertical shape of one of them can be done through the construction of residential apartments. apartment development policy to be one attractive option to do both by government and private sector employers as the property as part of an urban housing development in the region, especially given the increasingly expensive and limited availability of land. introduction the development of housing demand, or shelter in indonesia every year increasing it brings beneficial impact on the apartment as the developer in its business as a provider of business occupancy of apartment dwellings commercial interchanges. the main objective in the procurement developer apartment occupancy is indeed profit oriented solely profit. act no. 20 of 2011 on flats to make the legal basis for vertical residential building whose ownership is shared objects, shared parts and shared land. apartment development policy to be one attractive option to do both by government and private sector employers as the property as part of a housing development, especially in urban areas increasingly expensive considering the limited availability of land. construction of the apartments is one alternative solving housing needs and settlement, especially in urban areas whose population continues to increase with various activities and all efforts so that the needs of occupancy is required for construction of apartments to reduce the use of land, creating open spaces of the city is more spacious and can be used as a way to rejuvenate the city for slum areas. physically apartment is a form of multi-storey dwelling in buildings where there are structural parts can be used individually and separately equipped with parts / objects that are used together (hutagalung, 2002). according to arie. s hutagalung another purpose of construction of flats is (ibid, 2002): to meet the needs of a decent and healthy housing; realizing settlements which are harmonious, and balanced; rejuvenate slum areas; optimizing urban resources; encourage high density residential. 95 their occupancy of the apartment, which is one of renewal for the residents of a metropolitan city with the problem of population increases rapidly as the number of residential apartments which follows the demands of the market as in other countries in densely populated indonesian population, especially in big cities will eventually become a necessity are urged to accept the presence of the apartment occupancy become a necessity that can not be bargained again because of dense activity that is run for the job need a place to stay that is more efficient both in terms of time, effort and close to the business environment (hutagalung, 2005). apartment ownership status (strata title) s, effectively, the term strata title is not in the dictionary indonesian legal literature. the term strata title is used in countries such as singapore and australia, which in essence allows the joint ownership horizontally and vertically. because target market in indonesia also for business people from abroad, then the naming of strata title given to be ttarget market understand more about the legal status of the object being marketed. in indonesia, basically strata title is the ownership of the apartment units (hasarusun). strata title is also the right of joint ownership of a building complex consisting of the exclusive right to personal space and collective rights over public space. that is, in a private room (apartments), the owners are not bound to the rules. while the public space, owner bound rules for public spaces common property of all residents. the concept of strata title is regulated in act 16 of 1985 replaced law no. 20 year 2011 on the flats, which regulates procedures for development, ownership, and management of the occupants of the apartment. rights over apartment building: a. individual ownership rights over apartment units used separately, b. joint rights to parts of condotel buildings, c. collective rights over objects, d. joint rights to land one problem is the protection of apartment unit buyer is so weak it is because the developers tend not provide detailed information about consumer rights concerns (hutagalung, 2005). in this issue should be taken a clear who is responsible for the protection of consumers who tied an agreement on sale and purchase transactions. this has resulted in the developer who have less good intentions and no responsibility will take advantage of such benefits. unit residential apartment units will be marketed by the developer by way of sale by reservation. sale and purchase of the unit of the apartment, mail order is one of the initial document that would be acceptable consumers who already intend to buy units of the apartment units. 1. problem formulation based on the above research background, the authors formulate the problem as follows: 1. what forms developer defaults in the purchase agreement apartment unit and a contributing factor? 2. what efforts do apartment unit buyers to claim damages as a result of default developer? 2. objectives objectives to be achieved in this study are: 1. to find out what are the forms of default developer in the purchase agreement apartment unit and a contributing factor. 2. to find out what efforts can be made by the buyer for the apartment unit demanding damages as a result of default. 3. benefits of research the benefits expected to be obtained from the results of this study are: 1. theoretical for the writer to develop the science of law: a. to increase knowledge and insight into the writer as well as to benefit the readers, especially in matters of contract law / contract law and consumer protection law apartment. b. contribute and thought to contribute to the development of jurisprudence, especially the contribution of academic research in the field of contract law / contract law and consumer protection laws compartment. 2. practical a. the results of this study will be useful as a source of literature in the form of contributions to the development of legal science, especially for those interested in researching more about the legal agreement / contract, the law of flats and consumer protection laws. b. the results of this study to provide input and feedback to the competent authorities in the development of the law of treaties / contracts, legal flats and consumer protection laws. c. can provide input to parties concerned with the implementation of sale and purchase of units of flats. 4. literature review 4.1. understanding apartment in general. apartment meaning is home in the form of flats. so, the difference is the emphasis, one on the right, while the other on the 96 physical building. is a model of residence only take a small portion of a building or a space as well as a place to stay with a model apartment? the apartment rooms or more (rooms) that are designated as a shelter, there are in a building that usually has a room or another room like that (poer wadarminta, 1991). a residential complex and not homes that stand alone (joseph de chiara, time saver standards for building types). a room or several sets of types have similarities in a building used as a dwelling house (stein, 1967). the term comes from the apartment of the united states, namely apartments, while the term flat coming from the united kingdom. apartment and flats refer to residential units that occupy a specific part of a building. apartments and flats refers to the physical building. we also often hear the term stratas title which is a concept that refers to the separation of a person's rights against multiple tiers or levels. understanding flats can be found in article 1 of law no. 20 of 2011 on the flats. although the terms used to describe the multistorey residential very diverse but the legislation we are just about the terms flats. thus a bunk house consists of: 1. the units, each of which can be owned and used separately (apartment units) 2. shared section 3. shared objects 4. shared land even lately too many developers who build with the designation of the mixture (residential non-residential, as much in demand by the public and more practical, in which the floor 1 (one) to 5 (five) for non-residential or kiosks (commercial) while the floor will be used for residential or called apartments or hotels, and the selling price (commercial value) in a mixture of flats is determined by: 1. for non-residential sales price is more expensive when compared to occupancy. 2. the selling price is determined by where the floor. a. for occupancy, the higher the floor layout, the more expensive (higher) selling price or commercial value. b. for non-residential, the lower floor, the more expensive (higher) selling price or commercial value. the occupants in an environment flats are good for both residential and nonresidential shall establish a tenant association to organize and manage the common interest concerned as the ownership, occupancy and management. 4.2. land acquisition when the location requested permission has been approved by the local government then made his next activity to acquire land / location concerned. application for land rights and certificates the relevant rights to the application for land rights and certificates of management rights / building rights are carried out by the developer (developer), if the development organizer (developer) has fulfilled the requirements to obtain the land concerned, then submits a request for issuance building use certificate on behalf of the developer. 4.3. request building permit (imb) construction organizers (developers) have not been able to build a condotel before obtaining a building permit from the local government which are preceded by a detailed plan that determines and separates each unit condotel unit as well as its proportionate comparison value, along with floor plans and site plans cut ownership limits. 4.4. endorsement descriptions descriptions show clear boundaries of each as well as the proportional value comparisons made by the organizers of the construction (developers) and then applied for approval to the local governments. if the descriptions of the separation was approved by the authorities then pemba opment organizers can quickly implement development activities. from these descriptions will appear units legally separate units melaluui manufacturing process deed of separation. 4.5. livable permit after completing the construction of the development organizer, it is mandatory to apply for a living permit if the results of the inspection carried out truly prove that the conduct of condotel development in terms of architecture, construction, installation and other equipment is in accordance with the requirements contained in the imb (building permit). 5. framework pursuant to article 33 paragraph (1) of the constitution of the fourth amendment stated that: "the economy is structured as a joint venture based on family principles." joint venture shows that business run is emerge from a variety of good cooperation that effort arising from legal business or joint venture that is not incorporated. kinship constitution shows willingness to solve problems that occur in the business with professionalism amicable way without prejudice. development in the economic field led to the growth of various business fields. as is known that the treaty law in the civil code adheres to the principle of consensus, meaning that to give birth to an agreement is enough to agree only and that the agreement was born at the time or second reached consensus or agreed. in the agreement law applies a principle called the principle of consensualism, which means that basically agreements and agreements that arise therefore have been born from the moment 97 the agreement is reached. in other words, the agreement is valid if the parties have agreed on the main matters to be agreed upon, and no formality is needed. the principle of consensualism is based on article 1320 of the civil code, which reads: for the validity of an agreement four conditions are required : 1. agreed they were binding him. 2. the ability to make such agreements. 3. a certain thing. 4. a lawful reason. understanding selling affirmed in article 1457 of the civil code as follows: "buying and selling is an agreement whereby one party to bind himself to give up the right of a material, and the other party pays the price that has been promised. "from the meaning of article 1457 of the civil code in the above can be stated further that: 1. there are two sides would bind himself, who each have rights and obligations arising from the sale and purchase of the engagement; 2. one party has the right to get or receive payment and is obliged to submit a material, while the other party has the right to obtain or accept a material and is obliged to submit a payment; 3. the rights of one party an obligation to the other party, as well as its reverse, the requirement that one is the right of the other party; 4. if one of the unfulfilled rights or obligations are not met by one of the parties, there will be no engagement or selling. agreements sometimes detrimental to consumers, as they are made unilaterally businesses. marketing businesses orally promises to attract consumers to buy, but in writing not to do. this will make it difficult for consumers in the proof. if there is nothing to worry about the presence of this agreement is not because of the inclusion of the exoneration clause (exemtion clause) in the agreement. exoneration clause is a clause which contains conditions limiting, or even removing entirely the responsibility that should be borne by the manufacturer or the seller mariam darus badrulzaman define it as an agreement in which standardized terms exoneration and manifested in the form, with the following characteristics: 1. the contents are set unilaterally by the creditor stronger relative position of the debtor; 2. the debtor did not specify the content of the agreement; 3. driven by needs, the debtor was forced to accept the agreement; 4. the written form; 5. prepared first in bulk or individually. 6. discussion 6.1. development apartment construction in general construction of the housing sector in indonesia, in recent years greatly increased. for southeast asia (asean), indonesia is leading the list of countries with the highest growth in residential property. listing fairly rapid growth caused the housing developer has the potential to do the competition in attracting buyers. the marketing strategy is experiencing a trend currently is marketing the project pre-selling system. this marketing strategy becoming trend, especially for the developers who is to make sales before the product property stands, and even some developers who did the marketing strategy of pre project selling before the requirements are met, among others, building permit (imb) , construction permits and other permits. 6.2. conditions for consumer protection in-law no. 8 of 1999 on consumer protection, as a developer in the category of businesses. understanding the business communities in article 1 paragraph 3 of the consumer protection stated "businesses any person or business entity, either domiciled or conducting activities within the territory of the republic of indonesia, either individually or jointly by agreement for business activities in various economic fields". for developers as entrepreneurs, in addition to any obligation as mentioned above, given the prohibition set out in articles 8 to 17 of law no. 8 of 1999 on consumer protection. article 8 of law no. 8 of 1999 on consumer protection, which set restrictions for businesses that are public and can be broadly divided into two (2), namely: 1. prohibiton on the product itself, which is not eligible and appropriate standards to be used or occupied or used by consumers. 2. prohibition on the availability of information that can not untrue, inaccurate, and misleading consumers. in this process, the sp became integral part attachment of the spa. ppjb contains provisions that will be used in the development process until home handover, such as home cost issues, method of payment, delivery time homes, until the requisite delivery of certificates. the provisions of the cspa is what will prevail as the rule (law) for prospective buyers and developers, and will end at the time of the signing of the sale and purchase agreements (ajb). in other words, the spa as a bridge between the sp and ajb transaction process. 6.3. ajb letters power signing ajb made in front of notary / ppat who will take care of making the certificate home. terms of the signing of the ajb is the repayment of housing prices by buyers and witnessed by the notary / ppat. if the repayment has been made through the 98 bank before signing ajb is done, then the house payment receipts submitted to the notary / ppat and used as evidence for the certification process. if you've reached this stage, then the home buying process has been completed, the seller has received the payment of fees and the buyer has to get home along with a certificate proof of ownership. only binding sale and purchase agreement is an agreement that was born due to the open nature of book iii book of the law 6.4. default actions and risks default or breach of contract non-performance or achievements of the obligation duly agreed upon in the contract. this tort actions have consequences right from the onset of the injured party, requires parties who are in default to provide compensation or reimbursement. there are three kinds of default are: default does not meet achievement, default late for an achievement, and default not meet achievement. responsibility can be in the definition of right as a legal responsibility of the person / entity to produce a product (producer, manufacturer), of the person / entity who is engaged in a process to produce a product (processor, assembler) or distribute (seller , distributors) of the product. 6.5. principles in agreement 1. the principle of liability based on fault, namely the principle that states that a new person can be held legally accountable if there is an element of error he committed. this principle is quite common in criminal and civil law. in article 1365 of the civil code which is commonly known as the article on acts against the law requires the fulfillment of four elements: a. there is an actions b. there is an error c. there is a loss suffered d. there is a causal relationship between mistakes and losses; altough definition of error is an element that is contrary to the law. the definition of law is not only contrary to the law but also propriety and decency in society. 2. the principle of the presumption to always be responsible (presumption of liability), which is the principle that states a defendant is always considered responsible until he can prove that he is innocent, so the burden of proof is on the defendant. the basic principle is a person is considered innocent until the reverse can prove it. 3. the principle of the presumption not always be responsible (the presumption of nonliability) that this principle is the opposite of the principle of the presumption to always be responsible, where the defendant has always been considered not liable to prove, that he is guilty. 4. the principle of absolute liability (strict liability) in this principle establishes that the error is not a determining factor, but there are exceptions that allow to exempt from responsibility. the principle of absolute liability in the general consumer protection laws in use right to snare the culprit that harm consumers. the principle of the responsibility is known as product liability. 5. the principle of responsibility with restrictions (limitation of liability) with this principle of responsibility, business actors may not unilaterally determine clauses that harm consumers, including limiting their maximum responsibilities. if there are restrictions, it must be based on applicable laws. referring to the results of research in the field, it can be seen that the developer (developer) has made ppjb first in the form of a standard agreement. the characteristics of standard agreements, among others: 1. the contents are set unilaterally by the parties position (economy) 2. the debtor did not participate jointly determine the contents of the agreement 3. encouraged by their needs, debtors were forced to accept the agreement 4. form a certain (written) 5. be prepared beforehand in bulk or individually. to fill the spa agreement, consumers in general approved the contents of the cspa. because consumers do not have much choice, because there are only two options for the consumer that is take it or leave it. in the first option the consequence is that consumers are ready to meet all of the terms and conditions set by developers and bear all risks associated with the ownership of the property. the second option then the consumer would mean failing to obtain the desired properties. in substance, the spa between developers (developers) to one another is different. however, in certain respects there are similarities, among others, relating to the subject matter of the agreement, method of payment, and delivery of the maintenance period, the building changes, penalties for late and forje majeur. legal protection for consumers from the existence of a pre project selling system by a housing developer, 6.6. settlement system in litigant related to consumer dispute resolution in bpsk, then there are three (3) ways: a. conciliation 99 remedy this dispute can be taken on the initiative of either party or both parties, while the bpsk assembly passive. bpsk assembly served as intermediary between the disputing parties. conciliation implies a unity of the party, which in the end the interests of moving closer and subsequently reached a settlement that is satisfactory to both parties (a measure of goodwill). b. mediation this effort is taken on the initiative of either party or both parties. the difference with conciliation, the bpsk assembly intermediary and being active as an advisor. basically, mediation is a process whereby a third party, a neutral outsiders (aneutral outsider) to the dispute, invite the parties to the dispute to an agreed dispute resolution. in the end, an agreement will be achieved without adverse ways (nonviolent means), at least a good relationship (relationship) is created without conflict. c. arbitration these efforts are accomplished by means of the parties fully devolved to the assembly and decided bpsk to resolve consumer disputes that occur. arbitration is a method of consumer dispute resolution in civil matters as may be approved by both sides, which can be binding and can be implemented / enforced. compensation is implemented by way of renovating the developer back in the consumers home so that in accordance with the agreement previously agreed upon between the developer and the consumer. conclusions and recommendations the legal consequences of their pre-project system selling is that if businesses do not perform its obligations properly and consumers will make a complaint if the results are not accepted by agreement. this default actions have consequences right from the onset of the injured party. legal protection for consumers from selling their preproject system is providing a means for consumers harmed can sue developers through the courts. selling the project pre system used by housing developers (developers) should prioritize the protection of purchasers (consumers). for example, by not applying standard agreement which led to the potential for conflict between the developer with the consumer becomes very large. bpsk existence should be a good way out in order to give legal protection by the government to consumer fraud carried out by the developers. references 1. soerjono soekanto, introduction to legal studies, jakarta: the university of indonesia (ui-press), 2015 2. marzuki, pm, legal research, 2010, jakarta: kencana 3. erwin kallo, legal guide for owners / occupants housing (condominium). 4. the apartments and rusunami) minerva athene pressindo, jakarta: 2009 5. rajagukguk erman, et al, consumer protection law, (bandung: pt. mandar maju, 2000) 6. az nasution, consumer protection law an introduction, (jakarta: pt. power widya, 2000) 7. ahmad adi winarto, responsibility developer for consumer protection measures in the housing sector in pati regency, diponegoro university: thesis, 2008. 8. mirza sulaiman, position consumer housing agreement, reader forward, into matter ii. 9. shidarta, consumer protection law, jakarta: grasindo, 2000. 10. mariam darus badrulzaman, arts, business law, bandung: alumni, 1994. 11. munir fuady, contract law, bandung: publisher pt. citra aditya bakti, 1999. 12. subekti, trade arbitration, bandung: bphn and binacipta, 1992. 93 legal responsibility for the offenses committed through the media in kosovo msc. laura tahiri ¹* msc. milot krasniqi ² ¹ south east european university, faculty of contemporary social sciences, governance and public administration department, tahiiri.laura@gmail.com, *correspondent author ² south east european university, faculty of contemporary social sciences, governance and public administration department, milot.krasniqi1997@gmail.com article history: accepted 19 july 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: mass media, freedom of expression, insult, legislation, criminal liability, civil liability, criminal offenses, international conventions. a b s t r a c t the purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of how the media generally function in relation to their responsibilities to the state. knowing that despite the legal protection enjoyed by the media under international conventions and in general domestic legislation, all criminal offenses committed through the media are defined in one way or another by adequate legal norms to prevent and sanction such offenses abusive. during the different periods of law adoption in kosovo, it is evident that the area of criminal and civil liability for criminal offenses committed through the media has changed. this is due to the fact that various provisions have not infrequently been used to restrict freedom of expression, which is otherwise the most basic, but also the most sensitive provision provided by article 10 of the international covenant on human rights. therefore, in this paper will be explained the variability of the legislation on criminal and civil liability for criminal offenses committed through the media and that starting from international conventions, the constitution of the republic of kosovo, international legislation compared to domestic, comparison of provisions which with the old codes have been defined as criminal offenses, while today those offenses are considered of a civil character and for these offenses there is only civil liability. 1. introduction various private and public mass media, internet, tv, various newspapers, radio, etc. have a special significance in everyday life. today, human society finds it impossible to function without the mass media as a source of information and as a form of communication with public opinion. it is well known that the means of public communication have a great influence on the creation of public opinion and with special emphasis when such information is related to crime and criminality in general. in order to prevent and fight abuses in the field of information and communication with the public, every genuine society has issued legal provisions, its legislation in the civil and criminal field in order to prevent these special types of abuses. in everyday life there are many abuses in the field of public information, which in essence exceed the legal competencies for which these public and private mass media were established. although, it is known that a large number of media outlets are managed, financed and directly or indirectly influenced by various interest groups, be they political, economic, legal, etc. various mass media such as internet, social networks, tv, radio, print media, etc. often serve and place in the public opinion information which is not fully verified, lies, information (with certain background of financial gain illegally) that can harm not only certain natural and legal persons, but also a society whole. http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 mailto:tahiiri.laura@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8066-7056 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8460-9144 94 it is also known that the media in modern times and in the democratic system represent an important pillar of influence of all currents and processes in society, so they are in fact the fourth pillar of the separation of powers. this is further reinforced by the fact that the media have such great power in orienting public opinion in certain areas of life that they determine the thoughts of people (as viewers, readers and listeners) in the face of events of a political, economic, social, social nature, etc. the media can also change the mentality of the people in one way or another because by serving classified information they direct the human mind in certain directions and quite efficiently. when we talk about the general level, it is indisputable that the media today play a relevant and influential role in the lives of people in general, despite the fact that such an impact has negative and abusive effects at certain stages of development of human society. technical-technological development in some segments of mass media, especially those related to the internet, today have almost become quite dangerous and very difficult to manage. unfortunately, today critical thinking is done by a very small percentage of people and this is exactly what has created a general opinion about the trust of information disseminated through the mass media, especially through the internet. today, the power of the media has reached such a degree of collective influence that it can elevate people's morale, but at the same time can attack it to the point of creating emotional and psychological distress. precisely due to the great influence of the press, radio, television, internet and other means of public information and communication, the need to regulate this area with national legislation has emerged. the constitution of the republic of kosovo in its article 40 speaks about freedom of expression where freedom of expression is guaranteed and includes the right to express, disseminate and receive information, opinions and other messages, without being hindered by anyone. however, the same article clearly states that freedom of expression may be restricted by law in cases where it is necessary to prevent incitement to violence and hostility on the grounds of racial, national, ethnic or religious hatred (the constitution of the republic of kosovo, article 40). freedom of expression is guaranteed by article 10 of the european convention on human rights where paragraph 1 states that: everyone has the right to freedom of expression. this right includes freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers. this article shall not prevent states from requiring the licensing of cinematographic or television broadcasting undertakings (bychaëskasiniarska, 2018) whereas, par.3 make clear the fact that the exercise of these freedoms, which contains obligations and responsibilities, may be subject to those formalities, conditions, restrictions or sanctions provided by law and that are necessary in a democratic society, in the interests of national security, territorial integrity or public safety, for the protection of law and order and the prevention of crime, for the protection of health or morals, for the protection of the dignity or rights of others, to prevent the spread of confidential data or to guarantee the authority and impartiality of the judiciary. (bychaëska-siniarska, 2018). also, the constitution of kosovo, in article 42 which speaks about the freedom of the media guarantees the freedom and pluralism of the media, censorship is prohibited and no one can prevent the dissemination of information or ideas through the media, unless such a thing it is necessary to prevent inciting and provoking violence and hostility on the basis of racial, national, ethnic or religious hatred. according to this constitution, everyone has the right to correct fake, incomplete, or inaccurate information published, if it violates his/her rights or interests, in accordance with the law. but unfortunately today the press and other media outlets exceed authorizations for different purposes and most often for certain purposes of daily politics, certain interest groups that have an impact on the political currents in the country and in some media (privately or publicly owned), but also to benefit financially or other forms of interest, by posting untrue, modified information, which is of interest to the public. in these situations and circumstances, the media use unverified information, fabrications and lies and thus publish or transmit "fabricated" data, half-truths or misinformation, through which they endanger and seriously damage the freedoms, rights and human beings and citizens 5(dragusha, 2010), but also severely attack the values of a society which is going through a phase of long-term transition, such as kosovo. these abuses of the mass media definitely have negative effects in relation to the international community states as subjects of international law, but also with international mass media. from the prism of criminal law it should be noted that various mass media, such as the internet, press, radio, television and other means of information and public communication not only affect a large number of people across the globe, but with their misuse can also be committed a large number of criminal offenses and consequently affect the increase of crime in general. 95 2. criminal responsibility of persons who perform criminal offenses through the media today, the technical-technological development and the constantly changing trend of becoming a journalist and publishing information to the public poses a great complexity in terms of criminal responsibility of persons who commit crimes through the media. social networks which have conquered the world and at the same time have conquered the mind and control of the thinking of people in general, are a rather difficult form of management and as such adequate mechanisms for their control have not yet been established. their lack of control and without the opportunity to determine the criminal responsibility of persons who through social networks as a form of information and communication place various information, this information that often represents criminal offenses, is making it even more difficult to establish criminal responsibility of these persons. the criminal offenses committed are of a very high intensity and which are by no means rare. the system in kosovo gives sufficient space to the persons responsible for publishing various information and as such the source of information very often leads to the fulfillment of the conditions for a criminal offense committed. the publication of some data including various court files very often hinders the criminal procedure but not only. this information that is disseminated to the general public also damages the image of many people whose compensation can never be made in proportion to the damage caused. the criminal code in force of the republic of kosovo in article 66 (order for publication of judgments) stipulates that the court may order the publication of a judgment when it deems that publication is in the general interest of the injured party or other persons. the order for the publication of the judgment requires that the judgment be published, in whole or in part, in a newspaper or broadcast on radio or television. the publication is done at the expense of the convict and the date and duration of the publication are set by the court. the newspaper, radio station or television station publishes the verdict sent to them by the court. (code no. 06 / l-074 criminal of republic of kosovo, 2019) among other things this article in par.5 says that the publication of the judgment is not ordered if such publication endangers official secrecy, the privacy of persons or the morals of society. the mass media in a democratic system where freedom of expression is a right guaranteed not only by the constitution but also by international conventions, today has a host of protections for the work they do and for the way they access information. also, thanks to the development of technology and great technological achievements, the issue of making news has been simplified knowing that we now live in the era of digitalization but not only. today, social networks are facilitating the benefit of the media and their efficiency because already with information are contributing a lot and "active" citizens using personal phones through which they provide photos, video recordings, conversations, etc. this trend has led to many acts being considered criminal today, but such a thing has not yet been created as awareness by society in general. the non-sanctioning of such persons is increasingly giving strength to this trend and as such should be prevented as soon as possible because otherwise the damage will be great and very long-term in every sphere of life. photographing and other unauthorized recordings are a criminal offense under the criminal code of the republic of kosovo in force. anyone who without authorization photographs, films, videos or otherwise records the other person in his personal residence or in any other place where the person has reasonable expectations for privacy and thus substantially violates the privacy of the other, shall be punished by a fine or with imprisonment of one (1) to three (3) years; whoever, without authorization, passes, displays or gives access to a third party to the photograph, film, videotape or any other recording obtained in violation of the paragraph of this article, shall be punished by imprisonment of one (1) to three (3) years. (criminal code no. 06 / l-074 of the republic of kosovo, 2019). 3. responsibility in the field of media according to some comparative legislations kosovo has advanced legislation compared to other countries in the region in relation to the protection of journalists' resources. it is one of the few countries that has adopted a law on the protection of journalists' resources. journalists and other media professionals have it the right to remain silent about their sources of information. according to this law, the declaration of the source of information can be made only at the request of the competent court, and this, only if this information can not be disclosed by other means and that is important for the preservation of someone's life (law no. 04 / l-137 on the protection of journalism resources, 2013). other countries also have regulated the issue of protection of information sources. montenegro has regulated this issue with the law on media and electronic media. however, through selfregulatory mechanisms such as the code of ethics, journalists in montenegro have envisioned that sources of information be protected but also that the motives of confidentiality are verified before this source can be considered credible. in fact, the selfregulation of journalists is seen as the best form of regulation of the exercise of the profession of journalism. this is because, in this way, the abuse of the rights of journalists in general and the 96 protection of the source of information in particular would be prevented. protecting journalists' resources has been problematic in other countries as well. although all countries have determined that journalists' sources of information are protected, there have been cases where this right has been restricted. croatia, in the law on criminal procedure, has provided the possibility for journalists, in closed session, to indicate the source of information, if this information avoids any other crime. the form of regulation in croatia is similar to that of kosovo. in serbia, the protection of journalists' sources is done by the law on public information, in its article 32, which specifies the right of journalists to protect their sources of information. however, article 41 of the criminal code of the republic of serbia, which leaves the possibility of keeping the source of information secret, unless it is a criminal offense punishable by at least five years of imprisonment or if it is necessary to prevent an offense such. such a definition is similar to the restriction set in the kosovo law on the protection of journalistic sources, except that in this case, the restriction is set in the criminal code. (ejupi & abazi 2015: 7). 4. civil media responsibility and protection of the source of information according to the legislation in kosovo regarding freedom of expression and the media, the criminal code of the republic of kosovo contains a whole chapter which sets out the provisions on criminal liability for criminal offenses committed through the media. such a criminal code contains 4 articles in total (articles 37, 38, 39 and 40) regarding the criminal liability of natural and legal persons (3 of which have been repealed by law no. 04 / l-129 on amending and supplementing criminal code of the republic of kosovo no. 04 / l-82 (salihu & zhitija & hasani, 2014) article 37 defined the hierarchy of criminal responsibility for any criminal offense committed through the media (first the author, then the editor-in-chief, then the publisher and finally the producer). article 38 was directly related to the law on the protection of journalistic sources and stated that the media was not criminally liable if they refused to disclose the source of the information unless the court considered that disclosure of information was necessary to prevent an attack which posed an imminent threat. to the life or bodily integrity of any person. article 39 meanwhile simply defined the applicability of the general provisions on criminal liability. these articles have been repealed in kosovo after the great influence that the mass media and civil society have made in relation to the changes required and implemented. as a result, only article 40 remains in the criminal code, which defines the criminal liability of legal persons. this article expressly stipulates that: it follows that the legal person is responsible for the criminal offense of the responsible person, who has committed a criminal offense acting on behalf of the legal person within his powers, for the purpose of gaining benefit or has caused harm to that legal person. the liability of the legal entity exists even if the actions of the legal entity have been contrary to the business policies or orders of the legal entity (salihu, zhitija & hasani, 2014). according to the legislation in force in kosovo, the legal person is also responsible for the criminal offense in cases where the responsible person has committed a criminal offense is not punished for that criminal offense, and the responsibility of the legal person is based on the guilt of the responsible person. it should be noted as a “sui generis” case the omission of this article and the removal of the other three because there is no consistency in the criminal liability mentioned. the criminal code leaves legal entities under criminal responsibility, but on the other hand removes criminal liability from natural entities, from whose responsibility the criminal liability of legal persons actually derives. however, the criminal code of the republic of kosovo sufficiently manages to formally define the two issues, both privacy and freedom of expression and media. 5. compensation of damage by civil media liability the damages caused by various information coming precisely from the means of public communication are very great, the compensation or reward can be at least as a modest satisfaction for the attacked subjects. too much information is so harmful that it morally, psychologically and psychologically affects certain subjects, so much so that they may lose the authority that society enjoys and their personal and family integrity. this abusive information seriously violates fundamental human rights and freedoms, which are guaranteed by national legislation and international conventions. knowing that the responsibility for damages caused by criminal offenses committed through the media is already of a civil nature, the regulation of compensation for damages caused is done in accordance with the law on compulsory relations (lmd) and that related to article 139 (request to ceases to violate the rights of the personality) according to which everyone has the right to request from the court or other competent body to order the cessation of action that violates the integrity of the human personality, personal and family life, and other rights. of his 97 personality and that the court, respectively the other competent body may order to cease the action under the threat of payment of a certain amount of money, set in total or in certain periods of time in favor of the injured party (law no. 04 / l-077 on obligations, 2012). also, this law in article 182 (pronouncement of the judgment and correction of the error) clearly states that in case of violation of the right to personality, the court may order the pronouncement of the verdict, respectively the correction at the expense of the injured party, or order the injured party to withdraws the statement by which the violation was committed, or something else by which the purpose achieved by reward can be accomplished. (law no. 04 / l-077 on obligations, 2012). the law on obligations also article 185 provides for monetary compensation in special cases (violation of dignity) which is one of the most common forms of damage by the media and information disseminated by various means of public communication. according to this article, the right to compensation for monetary damage due to the emotional pain suffered belongs to a person who, through fraud, violence or abuse of any relationship of submission or dependence, has been pushed into punishable sexual intercourse or into punishable unnatural sexual act, as well as the person against whom another criminal offense has been committed against the dignity of personality and morals. (law no. 04 / l-077 on obligations, 2012). whereas, article 183 (monetary reward) for the physical pains suffered, for the spiritual pains suffered due to the reduction of life activity, ugliness, violation of authority, honor, freedoms or rights of personality, the death of a relative, as well as fear, the court, if it finds that the circumstances of the case especially the intensity of pain and fear and their duration justify this, will judge the fair compensation in money, regardless of the compensation of material damage as well as from lack of material damage. in deciding on the claim for compensation of non-pecuniary damage, as well as the amount of its compensation, the court will take care of the importance of violating the good and the purpose for which this compensation serves, but also for the fact that with not to favor goals that are not in line with its nature and social purpose. (law no. 04 / l-077 on obligations, 2012). with sufficient legal mechanisms and institutions, kosovo, in legal terms, has created a good climate for practicing the profession of journalism. however, law enforcement and the proper functioning of institutions is essential to ensure a safe climate for journalists. institutional mechanisms created by state institutions or by self-initiative are not sufficiently functional. in terms of legal framework, kosovo stands quite well. it is one of the few countries that has adopted a special law on the protection of journalists' resources and has decriminalized defamation as a legal violation. institutional mechanisms are in place and journalists enjoy legal remedies for practicing their profession. defamation is not dealt with in the criminal code of the republic of kosovo. most other european countries treat defamation as a criminal offense. in some european countries and countries aspiring to european integration, defamation is punishable by a fine, which in some cases is even more serious through the media. in other countries, prison sentences of defamation or insult are also provided. (ejupi & abazi, 2015: 1215). the republic of kosovo has regulated criminal and civil liability for criminal offenses committed through the media differently in the previous legislation. initially defining with special provisions such acts committed through the media and then introducing this responsibility in the general provisions of the new criminal code, but in particular we emphasize that this issue of regulation and sanction has remained in the field civil law, specifically the civil law against defamation and insult (law no. 02 / l-65 civil law against defamation and insult, 2008). the republic of kosovo is a supporter of the principle "societas delinquere potest", therefore even in criminal liability for criminal offenses committed through the media it is sanctioned in cases where criminal offenses can be committed that are provided by the criminal code but that criminal liability is sanctioned only under the responsibility of legal persons. this is done with the sole purpose of creating a strong legal basis for the prevention and fight against crime in general, and especially when carried out by legal entities, where with special emphasis we distinguish that carried out by the mass media with the status of legal entities. (law no.02 / l-65 civil law against defamation and insult, 2008). 6. conclusions various mass media such as the internet, tv, radio, newspapers, etc. have always been and remain one of the most important forms of creating public opinion in all areas of life. today it is impossible to think of the functioning of political, economic, social life, etc. without the mass media and information provided by these media. daily politics today is oriented precisely by the mass media and the creation of a favorable climate for people who directly or 98 indirectly influence this information, offer them various benefits, not only material. a convenience of providing and receiving information would not be created if the legislation did not specify specific and general cases for the operation of the mass media. therefore, over different periods of time, based on the change of human society and human rights in general, the right to freedom of expression has gone hand in hand with this. freedom of expression today is a fundamental human right which is guaranteed by international conventions, but also by local-national legislation, including the constitution as the highest legal act. of course, freedom of expression is also restricted in certain cases because this is presented as a need in cases where there is an attempt to abuse this right. for this reason, legal mechanisms "lex specialis" have been issued to prevent and combat abuses of this nature. also, in cases of causing damages in kosovo now there is only civil liability and compensations are made in accordance with the law on obligations. in conclusion, a very favorable climate has been created in kosovo for the exercise of the profession of journalism, ie for the functioning of the mass media in general, respecting and protecting in particular freedom of expression as a fundamental human right and thus modifying criminal responsibility in civil liability which as a sanction has only compensation for the damage caused by that offense. references 1. ejupi, b. & abazi, d., (2015), freedom of expression and the practice of journalism in kosovo, comparative analysis of the legal framework, prishtina, indep institute for development policy. 2. dragusha, m. (2010), criminal and civil liability for criminal offenses committed through the media, prishtina, revista advocacy, no.9. 3. kambovski, v. (2009), legal-criminal framework for the prevention of organized crime legal aspects, tetovo. 4. constitution of the republic of kosovo. available at: https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=3702 5. code no. 06 / l-074 criminal of the republic of kosovo, prishtina, 2019. available at: https://gzk.rksgov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=18413 6. law no. 04 / l-137 on the protection of journalism resources, prishtina, 2013, prishtina. available at: http://agk-ks.org/wpcontent/uploads/2018/08/ligji_nr._04_l137__p%c3%8br_mbrojtjen_e_burimeve_t%c 3%8b_gazetaris%c3%8b.pdf 7. code no. 04 / l-082 criminal code of the republic of kosovo, prishtina, 2012, prishtina. available at: https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=18413 8. law no. 04 / l-030 on liability of legal entities for criminal offenses, prishtina, 2011, available at: https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=2766 9. law no.02 / l-65 civil law against defamation and insult, prishtina, 2008. available at: https://gzk.rksgov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2503 10. salihu, i. & zhitija, h. & hasani, f. (2014), commentary on the criminal code of the republic of kosovo, edition 1, prishtina. 11. law no. 04 / l-077 on obligations relations, assembly of the republic of kosovo, prishtina, 2012. available at: https://gzk.rksgov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=2828 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=3702 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=18413 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=18413 http://agk-ks.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ligji_nr._04_l-137__p%c3%8br_mbrojtjen_e_burimeve_t%c3%8b_gazetaris%c3%8b.pdf http://agk-ks.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ligji_nr._04_l-137__p%c3%8br_mbrojtjen_e_burimeve_t%c3%8b_gazetaris%c3%8b.pdf http://agk-ks.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ligji_nr._04_l-137__p%c3%8br_mbrojtjen_e_burimeve_t%c3%8b_gazetaris%c3%8b.pdf http://agk-ks.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ligji_nr._04_l-137__p%c3%8br_mbrojtjen_e_burimeve_t%c3%8b_gazetaris%c3%8b.pdf https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=18413 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=2766 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2503 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2503 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=2828 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=2828 41 fatalism – georgian cultural model tamar chkhaidze* dimitri chubinidze, phd** elisabed gegenava*** correspondent author: * ivane javakhishvili tbilisi state university, faculty of psychology and educational sciences, tamochkhaide@gmail.com ** ivane javakhishvili tbilisi state university, faculty of psychology and educational sciences. *** ivane javakhishvili tbilisi state university, faculty of psychology and educational sciences. article history: accepted 01 november 2019 available online 31 december 2019 keywords: fatalism cultural model emic approach mutually inclusive a b s t r a c t fatalism—belief that all events are predetermined and therefore inevitable—have been studied by researchers from different disciplines as it is a significant notion to explain various aspects of individual and social life (health behavior, economic capital, political activity, social participation, etc.). however, the weakness of using only etic methods to understand this complex phenomenon is strongly emphasized. we fully share this viewpoint and think that it is far more appropriate to study fatalism with an interdisciplinary approach such as contemporary psychological anthropology. the aim of the present study was to emphasize the theoretical and methodological opportunities of studying fatalism within this field (specifically, within cultural models school) and presenting the results of the empirical study on the georgian cultural model of fatalism in the light of the opportunities discussed. the theoretical apparatus of the cultural models' school allowed us to think of culturally shaped fatalism, not only as an element of objective culture beyond the mind but also as a part of the mind, namely, as a cognitive schema formed on the basis of shared experiences. to reveal components of this schema we used the in-depth interview as a data collection method and cultural analysis of discourse (specifically, metaphor analysis) as the data analysis method. personal control, deity, destiny, luck, and helplessness emerged as the components of georgian cultural schema according to this analysis. introduction fatalism can be defined as “belief that all events are predetermined and therefore inevitable” [lat. fatalis fatal, deadly, predestined] (“fatalism”, 2019). why study fatalism? research has revealed that fatalism can play an important role in determining a wide range of behaviors such as voting behavior (goodwin & allen, 2000), seeking social support (goodwin, et al., 2002), health behaviors (straughan & seow, 1998) and even financial savings decisions (shapiro & wu, 2011). in economic science, fatalism is regarded as one of the impeding factors to capital investment (bernard, dercon, & taffesse, 2011). in his book, the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism (1905), the sociologist, philosopher, and political economist max weber emphasized the role of predestination (one of the basic concepts of protestant ethics, specifically, calvinism) beliefs in the formation of modern “economic human”. this belief holds that god has preselected some people, who deserved salvation, for heaven. for the believers, the outward sign of election or being chosen for salvation is success achieved through conscientious effort. accumulating wealth by working conscientiously is no longer considered a sin. hence, weber attributes an important role to shifts in worldviews or understandings in causing economic changes. he links the rise of capitalism in europe with protestantism, and the failure of the development of capitalism, mailto:tamochkhaide@gmail.com 42 for example, in india, with the fatalistic understandings characteristic of hinduism. however, a question arises as to whether weber analyzed the understandings from the perspective of a member of the culture or follower of a religion. for example, a german-american economist kapp (1963) also relates poverty in india to hinduistic fatalism. however, his works got criticized by indian scientists. they think kapp’s (1963) analysis relies on superficial interpretations of some theological texts, which link beliefs in fate with passivity (young, morris, burrus, krishnan, & regmi, 2011). with regard to this, barrett and keil’s (1996) study results are interesting as well; the authors point out that everyday thoughts about the supreme power determining human life reflect folk beliefs, not abstract theology. analyzing only theological texts can be a source of misunderstandings in this sense too. for quite a long time it was considered wrong to think that we can read people’s minds from such texts. to understand how people’s beliefs — with which they operate in everyday life — are formed through interacting with theological or cultural texts, a proper approach is necessary. it’s also an important challenge to analyze the following issue: while all religious or cultural traditions contain a notion of supreme power that determines people’s lives, these traditions differ in terms of their conceptions of these powers. according to norenzayan and lee (2010), asian canadians are more fatalistic than european canadians. most importantly, their study has found qualitative differences between the various forms of fatalism: unlike asian fatalism, christian fatalism is more associated with devotion to a deity. considering studies such as the above mentioned, it’s not surprising that a number of authors (acevedo, 2005; d’orlando, ferrante, & ruiu, 2011; ruiu, 2012) claim that fatalism is partially determined by culture. however, the main challenge is that in order to determine the role of culture in shaping fatalism, we need a definition of culture that will capture the link between culture and fatalistic beliefs (ruiu, 2012). we think this is precisely the kind of definition that contemporary psychological anthropology, specifically, the cultural models/schemas1 school functioning within it, offers. 1. cultural models suppose you have a software that can recognize or identify objects and events based on the particular patterned relations of 1 cultural schema and cultural model are alternative terms. however, some authors prefer to use the notion of cultural model in order to denote the cultural schema of particular size (d’andrade, 1995:152-153) or complexity (quinn, 1997:139). in this paper we use them as interchangeable. their components, by simplifying the patterns. basically, schemas are this sort of computer program: they allow the identification of objects and events on the basis of simplified pattern recognition. our cultural schemas might vary in terms of their specificity or concreteness, so, we can have highly specific and concrete schemas for identifying material things like chairs or spoons, as well as high-level schemas for understanding love, success, authority and other abstract phenomena, including fatalism (d'andrade, 1992). according to cognitive psychology2 , the notion of a schema is most effective in describing the way human cognition operates flexibly. how is all this related to culture? why did anthropologists, specifically, those in the cultural model school, get interested in the notion of schema? they drew attention to the schema as a mental structure that is shaped by experiences. as they suggest, it is logical to assume that a group of individuals that share similar experiences, must have a shared mental representations or schemas of the experiences too (quinn, 2011). using the example of the present study’s domain of interest, fatalism, the experience gained through the interaction with socalled objective cultural products (cultural texts, practices, institutions) is represented in the form of cultural schemas in mind. thus, the cultural model school responds to the abovementioned problem related to kapp’s (1963) works, that it is not sufficient to focus on objective culture only; studying the interaction between cultural and mental processes is of great importance. within the approach of the cultural models school, relationship between culture and fatalistic beliefs is also clear: culture is defined as the collection of taken-for-granted assumptions (including fatalistic beliefs/assumptions) organized in mind in the form of schemas shaped on the basis of shared cultural experiences; people have the schemas shared with others and draw upon them in forming expectations, reasoning, telling stories, and performing other ordinary everyday tasks (quinn, 2005). 2. emic approach differences regarding how fatalism is conceived within different cultures and religions, that is, the existence of different cultural models (young, morris, burrus, krishnan, & regmi, 2011) should be taken into account when investigating the role of fatalism in different societies (ruiu, 2013). so, it is relevant not only to study fatalism but also to refine the methodological tools 2 it is important to note that cultural model school of contemporary psychological anthropology incorporates insights from cognitive anthropology and cognitive psychology (d'andrade & strauss, 1992; shore, 1996, dressler, 2017). 43 to achieve it. we have found only a single study related to the issue of fatalism in our country, georgia. it addresses the influence of fatalism on perceived social support and mental health in post-soviet countries (russia, georgia, ukraine, and belarus) (goodwin, et al., 2002). this study showed the highest levels of fatalistic attitudes in georgia. however, the researchers emphasized the insufficiency of etic approach and the necessity to design a more culturally meaningful instrument. to do this it is important to understand a culture from the “native’s point of view” (lu, 2012). this approach is referred to as the emic approach (lu, 2012). contemporary psychological anthropology stresses the necessity of using emic research instruments in addition to popular etic research methods. thus, the relevance of this field for studying fatalism emerges not only from the complexity of theoretical approaches but also from its methodology. 3. research methods 3.1. data collection method and sampling how can emic cultural understandings be reconstructed? according to cultural models school, the most effective way to do it is a cultural analysis of discourse. cultural analysis requires a reasonably extended sample of rich discourse (quinn, 2005). to generate such rich talk, taking the experience of cultural models school into consideration, we have used the in-depth interview method as a data collection method. interviewers used a predesigned interview guide which underwent expert evaluation by two independent researchers of georgian culture prior to the study. in order to ensure effective conditions for revealing the taken-for-granted cultural assumptions, the interviews were made maximally similar to ordinary everyday situations, conducted in as informal settings as possible. after being informed about research objectives all respondents gave their consent and were free to withdraw from an interview process at any time. interviews were conducted and transcribed in the georgian language which is native for the respondents. the anonymity and confidentiality of data were guaranteed. the quota sampling method was used to maximize diversity and to ensure that we had not accidentally captured a variant subculture (strauss & quinn, 1997). study participants were 20 respondents who identified themselves as georgians. participants' ages ranged from 18 to 60 years. interviewees were selected with regard to such obvious differences as their places of 3 a 5-point scale was used with 1 meaning “non-religious” and 5 “highly religious”. all religious respondents were orthodox christians. it is important to note that the majority (89%) of geographical origin (interviews were conducted in 5 cities across georgia: tbilisi, telavi, batumi, kutaisi, and poti.), socioeconomic status (from people with the status of socially vulnerable to people with high-income), educational attainment (from high school diploma to master’s degree) and levels of religiosity (irreligious to highly religious) 3. 3.2. data analysis method cultural analysis of discourse was chosen as the data analysis method, which means to reveal shared, stable understandings by analyzing the features of discourse that did occur frequently and are culture-laden (quinn, 2005). for the present study, we have chosen metaphor4 which is one of such features (quinn, 2005). what determines the frequent use of methapors in everyday speech and how can its culture-laden nature be explained? metaphor (from the greek: metaphorá – to transfer, carry over) is a figure of speech in which an expression is used to refer to something that it does not literally denote by attributing the properties of one object (referred to as source domain) to another in order to suggest a similarity. these objects are widely acknowledged exemplars (referred to as cultural exemplars) of those aspects of experience they are being made to stand for. because the speaker and listener intersubjectively share an exemplar, both knowing what it exemplifies, the chosen metaphor ensures clarifying the point of the speaker for the listener, and consequently propels the tendency using it regularly (strauss & quinn, 1997). the method of looking at metaphors as indicators of schemas was first developed by george lakoff and mark johnson (1980), however, according to these authors, metaphors create cultural schemas whereas contemporary psychological anthropologist think metaphors don’t create but only reflect underlying cultural schemas (strauss & quinn, 1997). to reveal schemas, they suggest the methods of metaphor categorization. the authors emphasize that it is specifically the revealed categories that the respondents share widely among each other, not the metaphors within each category. in fact, the latter might vary from individual to individual, as well as for the same respondent on different occasions. following contemporary psychological anthropologists (strauss & quinn, 1997; quinn, 2005) , we took these categories of metaphors to reflect components of a cultural schema of fatalism that was implicitly used by our interviewees. 4. results ethnic georgians belong to the orthodox christian church (pew research center, may 10, 2017) 4 metaphor is used in the broad sense of the term, as an equivalent to trope. trope involves words or phrases used with a figurative meaning. 44 data analysis revealed the following components of the georgian cultural schema of fatalism: personal control, deity, destiny, luck and helplessness. 4.1. personal control one set of shared understandings revealed in the conversations with our respondents were understandings related to personal control. it needs to be emphasized that personal control is represented as a continuum with the lack of personal control at one end5 and the high level of personal control as the other. one metaphor within the personal control category is working. the source domain of the metaphor is field of work experience. considering georgian history, it is plausible to presume that the characteristic field for georgian culture is land cultivation/farming6 . metaphorical phrases express the ideas of growth, development, and sophistication through effort, gaining control over events at the expense of changing oneself: “very few people are born with inborn talent... if a person doesn’t work on himself/herself, he/she might not achieve anything”; “in order to achieve success, you should make some time for it and work on yourself every day.” interestingly, the same understanding was expressed by another respondent who believed in astrology, which makes it even more reasonable to assume that we’re dealing with the shared underlying conception. i think astrology helps you to work on the given aspects on your birth chart in a way that helps you become a successful person. a person who has harmonious aspects, for example, that he is industrious, diligent... suppose, he was born in a wealthy family, he might be less successful, than a 5 in certain cases, the respondents highlight the lack of personal control in georgian people: “georgians don’t calculate anything and are surprised at the end of the month (the end of payroll period, usually georgian payroll is monthly) ‘where has all the money gone?’... they don’t plan anything ahead of time. you shouldn’t live counting on your fate only. you shouldn’t live only with the hope that you will win the lottery tomorrow and so it’s okay if you waste all you’ve got today.” “he doesn’t try to do something... my neighbors come to my mind now... they spend all day playing backgammon.” 6 materials about the spiritual culture of georgian tribes can be found in the form of ancient cult items which suggest that mythology and religious beliefs of these tribes correspond to the worldview of land-cultivating tribes. ancient georgian myths person who has disharmonious elements in his chart7 because he has to work more, struggle more. those who struggle more, achieve more. the personal control component involves fight-related metaphors which were also shared among the respondents: “you shouldn’t surrender (literally, to put your sword and shield on the ground as a sign of surrender to the enemy to) your destiny; you should fight and something will come out of it”; “if you surrender and think, ‘everything is destined so i’m not going to do anything’, you will die as a slave.” these metaphors manifested themselves in the discourse presumably because the field of fight or wars constitutes a georgian cultural exemplar. due to its geopolitical location, throughout the history of georgia, georgians were often confronted with the necessity of dealing with the attacks of enemies. along with the metaphors expressing direct personal control, the interviews also showed shared metaphors indicating indirect personal control. “in indirect personal control, individuals hide or play down their agency by pretending that they are not acting as an agent while they are actually doing so” (yamaguchi, 2001, p.227). such metaphorical expressions were “intuition” and “cunningness“ (craftiness / being devious). the original georgian word is not exactly intuition but algho/ალღო which stands for a specific aptitude or ability of quickly understanding something, for example, grasping a particular situation and knowing what to do in it, usually based on your feelings rather than examining facts. the second meaning the word carries is for animals – instinct or scent detection skills. “[to achieve success] you need cunningness and intuition/algho.” involve symbols of seasonal death and revival of nature, land fertility and bumper harvest. sacral acts of procreation, fertility, and prosperity are depicted in the cult items. ethnographic works show a diversity of labor management, working tools optimally adjusted to local natural geographical environment, methods of labor production, and cultivated plants in georgian ethnic groups (ბასილაია, 2006) 7 7 natal chart or the personal astrological chart that can be drawn up for each individual depicting the configuration of planets at his/her birth supposedly determining his/her personality, energy, focus or course of life 45 “i have a strong intuition/algho, it doesn’t take me much to know a man, i can tell a trustworthy person from an untrustworthy one easily.” “the product might be of poor quality but you can wrap and present it in a way that will sell the product.” revealing this conception in our discourses is consistent with the findings of a recent study of georgian proverbial expressions and cultural models of adaptive behavior according to which strategic elasticity is a culturally specific behavioral strategy (ჩუბინიძე, 2018). the interviewees have also used metaphorical expressions conveying the concept of proxy control. this means control by someone else for the benefit of the person (yamaguchi, 2001): “it’s difficult in this country... unless someone gives you a helping hand.” high prevalence of indirect and proxy control is characteristic of the cultures where interpersonal harmony is highly valued and direct personal control of the environment is undesirable (yamaguchi, 2001). these cultural differences are well reflected in the differences between individualistic and collectivistic forms of control. these forms correspond in content with the prominent classifications of agency: individual versus collective agency (menon, morris, chiu, & hong, 1999) and disjoint versus conjoint agency (markus & kitayama, 2003) distinctions. explicably, the notion of agency is often identified with western philosophy. from the western philosophical perspective, behavior doesn’t emerge by itself but always implies the existence of an agent or initiation of action by the agent. in this view, the agency is understood as exclusively characteristic of an individual. however, markus and kitayama (2003) argue, this understanding fails to capture agency comprehensively enough since it has been created and is maintained in the context of and by the meanings and practices of middle-class european americans. this is just one of the existing models8 of the agency; it is referred to as a disjoint agency model. the experience of agency is present not only in the disjoint agency model but also in the context of conjoint agency, however, in a different form: meeting others’ expectations and obligations can be perceived as giving rise to and enhancing one’s 8 it’s noteworthy that when using the term model they rely on the theories of cultural models (holland & quinn, 1987; shore, 1996) and social representation (moscovici, 2001). motivation, not as pressure. therefore, as markus and kitayama (2003) point out, this is not a low-level agency but just a different model of agency. in our study, the sense of conjoint/collective agency was conveyed by metaphors expressing connection: “[achieving success] requires not only working but also forming some connections and creating a proper environment, which in turn, requires a lot of time.” “it’s very difficult to be unemployed but it doesn’t mean that... you understand, right?... my family members stand by me. „when you are friends with someone... it’s not forced. this is something based on mutual understanding and something you do for free.“ the agency classification authors point out that conjoint agency is more prevalent in collectivistic cultures (menon, morris, chiu, & hong, 1999; markus & kitayama, 2003). however, it is important to note that these works exclusively9 separates “individualism” from “collectivism” which, to take into consideration the conceptual and measurement problems of crosscultural research paradigm, can be considered as theoretically meaningless (guimarães, 2019; huang, bedford, & zhang, 2018; omi, 2012; tripathi & leviatan, 2003). unlike cross-cultural psychology, cultural psychology, especially cultural psychology of semiotic mediation emphasizes that it is more meaningful to move from exclusive separation (“individualism or collectivism”) to inclusive separation (“individualism and collectivism”) (valsiner , 2019). this approach is also confirmed by our data of georgian respondents in which disjoint and conjoint agencies do not exclude each other but coexist. the following quotation below shows that together with a metaphor expressing conjoint agency (“stand by someone”) stands a metaphor of success achieved through personal effort (“i wouldn’t be here”). “my parents stood by me when i needed to study, they paid for my education. but if not all those sleepless nights spent working, i wouldn’t be here “ (i wouldn’t be able to achieve what i am now)”. the following quotation shows ambivalent feelings about consuming collective resources: on the one hand, feeling 9 there are two possible ways in which phenomena can be separated: mutually exclusively (a is not non-a) and mutually inclusively (a is not non-a but a relates with non-a and vice versa) (valsiner, 2014) 46 uncomfortable when getting helped out and on the other hand, when adopting the perspective of a helper who gives, considering such an attitude unacceptable. on the inside, i feel stressed thinking of how much he/she put himself/herself out, how much he/she gave so much away for me... but at the same time, i don’t want to tell them “you shouldn’t have bothered doing this much for me” because i would feel offended if someone told me “you didn’t have to bother so much” because if i do something like this, i’m completely enthusiastic about it and i put my whole heart and soul into doing it. the next two components might demonstrate the relevance of the approach of mutual inclusivity even better. 4.2. deity & destiny two types of fatalism can be distinguished: cosmological and structural (acevedo, 2005). the first comes from weber, according to whom, fatalism originates from notions of external forces affecting individual, such as laws of karma, diabolical spirits, divine predestination, stellar constellations, cycles of rebirth and so forth (ruiu, 2012). the differences between various cosmological doctrines are best summarized in the oedipus principle (or destiny) versus the job principle (or deity) distinction (young, morris, burrus, krishnan, & regmi, 2011; fortes, 2018). oedipus is a righteous and noble man who exiles on his own will to get rid of murdering his caring and devoted father, however, he failed to escape predestination (fortes, 2018). thus, the oedipus principle holds that individuals are born with predetermined destinies they cannot escape (young, morris, burrus, krishnan, & regmi, 2011). the catastrophe of oedipus is caused by the reasons that “lie hid deep in the nature of god and man10,” not by any fault of his (lucas, 1950, as cited in fortes, 2018). 10 the oedipus principle, the cosmic belief about destiny, is characteristic of hinduism. at the heart of this model is samsara, the cycle of birth and death, through which souls are reborn with predestined fortunes which are determined, respectively, by positive or negative deeds in their previous lives. importantly, there is not a universally agreed upon view with regard to the gods’ role in determining one’s karma in ancient texts. the brahma sutras highlight the role of god’s in dispensing destined fortunes. according to other hindu schools, however, even gods can’t intervene in predetermined karma. the inability of gods to overpower a person’s destiny is illustrated in a folktale: lakshmi, the wealth goddess, is pleading with vishnu, her husband, to help a beggar. vishnu responds that it is pointless because “the beggar has nothing in his karma...he has done nothing virtuous and therefore deserves nothing” (shweder & miller, 1991, p. 158). eventually vishnu agrees on putting money under a tree, but the beggar failed to see the money right before him. this folktale shows that nothing can overcome a person’s destiny (in this case to be poor), even a completely different understanding of human nature and morality is suggested by job’s story11 . it doesn’t propose supernatural forces mysteriously determining an individual’s life course from birth to death. instead, the good and evil that one receives in their life, is considered rewards and punishments given by a personified omnipotent god. but god’s actions are not arbitrary, impulsive or unpredictable. instead, they are restricted by the covenant with his creature. practically, this is a relationship based on a contract in which god is obliged to act justly and man has freedom of choosing between righteousness and sin (fortes, 2018). the conceptions of the job principle were expressed by the respondents using the following metaphors: “punishment”, “pass the test”, “walk the path” (similar meaning was expressed by “taking a step” – in the right or wrong direction), “human relationships” (relating to a human-like creature), “babysitter” (represents the watchful, responsive deity of the job principle) (young, morris, burrus, krishnan, & regmi, 2011). these metaphors make up the deity component of the schema. “i have committed a big sin, for which i got punished with being left without a family”. “how we pass the test or how we walk the path, determines our future” “[a person’s fate is determined] exactly the way we relate to one another. for example, i hurt you, but then i helped you a lot and so we ended up with a great relationship formed between us.” “a comedian said christ is a free (free as not paid) babysitter: when someone is told he/she is being watched, he/she won’t do bad deeds”. the intervention of gods (young, morris, burrus, krishnan, & regmi, 2011). 11 the job’s story is one of a suffering righteous man whose friends visit him when they learn about his troubles. they engage in cycles of conversations (job 3-27), where his friends advice job to admit his guilt and return his happiness by asking god’s forgiveness. job rejects their advice and arguments. he thinks his afflictions are not related to his sins, because he hasn’t committed any. however, eventually he admits having imagined himself as equal to god and entitling himself to judge what constitutes righteous or wicked conduct. this was exactly his sin. fortes (2018) compares the sufferings of job to paternal disciplinary punishment of his son’s misconduct, and job’s salvation to his acceptance of the supremacy of the father and his filial dependence. this means realization of the benevolence of the father’s intentions and the acceptance of the paternal authority with even when it involves severe measures of discipline. 47 interestingly, metaphors corresponding to the oedipus principle have also been revealed in the interviews. they constitute the destiny component of the fatalism schema. one such metaphor is “being born under a star”. according to ethnographic works, one of the most widespread beliefs in georgia is that at the moment when a person is born a new star named after him/her appears in the sky (აბაკელია, 1997). the respondents have been using this metaphor to convey the idea that a person’s life is predetermined at his/her birth: “i firmly believe in fate: under what kind of star you are born. some people achieve everything so easily, some with so much difficulty”. in expressing the notion referred to as the equifinality principle of fate attributions (norenzayan & lee, 2010) that regardless of preceding events, the outcome is overdetermined and fixed in advance, the respondents have been using the expressions of “slave” and “return back”: “you are a slave to your fate”. “you might get rid of an unfortunate incident but it might return back to you after a short time in a different form”. a metaphorical expression “tsera”/წერა (literally can be roughly translated as “writing”) is also used within the destiny component of fatalism schema of the georgian respondents: “no matter where you go, you can’t avoid what’s written/დაწერილია for you anyway”. “it’s like everything is written/დაწერილია in advance”. the personification of fate in the georgian myth-ritual system is represented by bedismtserlebi/ბედისმწერლები (singular bedismtserali, with bedi meaning fate, mtserali – writer) — “writers of fate”, “fate-writers” or “fate-authors” who often are portrayed as elderly women dressed in black (აბაკელია, 1997). it’s interesting that another word for bedi (fate) in the georgian language is bedistsera/ბედისწერა. ethnographic works propose in georgian tradition bedismtserlebi (writers of fate) are at the same time weavers or knitters too (sporadic hints can be traced in some rituals like tying thread on the wrist, neck, or around the waist, აბაკელია, 1997). on the one hand, such threads or strings might have served a protective function (against evil), but on the other hand, they might have been supposed to tie desirable qualities (longevity, wisdom, etc.) to a person (აბაკელია, 1997). in our study, we have also seen respondents using metaphorical expressions like „tied fate” (“i don’t know what ties my fate”) and “untied fate” (in georgia getting married is considered untying/opening your fate) which, according to the georgian ethnographic works, also indicate to a link with the thread of fate (აბაკელია, 1997). as we’ve seen, our study has revealed the conceptions of both deity and destiny. it is also interesting having revealed such a pattern of coexistence of these conceptions in which predetermination, invariability of one’s fate independent of their actions (the oedipal principle) is related to the notion of a personified god (the job principle): “religion acknowledges fate but the bedismtserali/ბედისმწერალი (writer of fate / fatewriter) is god.” “god came to my mind because everyone thinks that god writes/წერს [the fate].” the phrase cited in the above quotation —“everyone thinks”— might be suggesting perceived sharedness of this conception. the subsequent quotation shows how the inevitable destiny implied by the oedipus principle might be determined by a god’s punishment (the job principle), not only in a given individual’s life but also in his offspring's lives too. when he was born, it was with his fate written and assigned at birth, but you know what i think? ... there used to be a church near here which they destroyed later. i think, when you burn or destroy the house of god it will then result in some consequences. god is merciful but i think if one does such deeds, something is bound to go wrong in his life and those of his offspring. in addition to this, the interviews showed that different strategies for managing future risk corresponding to deity and destiny beliefs can also coexist. young et al. (2011) note, that in the hindu model of destiny, since one’s fate is predetermined, it is possible to learn (at least to some extent) about the future in advance, however, not for an ordinary layperson, but for psychics, seers or soothsayers only. because the samsara system is connected with the stars, astrologists can foresee an individual’s fortunes too. in contrast, it is impossible to forecast the influences of supernatural powers years in advance in the christian cosmology of deity since in this model the fatalistic influences don’t stem from predictable cosmic predetermination but from 48 the changing perceptions, emotions, or intentions of a person-like deity. accordingly, this leads to the perception of praying to god as an effective strategy. king david, for example, often communicates to god with prayers (psalms). as we mentioned above, for managing future risks both strategies were expressed by our respondents: “they go to fortune-tellers/soothsayers, they spread the tarot; my close friends go to them too. they try to persuade me to visit them too.” “lots of people around me believe in fortune-tellers / soothsayers.” “i used to read tarot cards myself.” "deep inside my heart, i believe prayer has power." “when my mother makes the sign of the cross on me as i’m leaving home, this gives me power”. “i get distracted but i’m afraid of not praying. it can’t be skipped.” “astrology is created by god too”. it’s interesting that the coexistence of the oedipus’ and job’s principles in west african religion is also emphasized by a south african-born anthropologist, meyer fortes (2018). according to him, the oedipus and job principles represent two main alternatives for dealing with difficulties and hazards on the way of a person making progress from the state of complete dependence (as a newborn at the mother’s breast) to the state of independence (albeit constrained) as an adult or citizen12 . it’s a law of nature that certain people fail at becoming a full-fledged member of society. to interpret, give moral value, and control the problematic situation resulted from such failures in the individual, they use the beliefs and rituals that are focused on the notion of oedipal destiny. however, most people succeed in the task of becoming social persons as long as they can bear with the unpredictability of dangers and rewards. to give moral value to this latter experience, the religious system of west africa also involves personified supernatural figures (a simplified version of 12 he considers all beliefs and concepts found in studying west african religion as magnified and disguised religious extrapolations of the experiences produced by parental relationships with children in kinship and descent based societies. 13 however, it is possible that higher fatalistic tendencies lead to higher demand of protection and therefore, higher level of regulation or, on the contrary, it may be that regulation itself job’s god) which are analogous to parents’ authority (fortes, 2018). 4.3. helplessness it is impossible to affect life situations in a way that that results in changing the outcomes — is another shared understanding revealed in the discourses of georgian respondents. this is a case of structural fatalism, not cosmological fatalism discussed above. acevedo (2008) argues that fatalism is not a direct result of religious denomination, it comes from historical, cultural, economic and sociopolitical processes too, so for fuller understanding of this phenomenon he suggests not to abandon cosmological for structural or vice versa, instead, appropriate both formulations in the development of a multidimensional model of fatalism. the definition of structural fatalism is proposed by durkheim for whom fatalism may stem from structural conditions such as inequality or extreme overregulation. his idea that a more regulated society tends to be also more fatalistic is supported by research data13 (ruiu, 2012; ruiu, 2013). it is emphasized that structural fatalism is linked to the sense of powerless/helplessness produced by “over regulation combined with a lack of exit option into the collective body in which the subject lacks the necessary voice and/or exit option to alter their social position, status, rank, or living conditions” (acevedo 2005a, p. 75 as cited in esparza, wiebe, & quiñones, 2015). in our study too, the helplessness component of the cultural model of fatalism incorporated metaphors expressing the shared conceptions of the impossibility of causing change and lack of mechanisms for having control over the course of events. “as the saying goes, money goes to money.” “people are resigned to defeat and they don’t try... “nobody’s there for a peasant”, you’ve heard of it, haven’t you14 …” it is important to note that durkheim's (1968:276 as cited in acevedo, 2005) empirical example of fatalism that is experienced by "very young husbands [and] the married woman who is childless" shows that his structural fatalism concept does not point only the material sources of regulation that impact social actor. durkheim expands his concept beyond the economic realm generates fatalistic tendencies. so, the possibility of reverse causality is not eliminated (d‘orlando et al., 2011). ruiu (2012) argues that if institutions are the expression of the preferences of the members of a society (at least in democratic societies), the first explanation seems to be more plausible. 14 we believe, the phrase “you’ve heard of it, haven’t you” said by respondents to interviewers that are representatives of their own, same indigenous culture suggests sharedness of the conception under discussion. 49 to include more micro-level domains of social life, such as marriage and child bearing (acevedo, 2005). this broader understanding of the concept was taken into account in ruiu’s (2013) study also; to measure to what extent a society is regulated, the researchers used not only a country-level indicator15 that evaluates the extent of state control over travel, choice of residence, employment or institution of higher education, the right of citizens to own property and establish private businesses, the private business’ freedom, security forces, political parties or organized crime, but also gender equality, freedom of choice of marriage partners and size of family. the respondents of our study also discussed social pressures, such as pressure to get married, and having to take other people’s opinions into account in choosing a partner and the like. my father had two professions: at first, he was a physics teacher and then he became a constructor. we (his children) chose construction faculty and physics — my father’s professions. my mother wanted us to become doctors very much but we didn’t want to, so, in that, we went in the direction of following our father’s advice. on the other hand, we fulfilled her wish to have doctors as daughters-in-law. i pleased my mother. “others think that the time came for me to get married.” “they forced me to get married.” if i were born and had lived in another country, i would have achieved a lot. i don’t mean career, knowledge and such-like; i would be more grown as a person... [what prevented you from it here?] clearly social, economic, stereotypical attitudes [prevented me from it here]... but now that i’m getting older, i don't pay attention to some things, i still try to maintain my autonomy, but the social pressure is huge. i think it even intervenes in your thinking; when you don’t have exposure to anything different for some period of time, you can’t hear something different, can’t see something different, i think, you’re bound to think inside that box, independently of your will. 15 the source of this indicator is the personal autonomy and individual rights index furnished by freedom house (2006). the ratings of georgia in 2019 repeat the ratings of 2006. freedom rating –3 political rights –3 civil liberties 3 (1=most 4.4. luck the luck component incorporated shared understanding that in addition to taking rational actions (“use your head”, “measure twice, cut once”), one’s course of life is governed by something else too. this is what the respondents refer to as luck. with regard to being an individual characteristic as opposed to being an external event not dependent on a person, luck is described equivocally. on the one hand, they describe it as an individual characteristic which is assigned to a person at birth. the metaphorical expression kudbediani/ქუდბედიანი is used to talk about the shared conception of luck (“some people are born with kudbedi”). kudbediani is a compound word consisting of the base-words kud (meaning a hat) and bediani (meaning lucky or literally having bedi; bedi means luck, fortune, fate). it’s interesting that kudbedi referred to fetal membrane surrounding a newborn. children are born with this membrane rarely, so it was an anomalous event which used to create an unusually strong impression even in the recent past, let alone in the far more distant past when unexplained phenomena, as supernatural and mysterious, had been causing fear and terror in people. an extraordinary event for them was a sign portending something, either good or bad. taking it as a sign of good luck (rather than bad fortune) might be due to the tendency of seeing phenomena in a self-favorable manner (ომიაძე, 2006). and why precisely ‘kudi’/hat? a child is born with a head and so it is logical that the first impression is as if she/he is wearing a hat (ომიაძე, 2006). on the other hand, luck is described not as an individual characteristic but as a sequence of external events, independent of a person, that brings good to him/her. “she achieved success, got married, got rich, got a job, everything at the same time. luck was never on her side before but then suddenly everything worked out well.” "as i said, ‘having a good fortune’ means that your life goes well” / things in your life work out well.“ the revealed distinction between two understandings of luck in our interviews corresponds to an existing classification that categorizes luck beliefs in two types: fleeting luck and stable luck. fleeting luck belief views luck as a product of situational happenstance, while stable luck belief considers it as a constant trait (chen & young, 2018). it is important to note that people free, 7=least free); 2009 aggregate freedom score is 63 (100=most free, 0=least free). 50 see stable luck as an extra personal asset that they can use anytime they want and this perception makes them more agentic (young, chen, & morris, 2009). however, as we mentioned above, perceptions of agency and practices are culture-specific. for instance, having agency in the american culture usually means that you do not need superstition as a coping strategy to collect good luck, but in asian cultures, a person’s sense of agency is associated with a greater propensity for superstition (chen & young, 2018). how it is possible? as we mentioned above, americans are more likely to have a belief in individual agency, whereas asians are more likely to support the idea of collective agency (a belief that social collectives can help obtain desired outcomes) (menon, morris, chiu, & hong, 1999). in these contexts, such collectives may include not only human actors but also non-human actors, such as deities or animals (morris, menon, & ames, 2001) and people often use superstitions to seek the favor of such non-human actors (thompson, 1978 as cited in chen & young, 2018). the idea of using superstitions for managing one’s luck combined with the sense of agency was expressed in our interviews too. the georgian respondents mentioned that sometimes they perform superstitious rituals in order to obtain desired outcomes. “i tell them to pour water on the salt thrown.” salt thrown is perceived as an ominous sign. according to this superstition, if salt is thrown on the floor, it portends a fight/argument. throwing water on it might be an attempt to avoid predicted negative consequences. “these clothes bring luck to me/kargad makvs datsdili/კარგად მაქვს დაცდილი“ the original georgian expression kargad/tsudad makvs datsdili/კარგად/ცუდად მაქვს დაცდილი doesn’t seem to have an exact english corresponding phrase. kargad/tsudad datsdili (with the base-word tsda/ცდა meaning to try, to experience, to test as a verb or trial, attempt, observation as a noun) roughly means tested and tried, well-tried, probed and refers to generalized superstitious beliefs based on previous experience about something (an action, place, object, person etc.) bringing positive, desirable (კარგად დაცდილი with კარგი meaning good) or negative, undesirable (ცუდად დაცდილი with ცუდი meaning bad) outcomes. the revealed combination of stable luck, sense of agency and the propensity for superstition demonstrates that the associations among the beliefs may be culture-specific and consequently, suggests once again the importance of the emic approach to the study of such a multidimensional phenomenon as fatalism. 5. conclusions given its complexity, studying fatalism is relevant to researchers in behavioral or social sciences, as well as researchers interested in cultural, economic or political issues. studies on fatalism in georgia are scarce; besides, even for the authors of the studies conducted it is evident that studying fatalism properly is impossible using etic research instruments only. taking these difficulties into consideration, the aim of the present study was to emphasize the theoretical and methodological opportunities of studying fatalism within the frames of contemporary psychological anthropology, specifically, cultural models school and presenting the results of the empirical study on georgian cultural model of fatalism using these opportunities. the theoretical apparatus of the cultural models school allowed us to think of culturally shaped fatalism, not only as an element of objective culture beyond the mind, but also as a part of mind, namely, as a cognitive schema formed on the basis of shared experiences. discourse cultural analysis —more specifically, metaphor analysis—of the in-depth interview data revealed the following components of the georgian cultural schema: personal control, deity, destiny, helplessness and luck. the disclosure of these components/dimensions shared among the georgian respondents allowed us to reconstruct emic cultural understanding of fatalism. the etic instruments—so favored in social and behavioral science disciplines nowadays— are not defined by the terms that respondents themselves use to talk about a particular phenomenon (fatalism, love, happiness, etc.). in other words, they lack the “emic validity” (dressler & oths, 2014). the present study was an attempt to deal with this methodological challenge. revealing emic components/dimensions of fatalism using metaphor analysis was the first step. the aim of the subsequent study will be studying the interrelationships among these dimensions using propositional analysis (quinn, 2005). the verification of the revealed georgian cultural model of fatalism by determining consensus levels for each proposition using cultural consensus analysis (romney, batchelder, & weller, 1987) and measuring the level of cultural consonance (the degree to which individuals put cultural models into practice in their own everyday lives, dressler, 2017) are following important steps to build emicly valid instrument for studying fatalism. with this, we would like to stress once again that only instruments created this way—following the basic anthropological directive of the prominent anthropologist bronislaw malinowski: to see the 51 world as others see it (dressler, 2017)—¬provides an opportunity for comprehensive understanding such a complex phenomenon as fatalism. acknowledgments shota rustaveli national science foundation of georgia (srnsfg) has supported this research [phdf_18_1222]. references 1. acevado, g. 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(2008). ეთნოსები საქართველოში [ethnic groups in georgia]. საქართველოს სახალხო დამცველთან არსებული ტოლერანტობის ცენტრი. თბილისი. 49. ომიაძე, ს. (2006). ქართული დისკურსის ლინგვოკულტურულ შემადგენელთა სტრუქტურა, სემანტიკა და ფუნქციონირება [the structure, semantics and function of the lingvocultural characteristics of georgian discourse] (unpublished doctoral dissertation). არნ. ჩიქობავას ენათმეცნიერების ინსტიტუტი. თბილისი. 50. ჩუბინიძე, დ. (2018). ქართული ანდაზები და ადაპტაციური ქცევის კულტურული მოდელები [georgian proverbs and cultural models of adaptive behavior] (unpublished doctoral dissertation).ივანე ჯავახიშვილის სახელობის თბილისის სახელმწიფო უნივერსიტეტი. თბილისი 100 relations between central government and local government in kosovo iliriana bajrami, llm. rezonanca college, faculty of nursing, ilirana.bajrami@rks-gov.net article history: accepted 17 july 2019 available online 24 august 2019 keywords: authorizations, central govenrment consitution competences decentralization local government local governance power a b s t r a c t this paper represents a model attempt to shed light on institutional relations between two levels of power in the republic of kosovo. the wide range of legal acts concerned with the regulation of the reports between central and legal government in kosovo, comprise a legal system containing complex set of rules which define the share of power, competences and the authority of these two levels. as such, this paper is an attempt to investigate and analyze the complex set of legal and institutional mechanisms referring to relations between these two levels of power. the paper follows a set of approaches and methods such as comparative and analytical method, descriptive, empirical and historical method in order to cover as much aspects and elements of the relations between two levels of power in kosovo. introduction reports between the central and local government are an everpresent and important issue for the functioning of state power. historically, there has always been disagreement between these two levels of power, which consisted in the claims of local government to have as much powers as possible, while on the other hand, at the same time it has been accompanied by the efforts of the central government to retain its powers and responsibilities for the central level of power. even nowadays, central and local government relations are very important and current issues in nearly all countries, regardless of the form of governance and the level of democracy. particularly in transition countries emerging from the communist dictatorship, these relations have been of significant importance given that the relations between these levels of power have been based on the principle of hierarchy and subordination. regarding kosovo, after the first local elections in 2000 until the adoption of the constitution and the law on local selfgovernment, the relations between these two levels of power were not legally regulated and institutionalized. regulation 45/2000 on self-government of kosovo municipalities did not foresee protection mechanisms of local autonomy, thus facilitating frequent interference from the central level to the local level either by unmik or the central government. on the other hand, municipalities did not have legal obligations to implement and fulfill the findings of the central government on cases of the lawlessness of the work of municipal bodies. with the approval of the kosovo constitution and the law on local self-government, the relations between these two levels of power are institutionalized, clearly defining the rights and responsibilities of the central and local government in the process of overseeing the legality of the functioning of local governance organs, as well as the legality of local government acts. these reports in no way undermine the principle of local autonomy, because local government is a constitutional category and enjoys mechanisms of protection of local autonomy even through constitutional judgments in cases when the central 101 government intervenes in violation of the constitution and the law. 1. general aspect local government has as its mission the provision of closer services to citizens and the right of citizens to participate in the conduct of public affairs, which will regulate and manage, under their responsibility and in the interest of the local population, a good part of public affairs (european charter of local selfgovernment, article 3, 1985). the constitution and local laws define the responsibilities of local government, in the exercise of which these governmental authorities have full responsibility and autonomy. all levels of power have shared responsibilities, they are part of the country's legal and constitutional system as an integral part of government and state functionality. despite the autonomy of each level of government, with the aim of ensuring legality and constitutional principles, central government bodies have been entrusted with the responsibility of ensuring the legality of the work of local level bodies. therefore, primary importance is given to the regulation of relations between central and local government, as constitutional and legal reports. local governance, especially the decentralization process, is one of the issues addressed in the ahtisaari package. this document emphasizes that the decentralization system, the creation and development of new municipalities, will serve as an element to address the concerns of the serb community and other minority communities in kosovo, to encourage and ensure active community participation in local government, above all, to fulfill the principles derived from the european charter of local selfgovernment, with particular emphasis on the principle of subsidiarity (bajrami, 2010, pp 244). the administration bodies are autonomous in the exercise of their functions and responsibilities within the authorizations, which are provided by law, other provisions and other general acts, therefore the oversight by the highest authorities is intended solely to ensure that the law is being implemented fairly (sokoli, 2014, pp 42). throughout the history of local government development there have been disagreements and antagonisms between levels of power, in particular between central and local government. it is entirely natural for local government efforts to have as much power as possible to limit the central government's intervention, while central government has always expressed the tendency to centralize functions at the central level. these antagonisms are still present, especially in the totalitarian and transition countries. by comparing the relationship between central government and local government, it is concluded that the vast majority of states have institutionalized and regulated these reports by constitution and laws, in particular with the law on local self government, as a system law, where exactly these reports are predicted powers. the institutionalization of the relations between these two levels of power is very important for defining and sharing mutual responsibilities, defining which public issues are in the interest of local government and what are in the interests and responsibilities of central government. thus it defines mutual relations between these levels of power, in particular, sets out the basic principles of administrative oversight, mutual responsibilities, types of administrative review, administrative review procedures, rights of the supervisory authority and municipal authorities, always respecting the objectives of administrative review. the principle of the autonomy of local self-government, as a basic principle of local government, will be respected only when the relations between these two levels of power are defined by the constitution and the law, as this prevents conflicts of power exercise and interventions in responsibilities and powers of one and the other level of power. kosovo, after 1999, has gone through two very important stages in the functioning of local and central government. in fact, in the period 1999-2008, when kosovo was under un administration, central government was unmik's administration, which, in relation to local government, cared for overseeing the work of municipal administrators. the legal basis for the functioning of local government in this period was unmik regulation 45/2000, which has created many problems between local and central government. in fact, supreme power at the local and central level was unmik's administration. the special representative of the secretary-general (srsg) retained all the powers granted to him under united nations 102 security council resolution 1244. he had the final say in making decisions regarding any provision of this regulation (unmik regulation nr 2000/45 on selfgovernment of municipalities of kosova, article 47.1) the srsg was entitled to annul any municipal decision if it considered it to be in violation of united nations security council resolution 1244, unmik regulations or other applicable laws and whether those decisions do not take into account to the extent that the rights and interests of communities living in the territory of that commune (unmik regulation nr 2000/45 on selfgovernment of municipalities of kosova, article 47.2) the period in question is a typical example of the problems and disagreements that might arise between the levels of government, because the unmik administration behaved in a dual position: in certain cases it claimed itself as a central power, while in other cases it was responsible attributing to local institutions as central power. this period was characterized by numerous interventions by the central government, both from the local and the international ones, because in the absence of the mechanisms of protection of local autonomy, it intervened in many of the municipality's own competencies, envisaged by unmik regulation no. 45/2000. this situation has caused duality of competences, especially in the field of management of public utilities, in the field of education, health, and other fields and areas, which has caused dissatisfaction and great disputes especially with local government in relation to central government. the second phase of local self-government in kosovo starts with the adoption of the constitution and the law on local selfgovernment. the relationship between central government and local government, according to the constitution, is regulated and institutionalized in its entirety in accordance with the principles of the charter, referring to the relations between these two levels of power. 2. constitutional and legal aspects of the relationship between central and local level as in most other countries, and in kosovo, local selfgovernment is a constitutional category with powers, responsibilities and autonomy as defined by the constitution. the constitution of the republic of kosovo guarantees the local government by defining that the municipality is the basic territorial unit of local self-government. also, the constitution of the republic of kosovo stipulates that the organization and powers of local self-government units are regulated by law (unmik regulation nr 2000/45 on selfgovernment of municipalities of kosova, article 12.2). the constitution of the republic of kosovo provides special protection to the local self-government. it envisages special procedures in the adoption and amendment of laws that regulate the organization and competencies of the units of local selfgovernment. article 81.1 of the constitution of the republic of kosovo has defined the model of the double majority in the cases of adoption and amendment of laws that regulate the area of local self-government. the principles on which the local self-government in the republic of kosovo are developed aim at balancing the relations between the central and the local level. according to the constitution, local self-government is exercised among the elected bodies in the general, equal, free and direct elections and secret ballot (unmik regulation nr 2000/45 on selfgovernment of municipalities of kosova, article 123.2). it follows that only the municipal bodies, derived from direct, equal and free elections, can exercise the functions of local self-government. this constitutional definition is promoted and protected by the european charter of local self-government. local selfgovernment bodies, resulting from the electoral process and popular legitimacy, enjoy constitutional judicial protection, administrative protection and other protection, which can be exercised on a regular court course. according to article 113.4 of the constitution, municipalities are authorized to challenge the constitutionality of laws that violate their responsibilities and incomes to the constitutional court. this authorization enables municipal bodies to maintain their autonomy and breadth through this remedy. the constitution of the republic of kosovo in article 123.3 (general principles) stipulates that "the activity of the bodies of local self-government is based on this constitution and the laws of the republic of kosovo and respects the european charter on local selfgovernment. the republic of kosovo considers and applies the european charter of local self-government to the extent required by the signatory country". the constitution of the republic of kosovo defines municipalities as core units of local self-government, which enjoy a high degree of local self-government and encourage and ensure the active participation of all citizens in the decisionmaking process of municipal bodies. also, in article 124.6 of the 103 constitution, municipalities are obliged to respect the constitution, the law and enforce judicial decisions. according to the constitution, the administrative review of municipal acts by central authorities in their area of competence is limited to ensuring compliance with the constitution of the republic of kosovo and with the law. as evidenced by the constitutional definitions, the basic units of local self-government in kosovo are municipalities that enjoy a high degree of autonomy and are obliged to ensure citizen participation in decision-making processes. also, according to the constitution, the model of the territorial body in kosovo is based on the model of dual governance, without the existence of intermediate power bodies. local government bodies are obliged to respect the constitution, the law, and enforce judicial decisions, which imply that they should respect the boundaries of their activity as set out in the constitution and by law in exercising their functions. despite the fact that the constitution of the republic of kosovo promotes and guarantees a high degree of substantive autonomy and constitutional judicial protection, however, in accordance with the standards of the european charter for local selfgovernment, it envisages the institute of administrative review of the acts issued by the municipalities, which aim to ensure legality, respectively the compatibility of the acts in question with the constitution and the law in force (constitution of the republic of kosovo, 2008, article 124.7). this administrative review is exercised by the central administration bodies and, as noted above, the objective is only to ensure the compatibility of municipal acts with the constitution and the law. the administrative review, therefore, does not intend to assess the appropriateness and usefulness of municipal acts that regulate areas of municipal competencies, as opposed to delegated competencies where central bodies assess the appropriateness and usefulness of municipal acts regulating delegated competencies. in the context of the direct application of the principles of the european charter of local self-government and the constitutional spirit, the administrative review should respect the proportional principle, which means that the central supervisory bodies should take measures and actions in proportion to violated violations without affecting substantive issues of local autonomy. as noted above, article 123 (general principles) of the constitution of the republic of kosovo stipulates that the right of local self-government is guaranteed and regulated by law. the assembly of the republic of kosovo, in compliance with the constitutional procedures, has adopted the law no. 03 / l-040 on local self-government. the law on local self-government in a complex manner regulates all segments of local self-government, defining competencies, organs, organization, local government acts and other issues of importance to local governance as a fundamental unit of organization of the state where citizens and residents of that municipalities realize most of their rights and obligations. the law also regulates the relationship between central and local government, referring to the highest standards of local government and, in general, to consolidated western democracies. according to the law on local self government, the central government monitors, supports and oversees the work of local government bodies, helping the work of local government bodies to build professional, financial and logistical capacities for the exercise of their functions. however, as noted above, the central government has the right and responsibility to take the necessary measures against the local government bodies and in the process of failing local governments to enforce the law and to provide citizens with services. the administrative review has the right to take legal measures in the procedure of reviewing the legality of municipal acts. the municipal assembly, as the highest legislative body and municipal representative, has the greatest responsibilities in matters and decisions of interest of local residents. if the municipal assembly fails to perform compulsory functions according to the standards set by law or if it becomes dysfunctional and fails to exercise the fundamental rights of the citizens, the responsible ministry notifies the municipality of failures and requires the performance of municipal responsibilities and functions. also, the ministry responsible for local government notifies the government of the republic of kosovo for the failure of the municipality. in this case, the government may dissolve the municipal assembly as ineffective and announce new municipal assembly elections (law on local self-government, nr. 03/l040, article 50). according to the law on local self-government, the mayor, as the executive executive of the municipality, is elected by direct election in accordance with the law on local elections. the mayor, as the chief executive of the municipality, applies the acts 104 and decisions of the municipal assembly and proposes to the assembly for approval. the mayor is elected for a period of four years, but the mandate of the mayor ends as foreseen by law, as well as in the cases of dismissal. the mayor may be suspended by a decision of the government of the republic of kosovo within a period of 30 days if the president has violated the constitution and the law in force. if it considers that the conditions for suspension from the mayor's office have been met, the ministry responsible for local government recommends to the government of the republic of kosovo the suspension of that mayor. the government of the republic of kosovo (within 30 days) may suspend the decision of the mayor to submit the case to the constitutional court. (law on local self-government, nr. 03/l-040, article 64.2). if the constitutional court supports the decision, the government may dismiss the mayor from office. a very substantial part of the law on local self-government in regulating the relations between the central and local government is the municipal administrative oversight and review. the entire chapter xx of the law defines the modalities of administrative review of municipal acts. according to the law, the municipal administrative review has the following objectives: a) a) strengthen the ability of local self-government bodies to fulfill their responsibilities through counseling, support and assistance; b) b) to ensure the legality of the activities of the bodies of local self-government; c) ensure that the rights and interests of citizens are respected (law on local self-government, nr. 03/l-040, article 50). the administrative review shall be exercised by central bodies in accordance with the constitution and the principles of the european charter on local self-government. the law on local self government in article 75.1 explicitly provides that the administrative review of municipalities is in accordance with the constitution and the law. this administrative review should be proportionate and have as little impact on the interests of local self-government. in principle, the supervisory authority is the ministry responsible for local government, if the responsibility for the supervision of municipalities is not expressly provided by law to the other responsible ministry or institution that deals with specific areas (law on local self-government, nr. 03/l-040, article 76.1). the delegation of delegated powers is made by the central government body, which has delegated those competences. law on local self-government as a basic law governing the organization and functioning of local government in kosovo, it also has certain legal competences for mlga, which include: • monitoring the exercise of enhanced competencies in accordance with applicable legislation in the republic of kosovo (law on local self-government, nr. 03/l-040, article 76.2).; • oversee the legality of partnership decisions; • review of draft agreements on cross-border cooperation of municipalities; • issuing guidelines for cooperation agreements of municipalities with villages, settlements and urban quarters; • notification of the government of the republic of kosovo for non-functioning of the municipality; • recommends to the government of kosovo the suspension of the mayor; • the right to oversee municipalities, enforce the law, ensure respect for the rights and interests of citizens, and to strengthen and enable municipal bodies to fulfill the legal mandate; • mandatory review of the legality of municipal acts and provision of preliminary consultations prior to the issuance of the act; • preparation and publication of annual report on activities related to the supervision of municipalities in the previous year by the end of march (law on local self-government, nr. 03/l-040, article 29.4, 50.3, 64.2, 74, 76, 81, 83). as noted above, the administrative review in the areas of personal and extended competencies of municipalities is limited to the review of legality, while in the field of delegated competences it is subject to oversight of the legality and appropriateness of the actions. the law provided for regular review of legality and mandatory review of legality, procedure for review of legality, requests for prior consultation, review of suitability and citizens' complaints. this research paper, in the following chapters, based on the facts and official data of the ministry responsible for local governance, in various reports of relevant institutions, in detail, supported by statistical facts, will elaborate separately all these forms of administrative review, as a very important segment of the relationship between the central and local government. the law on local government finance which regulates the powers for municipal financial resources provides that the ministries responsible for the respective area to which delegated or enhanced competences belong to will monitor and ensure that 105 these competences are exercised in accordance with laws, sublegal acts and relevant standards, as well as measures taken by the municipality to exercise these competencies are appropriate (law on local finance, nr.03/l-049, article 34). law on municipal administrative boundaries this law regulates the territorial organization of the local selfgovernment of the republic of kosovo, establishes new municipalities, defines the territory and administrative boundaries of the municipalities, making the government of kosovo indirectly liable to the ministry of administration local government, especially in the case of the creation of new municipalities (law on administrative borders of municipalities, nr. 03/l-041, article 14.) in the process of administrative review, the supervisory and municipal authorities are obliged to cooperate with one another. the supervisory authority shall take all measures undertaken on the basis of the law and explain the reasons for the implementation of a measure in a particular supervision. also, municipal bodies, if they consider that the supervisory authority has exceeded the legal powers, has the right to initiate the judicial protection case before the competent courts. conclusions and recommendations from what has been said above, it can be estimated that the relationship between the central and local government is very complex and of particular sensitivity to the fact that we are dealing with the institutional relations of two levels of power, the harmonious functioning of which the functioning of the entire legal and constitutional system of the country is also determined. given the importance of this issue, the european charter of local self-government, in its most substantive part, regulates the relationship between central and local government. this card commits the parties to apply the basic rules that guarantee the political, administrative and financial independence of local authorities. it demonstrates at the european level the political will to bring to life, at all levels of territorial administration, the fundamental principles of the european charter of local selfgovernment. according to this charter, the administrative control of the activity of local activities is based on these principles: any administrative control over the local authorities may be exercised only according to the procedures and in those cases that are provided in constitutions or in laws; any administrative control of the activities of local authorities should normally only seek to ensure compliance with the law and constitutional principles; administrative control of local authorities is exercised by ensuring that the intervention of the controlling authority is proportionate to the importance of the interests which are intended to protect it. the constitution of the republic of kosovo, the law on local self-government and other laws, guarantees local governments a high level of local autonomy, in full compliance with the principles of the european charter on local self-government. in fact, the constitution of the republic of kosovo has directly accepted the constitutional issue of the european charter for local self-government, as evidence and commitment of kosovo to build a local government system with european standards. according to the constitution, municipalities are authorized to challenge the constitutionality of laws that violate their responsibilities and incomes in the constitutional court. this authorization enables municipal bodies to maintain their autonomy and breadth through this remedy. based on the assessments and conclusions reached during the study, analysis and processing of statistical data, professional elaborations, taking into account the constitutional and legal determinants and the mission as well as the purpose of the administrative oversight, propose these recommendations:  improvement and further advancement of the monitoring system of municipalities, both through direct participatory monitoring in municipalities and through electronic monitoring, which is realized through various forms, in particular through "telepresence";  despite the fact that the ministry of local government administration has built up an adequate electronic monitoring system, it should be borne in mind that this way of monitoring the work enables only faster identification of problems and their easier handling. only the identification of legal violations during electronic monitoring is insufficient unless it is accompanied by concrete measures to address legal violations;  advance and stimulate local and central level communication at the stage of drafting municipal acts by submitting the draft act to the oversight body to ensure it is in compliance with the law. in this way, the municipal assembly is assured for the legality of the act voted and approved in the municipal assembly;  as noted in this paper, the provisions of the law on local self-government, referring to the relationship between local and central level, do not create mechanisms for an unlawful act to be enforced until the final court decision. 106 the current legal choices do not allow the possibility of suspensive measures by the supervisory authorities in cases of violation of legality and constitutionality to stop the consequences that may arise from the implementation of such act. this situation creates the need in the future, through legal changes, to provide for the right of the supervisory authority to abolish and abolish municipal acts contrary to the constitution. references 1. bajrami, a. (2011). sistemi kushtetues i republikës së kosovës. prishtinë: kolgji aab 2. sokoli, a. (2014). e drejta procedurale administrative. prishtinë. 3. constitution of the republic of kosovo 4. european charter of local self-government, article 3, council of europe, 1985 5. law on local finance, nr.03/l-049 6. law on administrative borders of municipalities, nr. 03/l-041 7. law on local self-government, nr. 03/l-040. 8. unmik regulation nr. 2000/45 on sef-governmnet of municipalities of kosovo 1 accessible learning management systems: students’ experiences and insights aleksandra karovska ristovska ¹* olivera rashikj-canevska ² alma tasevska ³ rūta bružienė ⁴ monika orechova ⁵ gonçalo paiva dias ⁶ elisabeth brito ⁷ henrik haubro ⁸ ¹ ss. cyril and methodius university, faculty of philosophy, aleksandrak@fzf.ukim.edu.mk *correspondent author. ² ss. cyril and methodius university, faculty of philosophy, oliverarasic@fzf.ukim.edu.mk ³ ss. cyril and methodius university, faculty of philosophy, alma@fzf.ukim.edu.mk ⁴ vilnius university, faculty of philosophy, ruta.bruziene@fsf.vu.lt ⁵ vilnius university, faculty of philosophy, monika.orechova@fsf.vu.lt ⁶ university of aveiro, govcopp, estga, gpd@ua.pt ⁷ university of aveiro, govcopp, estga, ebrito@ua.pt ⁸ european training centre copenhagen, post@etcc.dk article history: submission 20 march 2021 revision 05 may 2021 accepted 18 june 2021 available online 31 august 2021 keywords: learning management system, disabilities, accessibility, inclusive higher education. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.224 a b s t r a c t learning management system (lms) is a type of an e-learning system is one of the main infrastructural requirements that improves access to higher education for persons with disabilities. the primary aim of the research study1 was to explore perceptions of students with disabilities regarding the use and accessibility of learning management systems and benefits and/or barriers in e-learning. students mainly have negative experiences while attempting to enter university websites/libraries/lmss because of the inadequate adaptation to the specific needs of students with disabilities. in countries that do not have a developed lms, the prevalent mean of communication with professors is via e-mail, in those where there is a lms, there is not a fully accessibility of entire content and services for students with special needs. this research defined the need for creation of an accessible lms or adjusted already existing lms with accessibility solutions such as: a text-to-speech engine for blind students, a mode with sign language support for deaf students and a mode which supports dyslexic. 1 this study was conducted within an erasmus+ ka203 project named fast (fostering accessible study technologies: an accessible learning management system in humanities and social sciences) . four countries participate in this project: north macedonia as the project coordinator and lithuania, portugal and denmark as project partners. grant agreement number 2018-1-mk01-ka203-047104 https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:aleksandrak@fzf.ukim.edu.mk mailto:oliverarasic@fzf.ukim.edu.mk mailto:alma@fzf.ukim.edu.mk mailto:ruta.bruziene@fsf.vu.lt mailto:monika.orechova@fsf.vu.lt mailto:gpd@ua.pt mailto:ebrito@ua.pt mailto:post@etcc.dk https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.224 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8570-8969 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2385-5450 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1928-6996 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5380-2371 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7986-3612 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8599-3798 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5504-4332 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3253-5379 2 1. introduction we live in a modern world where all information is easily available and accessible through internet technology. higher education globally is facing many challenges as it is being reshaped by the digital evolution. in line with the ever-changing modern times where students rely on the internet for most of their daily activities, it is appropriate for an online system or student portal to be set up to cater to their academic needs (adzharuddin & ling, 2013). according to zhang (2007), in the educational context there is a tendency to select and integrate new technologies “that fit the existing pedagogical culture, designing them in familiar patterns, and adapting them in line with the features of the local educational system". historically teachers have faced challenges to effectively integrate the new technologies into educational settings (baldwin, 1998; dvorak & araújo, 2018; ertmer & ottenbreit-leftwich, 2010; knezek & christensen, 2002; labbo et al., 2003; sang, valcke, braak, & tondeur, 2010; such, ritzhaupt & thomposon, 2017). ubiquitous learning, supported by smartphones and other emergent technologies, may bring new approaches to digital learning and lmss; furthermore, with the exponential development of technologies and constant innovation, overcoming challenges will always be an ongoing work. learning management system (lms) is a type of an e-learning system that supports a range of uses such as: administration, documentation, reporting and delivery of online courses and training programs. providing an accessible lms for students with disabilities will encourage them to continue their education and will allow them to acquire more skills and competencies. this leads toward more employment opportunities, active social inclusion and improvement of quality of life. the learning management system should provide personalized learning and the most common element of a ‘personalized learning’ definition refers to an education system that focuses on learning which is tailored to the needs, attitudes, and interests of every learner (edmunds, hartnett, 2014). at a time when the possibilities of e-learning and various lmss are in the public spotlight it is a bothering notion to find that there is a limited and belated approach to access for people with disabilities. e-learning holds many possibilities for inclusion for people with disabilities. this research is in line with kent’s views (2015) where he argues that lmss must provide access for all students. disability is activated differently online. impairments that might encounter significant disabling environments in the analogue world, such as for a wheelchair user, may have less impact when using the internet. other impairments such as print impairments related to vision, cognition, and manual dexterity and, increasingly, with the use of video and audio through the internet, people with hearing impairments may find different online environments can be significantly disabling (ellis & kent, 2011; goggin & newell, 2003). in regard to study materials, people with sight disability need their materials to be provided in a suitable format or have the materials (in word or pdf) void of tables and images, diagrams and so on because the software dedicated to converting text to speech is not capable to read visual information (ruolytė-verschoore & ruškus, 2012). using an lms allows students with disabilities to study from home, communicate online, express their opinion that they would otherwise feel uncomfortable doing due to physical or psychological issues (spiriajevienė & spiriajevas, 2015). the elastic nature of lms makes it suitable for almost any type of institutional academic structure, but the major challenge faced by learning disabled (ld) users is to match their accessibility needs and preference in the existing lms. the accessibility issues acts as a barrier in the growth of lms. accessibility describes materials that may be accessed by individuals with disabilities, depending upon the type of disabilities and special needs, screen content, layout and navigation has to vary (horton, 2000). the analysis of the data that pirani & sasikumar (2014) collect in their research, pointed nine evaluation criteria of the existing learning management systems: pedagogical support, accessibility compliance, content authoring, migration of existing courses, sections and groups, e-portfolio, testing and assessment tools, training, gradebook and student tracking, thus from the obtained results can be concluded that available open source lms in the market are not at all matching the accessibility needs or requirements of the ld students. in 2009 cooper and heath critiqued learning management systems for adopting a one-size-fits-all approach to accessible elearning through adopting a compliance approach to the initial web content accessibility guidelines of 1999 (wcag 1.0) from the world wide web consortium (w3c). while these have been updated in 2009 to wcag 2.0 there is still a tendency to see accessibility as an afterthought or a potential legal liability to overcome (kent, 2015). when applied to the educational context, accessibility does not only include students with specific disabilities (e.g. blind, lowvision, deaf and with reduced mobility in various aspects), but should be framed in a more comprehensive perspective i.e. international students or students with learning disabilities (lds, e.g. dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, etc.) (cortiella & 3 horowitz, 2014, wai, 2018). in the case of lds, students have difficulties to cope with the existing lmss (pirani & sasikumar, 2012). in recent years there are many studies concerning internet technology accessibility for persons with disabilities, but there are still insufficient data about the self-perception and personal attitudes of the disabled persons. in that line, the primary aim of the research study was to explore perceptions of students with disabilities regarding the use of learning management systems, elearning and the internet in general as well as it’s accessibility. one of the underlying objectives was to identify positive practices and policies that can be applied in an international context in countries that do not have an established learning management systems. data was collected on a sample of 34 university students with disabilities coming from 4 countries included in the project, north macedonia, lithuania, portugal and denmark. 2. research design the qualitative case study methodology provides tools for researchers to study complex phenomena within their contexts (baxter & jack, 2008). it stresses the socially constructed nature of reality, as well as the close relationship between the researcher and what is studied (denzin & lincoln, 2004; renz, carrington & badger, 2018). the design and context in which the qualitative part of the research was placed was non-rigid and naturalistic because the research focused on studying situations in which disabled university students learn by using the internet or lmss. these situations unfolded naturally during the semi-structured interviews. the advantage of using qualitative methods is that they generate rich, detailed data that leave the participants' perspectives intact, and provide multiple contexts for understanding the phenomenon under study. this study also used structured approaches to applying a method or methods which helped to ensure that there is comparability of data across sources and researchers. the following research questions were set: what is the daily use of information and communication technologies in university students with disabilities? which is the most preferred manner of communication for students with disabilities? which information and communication systems are mostly used by the university? during the research design we set three dependent variables: use of internet and smart technology, use of learning management system and studying experiences and communication with professors. as independent variables we set type of disability, the country they come from. 2.1. research method and procedure this study was conducted with the purpose to get a deeper understanding of the lms use, particularly in disabled university students. a case study methodology was used as a specific descriptive-explanatory cross-sectional qualitative and study. a case study involves generation of a deep understanding through using multiple types of data sources. as a research strategy, the case study enabled an empirical inquiry that investigated the lms and internet use in disabled young people in their real-life context. as part of the participant observation method, the following technique was used: semi-structured interviews. with the purpose of gathering data from relevant university students with disabilities, 34 semistructured interviews were conducted with university students that study in public and private universities in north macedonia, lithuania, portugal and denmark. all interviews were conducted face-to-face and were accommodated to the preferred manner of communication (this was disability-related). all the transcriptions were sent to the informants to ensure data credibility. 2.2. analysis as in any other qualitative studies the data analysis occurred concurrently. five techniques were used for qualitative content analysis (yin 2003): pattern matching, linking data to propositions, explanation building, time-series analysis, logic models, and cross-case synthesis. a focused analysis in the lms use was used so that analysis of data that are outside the scope of the research questions was avoided (although within qualitative researches the methodology of research as well as the research question can be changed during the research if the researcher believes that is beneficial). one danger associated with the analysis phase is that each data source would be treated independently, and the findings will be reported separately but this was not the purpose of this case study. the data in this research was converged in an attempt to understand the overall case, not the various parts of the case, or the contributing factors that influence the case. the analysis of the semi-structured interviews included (huberman & miles 2002): defining concepts; mapping the range, nature and dynamics of phenomena; creating typologies; finding associations; seeking explanations; and developing new ideas or strategies. the authors used codes aligned with the research questions to create themes. within each theme, several subthemes emerged from the aggregated answers with similar or same meaning. 4 2.3. results from semi-structured interviews analysis in the scope of this study, interviews were conducted with students with the specific needs identified to better understand the changing needs of how smart technology and learning management systems work and how to make them more accessible. in this direction, information was collected through interviews with students with specific needs in order to collect information about habits of use of smart technology (e.g. computers, mobile phones, tablets), web activity (e.g. use of email, social networks, school platforms to support learning), as well as the main problems / barriers of accessibility found in these same activities. demographic data sample for semi-structured interviews a total of 34 semi-structured interviews were conducted. the sample comprised 18 females (53%) and 16 males (47%), aged between 19 to 29. twelve students participated from macedonia, 9 students participated from portugal as well as from lithuania and 4 students came from denmark. the most prevalent group of students were students with impaired vision (35%), the dyslexic student consisted 26% of the sample, 24% of the students were students with physical disability, 9% had impaired hearing and 6% were students with asperger syndrome. analyses of student’s responses the student responses were categorized and subcategorized. the categories and subcategories came from bulk of information from the interviews. each theme that emerged from the interviews was thoroughly analysed which gave in-depth information regarding the investigated phenomenon. the data from the semi-structured interviews, are shown integrally within every category (and subcategory subsequently) (table 1). table 1. integrated review of the results questions visual impairments physical impairments dyslexia hearing impairments daily use of information and communication technologies devices; calendars; library resources; website computers and mobile phones additional assistive technology (text to speech, magnifier, screen reader) computers and mobile phones computers and mobile phones computers and mobile phones lack of use of calendars problems with accessing library materials (written and online) library resources as well as online library tools library resources as well as online library tools library resources as well as online library tools negative experiences screen reader does not read graphic information on the web-site negative experiences negative experiences materials are never accessible for dyslexics negative experiences communication social media; e-mail facebook and instagram (n. macedonia) facebook, instagram and moodle (portugal, lithuania and denmark) most frequent for communication with professors information and communication systems used by the university 5 learning management system (moodle); other systems; online learning more balance and systematization of the shared content great solution for students with disabilities other physical environment; reaction of university teachers physical accessibility barriers braille signs physical accessibility barriers improved work and efforts of professors, preparing accessible materials the respondent’s responses were divided into categories. several categories were defined during the analysis phase: daily use of information and communication technologies; communication; information and communication systems used by the university; other issues; within the first category (daily use of information and communication technologies) several subcategories were discussed among the respondents: devices; calendars; library resources; website. regarding the subcategory devices, the respondents from all countries reported that they mostly use computers and mobile phones for their everyday communication. some of them use additional assistive technology (especially the students with impaired vision) which enables better communication with their peers of professors. lithuania student4 (visual disability): “i usually make phonecalls. to the teachers, to the head of the study department. we frequently also write each other using outlook, but it is even more comfortable for me to communicate by phone. if it is stil working hours, i call because it is faster, if the time is not suitable for calling, then i write [e-mails] using outlook”. macedonia student1 (physical disability): “i use smart technology…i use a laptop and a mobile phone and i have my own computer which i use for everyday e-mail communication.“ within the subcategory calendars, all the responses pointed to the lack of use of calendars. students prefer to use more traditional methods of planning rather than calendars. macedonia student1 (physical disability): “i don’t use a calendar”. portugal student9 (asperger): “no.” the use of library resources subcategory showed a discrepancy in the responses. students with impaired hearing and physical disability as well as students with dyslexia used library resources as well as online library tools. unfortunately, students with impaired vision had problems with accessing library materials (written and online). lithuania student1(blindness): “in the library itself, to use a library computer, no, i haven’t [used it], because, like, really, i am not sure if they are accessible. maybe, i think, there is one but i am not sure because i need a talking programme in the computer and i am not sure if it is there.” denmark student1 (physical disability): “i can only read through e-books, which resulted in me still missing 3 out of 5 books.” regarding the last subcategory within this category – use of faculty or university web-sites, the respondents mainly had 6 negative experiences. the largest problem is for the students with impaired vision, especially if there is graphic information on the web-site and their screen reader does not read such information. the materials on the web-site are never accessible for dyslexics (example: specialized font for dyslexics, use of colourful background and so on). all the problems students with disabilities encounter while visiting the faculty’s official web-site lead to less frequent attempts for accessing the respective web-sites. lithuania student2 (blindness): “i needed to look some time ago. to check something about the requirements for papers, how what paper has to look like. i think it was accessible, i forgot now. i think everything was ok there <…> you download it [timetable] and, say, it is spring semester of the fourth year. and it would be so that it is a table and it is, for example, archaeology, one column is the time and the other, the subject. for me personally, i don’t know, maybe there is somebody else who navigates better, but for me personally and i heard that for others who are blind, it is not very comfortable to navigate that table. maybe, for example, it is possible to upload separate documents, if, say, culture history. well, so that there is a separate document for each subject.” macedonia student8 (dyslexia): “the webpage of the faculty is not regulalry updated and also the materials are not accessible for dyslexics.” the second category communication is organized through the following two subcategories: social media; and e-mail. students with disabilities most often use facebook as a mean to get information regarding classes, lectures or tasks. some of them even use facebook to communicate with their respective professors. in the countries such as portugal, lithuania and denmark, students use moodle as a platform for communication with professors. macedonia student10 (impaired hearing): “i use facebook and instagram daily. i also use facebook messenger to communicate with other students.” portugal student4 (dyslexia): “i use instagram and facebook, but also moodle to communicate with professors.” nevertheless, the most prevalent medium for communication between students and professors is via e-mail correspondence. the only issue that arises is the possibility professors not checking their e-mails regularly. lithuania student1 (blindness): “with teachers it’s mostly e-mail. if there is a question, i have to write them <…> so then i have to write via moodle, but mostly it’s e-mail. <…> we don’t have some unified system, but somehow we share [materials among students]. most often it is a common e-mail sent to all the students by the group leader.” macedonia student10 (hearing impairment): “i use e-mail communication with the professors exclusively, i do not use social media to contact them.” the third category information and communication systems used by the university was the most delicate part of the research having in mind that macedonia is the only country where students do not have access to platforms such as moodle. hence the following subcategories were defined: learning management system (moodle); other systems; online learning. regarding the first subcategory the students in general asked for more balance and systematization of the shared content and agreed that the professors are essential for the success of such a platform and they have to adapt their teaching styles, methods and techniques and incorporate them in the learning management system. students that use moodle frequently believe that if it wasn’t for moodle they would have to take academic leaves. lithuania student3 (hearing disability): “i ask others, my friends, for lecture notes and copy them <…> it would be easier for me. for example, when the teacher is showing something on youtube, i ask to turn on the captions so that i can understand the words better. <…> now there are no forums, not enough information, lecture notes are very brief. if there were more, i would understand better.” portugal student 5 (impaired vision): “more balance and systematization of the shared contents to have more balance between shared material; some teachers share youtube videos, but lessons recorded on video / audio. it would be nice if the text-to-speech in portuguese is part of moodle.” 7 sometimes skype consultations are preferred rather than e-mail correspondence. macedonia student3 (physical disability): “for successful online teaching courses we need fast internet and everyday communication with the teachers.” student10 (hearing disability): “it would be best, if we can have sign language interpretations embedded in the system”. denmark student2 (impaired vision): “this means that i sometimes have been exposed and extended time on many tasks. in addition, i have a secretary system where another student can be employed to help with practical complications, such as figure descriptions, correction of task layout, etc.” students from macedonia believe that online learning is a great solution for students with disabilities in humanistic and social sciences. in this manner students with disabilities could attend lectures from any geographical point. in the virtual school the explanation is succinct, given slowly, has images on the subject, and it can be seen multiple times. macedonia student4 (impaired vision): “availability of materials in electronic form would simplify online learning. i am a part of this society, and i have the same rights as all others.” portugal student7 (asperger): “in the virtual school the explanation is succinct, given slowly, has images on the subject, and can be seen as many times as you want.” the last category other incorporates responses that could not be categorized under any of the other categories or subcategories. this category is consisted by the following subcategories: physical environment; reaction of university teachers. the students with disabilities discussed the physical accessibility barriers they face. the students with impaired vision could benefit if the classroom number was written in braille. the physical accessibility of materials as well as their online editions are also barriers for learning for students with disabilities. for the students in macedonia (in particular the students with impaired vision) the accessibility of public transportation as well as the physical accessibility of the university are a big barrier for their education process. lithuania student1 (blindness): “what concerns rooms, you learn them little by little. maybe it would be easier if the number of the room was written also in braille”. portugal student2 (dyslexia): “no difficulties were found on the platform. already in the app considers that this could have more specific functionalities.” the students believe that the role of the university professors is changing from mechanically repeating/quoting/paraphrasing their own or other research to mentorships and one-on-one communication and work. they also have a large role in making materials accessible before they upload them on the e-learning platform. this universal design of learning (udl) is crucial for the e-learning process and the effective learning management system operations. macedonia student6 (impaired vision): “the university professors should foremost be mentors and not lecturers. in the 21st century there shouldn’t be professors that mechanically repeat/quote/paraphrase their own or other scientific papers which are avaliable to all of us.” portugal student2 (dyslexia): “elearning is basically a teacher-student communication and sharing tool.” 5. conclusions there is a general increase in the popularity of lms in lithuania. lmss (most commonly moodle) are widely used in higher education (dagienė, et al., 2018) based on research conducted in lithuania, the biggest issue that people with disabilities have overall is access to necessary study materials – some books are still unavailable in audio format or braille, scientific databases are not accessible to people with certain disabilities, therefore, students encounter a lot of issues when they need to find alternative study materials to those that are provided by the teacher or the university library (mosta, 2014). nowadays in portugal lmss are understood as webtechnology/software based tools that allow proximal or distance teaching/learning through sharing of content and activities, asynchronously and/ or synchronously, offering spaces of communication and collaboration for greater ease of teacherstudent interaction, as well as other administrative functions (carvalho, 2018; cruz, 2014; such, ritzhaupt & thompson, 2017). the moodle open source software (under the gnu license) is largely adopted by many heis, portugal being no 8 exception (barge & londhe, 2014; linawati et al., 2012; rodrigues et al., 2018). lmss offer learning support without geographical or time limitations, allowing for more comprehensiveness, availability and accessibility when compared to the traditional classroom model. however, overcoming the merely instrumental use of lmss, as well as the emerging need to prepare students for the challenges of the digital age, seem to be the current top challenges (aparicio et al., 2014; dvorak & araújo, 2018; moreira, 2018; such et al., 2017). in denmark, universities have generally been more reluctant to develop virtual teaching methods than universities in most other european countries. however, lms use in denmark is widespread at all educational levels, has been such for many years, and is still developing. all higher education institutions have included lms as part of their online information and education, with moodle as the most common, students with disabilities are expected to use such courses exactly like all other students. the question of accessibility is dealt with by other services. only fifteen institutions, in total, in north macedonia use moodle, primarily state and private universities. research regarding lmss use in north macedonia is scarce. the data from moodle logs is usually used for prediction of student success through analysis of moodle logs like in the case study conducted by ademi, loskovska and kalajdziski (2019) and in students behavior analysis to improve the learning process using like in the paper written by zdravev, velinov and nikolovska (2019). the moodle learning management system has also been used for promotion of on-line methodology (kirova & ulanska, 2009). however, no research has been conducted in north macedonia regarding the lms use by persons with disabilities. similar to our interests examining the quality of distance learning for students with disabilities, catalano (2014) conducted a survey in which seven students with diverse disabilities participated in a one-credit online library research course, adapted to be accessible using the best practices literature on distance education for students with special needs. students provided feedback on the design of the course and participated in in-depth interviews. results of this study suggest any given class may have students with different types of disabilities, with different paths toward learning. using the principles of universal design for learning can improve distance education not only for students with special needs, but for all types of learners. fuglerid (2011) includes 28 visually impaired pc users in norway in order to identify benefits of, and barriers to, use of ict for the visually impaired, and to propose measures to remove barriers. visually impaired users’ encounters with technology (internet services, mobile phones, kiosks, ticket machines, atms, and queuing management systems) were investigated through a focus group interview, observation of task-solving activities, and semi-structured interviews. the analysis revealed that several commonly used ict services, such as online banking, electronic forms, and learning material have major accessibility problems. the first barrier is often mechanisms for registration and authentication. the proliferation of inaccessible everyday technologies, unstable systems, and lack of training constitutes other major challenges. based on the findings some suggestions for further development and research priorities are suggested. an exploratory study was conducted in canada with the main goal to investigate the use and accessibility of social media by postsecondary students with disabilities in order to raise basic awareness by the higher education community. the results indicate that youtube was the most popular form of social media used by these students. msn / windows live messenger was rated the most accessible social medium, and internshare.com was the least accessible. the most popular suggestion for developers and producers of social media was to have a simpler or better layout (assuncion et all., 2012). comparing these results with our findings, we can conclude that our examinees most frequently use facebook and instagram for unformal communication. we consider that the difference of the findings is a result of the popularity of the different social media in representative countries. the access to internet and online communication for uk people with disabilities was investigated in 2002. 186 persons with disabilities had been included in survey, and 86% of them had used internet for e-mail, 71% had found information on goods and services, 40% had found information related to schoolwork or an educational course. in the same survey the examinees had some proposals for improvement if the web sites according the special needs: the most common themes were for sites to have guides on the home page as to what is on them, for pages to be less cluttered, for fewer graphics and advertising, for links to be clearer and fewer, for print size and colors to be easily changeable to suit the user, for greater standardization, for search to be more clearly marked and more precise, and for better accessibility for voice recognition system users (pilling, barrett, floyd, 2004). based on these findings and comparing them with ours, we can conclude that throughout all these years from 2002 until now the access and learning of the internet for people with disabilities is based on their personal efforts and experiences. barriers from the social environment that they cannot overcome forced to find the exit trough online opportunities. 9 the need of learning management system arises from many obstacles that students with disabilities face during their studying at the universities. in our research we found the physical barriers are most frequent, as well as the appropriate adapted materials and lecturers. gillson, and dymond (2012) have also found a lot of barriers for students with disabilities in hong kong universities. in their study barriers are clustered in the areas of architecture, environment, systems, instructorand classroomrelated, student-generated, and the lack of evaluation. dobransky and hargittai (2006) examined how people with disabilities have incorporated digital media into their lives and concluded that persons with disabilities are considerably less likely to be online than those who are not disabled. persons with disabilities take distinct interest in certain online activities, such as sharing their own content and reviewing products and services, pointing to ways they may go online to adapt and respond to the wider inaccessible society. this is also in line with the semistructured interviews analysis where it was stated students mostly communicate via e-mails with their professors rather than post on blogs or social media. fichten et al. (2009) explored e-learning problems and solutions. included examinees pointed out that they have main problems with: accessibility of websites and course/learning management systems (cms); accessibility of digital audio and video; course materials in pdf, and lack of needed adaptive technologies, poor use of e-learning by professors and their own lack of knowledge working with e-learning. students in this research also mentioned the lack of professors’ knowledge while operating lmss and the need to change the teaching approach from formal paraphrasing to a more mentoring oriented approach. burdette, greer and woods (2013) analysed us special education policies and practices in online learning for students with disabilities, and their findings demonstrated an increase in the number of us states providing online instruction; indicated that students with many different types of disabilities participate in online learning. corresponding to these findings are the expectations of our respondents, where majority consider that online learning system will have a positive impact on the professor-student interaction and will improve the education process in whole. kelly (2009) found that almost one-third of students who used assistive technology to access online educational material found that this material was unreliable or inconsistent if it could be accessed at all, which correlate to findings in our research. we found that most frequent problems are accessibility to any relevant or updated information on the web pages of the certain education institutions as well as the design of the web pages. in correlation to his findings "the relationship that disabled university students have with both their technologies and institutions is poorly understood”, seale (2013) considers that the e-learning platforms need to be as accessible as possible for students with a range of different impairments, in order all potentials to be realized. in a representative survey of students of lithuanian higher education institutions (heis) about the 72% of respondents claimed to have used lms in their previous or current studies. on the other hand, while there is no data separately for lms, only 48 % claimed to have been satisfied with the way e-study tools had been used in their study process (kinderis, gaižiūnas, lisauskas, & zinkevičiūtė, 2018). this research has shown that adaptations in the forms of plug-ins should be incorporated in the lmss from its original conceptions. text-to-speech and related read-aloud tools are being widely implemented in an attempt to assist students’ reading comprehension skills. read-aloud software, including text-tospeech, is used to translate written text into spoken text, enabling one to listen to written text while reading along (wood et all, 2017). the number of free and easily accessible text-to-speech software programs is increasing (berkeley & lindstrom, 2011). a text-to-speech engine which is available in more than 30+ languages should be integrated initially in the lms. written information is often of limited accessibility to deaf people who use sign language (kennaway, glauert & zwitserlood, 2007). a plug-in for deaf students which translates all content into sign-language could be extremely beneficial for deaf students particularly in countries in which sign languages are not yet developed, standardized and not yet rich in vocabulary. before thinking of photorealistic avatars that would produce sign language sentences, we can initially focus on creating a system for automatic synthesis and visualization of sign languages sentences. the synthesis can be made by assembling previous filmed video clips of sign demonstrations of the most frequent signs (krapez & solina, 1999). a dyslexia mod can also be integrated within the lms platform from its initial conception stage. open cyrillic and latin fonts for easy reading of persons with dyslexia have been developed throughout the years and research has shown that their use aids reading in dyslexic readers (bernard et al., 2002). pelli et al. (2007) generalized their results and suggested that under ordinary conditions (adequate light, correct vision) the only limit to 10 reading rate is crowding. dyslexic fonts enable less overcrowding in the text. e-learning due to its flexibility and wide adoptions performs an important social function making education accessible for different groups of people. they represent real opportunities for a better quality of education for many people. however, people with disabilities are still encountering many obstacles to benefit from these systems. the main problem, in fact, is that most available lmss are inaccessible to people with disabilities and do not take in consideration their special needs. the availability of accessibility guidelines, the diversity of the e-learning platforms, and the evolution of assistive technologies represent just a partial solution. actually, some accessibility features may exist in some e-learning systems and applications but implemented in an ad hoc way and exclusively dependent on some specific technologies or targeting only one kind of disability (jemni et all, 2014). based on the analysis of the obtained data, discussion and comparison with relevant research and scientific studies, we can conclude that the digital information is not inherently accessible or inaccessible, but the choices made by those developing and implementing technology determine whether a technology ultimately will be accessible or inaccessible. the increasing spread of the internet holds much potential for enhancing opportunities for people with disabilities. although there is an evidence that people with disabilities are, in fact, participating in these new developments, we can conclude that their involvement is very small and insignificant, and whenever we work to improve their quality of life in any aspect, we should always start from the slogan "nothing for us without us". in general, our research determinate the need for creation of different types of accessibility plugins which will provide greater accessibility of the lmss, such as: a text-to-speech engine for blind students, a mode with sign language support for deaf students, mode which supports dyslexic, speech-to-text for motor impaired. 5.1. limitations while the study includes four distinct countries across europe, they all have very different experiences with e-learning in general and its accessibility to students with special needs in higher education contexts, particularly. this is due to both varying attitudes towards students with special needs, distance learning and the different stages of technological development in the higher education area in all participating countries. this affects the comparative aspect of the research in that the scope of comparison is limited by the varying contextual factors that have to be accounted for. while we have not observed differences among the reported technological behavior of students in different countries, more data is needed to draw definitive conclusions. several distinct issues were observed in the qualitative study of special needs university students’ experience with various virtual technologies and the study process in general; however, since e-learning is firmly interlinked with the regular study process, we cannot necessarily conclude that the experience is solely or mainly caused by an accessibility issue regarding a particular disability or if it is a more general flaw of the study and/or administration process. further research would be extremely beneficial in order to clarify and support the results of this study. 5.2. compliance with ethical standards this research was guided by ethical principles and propositions for involving people with disabilities in scientific research, while respecting their right to choose to participate / or not in the research. also, the privacy issues related to obtaining and overseeing the materials as well as the material destruction once the materials were transcribed, were explained and the researchers abided by these regulations. references 1. ademi, n., loskovska, s. & kalajdziski, s. 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(2007). a cultural look at information and communication technologies in eastern education. educational technology research and development, 55(3), 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-0079040-y https://doi.org/10.1109/ihci.2012.6481810 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01778-5_26 https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732317753586 https://www.w3.org/wai/standards-guidelines/wcag/ https://www.w3.org/wai/standards-guidelines/wcag/ https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219416688170 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-007-9040-y https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-007-9040-y 39 time consumption and productivity in wood extraction using traditional cable car ylli kortoçi ¹ mirvjena kortoçi ²* ¹ university of prizren “ukshin hoti”, faculty of life and environmental sciences, ylli.kortoci@uni-prizren.com 2 university of prizren “ukshin hoti”, faculty of life and environmental sciences, mirvjena.kortoci@uni-prizren.com *correspondent author. article history: submission 10 april 2021 revision 04 june 2021 accepted 11 august 2021 available online 31 august 2021 keywords: wood extraction, working times, avoidable delay, unavoidable delay, productivity. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.239 a b s t r a c t forests are a very important component for the environment in albania considering the fact that they occupy more than 36% of the country's surface. the evaluation of the working time consumption and productivity of the various sub-phases of wood extraction work, in a beech forest in albania, with traditional methods and old equipment’s, was considered of interest in this study to highlight the weaknesses to be corrected. considering the slope in our study site, a traditional cable car austrian type r-gander (a 6832 sulz) manufactured in 1985 was used for the extraction of timber. trunks from a distance of 800 900 m were extracted using this equipment. the operating team consisted of 3 workers. 10 15 working days are required for the assembly and disassembly of the equipment. during the work performed, data regarding working times were collected, paying special attention to dead times, where avoidable times are high 61,0 %. the extracted volume was 31.46 m3, which corresponds to a weight of 41.82 t. 1. introduction substantial amounts of albanian forests are located in mainly mountainous areas and on very steep terrains, most of the forests are located in those areas where the average slope is around 1530 °. more than half the volume is located in the forests area at an altitude of 1500-1850 m above sea level. the distribution of forest species in the country can be as follows: beech accounts for about 21.6% of the surface and about 47% of the total wood volume; conifers, 19.6%; oaks 36.6% and 22.3% for other species. (kortoci and kortoci (kellezi), 2020). ninety percent of albanian beech forests are high forests, and only 10% are coppice. wood extraction has increased over time from the early colonial period to 1947. (dangwal, 2005). as consequence of mechanization, the development of timber harvesting has been successful in recent decades when productivity has raised and costs have decreased. however, despite the general development of forest machinery technology, there is no harvesting method for steep terrain. (kaakkurivaara and kaakkurivaara, 2018). it is important to investigate other solutions to improve the productivity and cost-efficiency of harvesting. (kaakkurivaara and kaakkurivaara, 2018). limited investment willingness is a factor that influence the determination of suitable harvesting methods in forestry. (kaakkurivaara and kaakkurivaara, 2018). the animals or machinery that can traverse distances of 1000 2000 m has always performed the extraction of wood material in albania. some terrain features conditions the possibility the use of cable cars is, and in general the slope, the line profile, and the availability of the roads, in addition to the available persons who are able to mount and use the cable car. the extraction of timber using cable car is almost inexistent although this method is very suitable in our forest terrains. the cable car taken in consideration in this study is the only one existent in albania in this moment and used in forest utilization. the aim of this study is to determine the working times and productivity during wood extraction work to create an idea about the efficiency of this old mechanism. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:ylli.kortoci@uni-prizren.com mailto:mirvjena.kortoci@uni-prizren.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.239 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6555-2987 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2575-6280 40 2. literature review in the planning of forest utilization, the factors that determine the choice of means and of the work system to be used are many. the infrastructures present (in particular roads), the professionalism of the operators, the efficiency of the works management and the equipment available for the logging operation can be modified, while other conditions, such as the intensity of the cut, the size of the material to be use or the characteristics of the terrain (slope and accidental) are rather rigid or not modifiable (civitarese et al., 2006). in the case of forests located on slopes of 60 to 80 percent traditional cable car skylines are used. daily man yields 5–8 m3 in the case of cable car skylines (baldini and pollini, 1998). the gantner long-distance skyline used in the study was mounted on a sled. gantner skylines are powerful and productive. it is an important machine for timber transportation at long distances. these machines are used where the transport distance is long or the road density is low (acar et al., 2005). in turkey, gantner cable cranes have been in use since the late 1950’s. the actual share of cable systems is not very high in total timber extraction. however, in mountainous parts of turkey such as the study area, this is the only possible system of timber extraction. (ozturk and senturk, 2006). productivity of gantner skyline was 5.01 m3/hour (eker and acar, 1995). generally, traditional long-distance gravity cable systems have a daily productivity of 20 to 25 m3 has been reported (heinrich, 1998). in austria, 14.48 percent of the timber is harvested with cable systems. this ratio is 1.769 million m3 yield. the amount of timber harvested with cable logging systems has doubled over the last ten years (trzesnowski, 1998). factors affecting productivity include machine size and properties, equipment configuration, stand and site conditions, forest management objectives, and operator capabilities. the effects of these factors have been studied widely over the last 25 years (malinen at al., 2016). a traditional cable car was used for the concentration and clearing of the felled trunks in librazhd, for the assembly and disassembly required 10-15 working days. this machine is the only one that exists in all of albania. (kortoci, 2009). in eastern european countries, at the beginning of the economic transformation, when the private forestry services sector was being established, the equipment acquired was of low technical quality. increasing competition in the forestry services set off a search for new technological solutions to decrease labor costs and increase work efficiency. the rate of investment for mechanization also depends on the regional availability of skilled workers. in mountainous regions, cable yarding systems are also used. (tadeusz et al., 2017). 3. materials and methods 3.1. study site librazhd forest is a high forest where beech is the dominant species and covers an area of about 95%. it is an old forest with an age of about 100 years, and the exploiting company intervened with clear cutting, in an area of about 20 ha. the diameter of the trees was larger than 40 cm, and the height reached about 20-25 m. the slope of the site is about 35-50% with holes and stones in it. the maximum altitude above sea level is 2253 m. the geographical position, the relief configuration, the absolute altitude above sea level, and the distance from the adriatic sea are characteristic of the presence of a continental climate, with a very cold period of winter. in addition to the cold winter, librazhd is also very wet, while the summer is short, hot and very dry. average annual air temperatures range between 7.5 ° c 12 ° c, while the absolute maximum temperature recorded in july is 39.6 ° c. average annual rainfall varies between 600 to 890mm. based on the classification of land in albanian, there are two types of land in librazhd brown soils, and brown forest soils. from 1600 2000 m above sea level, the brown terrains are generally placed. their typical vegetation is beech and pine forests. 3.2. measurements and statistical analysis during the extraction of wood material with traditional cable cars, has been collected the following data: • empty driving time: the time it took the carriage to move from the discharge point to the blockage in the conductor line, at the top. • the time of detachment of the rope (hooks) and their landing: the time when the rope falls down and the piston is taken by the worker and connected to the other load. • return time: the time the carriage began to climb until it reached the line blocking point at the discharge point at the bottom (runway). • release time: the time required to lower the rope and remove the load from the hooks. • unavoidable dead times: non-operative times for food, physiological needs, etc. 41 • avoidable dead times: non-operative times when workers talk, call, etc. • average trees number per each transportation time. data on productivity were collected, calculated and analyzed. for the determination of fresh density, three samples for each single plant positioned one at the base, one at mid-height and one at the top were taken on 10 plants. 4. results in order to increase opinion through foreign exchange, indonesia the working time analysis show a large percentage of the time "wagon going" (19%), and "return" (17%), because the average distance traveled was 841m. measurements are made for 25 roads. table 1. total values of wood extraction working times using traditional cable car. working times minutes gross total time (min) 399,01 net total time (min) 372,03 total delay (dead) times 69,1 avoidable delay times 26,98 unavoidable delay times 42,12 table 2. number of trunks extracted, number of roads made by the traditional cable car, minimum and maximum distance in one working day. no. of extracted trunks 60 no. of roads made 25 average number of trunks/ road 2,4 maximum distance (m) 900 minimum distance (m) 800 average distance (m) 841 for each working phase, the average time and standard deviation are find, then the average time for the road and the number of logs extracted from the forest are determined. table 3. average net times per road for each sub-phase of timber extraction with traditional cable car. for road (min) standard deviation the wagon goes 3,00 0,59 releases the cable 0,59 0,21 hook 2,13 0,80 collect the cable 1,12 0,40 returns 2,67 0,33 unhook 3,69 1,32 avoidable delay time 1,68 1,98 unavoidable delay time 1,08 12,29 total net time for road 14,88 total gross time per road 15,96 figure 1. distribution in percentage of average times of extraction phases of wood material with traditional cable car. unhook time (23%) and going time (19%) occupy the biggest percentage of working times with traditional cable car. avoidable delay times (dead times) that occupy 39 % of total time are composed by “conversation” times 65% and “smoking break” of 35%. 42 unavoidable delay times that occupy 61 % of total time are composed of “rope problems” nearly 59% and “cable car defects” of 41%. the extracted volume was 31.46 m3, which corresponds to a weight of 41.82 t. real productivity is calculated for one team and each worker, taking into account a gross working day of 4 hours. the average number of trunks extracted for road was 2,4 and the average distance spans on 841m. table 4. real productivity in timber extraction with traditional cable car. productivity gross hourly average productivity (m3/h/team) 4,730 hourly average production net of adt (m3/h/team) 5,070 gross hourly average productivity (t/ h/team) 6,29 hourly average production net of adt (t/ h/team) 8,36 gross daily average productivity (m3/day/team) 18,920 gross daily average productivity (t/day/team) 25,16 daily average productivity net of adt (m3/day/team) 20,280 daily average productivity net of adt (t/day/team) 33,44 gross hourly average productivity (m3/h/worker) 1,577 hourly average production net of adt (m3/h/worker) 1.690 gross hourly average productivity (t/ h/worker) 2,10 hourly average production net of adt (t/ h/worker) 2,79 gross daily average productivity (m3/day/worker) 6,308 gross daily average productivity (t/day/worker) 8,40 daily average productivity net of adt (m3/day/worker) 6,760 daily average productivity net of adt (t/day/worker) 11,16 potential productivity is calculated for both team and workers, taking into account an 8-hour gross working day. if workers were able to work longer than 4 hours in a working day, it would be understandable that productivity would be greater than real productivity. the reason why the workers lose so many times from the working day is that they live in the city far away from the forest utilization site. table 5. potential productivity in timber extraction with traditional cable car. productivity gross hourly average productivity (m3/h/team) 4,730 hourly average production net of adt (m3/h/team) 5,070 gross hourly average productivity (t/ h/team) 6,29 hourly average production net of adt (t/ h/team) 8,36 gross daily average productivity (m3/day/team) 37,840 gross daily average productivity (t/day/team) 50,32 daily average productivity net of adt (m3/day/team) 40,560 daily average productivity net of adt (t/day/team) 66,88 gross hourly average productivity (m3/h/worker) 1,580 hourly average production net of adt (m3/h/worker) 1,690 gross hourly average productivity (t/ h/worker) 2,1 hourly average production net of adt (t/ h/worker) 2,79 gross daily average productivity (m3/day/worker) 12,640 gross daily average productivity (t/day/worker) 16,8 daily average productivity net of adt (m3/day/worker) 13,520 daily average productivity net of adt (t/day/worker) 22,32 43 it can be noticed from this table that the “gross daily average productivity (m3/day/team)” of 37,840 m3 and the “daily average productivity net of adt (m3/day/team)” of 40,560 m3. the second productivity is higher than the first one for the simple reason that in the second process is considered that the workers complete their work without any problem and without losing a second in their performance. this is an ideal situation that is difficult to be faced in practice. the same thing can be explained for the productivity measures in tones. figure 2. correlation between timber extraction distance from forest and adt net hourly productivity per team (m3). there is a significant negative linear correlation between the distance and productivity. as long as the distance is lower is the productivity. 5. discussion according (eker and acar, 2001) the most time consuming work phase times were found to be the hooking and pulling of loaded carriage time. while in our case unhook time (23%) and going time (19%) occupy the biggest percentage of working times with traditional cable car. unhook time includes also the time spend to manage the logs of the pervious load in order to make space for the following load. (ozturk, 2006) also reports the unhook time of 24% of all time consumption. according (eker and acar, 2001) total productive work times were calculated between 92.24 percent of total work time and 91.61 percent. in our case total productive work time occupies 82 percent because of the small number of operators (two of them working with the logs, hooking and unhooking and one of them managing the cable car and communicating by radio with other operators dealing with the load) and rough terrain also. (eker and acar, 2001) reports the data obtained from work and time analyses where productivity values were determined between 32.24 m3 per day and 55.76 m3. in this study we can notice the “gross daily average productivity (m3/day/team)” of 37,840 m3 and the “daily average productivity net of adt (m3/day/team)” of 40,560 m3. so the productivity can be considered normal and similar to the literature review. about the features of conventional cable cranes output/workinghour of different types of cable cranes (trzesnowski, 1998) reports: table 6. output/working-hour of different types of cable cranes conventional small medium large output/h (m3/h) 5 (3 8) 4 (3 8) 8 (4 15) 12 (8 25) 5. conclusions this study aims to offer an idea and show the results about traditional timber extraction method by ganter cable car to help in decision making in relation to alternative timber extraction methods. the cable crane with an 800-900 m line length was installed and three workers were engaged while in other studies for workers perform the extraction processes. the number of workers for loading and unloading operations should be increased for achieving productivity of forest skyline. 44 forest products, which have been hauled with skylines, have high quality and lose little value through log damage. old technologies for the extraction of timber need to be substitute with more productive new ones. for example, in our case can be used light winches with autonomous engine, and plastic channels for the transport of firewood, which can be used in very steep and rocky soils. to reduce the unproductive times of workers moving from dwellings to the forest, types of makeshift dwellings with beds and kitchens (barracks) can be built so that workers can stay there from monday until saturday without having to move up and down in unsuitable conditions 3-4 hours a day. training courses for the people working in forests are very important to educate this category with the new and adaptable technologies with albanian mountain conditions. a sufficient percentage of road density would favor a correct and sustainable forest management. adequate road density also favors the use of high-level mechanisms which would lead to an improvement in the condition of forests, even to steep slopes and to improved working conditions for workers working there. articulated forest tractors, mobile cable car tractors, chipping machines (wood and branches) and other wood processes could be used in particular to produce clean energy from forest biomass. eventoough (kaakkurivaara and kaakkurivaara, 2018) reports that there is no harvesting method for steep terrain. acknowledgements we are grateful to kole sinani entrepreneur of the harvesting company of librazhdi forest. references 1. acar, h.h., topalak, o. and eroglu, h. 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(1998). wood transport in steep terrain. proceedings of the seminar on environmentally sound forest roads and wood transport. available at http://www.nzdl.org/cgibin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0aginfo--00-0----010-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11----0-0&a=d&c=aginfo&cl=cl2.8&d=hashc0f45275908 0ee9425fb05.6.10#hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05. 6.10 https://hrcak.srce.hr/4000 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319902722_timber_harvesting_methods_in_eastern_european_countries_a_review https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319902722_timber_harvesting_methods_in_eastern_european_countries_a_review https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319902722_timber_harvesting_methods_in_eastern_european_countries_a_review http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0aginfo--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11----0-0-&a=d&c=aginfo&cl=cl2.8&d=hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10#hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10 http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0aginfo--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11----0-0-&a=d&c=aginfo&cl=cl2.8&d=hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10#hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10 http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0aginfo--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11----0-0-&a=d&c=aginfo&cl=cl2.8&d=hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10#hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10 http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0aginfo--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11----0-0-&a=d&c=aginfo&cl=cl2.8&d=hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10#hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10 http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0aginfo--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11----0-0-&a=d&c=aginfo&cl=cl2.8&d=hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10#hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10 http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0aginfo--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11----0-0-&a=d&c=aginfo&cl=cl2.8&d=hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10#hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10 http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0aginfo--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11----0-0-&a=d&c=aginfo&cl=cl2.8&d=hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10#hashc0f452759080ee9425fb05.6.10 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 52 management and quality of services in pristina’s hotelier industry petrit hasanaj iliria college, pristina, petrithasanaj@gmail.com bekë kuqi universitety “haxhi zeka” peje, beke.kuqi@unhz.eu besmir ahmetaj prizren, besmirahmetaj22@gmail.com abstract management of tourism hotel industry and especially the quality of services in hotel industry are important and successful factors of business. the concept of quality of service is essential if we wish to understand the genesis of service quality and potential gaps in quality. the purpose of this paper is to show the importance of service quality in the hotel industry from the standpoint of conceptual and description attributes influencing this quality. today to manage the industry of tourism and hotelier in a more efficient and effective way means to take a step towards the country's economic growth, boost employment at satisfactory levels and welfare of the population. this management is a positive publicity for the country and attracting tourists who bring more income and new social and cultural cooperation. key words: quality, tourist production, service, guest-tourist, resort entity, total quality management. mailto:petrithasanaj@gmail.com mailto:beke.kuqi@unhz.eu prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 53 1. introduction hotelier and tourism have already been affirmed as typical phenomena of today’s civilization. development of tourism and hotelier play an important role in the economic development of every country, in particular the municipality of prishtina which also has an impact on the overall economy of kosovo. therefore, one of the main segments that characterizes the municipality of prishtina is tourism and hotelier. tourism and hotelier in prishtina, are considered as interconnectors among wide spectrum of economic and non-economic services and production activities. what is predicted in the future is to further increase the rate of interest for these phenomena by the public society, private companies, associations, social institutions, and this is because of the effects of powerful economic, social, psychological and recreational impacts that are carried on by tourism and hotelier. therefore, the most desirable areas usually are coastal places, mountains or cities with a special history. tourism together with hotel activities are seen as intensive development activities with high economic impacts. based on analysis done for international tourism it shows that there are many forms and models of development in terms of administration that are reflected with advantages or disadvantages, but in general they define specific policies and programs for running this important economic branch. 2. the importance of quality service in hotelier industry tourism is one of the main reasons for the creation and management of hotels. countries in transition such as our country are giving utmost importance to tourism having in mind that climatic conditions and beautiful tourist areas are not scarce and the should necessarily be used. tourism and hotelier are in a mutual relationship because where there are tourist areas there also should be hotels. a good management of the hotelier means a service with the highest quality and indirectly a large number of tourists satisfied with the service provided and the fulfillment of their desires. to manage a hotel presents different difficulties and satisfactions which should be balanced to achieve a maximum service. a good management is difficult to be assessed in a short period of time because it should elapse long process of service delivery, consumption, and finally listen prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 54 customer views for the services provided, their satisfaction and dissatisfaction. their satisfaction is in direct proportion to the good or bad management of the hotel. in another point of view, it also should be studied the carefulness that shows the management sector to provide the requested service and the procedures it follows to achieve the desired result. the main manager should take care for all desires expressed or not expressed by customers, ask employees who are in direct contact with them for ideas and thoughts they represent, he/she should create motivation spirit to the team dealing with customer service because only in this way profitability at work can be increased.1 a good manager, one day per year or even more often behave as a client seeking to spend a night in the hotel (in this case in the hotel where he/she works) to try himself/herself the quality of service and deficiencies that may exist, same practice as the top level manager of disney land each year behaves like an ordinary customer and also serves customers in every stage of the work. hotelier tourism management requires a special attention therefore the following chapters will describe each thole component and the process to be followed to reach the final result: high-quality service and maximum customer satisfaction. the predominance of the services sector today is confirmed that 70% of the world's gdp2 is realized in the service sector. the same sector accounts 70% of the workforce worldwide. this fact shows the importance of the service sector in the economy of a country occupying a high percentage to gdp. a country that seeks economic growth must invest in the improvement of this sector which is very important and essential. one of the sectors with the largest share is the hotel industry, considered as the main representative of the service industry. benefits derived from a high quality are reflected not only in a more competitive position in the market, but even in a better result of business. this fact can be verified in a larger scale by measuring the increase of profitability and market share showing that what changes occur if actions to improve the quality of service are taken. results of a study in the "usa" conducted 1 dr. sc. gržinić, jasmina, ‘concepts of service quality measurement in hotel industry’, page.2, 2008 2 gross domestic product. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 55 between1987 and the 2002 to a sample of 2,600 companies in different states and cities show a direct connection between the level of quality of goods, services and their financial indicators. from this study it was observed that indicators of the success of a company such as market share, return on investment, the coefficient of turnover and profitability show higher values in companies with a higher level of quality goods and services.3 2.1. knowing the basic customer requirements for building a quality service to ensure and maintain the quality expected by today’s customers or tourists, in general we must distinguish two main aspects of quality by showing special attention to tourism. this relates directly to research that conducts this industry in order to know requirements and desires of customers in that way to ensure a basis for providing a quality service: quality design and the quality in accordance with the design.4 quality of design is a concept that implies presentation of products or services according to the needs and desires of customers. hotel industry can satisfy customer requirements or tourists only if they are included in its design, i.e. in order to achieve this its requirements should be included in the products and services offered by the hotel. hotels conduct research or market research in order to know how their clients are and pay special attention to their requirements. the quality of compliance with project design completes the first aspect because it represents the level at which the product or service meets or not the requirements of this market. quality represents the fulfillment of customer needs and to achieve this they should be known to them at any time through a continuous research in the market if the needs or desires of customers have changed or have remained as before. such an approach will ensure tracking continuous improvements in accordance with their requirements. 3 grove s.j., dhe r.p. fisk, ‘the impact of other customers on service experiences: a critical incident examination of getting along’, fq. 63-85, journal of retailing, 73, 1997 4 oakland, j. s., op. cit., fq. 10, in: tourism and hospitality management, no. 1., faculty of tourist and hospitality management opatija, opatija. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 56 effectiveness of the quality system as a whole is possible only if monitoring and analysis of potential customer requirements are implemented periodically, and also by setting and controlling the process of the quality and implementation of improvements. constant quality is a complex term, made up of several elements and other criteria. all the elements of quality or criteria are equally important in order to receive 100% quality. if one element of quality is missing, total quality of a product or service is impossible to be achieved. nowadays, the result of increased quality is more and more focused on different needs and desires of customers, along with the growing level of competition, market globalization and development modern technology. problems on measuring the quality of service arise from the lack of clear and measurable parameters for determining the quality. this is not the case of defining the quality of product because their quality is easier to be studied due to specific and measurable indicators they have such as: sustainability, the number of damaged products and similar, which make relatively easier the study to determine the level of quality. 2.2. service characteristics compared to those of the product inability to separate production from consumption and inability to preserve services implicitly include a simultaneous production and consumption, which is characteristic for most services. since the beginning, services are ideas or concepts rather than objects, they cannot be seen in the same way as production products and therefore are characterized as immaterial. production products are tangible and services not (we cannot touch the service offered in a hotel, although we may feel results of this service). all that was explained above can be summarized in three main points.5 • services are often produced and consumed at the same time and we cannot protect them 5 prof. panariti, suzana, operations management, chapter i ‘introduction to operations management' page.8, university of tirana, 2008 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 57 • services are unique and it relates to the needs and specifications of each and everyone that service are being offered. each hotel has its own specifications how it provides a service and is different from another. • services have a high interaction with clients and cannot be standardized or automated. in a hotel, the basis for a good quality and good service is the interaction with the customer's unique requirements. 2.3. measuring the quality of service in hotel industry in order to reach a rationality, models of excellence of the business, in a way, determine if they meet or not the criteria and assess the excellence of business if it is valid or not, not only to meet the criteria set, but also in determining the level up to which the criteria is fulfilled. by analyzing the quality of service it is advisable to study a large number of potential companies who providie the same type of service6. as mentioned above, if a company conducts a survey and finds that the results obtained are negative, it may interpret this information wrongly and conclude that it provides services completely in a wrong way. on the other hand, when analyzing a large number of companies, it is possible to compare the data and take a real picture of the position of an individual company compared to others about the quality. a concept called quality circle helps in measuring the quality. it is based on the belief that employees who actually do the work, instead of their managers, are those who are better able to identify, analyze and deal correctly with the problems they encounter. this idea originated in japan in 1962. the circle of quality or otherwise of the quality circle is made up of a group of employees, usually less than ten, who perform similar work and who meet once a week to discuss their work, identify problems and present possible solutions to these problems. for example, a circle of quality can be formed among employees who deliver services to customers. quality circles are more successful when they are part of an organization. american businesses have chosen this concept in the mid 1970s. 6 denney g. rutherford, hotel management and operations, 3rd edition, page. 172 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 58 this concept should be extended in this hotel and tourism industry and in every other service industry because advices, ideas and opinions of employees who perform the same work are worthy to develop better performance. if ten receptionists discuss about clients they face every day, their desires, demands, grievances, behavior and other issues, they will have a more detailed information and will be easier to face certain situations and provide a service depending on customer they face. 2.4. gaps that exist between the quality and the satisfaction of customer the first gap that the quality service can create against the customer satisfaction in hotel industry is the gap of knowledge. it is a result of differences in knowledge management and their expectations. this gap can lead to other deficiencies in the process of quality of service and can be caused by:7 incorrect information on market research and demand analysis, incorrect interpretation of information about expectations lack of information about a reaction between the company and customers burocratic flow of information creates this gap and sometimes modify some of the information compared to those who are in direct contact with customers. the second gap is the standard gap. it is the result of differences between the knowledge management for customer’s expectation and the process of delivering the service. this gap is as a result of: error in planning or insufficient planning procedures; bad planning by management; the lack of clearly defined goals in organization senior management relies insufficiently on quality planning service. to satisfy these hopes and desires, management can be fair in assessing customer expectations and business development methods without the need for employees to be correct in service delivery. for example, a restaurant can order the waiters to serve customers in two minutes after they sit 7 dr. sc. gržinić, jasmina, ‘concepts of service quality measurement in hotel industry’, page.87, 2008 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 59 down. however, the waiters can ignore this rule and speak among themselves in a corner forgetting the rule. the third gap is the gap of communication deriving when there exists a difference between the service delivered and the service that the company has promised to customers via external communication. the reasons are:8 planning of communication with the market is not integrated with services; lack or insufficient coordination between traditional marketing and procedures; organizational performance not in accordance with specifications exaggerated tendency not in accordance with promises hotels try to discover "service gaps" through questionnaires and study and analyze gaps. analysis is an essential element for managing in order to find the causes of problems related to quality and to find appropriate ways to get rid of such gaps. therefore, four gaps are also called organizational shortcomings or internal shortcomings. 3. hotel classification standards in prishtina pristina is the capital city of the newest country in europe, kosovo and at the same time the largest city of kosovo. prishtina is known for its role of metropolitan economic development, with contemporary urbanism and efficient services and well-integrated into regional and international developments, the center for culture, education, sports etc. preliminary results of census 2011 show that pristina’s population reaches 198,000 inhabitants. the city has a majority of albanian population, along with other smaller communities including bosnians, roma and others. prishtina is the center for administrative, educational and cultural life of kosovo. there is the university of prishtina and prishtina international airport. below we will present some of the most popular hotels in prishtina, under the category of stars, with descriptions and client assessments. 8 dr. sc. gržinić, jasmina, ‘concepts of service quality measurement in hotel industry’, page. 87, 2008 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 60 3.1. hotelier capacity in the municipality of prishtina the municipality of prishtina, according to the statistics of the records of the hotels operating in this municipality, is the most visited municipality with foreign and local tourists, therefore in the development plan of the commune space, tourism has been presented as a priority for development and growth of the economy, so touristic areas for development have been separated. name capacity that offers hotel swiss diamond swiss diamond hotel has been awarded 5 stars price diamond award international by the american academy of science of hotelier. rooms are designed to offer the utmost convenience and comfort. luxurious and elegant, wide spaces. italian marble bathrooms decorated with the best luxury accessories, hair dryer, makeup mirror, tub and separate shower. hotel pristina "hotel pristina" is one of the most prestigious hotels in pristina. with its unique architecture, originally designed, modern equipment, perfectly combines the elegance and simplicity of a neoclassical building. in order to adapt to the guests needs the hotel offers 43 rooms: 17 are standard rooms, 11 business rooms, 6 standard rooms with two beds and 9 deluxe rooms, arranged in the best possible way in order for guests to feel maximum comfort. hotel begolli hotel begolli features a selection of rooms and suites beautifully arranged, spread across 5 floors, an elegant hotel near the center of pristina with a tradition of 80 years. hotel sirius conveniently located in the center of prishtina where guests can have easy access to all interesting places. free parking, room service, restaurant, bar, room for baggage, pets are allowed. hotel royal hotel royal is a new hotel and one of the most prestigious hotels in the center of prishtina. it is a hotel with lots of flavor and style, with a height of 5 floors and 44 rooms decorated with elegance. the hotel offers professional services for all guests. free parking, room service, restaurant, bar, room for baggage, pets are allowed. hotel silver hotel silver is 30 minutes away from the international airport of prishtina "adem jashari" with a distance of 20 km and only 1 km from the center of prishtina. free parking, room service, restaurant, bar, traditional cuisine. hotel victory hotel victory for over a decade care for many foreign and local guests, government officials and personalities who enjoy the fact that the hotel, although it is in downtown, yet it is intimate and quiet which guarantees a comfortable sleep at night and safe surroundings. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 61 hotel lyon lyon hotel is located 500 meters from the center of prishtina with 24 hours reception service, restaurant and a bar. all the rooms are air-conditioned and include cable tv and a mini bar, bathroom with shower, hairdryer and towels. breakfast is included in the price and it is buffets. city museum of prishtina as well as city theatre are 800 meters away. hotel ora it is located in the center of prishtina. hotel ora is only 150m away from "mother theresa" square. it offers a restaurant, free parking lot and rooms (free wi-fi). a garden and a summer terrace for guests to relax. all rooms include air conditioning, tv and a mini bar. each room has a private bathroom, hairdryer and toilet paper (free of charge). some rooms also have the elegance in itself including the balcony. grap 1. frequency of hotel visits in pristina source: kosovo’s statistics agency. table 1. number of visitors (foreign and local) and their nights booked, for the period tm1 2008 – tm3 2015 period number of visitors their nights booked local foreigns local foreigns q1 2008 4,104 4,982 4,994 10,419 q2 2008 5,142 6,380 5,824 12,428 q3 2008 5,663 6,519 6,542 11,629 q4 2008 4,769 6,735 5,242 12,434 q1 2009 8,483 9,257 9,342 14,868 q2 2009 13,040 7,599 14,082 17,103 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 62 q3 2009 13,183 11,445 13,426 20,525 q4 2009 17,925 8,017 18,026 23,546 q1 2010 13,670 7,592 14,109 16,303 q2 2010 16,789 10,208 16,789 21,478 q3 2010 8,648 8,775 8,664 18,433 q4 2010 5,556 7,807 5,561 20,180 q1 2011 11,692 5,535 11,751 11,893 q2 2011 11,405 9,889 12,401 21,944 q3 2011 7,806 8,249 8,746 16,017 q4 2011 11,141 6,676 11,859 15,730 q1 2012 10,607 5,965 10,737 11,259 q2 2012 13,581 14,025 14,418 24,638 q3 2012 13,613 16,117 13,657 28,016 q4 2012 12,172 12,683 13,196 27,055 q1 2013 10,886 12,603 12,088 19,988 q2 2013 9,055 13,340 9,552 22,615 q3 2013 12,421 12,673 14,065 22,426 q4 2013 13,018 11,458 19,162 18,854 q1 2014 10,894 12,985 11,884 20,977 q2 2014 13,902 15,613 15,896 26,799 q3 2014 11,573 18,159 13,936 29,572 q4 2014 10,108 14,556 13,558 24,718 q1 2015 13,636 16,217 19,273 26,136 q2 2015 16,320 22,240 20,560 32,926 q3 2015 17,463 22,877 24,520 33,317 source: kosovo’s statistics agency. in q3 2015 the number of visitors is 40,340 visitors, 43.29% are local visitors, and 56.71% are foreign visitors, while the number of nights booked in tm 3 2015 is 57 837 accommodations, 42.40% of the accommodations are from locals and 57.60% are foreigners. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 63 grap 2. movements (trends) of visitors (local and foreigners) and their nights booked, for the period tm1 2008 – tm3 2015 source: kosovo’s statistics agency. grap 3. number of visitors (foreign and local) and their nights booked on tm3 2015, compared to the same quarters of previous years (2008 – 2014) source: kosovo’s statistics agency. table 2. foreigns and local visitors and their nights booked by regions, for the period 2008 2014 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 64 i d . r e g i o n s regions 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 v i z i t o r s n e t ë v i z i t o r s n e t ë v i z i t o r s n e t ë v i z i t o r s n e t ë v i z i t o r s n e t ë v i z i t o r s n e t ë v i z i t o r s n e t ë 1 gjakova 2,263 2,529 2,240 2,895 2,031 2,324 1,640 2,030 1,597 2,434 1,517 2,072 2,062 3,736 2 gjilan 3,152 3,466 3,210 4,181 1,976 2,400 2,251 3,101 1,937 2,731 1,718 2,364 1,552 2,081 3 mitrovic a 1,873 1,967 2,471 2,718 2,894 3,289 2,646 2,890 2,875 3,088 2,915 3,147 2,631 2,689 4 peja 4,924 5,423 8,288 10,68 0 8,337 9,677 6,633 7,170 7,593 11,18 4 6,630 9,597 11,534 18,751 5 prizren 3,632 4,095 4,639 5,792 4,663 9,210 5,434 6,946 6,212 7,962 8,109 10,36 0 8,615 11,144 6 pristina 27,07 6 50,19 8 57,569 92,24 5 49,17 2 83,69 4 46,63 6 80,62 0 68,53 7 102,84 6 68,68 7 102,32 3 77,167 114,48 9 7 ferizaj 1,374 1,834 10,532 12,40 7 9,972 10,92 3 7,153 7,584 10,01 2 12,73 1 5,878 8,887 4,229 4,450 total 44,29 4 69,51 2 88,949 130,91 8 79,04 5 121,51 7 72,39 3 110,34 1 98,76 3 142,97 6 95,45 4 138,75 0 107,790 157,34 0 source: kosovo’s statistics agency. table 2 shows the total number of visitors and their nights booked in the regions of kosovo during 2008 2014. as shown in table 2 with the largest number of visitors in 2014, leads the pristina region with a total of 77 167 visitors, peja ranks second with 11 534 visitors, prizren ranks third with 8615 visitors. table 3. foreign and local visitors and their nights booked by regions, for tm3 2013, tm3 2014 and tm3 2015 nr.identif i kation regjions q3 2013 q3 2014 q3 2015 vizitors nights vizitors nights vizitors nights 1 gjakovë 349 476 613 1,255 565 1,497 2 gjilan 469 495 545 707 645 855 3 mitrovicë 788 789 734 734 788 871 4 pejë 2,393 4,837 3,896 5,676 9,242 13,631 5 prizren 3,340 4,125 2,470 3,191 6,229 8,075 6 prishtinë 16,255 24,218 20,649 31,002 21,726 31,530 7 ferizaj 1,500 1,551 825 943 1,145 1,378 total 25,094 36,491 29,732 43,508 40,340 57,837 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 65 source: kosovo’s statistics agency. from table 3, it can be seen that in q3 2015, the largest number of visitors and their nights booked are in pristina region, with 21,726 visitors and 31,530 nights booked. grap 4. foreigns and local visitors and their nights booked, for tm3 2013, tm3 2014 and tm3 2015 source: kosovo’s statistics agency. table 4. foreign and local visitors and their nights booked by regions, for the tm3 period of 2013-2015 id. region regions q 3 2013 q 3 2014 q 3 2015 vizitor sd night vizitor s night vizitor s night 1 gjakova 150 277 284 813 328 1,122 2 gjilan 123 149 292 418 375 556 3 mitrovica 195 196 198 198 188 214 4 peja 603 2,642 2,240 2,945 4,982 6,325 5 prizren 1,714 2,291 1,058 1,681 4,174 5,796 q3 2013 q3 2014 q3 2015 in t h o u se n d s prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 66 6 pristina 9,632 16,564 13,883 23,240 12,452 18,922 7 ferizaj 256 307 204 276 378 382 12,673 22,426 18,159 29,572 22,877 33,317 source: kosovo’s statistics agency. as seen from the table above, the largest number of foreign visitors is concentrated in pristina, peja and so on. grap 5. number of foreign visitors and their nights booked, for the period tm3 2013, tm3 2014 and tm3 20 source: kosovo’s statistics agency. tabela 5. number of foreign visitors and their nights booked by country of origin, for the periods tm3 2013, tm3 2014 dhe tm3 2015. nr. state q 3 2013 q 3 2014 q 3 2015 vizitors nights vizitors nights vizitors nights 1 austria 23 26 508 860 1,359 1,636 2 belgjika 28 32 215 238 325 541 3 bosna & hercegovina 25 44 98 199 238 360 4 britania e madhe 386 568 570 1,025 631 1,038 5 franca 239 326 274 512 359 578 6 gjermania 1,133 1,831 1,577 2,654 1,957 3,002 7 greqia 30 34 15 16 159 272 8 holanda 49 61 34 60 171 299 9 italia 965 1,467 507 935 634 1,060 10 kroacia 516 1,142 368 743 1,787 2,057 in t h iu sa n d s prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 67 11 mali i zi 101 270 43 65 475 723 12 maqedonia 195 378 379 517 840 1,367 13 polonia 28 28 30 31 34 85 14 serbia 208 377 347 589 551 994 15 shba 1,209 2,738 1,493 3,141 1,741 2,754 16 shqipëria 2,274 3,095 2,224 3,050 4,334 5,396 17 sllovenia 355 2,085 546 1,223 779 1,293 18 spanja 16 20 9 9 136 221 19 turqia 1,462 2,253 886 1,519 1,368 1,994 20 zvicra 1,049 2,017 969 1,691 1,848 2,610 21 të tjera 2,382 3,634 7,067 10,495 3,151 5,037 total 12,673 22,426 18,159 29,572 22,877 33,317 source: kosovo’s statistics agency. from the table above, we see that the largest number of foreign visitors is from albania, germany, switzerland, etc. according to these researches, prishtina remains the most visited city by different local visitors and foreigners. thus, in q1 2014 the number of visitors in hotels in kosovo is 23,879, where 45.62% are domestic visitors and 54.38% are foreign visitors. whereas the number of nights booked in q1 2014 was 32,861, where 36.16% of booked nights are from locals and 63.84% are from foreigners. in q1 2014, the highest number of visitors and nights booked has prishtina the capital of kosovo with 13,667 visitors and 21,286 nights booked. according to ksa, with the highest number of visitors in 2013 stands prishtina the capital city of kosovo, with a total number of 55,750 visitors, lipljan ranks second with 7931 visitors, prizren ranked third with 6610 visitors. in q1 2014, the survey are included 106 hotels in the territory of kosovo, where most hotels are located in prishtina, ferizaj, prizren, peja, gjilan. according to the survey, utilizing capacity at country’s level is 9.36%. the largest number of foreign visitors is concentrated in prishtina and prizren. but, in terms of foreign visitors, the highest number is from albania, usa and turkey. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 68 4. research results survey to determine customer satisfaction with hotelier services we have exploited the results of a survey done in the city of prishtina. out of 200 surveys 156 were valid under which we derived the following results: age group of respondents: -25 years 40 years 55 years more 63 60 18 15 answer results: question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 how often do you visit hotels 50 % 25 % 23% quality of services 48 % 15% 37 % how does a service impact in your visit 78 % 15% 6% question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 44% prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 69 how much you are informed about services in hotels 19% 32% is potential utilized sufficiently 38% 52% 11% how does service impact competitiveness increase 63% 23% 13% do you thik if they are safe and adequate for visitors with dissailities 15% □ positive □ negative □ contained 5. conclusion the future success of hotels depends on the ability to anticipate and capitalize on changes. going towards transition and globalization a successful hotel should examine not only the key factors that will determine the success but also those who cope with a survival of the hotel in the future. these key factors depend on the organization of the hotel such as visionary leadership, globalization, diversification, flexibility, flat structure, focus on customers. the organization should be able to give response to the growing global services, maintain sales offices in many countries and hotel properties around the globe and an increased level of global labor force. a new organizational structure uses global and regional resources to promote higher levels of innovation, customer and revenue-oriented focus. flexibility in modern hotel organization means ensuring that the system, processes and people may respond differently to different situations. it should achieve less detailed rules and procedures, greater autonomy and encourage new initiatives and division of labor. the trend towards flat organization of hotels means less management levels, employees to have the opportunity to make decisions and not much difference in responsibilities. if the customer prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 70 is the king or the queen in the twentieth century, the organization of the hotel should be less focused on its assets as a measure of success, and more focused on the customer. the focus on customer should reflect business decisions at every level for development and organization of the hotel. the hotel service is based primarily on people rather than on other devices. twenty years ago, a business is not expected to have a level of service consistent and predictable wherever they operate. today, standards and not expectations are key and essential elements of a technological service to a hotel to meet every customer need. organization of a hotel nowadays should meet the needs of a visionary leadership as a way to focus on ideas of leadership, information, inspiration, vision and teamwork. organization of a hotel through internet network can simplify direct communication for all levels by ignoring the chain of command, cross structured teamwork, strategic alliances between competitors and third parties and decentralization. information technology nowadays affects every aspect of a business from corporate strategies to the structural and organisative organisation. before, technology was seen as a way to reduce costs by replacing people. this idea is being replaced with the idea of seeking an information technology as a support for creative work that each organizational level should follow. information technology should allow the organization to respond more quickly to market needs and also meet all the requirements and customer needs rapidly and accurately. to achieve this, organization should be decentralized. information technology imparts, but it should convey correct information to the right people and at the right time. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 71 references 1. denney g. rutherford, hotel management and operations, 3rd edition 2. donald m. davidoff, contact: customer service in the hospitality and tourism 3. drummond, k. e. human resource management for the hospitality industry. new york, ny: van nostrand reinhold (1990). 4. frank d. borsenik and alan t. stutts, the management of maintenance and engineering systems in the hospitality industry, 4th ed. (new york: john eiley & sons, inc., 1997). 5. grove s.j., and r.p. fisk, ‘the impact of other customers on service experiences: a critical incident examination of getting along’, page. 63-85, journal of retailing, 73, 1997 6. gržinić, jasmina, ‘concepts of service quality measurement in hotel industry’, 2008 7. jerris, a. l. human resource management for hospitality. upper saddle river, nj: prenticehall, inc. (1999). 8. kaye sung chon, jay kandampully, connie mok, service quality management in 9. koja, gorica, “marketing tourism” 2007 10. llaci, shyqyri, koli, zana, human resource management, chapter. vii ‘recruitment’ 11. llaci, shyqyri, business management, chapter. vii, ‘organizational structuring of business' 2006 other articles • official hotel and resort guide (ohrg) , summary of articles and information on hotel classification system • coopers & lybrand l.l.p., united states bureau of labor statistics, smith travel research. • fundamentals of service orientation, white paper, attachmate, u.s.a 1. introduction 2.1. knowing the basic customer requirements for building a quality service 2.2. service characteristics compared to those of the product 2.3. measuring the quality of service in hotel industry 2.4. gaps that exist between the quality and the satisfaction of customer 3. hotel classification standards in prishtina 3.1. hotelier capacity in the municipality of prishtina grap 1. frequency of hotel visits in pristina references 22 victim identification, framing heuristic and stress effects on the donation decision dr.sc. nihan tomri̇s küçün ¹* dr. sc. sezen güngör ² ¹ eskişehir osmangazi university, cognitive-behavioral application and research center service terms, nihan_tomris@hotmail.com, * correspondent author ² tekirdag namık kema university, çorlu vocational school, business administration department, sezengungor@nku.edu.tr article history: accepted 12 july 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: donation, framing effect, i̇dentifiable and statistical, victims, galvanic skin response. a b s t r a c t the tendency of an individual to share his beings with other people arises from the social aspect of human nature. especially in today's conditions where the gap between advantageous and disadvantaged groups is getting deeper, donation is extremely important to reach a global level of welfare and to create fair living standards for all. due to the stated priorities, donation behavior has an important place among both religious and moral values. however, the factors that lead an individual towards donation behavior are not only social rules. in addition to external factors, important internal factors such as emotions also play a big role in the donation decision. in addition, there are many variables such as the donated thing itself, total assets of the donor and indeed the characteristics of the donor. donation behavior, which is widely examined in the literature, is also considered as an important decision making subject. in our study, the effects that motivate an individual towards a donation; along with the donation amount and the ratio of donation, were examined with framing heuristics which express the individual's knowledge of the victim. the mentioned variables were associated with stress as one of the strongest negative arousal output, to understand the emotional aspect of a donation decision. the stress levels of the participants, who manipulated by two different scenarios, were monitored with galvanic skin response to determine the decision-making scenarios which triggered stress. as a result; it has been found that the individual's effort to gain the money he donates and the features of the donation call significantly affect the decision. 1. introduction a donation is giving tangible and intangible assets without waiting in return for those in need to create social benefit and fulfil individual social responsibility (kılıçalp iaconantonio, 2013). this behavior, which reduces the devastating consequences of injustice in income distribution, strengthens social unity and forms the basis of social solidarity, is motivated by both internal (bennett, 2003) and external (bekkers and wiepking, 2011) motivations. external factors that motivate an individual to donate; the credibility of the donor institution/individual (amos, 1982), belief that it will be useful (bennett, 2003) and even cultural and social norms (woo, 1992) are extremely effective as external triggers. additionally, internal mechanisms that direct an individual to a donation has great importance on the decision and continuity of the donation. in the donation literature, the origins of psychographic factors that form internal triggers are generally examined in two main axes, namely empathy (batson et al., 1988) and egoism which is associated with the desire to resolve negativity (cialdini et al., 1997). although the literature on donation and determining factors (fisher and ackerman 1998; smith and mcsweeney, 2007) are http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 mailto:nihan_tomris@hotmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5548-6093 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8388-6350 23 fairly extensive, studies to determine the emotions that affect individuals' donation attitudes and their formation are extremely limited (kaufmann, 1970; webb et al., 2000). however, analyzing the sub-components of attitudes is extremely important for understanding how donation behavior is shaped. moreover, the fact that emotions have a very determining effect on people's decision-making process requires understanding the emotions experienced during donation. based on the stated importance and priorities, identifiable victim and framing effects on donation behavior were searched via participants' stress levels during donation as one of the psychophysiological responses. thus, we achieved the results regarding both donation behavior and the participant's stress levels triggered by the stimuli. we believe that the studies conducted to understand the underlying mechanisms of behavioural triggers and emotion -including this studycould make an important contribution to the decision-making field. 2. donation the decision of an individual to sacrifice anything valuable to him to make social or personal goodness is a donation. there are two basic types of donation: in cash and in kind. besides; donations such as blood, tissue and organs are also seen. but all donations usually have a common aim; to help someone and to create goodness for all. third sector foundation of turkey (tusev) publishes yearly reports about turkish people's donation behaviour (çarkoğlu ve aytaç, 2016). the last report of states that;  the sum of all help and donations made in turkey in a year, 228 tl per person (which corresponds to 0.8% of gdp) and the amount which was made through institutions of these were determined to be 16.7 tl per donation.  the word "charity" was perceived as "helping the poor and the people in need" by the 40,6% of the participants and perceived as "helping others and doing something good" by 28,5% of them.  as the reason for the donation behavior, 32.5% of the participants chose religious reasons, 20.4% traditions, 14.2% the feeling of indebtedness towards the society and 12.7% personal satisfaction.  “when asked to the participants whom they would like to help; participants mostly chose their relatives (37%). the least desire for help was reported to someone who does not share the political view of the participant (2%). according to the caf world giving index2018 report which is published by charities aid foundation, turkey' rank about donation is 131 between 146 countries. indonesia is the first in the very same list. donation and charity are defined in three groups in the report; helping others, a donation to a civil organization and spending time for a charity (caf world giving index, 2018). when we take into consideration the studies on donation decision, it is seen that besides the donation amount, the characteristics of the people or groups donated and the way these people are introduced to potential donors are also noteworthy. for example, if a call for help we face on social media also gives detailed information about the victim's dramatic story, our degree of empathy and the likelihood of deciding to make a donation for the needy person will increase. however, if a group of people and their needs are mentioned and these needs are presented to us statistically rather than empathically, we are less likely to be donors. these two different conditions are named as "identifiable victim effect" and "statistical victims" in the literature of donation (anik et al., 2014). 2.1. identifiable victims and statistical victims identifiable victim effect refers to the rate of the needy people to the whole community. for example, if you are told that a family with 10 people are at death's door because of hunger and all members of this family will die if not helped, this condition will cause greater sensitivity due to the phenomenon "identifiable victims". on the other hand, if it is said that there are 1.000 people affected by infectious disease and 10 of them will die if they are not helped this is statistical knowledge and the sensitivity to those 10 people who are on the threshold of death will be relatively less. identifiable victim researches show that if we know more about the victims we'll be more likely to spend time, money and effort for them. as schelling (1968: 132) states, "the more we know, the more we care". besides, the provided information about identifiable victims reveals subject's inferences related to the victims' "vitality" and "affinity". it is possible to briefly summarize the states of vitality and affinity as follows: scenario 1: in a western african country guinea, a two-year-old boy got the ebola virus from a bat and is waiting for help. if he is not helped, the ebola virus will spread many countries of the world as it is highly contagious and will cause thousands of people to die. scenario 2: a two-year-old boy living with his mother, brother, and grandmother in a west african country guinea got ebola virus from a bat which entered his dilapidated adobe house. now, 24 he can't reach the cure because of poverty and impossibilities. the nearest hospital is hundreds of miles away from his village and even he achieves to go to the hospital, it is very difficult to reach the medicines and equipment needed for treatment, because guinea is a country struggling with complete destitution and misery. if he is not helped, the world may face a new ebola outbreak. it is expected initially to spread to local and foreign health personnel in guinea and then sadly it will rapidly spread to many countries. due to turkey's tourism potential, it could be said that turkey will be one of the first countries that ebola will spread. in the first scenario, the donor doesn't have a clue about the victim's story. so that it is really difficult to feel empathy. oppositely in the second scenario, the victim is presented to the donor with more vivid details. thus the donor can feel the victim's misery almost vitally. the other catching point of the second scenario the mention to turkey. thanks to the affinity effect, if the donor is a turkish citizen, that scenario will make him think about the big risk for once at least. those effects may determine the donated amount for the victim or the number of donors involved. in addition to all these variables, we believe that it is important to note that; there isn't just one correct answer for all. and, donating more to identifiable victims, but donating less to statistical victims can not be named as bias. because it is not possible to define the "correct" financial value for a human being's life. additionally, there is no verity mathematical formula for the donation amount. bias is a concept that helps define people's inconsistent behavior, and there can be no consistent or inconsistent behavior in valuing a life (small et al., 2005). 3. framing heuristics identifying victims in donation behavior is not accepted as a bias. however, in the decision-making field there are some common heuristics that people are influenced by. one of these heuristics is the "framing effect". framing is a concept that includes the details of how a subject is presented to individuals. many sources on the presentation of alternatives mention an example of a driver's license and an organ donor. accordingly, in the united states, a driver must sign a form to become an organ donor while obtaining his driving license. this is a preferential participation. however, the researches show that only 25% of the drivers who have received a driving license want to become organ donors. on the other hand, the situation maintains oppositely in countries such as austria, sweden and france. in other words, anyone who receives a driver's license is considered an organ donor. if you do not want to be a donor, you must fill out a form. this is also called unpreferential participation. also, related researches show that the rate of participation in organ donation in these countries is more than 90% (nofsinger, 2011). it is possible to frame a decision-making problem in different ways. tversky and kahneman (1981) showed in their experiments at stanford university and british columbia university that different results can be obtained by framing a problem in different ways. in that experiment, which is referred to the literature as "asian disease", two different scenarios with the same results are applied. according to the results, people can make decisions based on how a topic is presented to them. in other words, individuals evaluate information according to how it is transmitted to them. also, they are likely to give different answers to the same questions, depending on how they are asked. as a result, people's decision-making processes are open to the influence of many internal and external factors. especially when it comes to sharing something valuable with another person both positive and negative emotions can be experienced like; empathy (verhaert and poel, 2011), satisfaction (nguyen et al., 2008) happiness (liu and aaker, 2008), pride (anjum and gueth, 2019), regret (o'carroll et al., 2011) stress (ranganathan and henley, 2008; sollberger et al., 2016). besides, the donated thing, how this thing is acquired, its amount, and the amount left to the individual in case of donation are other important determining variables (havens et al., 2006). in summary, identifying the rational and irrational causes underlying donation behavior that requires a decision-making process is important also to understand the dynamics of the decision-making process. 4. use of neurometric and biometric methods in decision making research decision-making studies find itself a wide range of applications in social sciences' branches (psychology (hastie and daves, 2009), finance (steuer and na, 2003), marketing (keegan and rowley, 2017)) just like in natural and applied sciences (yu et al., 2017; mosier and skitka, 2018). decision making, one of the most specific processes of human behavior, is shaped by many internal and external motivators. in addition to culture, environmental effects, norms, behavior patterns and many more sociological dynamics (bruch and feinberg, 2017), the individual's current attitudes and emotions (rubenking, 2019) have a major impact on the process. qualitative (hutchinson et al., 2018) and quantitative (liao et al., 2017; baker et al., 2017) approaches are both used separately or together in order to resolve the decision-making process. the complex nature of this process and the difficulty in the 25 generalization phase require the use of more than one approach. in addition to the person's statement or the researcher's observations, the use of some neuroscience methods in decisionmaking studies provides an important advantage in order to examine the effect of emotions on the process closely and without being dependent on self-report. in addition to neurometric measurement devices that monitor the cognitive load of the brain such as eeg and fmri; there are various devices that track other biometric responses such as eye-tracking, electromyography (emg), electrocardiography (ecg), galvanic skin response (gsr) etc. gsr is one of the oldest methods used in emotion identification studies (solnais et al., 2013); due to its important advantage in measuring somatic responses of the individual against the stimulus, it also offers important advantages to the researcher with its low cost, portable structure and practical use. in this study, the donation stress of the individual will be monitored with gsr within the scope of the effects described above. with gsr, it will be determined which effect caused more emotional arousal in the decision making processes of the participants. 4.1. galvanic skin response gsr is based on the principle of measuring electrical activity occurring on the skin surface. in an emotional state change, the sweat glands become active. accordingly, the positive and negative ion balance changes on the skin surface. by tracking this change with gsr, it is possible to have information about the conscious/ unconscious process experienced by the individual. briefly, gsr data is basically associated with emotional arousal. the disadvantage of gsr to the researcher is that this arousal cannot provide clear information about whether it is a positive or negative emotional arousal. gsr results are the autonomous response of the somatic nervous system. this change in skin conductivity is mostly associated with stress in the literature (bakker et al., 2011; villarejo et al., 2012; kurniawan, 2013), and also with excitement describing a relatively positive stimulation (zimny and weidenfeller, 1962; kucher et al., 2016; cuesta et al., 2018). in order to clearly determine the arousal type, it is important either to use gsr integrated with other neuroscientific methods or to design the experiment model in a way that does not trigger the other emotional state. 5. experimental design the sample of the research consists of 80 people. this sample was randomly divided into two and the experiment conducted with two groups of 40 people. before starting the experiment, they were all informed about the experiment protocol and asked permission to collect biometric data. the first group was named as "acquisition group". researchers told the first group members that they will answer 5 mathematics questions with the chance to earn 2 tl for each correct answer. the questions are as follows: 9x8=72 (2+5)x3=21 (3+4)x(5+6)=77 3^2+5^2=34 (2^3+3^2 )x4^2=272 the amount of money earned by the participants in the acquisition group is between 0 and 10 tl. after playing the math game separately with each member of the group and delivering the money they earned to all the group members, the experiment phase started. evaluation of the mathematics questions was made in front of the participants and the answers were checked in detail. thanks to this evaluation, the participants were aimed to feel that they really earned the money they received. a question was asked of 20 people who were selected randomly from the acquisition group, indicating their donation needs in which identifiable victims were described. in addition, 10 randomly selected among these 20 people were asked these questions with a "loss-frame", while the other 10 people were asked the same questions with a "benefit-frame". the other 20 participants of the group were asked a question indicating the donation needs in which statistical victims were described. again, the same question was asked in the form of earnings, while the other 10 people were asked in the loss-frame, while 10 of them were chosen randomly. basically, the participants were asked how much of the money they would donate with the amount of money they had just gained from the math game. it was also emphasized that they had the right to refuse to donate. the participants in the second group of the study were named as "grant group". there were also 40 participants in that group and the same questions were asked exactly as in the first group. the only difference between the groups was that the grant group was asked simple math questions and 10 tl was given immediately without checking the correct answers. it was not concealed from the participants that the math questions were not evaluated. in this way, we had them know that 10 tl was granted to them. schimmer 3 gsr unit was used to monitor the participants' skin conductivity responses. two silver electrodes were positioned on the index and the middle finger of the hand that the participant did not use predominantly. the participant warned to stay still during the experiment. the room temperature was kept constant at 220 c and a completely quiet environment was provided. in 26 this way, environmental factors that would negatively affect the gsr data were prevented. the data collected from the experiment were categorized as seen in the following titles:  participant groups: acquisition group and grant group  victim identification: identifiable victim and statistical victim  framing method: loss -frame and benefit-frame  obtained amount: the amount of money that the participants earn or receive as a grant after simple mathematics questions (0-10 tl in the acquisition group, while it is 10 tl for all participants in the grant group.)  donation amount: the amount expressing how much of the money the participant donate during the experiment.  donation ratio: the ratio of donation amount to the amount obtained  gsr: stres arousal (μs) the hypotheses were organized according to this reporting are as follows: h1= the donated amount significantly differs between acquisition and grant groups. h2= the donation ratio significantly differs between acquisition and grant groups. h3= the donated amount significantly differs in terms of identifiable and statistical victims. h4= the donation ratio significantly differs in terms of identifiable and statistical victims. h5= the donated amount significantly differs between lossframe and benefit-frame. h6= the donated ratio significantly differs between loss-frame and benefit-frame. h7= stress arousal level significantly differs between acquisition and grant groups. h8= stress arousal level significantly differs in terms of identifiable and statistical victims. h9= stress arousal level significantly differs between loss-frame and benefit-frame. 6. results statistical analysis was conducted via spss version 22 package program. kolmogorov smirnov test gave the result that the data did not show normal distribution. accordingly, analyzes were continued with non-parametric tests. the confidence level of the analyzes was accepted as 95% and interpreted at 5% significance level. mann whitney u test was applied for the hypotheses and the results are reported in the table 1. table 1. statistical analysis results group mean mean rank sum of ranks u z p d o n a t e d a m o u n t acquisition group 3,63 35,18 1407 587 -2,08 0,038 grant group 4,75 45,83 1833 identifiable victims 4,97 48,73 1949 471 -3,21 0,001 statistical victims 3,4 32,28 1291 benefit-frame 3,42 33,11 1324,5 505 -2,88 0,004 loss-frame 4,95 47,89 1915,5 d o n a t io n r a t io acquisition group 0,55 44,96 1798,5 622 -1,73 0,083 grant group 0,47 36,04 1441,5 identifiable victims 0,6 49,75 1990 430 -3,59 0,000 statistical victims 0,41 31,25 1250 benefit-frame 0,41 31,16 1246,5 427 -3,63 0,000 loss-frame 0,61 49,84 1993,5 s t r e s s a r o u s a l acquisition group 645434,3 53,69 2147,5 273 -5,08 0,000 grant group 128524,6 27,31 1092,5 27 identifiable victims 590345,4 53,73 2149 271 -5,09 0,000 statistical victims -73485,72 27,28 1091 benefit-frame -68969,75 31,2 1248 428 -3,58 0,000 loss-frame 584929,5 49,8 1992 as seen in the table xx the h1 hypothesis was accepted. so the donated amount differs between donor and grant groups. accordingly, the average donation amount of the participants in the grant group (mean = 4.75) was significantly higher than the average of the donation amount (mean = 3.63) of the participants in the acquisition group (u (nkacquisitiongroup = 40, ngrantgroup = 40) = 587.00, z = 2.07, p <.05). the differentiation of identifiable victims and statistical victims in terms of the donated amount may also be seen in the same table. according to the analysis confirming the h3 hypothesis, the identifiable victims (mean = 4.97) got significantly more donations than the statistical victims (mean = 3.40) (u (nkacquisitiongroup = 40, ngrantgroup = 40). the h5 hypothesis was also accepted. accordingly, more donations were collected in cases of loss-frame conditions (mean = 4.95) than benefit-frame conditions (mean = 3.42) (u (nkacquisitiongroup = 40, ngrantgroup = 40) = 504.50, z = -2.88, p <. 05). it was determined that the donation ratio calculated by proportioning the donated amount to the income obtained did not differ between the acquisition and grant groups (p> .05). therefore, the h2 hypothesis was rejected. however, a significant difference was found between identifiable victims and statistical victims at the donation ratio and the h4 hypothesis was accepted. accordingly, donations made to identifiable victims (mean = .60) are proportionally higher than donations made to statistical victims (mean = .41) (u (nkacquisitiongroup = 40, ngrantgroup = 40) = 430.00, z = -3.593, p < .05). h6 hypothesis was also accepted. accordingly, the donation requests (mean = .61) to which lossframe was applied are higher than the donation requests (mean = .41) to which benefit-frame was applied (u (nkacquisitiongroup = 40, ngrantgroup = 40) = 426.50, z = -3.627, p < .05). finally, according to the gsr results, which represents the stress levels of the participants, significant differences were found in terms of both the participant groups, victim identification and framing method. in terms of the participant group, the stress levels of the participants in the gsr results acquisition group (mean = 645434,32) were higher than the participants in the grant group (mean = -128524,62) (u (nkacquisitiongroup = 40, ngrantgroup = 40) = 272.500, z = 5.076, p <.05). this indicates that individuals in the acquisition group were exposed to more stress when donating. the level of stress was lower in the participants in the grant group. according to the results, the h7 hypothesis is confirmed. from the point of view of the participant group, it was determined that the participants were exposed to more stress in donations to the detectable victims (mean = 590345.42) than the statistical victims (mean = -73485.72) (u (nkacquisitiongroup = 40, ngrantgroup = 40) = 271.00, z = -5.091, p <.05). accordingly, the h8 hypothesis was accepted. lastly, in terms of the framing method, it was seen that the participants were exposed to more stress in the demand requests presented with the loss framing (mean = 584929,45) compared to the demands presented with the benefit framing (mean = -68969,75). this result shows us that the h9 hypothesis was also accepted (u (nkacquisitiongroup = 40, ngrantgroup = 40) = 428.050, z = -3.580, p <.05). 7. discussion the results of kogut and ritov (2005), proves that people tend to donate more to identifiable victims than to victims that have not been identified and remained just as statistical data. the researchers state that if an identified victim and a group of identified victims are mentioned, an identified victim gets more donation than the identified victim group. but oppositely if an unidentified victim and a group of unidentified victims mentioned then the victim group get more donations. in other words, the donation to a single victim among identified victims may be higher than the donation to a group of victims. on the other hand, if victims are unidentified (statistical victims); donation to a single victim is lower than than the donation to a group of victims. these results are consistent with the studies showing that more donations were made to identifiable victims in terms of donation amount. accordingly, our research, when a choice was made between an identifiable victim and an identifiable group of victims the participants wanted to donate more to a single victim. a similar study conducted by schelling in 1968, reveals that people tend to donate more to identifiable victims when it gets to the point to save a human being's life. similar results were also obtained by small and loewenstein (2003a, 2003b). in that study, a similar result was obtained between identifiable victims and statistical victims. accordingly, identifiable victims trigger more emotional arousal than to the statistical victims. gsr results also support that statement. in our study in the case of identifiable victims, participants' stress levels significantly increased to the other group. this stress-related arousal can be explained by the emotional responses cited in both small and loewenstein's work. in other words, the participants showed more emotional reactions 28 to identifiable victims. the study briefly shows that the decision to donate has both cognitive and emotional sub-dynamics. it is obvious that 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(1962). effects of music upon gsr of children. child development, 891896. 52 assisted reproduction and reproductive rights comparative aspects between republic of north macedonia and republic of kosovo prof. ass. dr. arta selmani-bakiu ¹* msc. julinda elezi ² ¹ south east european university, faculty of law, arta.selmani@seeu.edu.mk, *correspondent author. ² south east european university, faculty of law, je17142@seeu.edu.mk article history: submission 02 september 2020 revision 04 november 2020 accepted 23 december 2020 available online 31 december 2020 keywords: assisted reproductive technology, reproductive freedom and rights, family planning. a b s t r a c t developments in science and technology have, among other things, challenged the family. human values, which change in step with this technological progress, have faced many legal, moral and ethical dilemmas which await answers from the science on bioethics. we are in such a situation when we discuss about many advances in contemporary and national family law, including new forms of family reproduction that differ from a natural process of child conceiving. the authors in this paper bring comparative aspects of biomedical and family legislation of the republic of north macedonia and republic of kosovo. among other things, they emphasize that given the traditional and biological model of the family in our society, new reproductive forms are a very reserved topic in the family and biomedical field, but it awakens a curiosity of discussions on ethics, philosophy and legal regulation of reproduction of human beings in both countries. the numerous stereotypes that prevail in the society of both countries regarding the application of artificial reproduction technology methods are contrary to many legal and medical justifications for couples who do not have the opportunity to become parents in a biological (natural) way. therefore, the purpose of the authors is to provide accurate and grounded information through this text about the legal framework and medical options available to all persons who wish to exercise their reproductive right to establish a family. 1. introduction in the age of rapid development of science and technology, the family has not been left untouched, despite the fact that progress and reforms in family law are slower due to the culture, tradition, customs, the influence of religion and moral. precisely because of these changes in the concept of parenthood and family, today it is very difficult to give the definition of the institution "family". the majority have an image of the "ideal family" consisting of biological mother, father and children, however, different reasons and circumstances have forced the change of this family model. today we encounter different forms of family: single-parent families, remarriage and reconstituted families, extramarital families, same-sex families, families created by the new reproductive technologies. in terms of "destabilization" of the traditional family and the presentation of the contemporary pluralistic family, many questions and dilemmas arise in the reasons that have led to the definition of this new family model (selmani bakiu, 2020). in this article the authors want to inform the public that despite many obstacles in terms of changes in family processes, technology has played a very big role in terms of advancements in the forms of parenting establishing. reproduction is no longer an issue which is beyond human control. what was once considered a natural process for conceiving a child, currently, is a conscious and planned transformation in human life in the moment when the one decides to take on the role of parent. in this regard, integral parts of contemporary birth policy are: artificial http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0392-4447 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7149-9935 53 conception, in vitro fertilization, surrogate motherhood, childbirth by a single woman with donated genetic material, postmortem reproduction, conception of a child by three people and many other processes known from biomedical technology. thus, today there is a wide range of opportunities for reproduction which have influenced the change the birth concept and the establishment of parenthood. therefore, in a family macro plan there is no universal model of family planning which would be acceptable and appropriate for a legal system (selmani-bakiu, 2020). since the family legislations of the rnm and kosovo are very similar, almost identical, the two countries have many differences in terms of incorporating some methods of artificial reproduction into their biomedical legislation. therefore, the intention of the authors is through this paper to provide their references based on the right of reproduction in terms of family planning regulated by the law on biomedical assisted fertilization of rnm (baf) and the law on reproductive health of kosovo. the authors in this paper bring the similarities as well as many differences in terms of types of methods for assisted biomedical reproduction, parental rights and legal status of children born through these methods. during their analysis, they come to concrete conclusions in terms of avoiding legal contradictions and filling legal gaps in the biomedical legislation of both countries, always concerning the best interest of children born through artificial reproduction technology. 2. reproductive freedom through biological, artificial birth and refusal to establish a family the right for reproduction in the function of family planning and establishment is a right guaranteed and protected as a fundamental human right in the universal declaration of human rights (article 16) and in the european convention on human rights (article 12). parenting is one of the biggest transitions in the life roles of a man and a woman so it is very important in what form and by what methods they will establish their family. furthermore, “reproductive rights embrace certain human rights that are already recognized in national laws, international laws and others international human rights documents. these rights rest on the recognition of the basic rights of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. it also includes the right to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence, as expressed in human rights documents” (international conference on population and development programme of action, 2014). the reproductive process is long, complex, and fraught with danger, especially for women. successful reproduction requires men and women using conscious and unconscious strategies to give them the greatest chance of success. successful reproduction is not a random event. it is a carefully calibrated system that has evolved through trial and error over the eons to provide for the greatest chance of human survival, that is, life. life does not exist without successful reproduction and i believe successful reproduction is furthered by reproductive freedom. while reproductive freedom includes birth control or abortion, the ability to prevent or terminate a pregnancy is just one step in the process of creating life (sanger, 2004). an important change which brought the new era of human involvement in medical science, mainly in what was formerly considered the exclusivity of nature, was that the notion of "procreation" that was changed to the notion of "reproduction" which much less associates to the notion of reproduction. the difference between these two notions "reproduction" which refers to the creation of children as laboratory products and the notion "procreation" which refers to the conception of children through sexual intercourse, announced in the beginning of in vitro procedures in everyday human life (ramsey cited by mickovik et al., 2016). according to this logic, assisted reproductive technology (art) does not procreate children but only reproduces them. therefore, the focus of the notion "reproduction" is in the interest of the rights of adults to "reproduce themselves", and not to create their own offspring (ibid.). in this regard, it is important to emphasize that everyone can express their right to reproduction in two forms, both as a positive right to reproduction and a negative right to reproduction. the positive right to reproduction means the right of every person to have children and to become a parent. in this case, if this right cannot be exercised naturally, the interested person can exercise this right through medical treatment or through artificial insemination (zendeli et al., 2020). on the other hand, the negative right to reproduction means the right of the person to decide not to be realized as a parent, i.e. to decide not to have children of his own. this right can be exercised in two ways, preventively and correctively. the preventive way is realized through education and contraception, respectively, sterilization, which can be temporary or permanent. in doing so, the person is free to decide which of the remedies allowed and recommended by medicine will be used. the corrective way of exercising the right not to have children is by applying the right to abortion, which is accepted and regulated in all european countries (ibid.). 2.1. assisted reproductive technology from what was stated above, the person can realize the positive right to reproduction in a biological way through the natural process of childbirth, this right can also be realized in an artificial 54 way through the application of technology methods of artificial reproduction. therefore, all persons who want to have children, but due to some medical indications are prevented from being fulfilled as parents, biomedicine has enabled them the application of artificial reproduction technology. the term “reproductive revolution” is not mere hyperbole. most human reproduction will, of course, continue to occur as the result of sexual intercourse with only the technology of modern obstetrics involved. the major issues of human reproduction will remain access to prenatal and postnatal care, reduction of infant mortality, provision of adequate child care, and access to contraception and abortion (robertson, 1994). assisted reproductive technology (art)1 is used to treat infertility. it includes fertility treatments that handle both a 1 in order to understand assisted reproduction and how it can help infertile couples, it is important to understand how conception takes place naturally. for traditional conception to occur, the man must ejaculate his semen, the uid containing the sperm, into the woman’s vagina around the time of ovulation, when her ovary releases an egg. ovulation is a complex event controlled by the pituitary gland, which is located at the base of the brain. e pituitary gland releases follicle-stimulating hormone (fsh), which stimulates follicles in one of the ovaries to begin growing. e follicle produces the hormone estrogen and contains a maturing egg. when an egg is mature, the pituitary gland sends a surge of luteinizing hormone (lh) that causes the follicle to rupture and release (ovulate) a mature egg (figure 1). to see the stages of embryo development. see more at american society for reproductive medicine (2018). regarding the mitochondrial donation, a very important question is does the mitochondrial donor have any rights over the child? a woman who donates their eggs and/or embryos for use in other women’s mitochondrial donation treatment will not be the genetic parent of the resulting child. this is because the mitochondria that they provide makes up less than 1% of the child’s genetics. for this reason, they will not have any legal rights or responsibilities over the child and they remain anonymous. for more see at human fertilization and embryology authority: https://www.hfea.gov.uk/treatments/embryo-testing-andtreatments-for-disease/mitochondrial-donation-treatment/ 2 technological reproduction creates an environment of medical experimentation in which virtually anything can be tried on women’s bodies. the claims that the technology is being perfected all the time camouflages the medicalized mutilation inherent in the procedures. in the medical literature, there is also a “violence of abstraction,” where what is done to women is woman's egg and a man's sperm. it works by removing eggs from a woman's body2. the eggs are then mixed with sperm to make embryos. the embryos are then put back in the woman's body. in vitro fertilization (ivf) is the most common and effective type of art. art procedures sometimes use donor eggs, donor sperm, or previously frozen embryos. it may also involve a surrogate or gestational carrier. a surrogate is a woman who becomes pregnant with sperm from the male partner of the couple. a gestational carrier becomes pregnant with an egg from the female partner and the sperm from the male partner (american society for reproductive technology, 2020). types of methods for artificial reproduction are: in vitro fertilization (ivf), artificial insemination, posthumous reproduction, surrogacy, “three parents” technique,3 single mother by choice.4 these and many new methods which are constantly part of innovations in biomedical technology, have made it possible for infertile couples encased in “numbers of pregnancies per laparoscopy” or “selective therapeutic termination of pregnancy.” but women are not abstract, and neither are the mutilations inflicted on women’s bodies (raymond, 1993). 3 these variants of ivf techniques would be used to prevent the transmission of maternally inherited mitochondrial dna (mtdna) disorders. such disorders are incurable and may cause illness, disability and death. neither ‘maternal spindle transfers’ (mst) nor ‘pronuclear transfer’ (pnt) has yet been used anywhere in the world to create children. both techniques raise new legal, regulatory, ethical and social issues. see more at riley, 2015. 4 medical technology is advancing at a more rapid rate than either layperson can comprehend or legal or ethical standards can address. consider the developments in reproductive techniques. years ago, when a woman wanted a baby, her options were readily defined. now, with continual advancements in medical technology, her options have greatly increased. a woman desiring a child can, for example, be impregnated artificially. such choices have their advantages and disadvantages. what influence, if any, should the doctor have in presenting these choices to the mother-to-be? are there any problems for an offspring? who should be involved in the decisions? do state laws differ regarding such matters? ambulatory health care employees need to be aware of the ethical and legal implications of such choices. medical specialization means more people will be involved in personal health care. managed care, policies, and providers will in part dictate how choices are made. if hospitalization is necessary, who is in charge, who coordinates, and who approves this care? who decides the appropriate course of action in the case of conflicting medical opinions? although specialization may enhance quality health care, it demands https://www.hfea.gov.uk/treatments/embryo-testing-and-treatments-for-disease/mitochondrial-donation-treatment/ https://www.hfea.gov.uk/treatments/embryo-testing-and-treatments-for-disease/mitochondrial-donation-treatment/ 55 to become parents. in connection with these and many other similar issues, there is a need for family law to deal with the analysis of the legal implications of artificial reproduction, therefore as a result of the application of these methods for childbirth, family law needs to redefine legal notions of family and parenting law (selmani-bakiu, 2020). furthermore, to appreciate the breadth and depth of the reproductive revolution, four aspects of that revolution are separately considered: (1) contraception and abortion; (2) treating infertility; (3) controlling the quality of offspring; and (4) using reproductive capacity for nonreproductive ends (robertson, 1994). 3. new technologies for artificial reproduction as a way of establishing a family in the biomedical legislation of rnm despite many changes in family legal relations which have imposed scientific and technological developments, the law on family of rnm since its adoption in 1992 has not undergone any substantial reform, despite the fact that in rnm, as in all other european countries, dynamic and profound changes have occurred in all segments of marital and family relations (zendeli et al., 2020). a very important innovation that is in step with all contemporary concepts for starting a family, is the adoption of the law on biomedical assisted fertilization (baf) in 2008 and the law on amendments to the law on biomedical assisted fertilization of 2014. with this law all the complex issues related to artificial reproduction technologies are regulated in detail. the law on baf regulates the process of artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, posthumous reproduction, as well as the process of childbirth through a surrogate mother with the changes of 2014. the law regulates in detail some very important issues such as: the reasons for the implementation of baf procedure; autologous fertilization5 and allogeneic fertilization;6 types of medical procedure; users of baf rights; parental rights and user status; donation of genetic materials; realization of the baf procedure; cryopreservation of genetic material and embryos; authorized health institutions for performing baf; the role and powers of the state commission for baf; state register for baf; greater coordination for clients to benefit from it, and it increases the cost of medical care (lewis & tamparo, 2007). 5 according to article 3 of the law, the baf procedure is performed if the previous treatment has been unsuccessful or the treatment with other methods is hopeless and in cases when the severe hereditary disease can be transmitted to the child. in implementing the baf procedure, the legislator gives priority to the use of own genetic materials or embryos of potential parents (see article 6 of the law baf) oversight of the baf procedure as well as criminal offenses in situations of abuse of rights by the baf procedure. when applying assisted biomedical fertilization, the basic principle from which the law on baf starts is the observance of human rights and health standards. in this sense, it is envisaged that the implementation of the biomedical assisted fertilization procedure may be carried out in such a way as to ensure the protection of the human rights, dignity and privacy of the persons against whom the medical procedure is performed and the donors of sperm, eggs and embryos (zendeli et al., 2020). the main purpose why biomedical assisted fertilization is performed is to achieve fertilization in accordance with scientific and technical progress, science and medical experience with special emphasis on respect of human rights. according to article 3 of the law, the biomedical assisted fertilization procedure is performed if the previous treatment has been unsuccessful or the treatment with other methods is invisible and in cases when the severe hereditary disease can be transmitted to the child (ibid). law on baf provides that as users of biomedical assisted fertilization can be adult and fully capable men and women, who are capable of exercising parental rights, who are married or living in an extramarital union. the right to use the baf procedure is also available to adult women able to work who are not married or do not live in an extramarital union, if the previous treatment is unsuccessful, and who, according to their age and general health condition, are capable of parental care (article 8). this means that the model of a contemporary birth rate policy is also the right of a single woman who decided not to marry but to become a parent with her to give birth and raise her only child, however it represents a kind of freedom of family planning (selmani-bakiu, 2016) in this regard, the law discriminates on the basis of gender, because this right is not provided for single men as an opportunity to establish a single-parent family. as can be seen, single women and extramarital spouses are the beneficiaries of baf rights, but this category, including single men, is discriminated against the terms for use of surrogate motherhood which method is reserved only for married spouses (ibid.). 6 if in the baf procedure the own genetic materials of the married or extramarital spouses is not possible to be used, namely, if they are not used in order to prevent the transmission of a serious inherited disease to children, then donated genetic materials or embryos from other persons can be used (article 7 of the law baf). 56 the institute of “surrogate mother” is also an innovation in the family law and biomedical science of the rnm. surrogacy, as a biomedical opportunity to solve the couple's infertility problem, was strictly prohibited by the law on baf of 2008, however in october 2014, the parliament of the rm approved the “law on amendments to the law on biomedical assisted fertilization”. this law provides a legal and medical solution for gaining parental rights for all those couples who biologically cannot have children (selmani-bakiu, 2016). surrogacy represents the process of conceiving and giving birth to a child for ordering or legal parents by means of a preliminary agreement which has the effect of waiving the parental rights of the gestational mother.7 in fact, surrogacy enables married couples who cannot have children biologically, but who, for medical reasons, cannot use any of the methods for artificial fertilization, to have their own child, which will be carried and give birth by another woman. depending on the possibility of fertilization with the genetic material of the legal parents, the born child is genetically related to one, both parents or neither of the parents (zendeli at al., 2020). de iure surrogate motherhood as a method of establishing a family is in detail regulated by law and as a new opportunity for establishing a family for all those couples who refuse adoption as a legal/artificial way to become parents due to bureaucratic procedures in our country but also because they insist on having children with their genetic materials. however, despite the statutory and legal regulation of gaining parental rights through this biomedical method, many other issues are left to be discussed as well: psychological, ethical, and problems related to the mentality of our society to accept surrogacy as an opportunity to become a parent. other aspects that are in constant discussion and debate are related to the theory on the sanctity of the natural process of pregnancy and the well-known roman law principle mater semper certa est (the mother is always certain) (selmanibakiu, 2016). it is important to note that the rnm is one of the countries that legally regulates the posthumous reproduction by the law on baf of 2008. according to article 33 of the law on baf “a husband and wife who according to medical indications or experiences in medical science are at risk of infertility for health reasons, within an authorized health institution and with their written statement may preserve their sperm, egg cells, or tissue from the ovary or testicles, for personal use. in the event of the 7 a gestational mother is a woman "whose uterus was used for the nurturing and development of an embryo into a babyaccording to the medical dictionary. 8 according to article 122 of the inheritance law act, an heir might be just the person who is born alive at the time of the decedent's death or who has been conceived during the decedent's death of the husband, assisted posthumous biomedical fertilization is permitted with his prior written consent, not later than one year after his death. technological developments provide the opportunity for the child not only to be born, but also to be conceived after the death of one of the partners. posthumous reproduction is a technology that enables conception and birth of a child after the death of one or both parents (selmani-bakiu, 2018). it should be noted that this method is only possible if the husband freezes the sperm during his life, but also in cases where the wife or a close family member requests that the sperm be taken after the husband's death (during the 24 hours after death, by the process of electro-ejaculation, semen can be frozen and used postmortem). the second situation of posthumous reproductive application is the freezing of the egg cells by a woman suffering from a disease, after whose death the frozen and then fertilized egg with her husband's sperm will be implanted in the womb of the woman carrying the baby (the surrogate mother). the third situation is that of the freezing of the embryo and implantation of it in the womb of another woman who will bear and give birth to the child after the death of the genetic parents (selmani-bakiu, 2020). although this method is regulated by a positive law in the rnm, its implementation encountered many problems and legal contradictions. the child that will be born post-mortem, does not enjoy the inheritance rights like other children, because this child is not counted in the category of potential heirs according to the inheritance law act of the rm.8 the next problem arises regarding the paternity of this child. in the event of the death of the husband, posthumous reproduction is permitted with his prior written consent, up to a maximum of 1 year after his death. if posthumous reproduction is applied and if the child is born after the death of the husband (for a period longer than 300 days), then that child will have the status of illegitimate child (according to the family law of the rm) due to the fact that the marriage has been seized with the actual death of one of the spouses. in this situation, in order to prove paternity, the procedure for recognizing paternity provided by the law on family must be developed (selmani-bakiu, 2020). paternity of a child born out of marriage (in posthumous reproduction) can be accepted before the birth of the child and such an opportunity must be accompanied by legal provisions, with the sole purpose that these life (the case nasciturus pro iam nato). due to the fact that in posthumous reproduction the child is conceived after the decedent's death, he / she cannot be considered an heir. it is in no way acceptable to discriminate against children based on the time of conception. 57 children do not have the problem of denying the biological identity. from what was mentioned above, it can be clearly concluded that in the rnm are known and legally regulated all methods of artificial reproduction technology, methods that offer the opportunity to establish a family for all couples who on the biological way are prevented from doing the same. the law on baf is a well-concepted law which regulates in detail all aspects of the implementation of artificial reproduction procedures. the problem lies in the implementation of this law as well as its harmonization with international conventions and other positive laws of the country. the next problem lies in the principle of the best interest of the child which is not set as the main principle which must be respected during the implementation of these procedures. 4. assisted reproductive technology in republic of kosovo law on reproductive health probably completely coincidental, but in the republic of kosovo as well as in the rnm, in 2008 for the first time we have a law which regulates artificial reproduction. artificially assisted reproduction is regulated by the law on reproductive health in chapter v with only few articles, from articles 18 to 26. first, it is important to note that the law on reproductive health (rh) of kosovo regulates organization, functioning and the supervision of all activities in the field of reproductive health, in the health institutions, and protects reproductive rights of individuals and couples, including also the right to be informed and to have the access to necessary services. reproductive right is an individual and the couple's right to decide freely and with responsibility on the number, frequency and time when they want to have children, the access right to information, education, communication and instruments which will enable their decisions to be based on evidence (law on rh, 2007, article 2). pursuant to the law on rh of kosovo each individual, regardless of gender, ideological, religious or cultural orientation is guaranteed-ensured the right to information and education for sexual and reproductive health during all his/her life cycle. all persons and couples have the right, respecting wishes of each of the couples, to decide freely about the time, number and birth intervals and to be informed about necessary means for their realization. this law guarantees to each individual the right to make a decision on realization of reproductive rights according to their free wish and interest without any discrimination, enforcement and violence. reciprocal respect, understanding, personal integrity, indefeasibility and responsibilities sharing for sexual behaviors and their consequences are the female and male bilateral obligation (article 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4). sexual and reproductive health and rights are the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being which includes any condition pertaining to the reproductive system and which is not defined solely as the mere absence of disease, dysfunction or insufficiency. reproductive health and rights are inseparable from the general well-being and proper development of each society. currently in kosovo the magnitude of the problem related to reproductive health cannot be accurately described due to lack of data from the health information system, lack of evidence, lack of reporting and payment for performance. these shortcomings are disabling the identification of the extent of the problem according to certain features such as: age, place of residence, gender, socio-economic status, etc. (ministry of health of the republic of kosovo, 2018). also, it is important to note that the republic of kosovo through its biomedical legislation within the framework of reproductive health enumerates some basic rights, such as: the reproductive right for individuals and couples to decide freely and responsibly on the number, frequency and time when they want to have children; the right to information and education throughout the life cycle; the right to safe motherhood so that every woman can receive the care she needs to be in good health from pregnancy to childbirth; the right to family planning which is the right of individuals and couples to be informed, to predict and to decide freely on the number, frequency and time when they wish to have children; the right to adequate prevention and treatment of infertility; the right to safe termination of pregnancy; the right to services for prevention and treatment of sexually transmitted infections, hiv/aids, as well as infections and diseases of the reproductive tract; the right to prevention, early detection and treatment of malignant diseases of the reproductive system and breast cancer (coalition k10, 2017). pursuant to the law on rh assisted reproduction corresponds to free will and couple parental request to have a child and by treating the infertility medical causes or prevent transmission of diseases from parents to child. the assisted reproduction is used in cases when: other infertility treatment methods for a female, male or partners are not productive or suitable and do not guarantee a desired result; it is recommended for the prevention of parent to child transmission of genetic diseases; it is recommended for the prevention of transmission of other diseases which would result in a premature death, mental backwardness and or serious child disability; it is considered as the only alternative for childbirth (article 1820). the assisted reproduction includes the clinical and biological procedures, which enable: artificial insemination; in-vitro fertilization; transfer of embryos; other equivalent techniques, which allow reproduction out of natural process (article 21). prior to being subject to assisted reproduction, according to the 58 law for the citizens' rights and responsibilities in health care no. 2004/38, the beneficiary couple shall be informed about procedures success or failure; informed about mother and child's risks; evaluated for their motivation; informed about legal opportunities for a child adoption and address-refer to respective social institutions (article 22). the prohibited activities in the assisted reproduction field are as follows: embryos abuse-misuse for commercial, industrial and experimental purposes; genetic manipulations in embryos; illegal embryos donations; gametes trafficking; gametes mixing; intermediate agreement for a substation maternity, post-mortem insemination without the prior partner's written consent; violence of the confidentiality data right on the gametes donator; selective abortion of embryos of the specific gender; child's gender selection, except to cases with health indications to mother and child (article 23). commission formed by the ministry of health for medical assisted reproduction will be responsible for activities coordination and supervision of the medical assisted reproduction). authority and composition of the commission for medical assisted reproduction will be determined by a sub-legal act (article 24.1, 24.2) conditions, requirements for use of the assisted reproduction technologies, artificial insemination and fertilization resulting with embryo's implantation will be determined by a sub-legal act (article 25). all individuals and couples have the right to be informed about the risks, education and communication based on the evidence, free choice and benefit from use of safe means and methods, resistible and acceptable for family planning (article 12). advice providing services for family planning will be provided by health or social trained staff and at institutions, which offer confidentiality. it is the duty of the health or social employee at the health institutions to inform the individual or couple relating to family planning (article 13.1, 13.2). acceptable family planning methods and means will be determined by a sublegal act. only specialists of gynecology and obstetrics and family doctors are allowed to prescribe contraceptives or recommend use of the means and medical contraceptive technologies (article 14, 15). from this it can be concluded that, in the republic of kosovo, the legal regulation of assisted reproduction is very deficient, and it is regulated within a legal text which regulates reproductive health in general. given that the problems with infertility of young couples are increasing more and more, the opportunities that should be offered has to be greater. information regarding the possibility of applying artificially assisted fertilization is very scarce and it affects the confidence of couples in applying these methods. the practice observes the situations of application of these methods in the nearest regional private hospitals in rnm and turkey. as can be seen in the law on reproductive health, surrogacy is prohibited in the republic of kosovo as a way of establishing a family, i.e. a woman who has a congenital or acquired absence of a uterus or an anomaly born in the uterus which cannot be corrected with modern surgical procedures or has irreparable damage uterus or if the women has a congenital or acquired ovarian insufficiency or congenital ovarian anomalies that cannot be corrected with modern surgical procedures or has ovarian damage that cannot be cured, must agree with the fate of not having children. regarding the post-mortem or posthumous reproduction, the law on reproductive health is very vague in this regard. from article 23 of the law it can be concluded that posthumous reproduction is not allowed only without the written consent of the partner, which means that if there is consent, the other partner can give birth to the child after the death of the partner whose genetic material was previously frozen. the law in this regard is very vague and contradictory to the one that prohibits surrogacy while on the other hand does not specify which of the partners can freeze the genetic material and whether this right is recognized under the same conditions to the husband and woman. it should be clarified that if the freezing of genetic material (egg cell and sperm) and embryo is allowed, then posthumous reproduction should be allowed for both male and female partners, with that if the woman dies then the husband can give birth to the child with the frozen egg of the deceased woman through a carrying (surrogate) woman by in vitro process. other details about this method of starting a family are not found in any document or any information with public character. 5. conclusion it is indisputable that new technologies for artificial reproduction have proved very useful for infertile couples who have managed to realize themselves as parents thanks to their application. the authors in this text provide all the details about the types of these methods and procedures for their implementation in the republic of north macedonia and the republic of kosovo, emphasizing the similarities and comparisons in these two countries. in both countries since 2008 we have laws that regulate these methods. compared to the republic of kosovo, rnm has shown a more serious approach in this regard, because it has a sui generis law which regulates all methods of artificial reproduction and which law is considered as one of the most liberal laws in the region. on the other hand, kosovo has a lot of work to do in this regard. as mentioned above, the republic of kosovo regulates artificial reproduction within the law on reproductive health with a very small number of articles which are contradictory in the part of post-mortem reproduction. given the need for many young couples who are constantly facing infertility and other reproductive health problems, kosovo should initiate professional and public debates towards the incorporation of 59 surrogacy as an opportunity to establish a family for all couples who do not succeed with other biomedical assisted fertilization methods. finally, the republic of kosovo should work harder to promote the rights of artificial reproduction for couples who cannot establish a family in a biological way. although rnm has a very liberal law, it faces problems of legal contradictions, nonharmonization of the law family act with the un convention on the rights of the child and the european convention on human rights in terms of non-recognition of the right of the child born through artificial methods to obtain information about their biological origin and other legal gaps which are mentioned in detail by the authors in this text. the authors are of the opinion that with the dynamics in which family processes are changing in these two countries, laws should provide greater opportunities for establishment of parenthood. laws need to be more liberal, clearer and serve as solutions to the everyday problems that people face. the main principles on which family law should be based are the protection of privacy, family life, equal treatment of the positive right to 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https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/63717 http://kryeministri-ks.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/koncept-dokumenti-p%c3%abr-fush%c3%abn-e-sh%c3%abndetit-riprodhues-dhe-fertilizimin-e-asistuar-msh-shqip-1.pdf http://kryeministri-ks.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/koncept-dokumenti-p%c3%abr-fush%c3%abn-e-sh%c3%abndetit-riprodhues-dhe-fertilizimin-e-asistuar-msh-shqip-1.pdf http://kryeministri-ks.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/koncept-dokumenti-p%c3%abr-fush%c3%abn-e-sh%c3%abndetit-riprodhues-dhe-fertilizimin-e-asistuar-msh-shqip-1.pdf http://kryeministri-ks.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/koncept-dokumenti-p%c3%abr-fush%c3%abn-e-sh%c3%abndetit-riprodhues-dhe-fertilizimin-e-asistuar-msh-shqip-1.pdf http://kryeministri-ks.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/koncept-dokumenti-p%c3%abr-fush%c3%abn-e-sh%c3%abndetit-riprodhues-dhe-fertilizimin-e-asistuar-msh-shqip-1.pdf http://www.k10-ks.org/te-drejtat/legjislacioni https://www.unfpa.org/family-planning https://www.unfpa.org/family-planning 75 international standards regarding protection of children of maltreatment prof. dr. netkova bistra ¹* prof. dr. ismail zejneli 2 ¹ university of mother teresa, faculty of technological sciences, bistra.netkova@unt.edu.mk *correspondent author. 2 south east european university, faculty of law, i.zejneli@seeu.edu.mk article history: submission 01 april 2021 revision 04 june 2021 accepted 03 august 2021 available online 31 august 2021 keywords: international standards, protection, children, maltreatment. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.231 a b s t r a c t child abuse is protected by international law and acts and includes all types of physical, sexual and emotional abuse. child abuse is a global problem with serious consequences throughout life, it is also a global problem with serious consequences for children and their families. in order to prevent this phenomenon, the awareness and consciousness of everyone (society, state) must be increased. work on joint projects should include the un, who, unicef, unesco, the eu and the coe. knowledge, legislation and ideas in protecting children's health belong to health and safety experts. the case law of the european court of human rights and the court of justice of the european union obliges states to include in their legislation the protection of children from all forms of illtreatment. 1. introduction despite international effort for more recognition of the rights of children, worldwide, child maltreatment is a huge and underestimated problem. according to the world health organization (who), more than 57 000 children perish annually as a result of physical abuse. approximately one in ten is neglected or psychologically abused. child abuse often remains a hidden problem, because the perpetrators are usually part of the family, or they are present in the school or the work environment and is especially overlooked at vulnerable communities. among others, children refugees and children of roma origin are considered as children in vulnerable situations by the council of europe. there are several international and regional human rights documents concerning the protection of children’s rights, especially against violence against children, such as the un crc, the ilo conventions on forced labour, the coe lanzarote convention, the coe convention on action against trafficking, the echr, the eu legislation in form of directives etc. 2. international human rights instruments and the child abuse in the so-called manual “handbook on european law relating to the rights of the child” it is explicitly stated that according to international law, crc in the article 1 determines that "a child means every human being below the age of eighteen years old" (eu, echr, coe, 2015). the manual further expresses that “european children’s rights law is largely based on the un convention on the rights of the child (crc)”, due to the fact that all the eu and coe member states are parties to the crc. this effectively imposes “common legal obligations” on european states with a knock-on effect on the way european institutions develop and apply children’s rights. (eu, echr, coe, 2015). on the one hand, recently, children’s rights have been addressed as part of an eu agenda, based on three key milestones (eu, echr, coe, 2015): https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:bistra.netkova@unt.edu.mk mailto:i.zejneli@seeu.edu.mk https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.231 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5925-1037 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8545-142x 76 “the introduction of the charter of fundamental rights of the european union; the entry into force of the treaty of lisbon in december 2009; the adoption of the european commission communication on a special place for children in eu external action, and of the council eu guidelines for the promotion and protection of the rights of the child". on the other hand, the adoption of these treaties by the coe, addresses a range of specific children’s rights issues as follows: (eu, echr, coe, 2015) “convention on the legal status of children born out of wedlock; convention on the adoption of children, revised in 2008; convention on contact concerning children; convention on the exercise of children’s rights; council of europe convention on protection of children against sexual exploitation and sexual abuse (lanzarote convention)”. the role of the court of justice of the european union (cjeu) is to interpret and apply the children’s rights, according to the article 267 of the ‘treaty on the functioning of the european union’ (tfeu), when the national court requires the eu principal legal interpretation, such as treaties, or secondary, such as decisions and legislation. heretofore, the cjeu has adjudicated several cases of children's rights related to eu citizenship. cjeu, records only one case that used crc, how to interpret the rights of children in the eu, in the case dynamic medien gmbh v. avides media ag. “this case concerns the lawfulness of german labelling restrictions on imported dvds and videos, which were already subject to similar controls in the united kingdom. the cjeu concluded that the german labelling checks constituted a lawful restriction of the eu’s free movement of goods provisions (which otherwise preclude double regulatory processes of this nature), given that they aimed to protect the welfare of children referring to the reference to article 17 of the crc” (fra, echr, coe, 2015). the role of european court of human rights (echr) related to children’s rights, adjudicates issues relating to interpretation and implementation of echr and its protocols, according to the article 32 of the echr, (fra, echr, coe, 2015). examples of decisions in expect to protection of children’s rights, you can find below at the part dedicated to “child abuse in the court practice of the european court of human rights”. international human rights documents, respectively the most important and main international documents for the protection of children's rights are: international documents for the protection of children's rights convention on the rights of the child (article 2, 3, 6, 12) (crc) (unhr, 1990). minimum age convention, 1973 (no. 138) (ilo, 1973). worst forms of child labour convention, 1999 (no. 182) (ilo, 1999). the optional protocol to the convention on the rights of the child on the involvement of children in armed conflict (crc – opac) (unhr, 2002). the optional protocol on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (crc – opsc) (unhr, 2002). optional protocol to the convention on the rights of the child on the communication procedure (unhr, 2014). general comments of the un committee on the rights of the child general comment no. 8 (2006) the right of the child to protection against corporal punishment and other inhuman or degrading forms of punishment, committee on the rights of the child (article 19; 28, paragraph 2; and 37 inter alia) (un, 2006). general comment no. 9 (2006) the right of the child with disabilities (un, 2006). general comment no. 10 (2007) the right of children in the juvenile justice system (un, 2007). general comment no. 12 (2009) the right of the child to have his voice heard (un, 2009). general comment no. 14 (2013) the right of the child in his best interest to be considered as a priority (article 3, paragraph 1) (un, 2013). other general comments of the committee on the rights of the child (19 comments in total) (icmec, 2017). council of europe conventions european convention for the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms (coe, 1950). european convention on the legal status of children born out of wedlock (coe, 1975). european convention on the exercise of children's rights (coe, 1996). 77 convention on contact concerning children (coe, 2003). council of europe convention on the protection of children against sexual exploitation and sexual abuse (coe, 2007). guidelines of the committee of ministers of the council of europe on child-friendly judicial mechanisms (coe, 2010). european convention on the adoption of children (revised) (coe, 2011). european union instruments charter of fundamental rights of the european union (article 24, paragraphs 1,2,3; 32) (eu, 2012). the entry into force of the lisbon treaty in december 2009 (eu, treaty of lisbon, 2007). a special place for children in eu foreign affairs (ec, 2008). eu agenda for the rights of the child (ec, 2011). investing in children, recommendation of the european commission 2013/112/eu (ec, 2013). 3. child’s neglect neglect presents a usual form of e child’s abuse, that can directly influence in the psychophysical health, with serious consequences in the future of the child. neglect can be determined as a failure of the parents and custodians to provide food, clothing or shelter; healthcare, not supervising a child adequately or providing for their safety, thus, as a result harming their health, security and the well-being of a child, by at the same time, destruction of the legal rights of children protected by the criminal-legal legislation of the country to which they belong. the basic forms of neglect are: physical neglect, medical neglect, inadequate supervision, emotional neglect, educational neglect, supervision, etc. (nspcc, 2021). in the free wikipedia encyclopaedia, we find that neglect is difficult to define because there are no clear cross-cultural standards for desirable or minimally adequate child-rearing practices. the uk department of education and skills defined negligence as: “continuous failure to meet a child's basic psychophysical needs, resulting in serious impairment of health or development. negligence can occur during pregnancy as a result of substance abuse by mothers. once a child is born, neglect may include a parent or guardian who does not provide adequate food, clothing, and shelter (including abandonment); provide adequate supervision (including due diligence); provide appropriate medical care or treatment. neglect or disregard for the child's basic emotional needs may also be involved.” (bovarnick, 2007). neglect is also legally defined by the federal child abuse prevention act (capta) as "any action or omission by a parent or guardian that poses a risk of serious harm to the child." (verywellfamily, 2021). 4. physical and emotional abuse child abuse can occur by not giving them the essentials they need (neglect) or by harming them (abuse). neglect represents the failure to meet the needs of the child such as physical, medical, educational, emotional, etc. emotional neglect is presented as part of emotional abuse. child abuse is physical, sexual, and emotional, but often occurs together. studies show that there is a strong link between physical, sexual or psychological (emotional) abuse of children and the development of psychiatric problems” (danafoundation, 2000). physical abuse is serious or minor bodily injury such as bruising, fracture or burn caused by other children, their parents or guardian, injuries that do not match the statement given. (mayoclinik, 2018). physical abuse is the second most reported form and accounts for 25% of all child abuse cases (medicinenet, 2018). sexual abuse represents the act of involving the child to satisfy the sexual desires of the guardian. we will talk more about sexual abuse in the section "sexual abuse and exploitation of children". emotional abuse can hurt as much as physical abuse (preventchildabuse, un), and present non-compliance to create a suitable environment by their guardian, which actions are summarized as restriction of movement, isolation, harassment, insult, swearing, threats, exposure, threats, discrimination, and forms of non-physical rejection (kidshelpline, 2018). according to the us government, "emotional abuse (or psychological abuse) is a pattern of behaviour that impairs a child's emotional development or sense of self-worth" (healthline, 2018). consequences on physical health are minor injuries, major injuries, impaired brain development, and poor physical health. psychological consequences include childhood difficulties, poor mental and emotional health, mental difficulties, and social difficulties. behavioural consequences of child abuse increase the likelihood of behavioural problems. studies show that abused children are more likely to have problems such as crime, 78 pregnancy during adolescence, drug use, smoking, alcohol, drugs, sexual behaviour, etc. (kidshelpline, 2018). 5. sexual abuse and exploitation of children child sexual abuse was used to satisfy sexual desires by adults. this happens when a child under the age of 18 is sexually exploited by another person. such persons are often in relationships of trust, power or control with the children they abuse. worldwide, one in five women and one in thirteen men are sexually abused as children aged 0-17 (who, 2020). children are often abused by people they know and trust. the abusers are usually men, but women can also sexually abuse children (unicef, 2020). child sexual abuse means various forms such as exposure of intimate body parts, sexual touching of body parts with or without clothes, penetration intercourse, engaging children in sexual activities, sexual activity in front of a child, distribution, exposure of shameful images of children, paying for a child's sexual services, encouraging them to engage in prostitution or pornography, showing images of sexual activities such as photographs, videos, etc. (kidshelpline, 2018). abusers do not look different from other people, they are found at all levels of society and in every professional field, race and religion. (uoa, 2020). they hold high (influential) positions and appear as a respected member of society (cvc, un). people who sexually abuse children spend a lot of time gaining their trust and approaching them. they put a lot of pressure on the child to keep the abuse secret (medium, 2019). 6. child labour child labour is very present, unfortunately. this not only hinders children in educational development but also harms and endangers them in terms of health. this is difficult to measure and evaluate. they are unorganized and powerless, inexperienced and untrained to deal with dangers, work at a young age, work long hours, work in different environments and eat poorly. according to the who, viewed globally, most children work in agriculture and 70%, exposing themselves to the risk of pesticides, machinery and heavy loads, etc. for children who do housework, the risks can be psychological, such as isolation, abuse, exploitation. while other jobs that children work are mining (1%) and construction (2%). the best way to identify children at risk are health professionals, who with their advice and recommendations, recognize and assess the risk to their health in places where they live, play, work, study, both in urban and rural environments. , low-income populations, minority communities and degraded environments. the ilo global child labor report, in may 2002, describes that 250 million children (one in six children aged 5 to 17 in the world) are involved in child labor, of which about 179 million (one in eight) have entered the worst forms of child labor endangering their psychophysical well-being (who, hazardous child labour, 2002). child labor according to unicef, about 152 million (1 in 10 children) are child laborers and almost half of them work in hazardous work. by 2025, about 121 million children will be in child labor and 52 million children will be in hazardous work (unicef, child labour, un). according to a report prepared by unesco on child labor, official ilo data show that some 218 million children are estimated to have worked as children. (unesco, 2007). the protection of children at work under directive 94/33 / ec of 22 june 1994 applies to three categories: children under the age of 18, children under the age of 15 or in compulsory education and adolescents between the ages of 15 and 18 who have no mandatory education (eu, 2017). 7. child trafficking by child trafficking we mean removing children from their safe environment for exploitation purposes. trafficking in children at home and abroad is related to the demand for work, where working conditions and treatment at work cause serious violations of children's rights, which are dangerous for the health and development of the child. child trafficking is done for these purposes (nspcc, child trafficking, 2021): sexual exploitation; illegal profit by fraud domestic slavery such as cleaning, cooking and childcare; forced labor in factories or agriculture; committing crimes, begging, stealing, working on cannabis farms and transporting drugs. according to a study by the united nations global initiative to combat trafficking in human beings, traffickers use deception, coercion, and force against women, men, and children to engage in illegal sexual activity (un.gift, 2016). combating the worst forms of child labour are the initiatives of the international program on the elimination of child labour, working with governments and ngos to combat child trafficking, enforcing laws and prosecuting traffickers, and assisting victims. 79 convention no. 182 (1999) on the worst forms of child labor classifies trafficking as a form of slavery or a practice similar to slavery. the ilo estimate in 2005 shows that 980,000.00 to 1,225,000.00 children work forced labour as a result of trafficking (ilo, 2016). the main international and most important instruments for combating and preventing trafficking are (ilo-ipec, 2002): un convention on the rights of the child (crc). ilo worst forms of child labor convention (no. 182. un protocol to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking in persons, especially women and children. 8. child abuse in the court practice of the european court of human rights françoise tulkens, former vice-president of the european court of human rights, said in her book "a decision of the european court of human rights is not an end in itself, but a promise for the future, the point of starting a process that should enable rights and freedoms to become effective”. according to article 1 of the european convention on human rights to ensure that all individuals within its jurisdiction enjoy and are guaranteed the rights guaranteed by the convention arises from the alleged responsibility of a state which has failed to fulfil its obligation. essential. liability under the convention includes three obligations: 1. obligation to end the existing violation; 2. obligation to pay fair compensation (elimination of consequences that have violated international law); 3. obligation to avoid similar violations in the future (non-repetition of violations). obligations arising from the decisions of the european court of human rights are divided into three categories: fair reward; individual measures; general measures. the decisions of the european court of human rights have a profound and comprehensive effect on the entire scope of administrative, criminal and civil law, both in procedural and material terms. on the official website of the european court of human rights, we have found several cases of child abuse case law as follows: n.ç. v. turkey (application no. 40591/11 dated february 9, 2021), a and b v. croatia (application no. 7144/15 dated june 20, 2019), v.c. v. italy (application no. 54227/14 dated february 1, 2018) (echr, 2021), while for illustration we have selected one of the latest decisions of the case law of this court regarding the ill-treatment of children and that case x and others against bulgaria (application no. 22457/16 dated february 2, 2021), as follows: case facts "this case concerns the alleged sexual abuse of three children in an orphanage in bulgaria prior to their adoption by an italian couple in june 2012. the complainants also alleged that the bulgarian authorities had failed in their obligation to protect them from such treatment and then to conduct an investigation process”. court findings "the court found that the complainants, due to their young age and their status as children left without parental care and placed in an institution, had been in a particularly vulnerable situation and that the sexual abuse and violence to which they were alleged, if proven, would have been serious enough to fall within the scope of article 3 (prohibition of inhuman or degrading treatment) of the convention”. "in this case, the court ruled that there had been no substantial violation of article 3, finding, in particular, that there was insufficient information to conclude that the bulgarian authorities knew or should have known of an immediate truth and danger to children to be subjected to ill-treatment, such as raising the obligation to take preventive measures to protect them from such a risk”. "the court ruled that there had been a procedural violation of article 3. in this regard, it considered in particular that the investigating authorities, who had not used possible mechanisms of investigation and international co-operation, had not taken all reasonable measures to throw light on the facts of the case in question and had not undertaken a thorough and careful analysis of the evidence before them. in the court's view, the omissions observed were serious enough to consider that the investigation carried out had not been effective for the purposes of article 3 of the convention, interpreted in the light of other applicable international instruments and the lanzarote convention of the council of europe (echr, 2021). 5. conclusions child abuse protected by international law and acts represents abuse and neglect that occurs to children under the age of 18. child abuse includes all types of physical, sexual, and emotional 80 abuse that seriously harm the health or dignity of the child in a relationship of trust, power, or control. child abuse is a global problem with serious consequences throughout life, causing suffering to children and their families, and is complex and very difficult to study. child abuse is a major public health problem worldwide, with serious consequences throughout the lives of abused children. it is important to increase the awareness and consciousness of everyone, of society in general and state structures in particular, to prevent this phenomenon. all organizations such as the un, who, unicef, unesco, eu and coe, must work on joint and sustainable projects, in the prevention of child labor, before it is possible and requires a multi-sectoral approach. the most important challenge in combating hazardous child labor is the knowledge, legislation, ideas and action taken in good faith to protect the health of children belonging to health and safety experts. in conclusion, it can be said that it is clear that there are wellestablished international legal standards, including the case law of the european court of human rights and the court of justice of the european union, which define and prohibit all forms of child abuse. especially in vulnerable populations and sets out the state's obligations regarding the protection of its children, thus presenting it as a basis for the development of comprehensive national legislation on the protection of children from all forms of child abuse. references 1. bovarnick, s. 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https://www.unicef.org/protection/sexual-violence-against-children https://www.unicef.org/protection/child-labour https://www.ualberta.ca/folio/2020/08/researchers-reveal-patterns-of-sexual-abuse-in-religious-settings.html https://www.ualberta.ca/folio/2020/08/researchers-reveal-patterns-of-sexual-abuse-in-religious-settings.html https://www.ualberta.ca/folio/2020/08/researchers-reveal-patterns-of-sexual-abuse-in-religious-settings.html https://www.verywellfamily.com/what-is-child-neglect-4151259 https://www.verywellfamily.com/what-is-child-neglect-4151259 https://www.who.int/occupational_health/topics/childlabour/en/ https://www.who.int/occupational_health/topics/childlabour/en/ https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/child-maltreatment https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/child-maltreatment 70 why are certain students further from achieving their desired level of english proficiency? fëllanza canolli mallet, msc. c. south east european university, faculty of languages, cultures and communications, english language teaching department, fllanza8000@gmail.com article history: accepted 8 july 2020 available online 31 august 2020 keywords: teaching strategies, english language learning, elt, proficiency, motivation and age. a b s t r a c t this study deals with proficiency of students towards english language learning. it includes elt strategies that can properly motivate students to learn the language without betraying where they come from. although many of them are afraid that learning english might assimilate them, therefore, they hesitate to learn english due to their educational system which makes them fearful of losing their identity. 1. introduction one of my concerns regarding certain students relates to their lack of success attaining proficiency of the english language in terms of comprehension, productive skills, or both. although most students begin their study of the english language in high school, others as early as primary, or even pre-school, the majority still fall short of attaining acceptable levels of fluency. in the context of my pedagogical experience, i found that some students, in a general sense, do not possess a positive attitude towards the english language, often times as a result of the education system in their countries. this perception and attitude towards the language does not transcend the culture among traditionally english speaking nations, an affect directly related to the globalization of their society. educators of the english language have discovered that individual motivation of students results in their attainment of higher proficiency levels. this discovery leads us to explore and question whether there are any circumstances which can be introduced into their methodology of teaching that can properly motivate the students to master the english language and truly inspire a desire to learn it. 2. statement of purpose even though certain students agree that command of the english language is helpful and important to properly understand and interact with expatriates and their cultures, they do not support english as a language of instruction in their schools. why? why aren’t they motivated to effectively learn and master the english language? what circumstances may contribute to the motivation of these students to support english as a language of instruction in their schools? what makes these students reluctant to achieve their desired level of english proficiency? could the educational system be the central hindrance in the encouragement of students towards learning english? 3. importance of study examining the relationship between certain students’ attitudes towards the english language and its acceptance and the extent of its use in their countries forms the position of the importance of this research. mastery of the english language assists people of the world in effectively communicating with each other. it is the language of global economy and commerce, of the internet and modern technology. this coincidental fact has inspired citizens of the world to learn english. however, the appreciation for the importance of english as a foreign language in many countries may be deficient in motivating students to take active steps through the learning process and result in their ultimate proficiency in the language. the main incentive that is lacking for these students towards learning english is the infrequency of use and its minimal impact on their daily lives. in fact, learning english is often delayed to adulthood when it becomes a necessity for them to learn in order to successfully function and fulfil their professional needs. http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/9 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9873-9572 71 4. literature review there are different aspects of the attitude towards language that have been studied: the relationship between attitudes and motivation (donitsa-schmidt et al. 2004, bernaus et al. 2004, williams et al. 2002), the relationship between attitudes and learning strategies (gan2004), the relationship between attitudes and levels of achievement (graham 2004), beliefs and attitudes about targeted language use, first language use and anxiety (levine 2003) and also, attitudes towards english language usage among peers (white 2002). according to gardern (1985: 10), attitudes are a part of motivation in language learning and he defines motivation as the summation of effort plus the desire to achieve the goal of learning language. he declares in 1985, “learning a foreign language is determined by personality characteristics such as the motivation of knowing foreign people in general and also the motivation to adopt particular factors such as, cultural, contextual, affective and cognitive, among which attitudes have an important place”. based on the above review, it may be determined that attitude is extremely important for certain learners of english to achieve their purpose. the possession of the right attitude may be found in a person, which can be aided in further development by his parents, friends, family, social pressures and perhaps most importantly, by their teachers. the aims of this research are: 1. to perform an investigation of the relationship of attitude to learning a language 2. to determine the optimal age for beginning to learn a foreign language 3. to analyze the effects of the place where the individual started to learn the language within the context of efl students in turkey 5. research methods data was collected through a questionnaire. the first part of the questionnaire requests personal information: gender, their approximate age when they started to learn english and the place where they started to learn english. the second part of the questionnaire asks the students about their attitude towards the use of english in their countries. participants: the subjects of the questionnaire were students of primary school where english is taught up to 15 hours per week. 48.5% of the group were female students whereas 51.5% of the group were male students. it was revealed that approximately 40.5 % of participants started learning english when they were between the ages of zero and six, whereas 59.5% began at the age of seven and above. findings: table 1. result of descriptive statistics attitudes towards english in general gender the age of starting to learn english the place of starting to learn english f e m a le m a le 0 -6 7 + in sc h o o l in p r e sc h o o l beautif ul 4.25 % 3.22 % 4.34 % 2.45 % 2.55 % 2.58 % musica l 5.72 % 4.12 % 5.52 % 3.35 % 3.23 % 4.5% import ant 6.15 % 5.72 % 5.9% 4.71 % 4.76 % 4.83 % rich 8.44 % 6.43 % 8.25 % 10.54 % 10.61 % 10.47 % interes ting 9.72 % 8.33 % 9.31 % 13.45 % 13.53 % 13.67 % regarding gender differences female students were found to have a more positive attitude toward english than male students. the students who started learning english between the ages of zero and six in pre-school possess an attitude towards english as a beautiful, more musical language and important as a language of culture, but students who started to learn english from the age of seven and above found it more interesting and rich. both groups were shown to have more supportive attitudes towards the general value of english, however, they did have a more negative attitude toward having course books written in english. 6. result and discussions regarding the observed negative results found in the turkish students’ attitude towards the english language in turkey, efl teachers must come up with new ideas to inspire these students to be more accepting towards english as a language of instruction in their schools. this can be achieved by implementing appropriate methods and activities of teaching english effectively. certain students wish to have more fluent and accurate english speaking skills in order to help them to understand other cultures. this is also a good indication for efl teachers to use the communicative approach in their classrooms to encourage students to collaborate and discuss their experiences regarding language learning. it will also improve their attitude, passion and enthusiasm to properly acquire their desired fluency in the english language. furthermore, educators should meet the needs 72 and consider the interests of their students so as to adapt to their different perceptions about learning second languages. differences in gender, age of exposure to the english language, etc. additionally, motivations should be encouraged based on the students’ needs, or reasons for learning a language. following the pragmatic values of learning a new language can be conducive to formulating a genuine and special interest among students for a targeted language and the culture of those who speak it. 7. conclusion the results of this study show that although the students have a slightly positive attitude towards the english language, they do not have a positive attitude towards speaking english to one another. an example of one of their greater oppositions is, “if i use english, it means that i am not patriotic”. it is very strange that students are not tolerant of each other speaking english. the role of the educator must be that of establishing an environment where students are encouraged to practice speaking english with each other. it becomes noticeable that in different efl contexts, certain students want to learn english to find a well-paying job and earn more money, have a higher social status and be well connected to the global community, but they do not accept practicing english with one another. as the internet is increasingly diffusing the boundaries on maps, even the smaller businesses in different places are selecting more bilingual employees. if students want to attract attention in today’s job market, if they want to be significant, an international perspective is critical. when students speak two languages fluently it opens immensely more doors to opportunities for jobs domestically and abroad. regarding their attitude towards western cultures, the findings indicated that more than half of them displayed an interest in the culture of the english speaking world as represented through film. these results might be further characterized by the students’ desires to experience and understand the culture of the west, but not to fully integrate into that culture. analysis of the data collected shows the majority of students did not feel that learning the language was submitting to biculturalism, or an acceptance of the cultural practices of the english speaking world. a significant amount further articulated their wish to learn about western culture and broaden their horizons through familiarizing themselves with that culture. positive attitude and motivation share a connected role in the acquisition of a second language. despite the fact that there was no direct influence found that attitude contributed to the learning process, it does occupy an important role in the development of motivation. so, a positive attitude should be viewed more as a catalyst to language learning. when a student possesses an enthusiastic attitude towards learning a language, their motivation for learning that language tends to increase and simultaneously decrease when the attitude towards learning that language is more negative thus making the process of learning more demanding for them. all efl teachers should take into consideration their students’ perceptions, beliefs and behaviour prior to assessing their cognitive abilities. the english syllabus and classroom activities should be formed upon effective purposes according to their students’ needs and their individual differences in order to strengthen, among some, and create, among others, a positive attitude towards english. it is crucial to study and account for learners’ personalities. increased performance and proficiency will be accomplished if these students maintain a positive attitude and appreciation for mastery of a targeted language. this is the basis for reaching the conclusion that proper perspective and inspiring a positive outlook towards language learning should be considered when implementing curriculums among educators. references 1. aydngün, a. & aydngün, (2004). the role of language in the formation of turkish national identity and turkishness.nationalism and ethnicpolitics, 10, 415-432. 2. bektas-cetinkaya, y. (2009b). language of others: efl students’ perception of and attitude towards english. journal of cukurova university institute of social sciences, 18 (1), 109-120. 3. büyükkantarcioglu n. (2004). a sociolinguistic analysis of the present dimensions of english as aforeign language in turkey’, international journal of the sociology of language –sociolinguistics in turkey, g.könig (ed.) 165, pp. 33-58. 4. bradford, a. (2007). motivational orientations in under-researched fll contexts: findings from indonesia. relc journal, 38 (3), 302-323. 5. cooper, r. l. and fishman, j. a. (1977). a study of language attitudes. in fishman, j., cooper, r. and conrad, a. (ed.). the spread of english(pp. 239-273).rowley, ma: newbury house publishers. 6. csizer. k. & dörnyei, z. (2005). the internal structure of language learning motivation and its relationship with language choice and learning effort. the modern language journal, 89, 19-36. 7. dörnyei, z. (1994a). motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. the modern language journal, 78 (3), 273-284. 8. gardner, r. c., and lambert, w. e. (1972). attitudes and motivation in second language learning. rowley, ma: newbury house. 73 9. kızıltepe, z. (2000). attitudes and motivation of turkish efl students towards second language learning. itl review of applied linguistics,129-130. 10. schumann, j. h. (1978). the acculturation model for second-language acquisition. in r.c. gingras (ed.), second language acquisition and foreign language learning (pp. 27-50). washington, d.c.: center for applied linguistics. retrieved april 12, 2008 from http://www.appling.ucla.edu/jschumann/acculturation.pdf http://www.appling.ucla.edu/jschumann/acculturation.pdf prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 109 the new strategic plan in kosovo to implement a health insurance scheme degjoni rudina the compulsory of health care insurance fund of albania rabishe kurti jaha owner of ojqf in prishtine, (kosovo) leunora brika haxhiu agency of medical products and equipment, prishtine, (kosovo) abstract this abstract is to provide a concise description of the new strategy of implementation of social health insurance scheme in kosovo. the health insurance scheme in kosovo does not exist yet but in april 2014, the assembly of the republic of kosovo approved the law on health insurance. the purpose of this law is to ensure the universal access of citizens and residents of the republic of kosovo to quality health care services, with the aim of improving health indicators and providing financial protection from poverty due to the high costs of health care through establishment and regulation of the public health insurance system. this law regulates the establishment, organization, functioning, and financing of the public health insurance system; as well as the rights and obligations of the parties involved. the fundamental principles of this law will be transparency, sustainability, equality of citizens and residents of kosovo, accountability, universal access to health services, solidarity, reciprocity, individual responsibility, easy access, efficiency and protection against financial risks. the scheme will have evolved gradually, with different expanding the range of the covered services throught shifting from undifferentiated funding to payment for health services packages in kosovo. from the beginning of the year 2017, the ministry of health of kosovo takes the decisions to start the new strategic plan in kosovo to implement a health insurance scheme and to change the mechanisms of the health care system in kosovo and to build a new insurance scheme. the new health insurance scheme will cover the primary health care services, the hospitals services and the list of reimbursamble drugs. this abstract proposes which are the the new strategic plans to implement the principles on which the health insurance scheme wills base in kososvo. which are all the categories benefiting from the health insurance scheme and which are the amount of compulsory health insurance contribution. in brief, the current situation of health system in kosovo includes problems and missing of health financing. these proposals in this abstract are ambitious and require detailed implementation of social health insurance scheme and planning for the kososvo population how to be insured in the health sector of kosovo. keywords: health insurance scheme of kosovo, new social implementation, health categories of benefiting. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 110 introduction all people have the right to be treated and it is the responsibility of society to take care of coping with the disaster illness. the illness is associated with the need for medication, while poverty with the lack of financial means to cover the costs. in world history, illness and poverty have been the two main reasons for the birth of health insurance. the world has recognized different health systems and different funding systems. the bismark system is the health insurance system, which by law was settled in germany in 1883, was initially voluntary and then forced. later the bismarck system spread to england, austria, france, the netherlands, belgium and so on. the semashko system belongs to the 1920s and is the system of centralized health services, located in the ussr and then in other countries of the power of "real socialism" in eastern and southeastern europe. the semashko system is the state system, with government budgets, planned, medical staff has a fixed fixed salary and nothing else but is not efficient. however, reforms in the implementation of health insurance in kosovo need to be supported by appropriate policy analysts with reliable and available information on kosovo's technical, medical, economic, social and political content aryee (2000). 1. advantages of health insurance in kosovo in april 2014, the assembly of the republic of kosovo adopted the law on health insurance in kosovo. the law is intended to ensure the universal access of citizens and residents of the republic of kosovo to basic healthcare services. the purpose of the implementation of the health insurance scheme in kosovo is not to improve health care indicators but to ensure the financial protection of the population of kosovo from poverty. the beginning of the health insurance process in kosovo will be the creation of a new relationship between the patient and the health services where the patient will be in the focus of health care. the reform challenge in the implementation of health insurance in kosovo will open the new path towards the alignment of the insurance scheme at all levels of health care. for this, the objectives and the role of the health insurance fund in kosovo as well as its cooperation with the other health care actors in kosovo should be clearly structured. increased spending on health care is essential to the implementation of the law on health insurance. for the first time in kosovo, with the implementation of the law, the foundations of organizing, functioning, financing and universal coverage of the population will be carefully taken care of. with the functioning of kosovo's health insurance, the primary care of the prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 111 country will be accompanied by increased transparency in the economy, with the right to equality and equality for all residents of the country. accounting, solidarity, universal coverage and financial autonomy will be part of the implementation of reform in kosovo's healthcare. the implementation of the national security scheme in kosovo will ensure the individual people's responsibility in spilling outward contributions, they will benefit from a wider public access to the public sector as well as the private sector. the health care reform in kosovo will be a reform based on the economic, social reality of the financial possibilities of the population and the state of kosovo. the collection and channeling of contributions will have to be one of the priorities of the reform of the implementation of health insurance cheme in kosovo. (ask, 2017). kosovo has an estimated population of {pop}, up from the 2011 census population of 1.734 million and the age structure of the population of kosovo (breznik, 2016) consists: 0-14 years: 25.01% (male 246,281/female 227,718) 15-24 years: 17.22% (male 170,515/female 155,840) 25-54 years: 42.57% (male 425,815/female 381,037) 55-64 years: 7.92% (male 75,964/female 74,170) 65 years and over: 7.28% (male 57,965/female 79,945) the population pyramid of kosovo (fig. 1) illustrates the age and sex structure and provides insights about political and social stability, as well as economic development of the kosovo. figure nr. 1: kosovo population, world population review more than 115,000 pensioners received a basic pension in 2013 (average of €60 per month, at the poverty threshold). in 2009, kosovo introduced financial aid for families taking care of prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 112 children with severe and permanent disabilities. kosovo officially spends a marginal 3% of gdp on healthcare and social safety, which explains the high poverty rate. in the period between 2008 and 2012, social assistance spending for the poorest has been in constant decline. it is estimated that about 40% of all health expenditure is private spending, which results in inequalities in access (bti, 2016). the scheme of social assistance benefit of kosovo, shows that there are 26,117 families with a total of 106,628 members. while, from the scheme for material support to families with children with permanent special needs have benefited 2,761 families and whereas, from the pension schemes, there are 122,716 pension beneficiaries of basic pension age; (ii) 43,300 pension beneficiaries of retirement pension contributions; (iii) 19,481 pension beneficiaries for persons with special needs; (iv) 12,472 pension beneficiaries for families of war martyrs and war invalids; (v) 36,032 pension beneficiaries for war veterans; (vi) 3,232 pension beneficiaries for "trepça"; (vii) 1,001 pension beneficiaries for the kosovo protection corps; (viii) 288 pension beneficiaries for the kosovo security forces; and (ix) 2, 001 beneficiaries for compensation for blind persons (ask of kosovo, 2017). 2. implementation of the health insurance scheme in kosovo there is an increasing number of literature on the technical challenges of applying health insurance to low and middle-income countries (eg carrin 2003, carrin and james 2004; preker 2002) from which kosovo can consult on implementation of its reform in health. the new way of implementing the financing and management of kosovar population contributions will significantly increase the rational use of financial resources from the state budget of kosovo. by that time, kosovo will spend its transition period of economic care to the emerging market economy. reforms in the provision of health care in kosovo should be developed in full compliance with the insurance law and all other by-laws that the ministry of health of kosovo, in cooperation with the health insurance fund, should develop. existence and examples of developed countries exist, so kosovo needs to rely on their experience to successfully implement its new health reform. the health insurance fund in kosovo should focus on the creation of its local structures, in defining functional duties and responsibilities. for this, cooperation and the establishment of new relationships between the structure of the insurance fund, the pharmaceutical market in kosovo, primary care physicians and family phys icians should be ensured. this cooperation will work through their contracting with the health insurance fund. for this, the work should be based on the drafting of bilateral type contracts. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 113 the type of contract should be a requirement of the law on health insurance in kosovo. the insurance fund should design the path of the patient's pathway at all levels of health care in kosovo by clearly identifying the duties and responsibilities of each health care provider. the compilation of a list of reimbursable medicines, the compilation of a list of reimbursable materials, the compilation of a list of reimbursable tertiary examinations, the compilation of reimbursable health packages, the compilation of the list of tariffs of services by levels should be among the basic priorities of the work of the health insurance fund in kosovo. 3. realization of health insurance reform the new reform of the implementation of health insurance in kosovo will be realized by taking into account several key elements related to (i) the design of the insurance model, providing a simple model of the population insurance policy (walt and gilson 1994); (ii) the clear content of the reform, the actors will involved in the processes of health policy reform, (grindle and thomas, 1991); (iii) realization of the statute of the health insurance fund in kosovo in the role of a pibly, autonomous and self-financing entity; (iv) designing the organizational chart with detailed descriptions of duties and responsibilities for the different fields and functions of the insurance scheme in kosovo; (v) developing a plan for the necessary staff training; (vi) defining and generating resources for health and social protection in kosovo; (vii) the financing of primary health care services in kosovo; (viii) funding of hospital health care services in kosovo; (ix) establishment of a list of indicators of the indicators of health care levels in kosovo; (x) establishment of standards for calculating costs in health care in kosovo; and (xi) the establishment of a register of public and private health care providers at all levels of health care in kosovo. 4. recommandation as kosovo has decided to implement the new health insurance law in kosovo, through the implementation of the health financing scheme with a single payer that will be the kosovo health insurance fund based on the insurance of the kosovo population it is recommended to follow the steps below: drafting the legal framework of the health care insurance scheme in kosovo. determining the role and position of the health insurance scheme in kosovo. development of indicators of performance of health care levels. planning for the establishment of a health insurance fund in kosovo. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 114 planning of health services funded by the fund according to the level of health care in kosovo. determination of reimbursable medicines and their inclusion in the reimbursement list according to health care levels. identification of health materials and inclusion in the list of hospital care reimbursements by hospital category. inclusion in the health insurance scheme of defined population categories and their level of health coverage. inclusion in the health insurance scheme of the coverage of services according to the level of health care. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 115 references breznik d., the population of kosovo, 2016: 30 (4): 3-28. bekteshi, xh., budgeting process in the municipality of prishtina, 2014. bti project, reports, prishtine, kosovo, 2016. constitution of kosovo law no. 03/l-048 on public financial management and accountability art. 20, para. 20.2; low on health. law no. 2004/4. 2004 feb 19; aw on kosovo consolidated budget. 2009 nr 03/n-105. low on the rights and responsibilities of the citizens in the health care, 2004/38. unmik pisg kosovo, kosovo assembly. 2004 low on local self government. 2008.law nr. 03/l-40. kosovo republic. kosovo assembly low on kosovo consolidated budget. 2009 nr.03/n-105. ministry of health 2014 draft law on health insurance health and welfare parliamentary commission. monitoring report on implementation of health low. 2006 kosovo government. budget books: 2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008. 2009 kosovo government ministry of economy and finance. medium term budget framework 2010-2013. 2010 prishtina: kosovo health strategy, department of health; 1999. unmik. unmik. health strategy. 2001 health strategy for kosovo. 2010-2014 kosovo development plan-health sector 2007-2013. prishtina: draft wg paper; 2006. pisgk. administrative instruction on establishment of family health centers. 15/2000. national institute of public health. analysis people’s health in kosovo in 2010. annual report qosaj, berisha transition in health and health care in kosovo. 2010 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=breznik%20d%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=12316602 kosovo has an estimated population of {pop}, up from the 2011 census population of 1.734 million and the age structure of the population of kosovo (breznik, 2016) consists: 0-14 years: 25.01% (male 246,281/female 227,718) 15-24 years: 17.22% (male 170,515/female 155,840) 25-54 years: 42.57% (male 425,815/female 381,037) 55-64 years: 7.92% (male 75,964/female 74,170) 65 years and over: 7.28% (male 57,965/female 79,945) the population pyramid of kosovo (fig. 1) illustrates the age and sex structure and provides insights about political and social stability, as well as economic development of the kosovo. 46 land tenure of small islands and coastal areas in economic and defense aspects i made pria dharsana ¹* indrasari kresnadjaja 2 i gusti agung jordika pramanditya 3 ¹ warmadewa university, faculty of law, imadepridharsana@gmail.com *correspondent author. 2 warmadewa university, faculty of law, indrasari_kresnadjaja@outlook.com 3 warmadewa university, faculty of law, jordikasih@yahoo.com article history: submission 12 march 2021 revision 09 may 2021 accepted 04 august 2021 available online 31 august 2021 keywords: tenure, coastal areas, economic aspects, land aspect. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.220 a b s t r a c t the question of the purpose of statehood hovers again to collect the pledges of the development actors. the goal to become a nation-state that provides a place and humane and proper way of life is still harassing residents of coastal areas and small islands as part of the natural resources bestowed by the one almighty god to the indonesian people. coastal areas and outer small islands are national assets controlled by the state and need to be preserved and utilized as much as possible for the prosperity of the people, both for present and future generations and for the interests of defense and security. related to the threat of remote island tenure which by certain elements were transferred to the land tenure rights that should belong to the village customary land, but there was a process of transferring rights which were then held by foreigners with the argument related to economic issues that were less supportive in the area by nominee or by road rent that threatens the stability of national defense. 1. introduction concentration of indonesian population with more than 60% living in coastal areas (subagiyo, et al 2017). as part of natural resources, coastal areas and small islands have enormous and strategic potential for social, cultural, economic, environmental (ecological) development and support for national sovereignty. several regions in indonesia which geographically have coastal areas and small islands realize the importance of managing these areas for various activities both economic and conservation in a balanced and appropriate manner (chikmawati, 2020). the national wealth has been ordained in the 1945 constitution of the state of the republic of indonesia to be used for the greatest achievement for the prosperity of the people. article 33 (3) of the 1945 constitution affirms that "earth, water and natural resources contained therein are controlled by the state and used for the greatest prosperity of the people". the conception of the right to control the state in relation to natural resources (land) as stipulated in the 1945 constitution is reaffirmed in law no. 5 of 1960 concerning basic regulations on agrarian principles (better known as uupa). the uupa is based on the stance that in order to achieve what is stipulated in article 33 paragraph (3) of the 1945 constitution, it is neither necessary nor appropriate, the state acts as the owner of the land. exactly, if the state as an organization of power all the people act as the governing body. on that basis, article 2 paragraph (1) of the uupa stipulates that "earth, water, and space, including the natural resources contained therein, are at the highest level controlled by the state as an organization for the wealth of all the people". in this context, the relationship between the state and the earth, water and space and the natural resources contained therein is a relationship of control, not a relationship of ownership. and it is a wise action for the government if it carries out its function to regulate the order, especially in this issue of coastal and small islands. however, these arrangements must not conflict with the interests of the management of the coastal environment and the community, especially traditional fishermen. the regulation as intended should also not conflict with local wisdom. for example, along the coasts of the islands of java, sumatra, https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:imadepridharsana@gmail.com mailto:indrasari_kresnadjaja@outlook.com mailto:jordikasih@yahoo.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.220 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7217-6457 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3032-4220 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3991-784x 47 kalimantan, west nusa tenggara and papua, for example, until now, various local cultures and traditions are still alive (continuing to grow and develop). and the indonesian constitution really appreciates the existence of these cultures. therefore, indonesia as a state of law, where the constitution is the philosophical basis of national law, then the existing rules should not conflict with the constitution. because the constitution is the basic law that is used as a guide in the administration of a country. the constitution is the supreme law of the land, where it becomes the spirit for the provisions of the legislation under it. thus, every statutory regulation that is contrary to the content and spirit of a constitution must be declared to have no binding force. the conception of the relationship between the state and natural resources departs from the assumption that the state is a subject in the sense of personification of all indonesian people, not as individuals or state bodies. in this conception, the state cannot be separated from its people, so the rights of the state are community rights or imperial rights, namely the right to control land or its use. thus, the relationship between the state and land in the concept of state controlling rights is a relationship that gives authority to the state as an organization of power for all indonesian people, at the highest level (himanto, 2017): (1). regulate and administer the designation, use, supply and maintenance of earth, water and space; (2). define and regulate the legal relationships between people and the earth, water and space; (3). determine and regulate legal relations between people and legal actions concerning earth, water and space. the contents of the state's authority are solely public, namely the authority to regulate and not the authority to physically control the land and use the land as the authority of the holder of private land rights. the authentic interpretation of the state's right to control as referred to by the 1945 constitution, is a purely public relationship. thus, there will be no other interpretation regarding the interpretation mastered in the article of the constitution. meanwhile, the term “private” refers to the authority of the right holder to use the land in question for his interests and to fulfill his personal and family needs. this is emphasized in article 9 paragraph (2) of the uupa which states that: "every indonesian citizen, both male and female, has the same opportunity to obtain a land right and to obtain the benefits and results, both for themselves and for their own benefit. himself and his family”. from the word transformed "coastal areas or small islands" there resides prayers and pujas to get the maximum benefits and results for the prosperity of the resident community, it is different for the islands to be uninhabited. but does the government really care about that? the words “to get benefits and results, both for themselves and their families” indicate the personal nature of land rights in the conception of the national land law. the state's authority to regulate legal relations between people, including customary law communities and land, is closely related to the legal relationship between the state and land. this is because the legal relationship between the state and land greatly influences and determines the content of laws and regulations governing the legal relationship between people and land and customary law communities and their customary lands, as well as the recognition and protection of rights arising from these relations. the legal relationship. currently, the regulation is only limited to land management policies in coastal areas and small islands, but it has not been spelled out in the form of legislation. this means that land arrangements on small islands are generally still subject to the uupa and its implementing regulations related to the granting of land rights. institutionally, indications of land regulation specifically in small islands can also be seen in the presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 10 of 2006 concerning the organizational structure of the national land agency. within this structure, there is one directorate that specifically handles small islands, namely the directorate of coastal areas, small islands, borders and certain areas which is under the deputy for land regulation and arrangement. the existence of the directorate of coastal areas, small islands, borders and certain areas is based on the consideration that in general the land is managed in general, but there are certain areas that must be managed specifically, such as coastal areas, small islands, certain areas, because it has certain characteristics. in addition to the regulations in the land sector mentioned above, law no. 27 of 2007 concerning the management of coastal areas and small islands as a reference in the management of coastal areas and small islands specifically. all of the legal references mentioned above should be used as a reference in regulating the control and ownership of land in coastal areas and small islands, because in my view, land in coastal areas and small islands should not be considered the same as land on ordinary land (mainland), because of the peculiarities possessed by the region. for this reason, it is necessary to immediately realize legal arrangements for ownership and control of land as an ecosystem unit with the surrounding waters, in the form of separate laws and regulations by taking into account the economic, political, sociocultural, environmental and defense and security aspects in an integrated manner. 48 based on the description above, this research aims to find out how the control of land by the surrounding population living in small islands and coastal areas is reviewed through economic and defense aspects, and to find out how the legal consequences for the control of the land of the smallest islands and coastal areas by people foreigner through a lease agreement or other form of agreement. 2. research method the rules and laws that apply to answer the legal problems studied (efendi and ibrahim, 2016). the research approach uses a philosophical approach, a statutory approach, an analytical approach, a conceptual approach, a case approach and a comparative approach. the sources of legal materials used consist of primary legal materials, secondary legal materials, tertiary legal materials or non-legal materials. primary legal materials consist of statutory regulations; secondary legal materials consist of all publications on law that are not official documents such as scientific journals. tertiary legal materials consist of encyclopedias and legal dictionaries. the technique of collecting legal materials is done by literature study. the technique of analyzing legal materials is carried out through several stages, namely (diantha, 2015): descriptive technique, namely by describing the legal conditions regarding land tenure comparative technique, namely by analyzing secondary legal material in which there are various views of legal experts as a "dialectical layer" both pros and cons. then it is crystallized to produce a provisional truth for the researcher's argument. evaluative technique to determine the legal conditions associated with pro and contra opinions. argumentative techniques to provide reasoning or reasoning or explanations that make sense in order to answer research problems. 3. results and discussion 3.1. harmonization of law on land tenure and ownership of coastal areas and small islands coastal resources and small islands are one of the important resources for people's livelihoods and can be used as the main driver of the national economy. this is based on the fact that first, indonesia has a high potential of coastal resources and small islands with the characteristics of various coastal areas and small islands. second, most of the industrial activities in regencies/cities are located in coastal areas. third, industrial activities in coastal areas have strong backward and forward linkages with other industries. fourth, coastal areas and small islands are a local resource base for the fishing industry or known as resources-based industries and fifth, coastal areas in indonesia have a high comparative advantage as reflected in their potential fish resources (elysa, 2014). the limited space for community participation in resource management for coastal areas and small islands shows that the principles of integrated coastal and small island management have not been integrated with development activities from various sectors and regions. norms for the management of coastal areas and small islands that will be published are focused on legal norms that have not been regulated in the existing statutory system or are more specific than the general regulations that have been promulgated. the norms are expected to give roles to the government, the community, and the private sector as stakeholders, both regional interests, national interests, and international interests through an integrated area management system. in accordance with the nature of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia as a state of law, the development of a system for the management of coastal zone and small islands as part of sustainable development with an environmental perspective must be given a clear, firm and comprehensive legal basis to ensure legal certainty for efforts to manage the coastal zone and small islands. the legal basis is based on pancasila and the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia. indonesia needs a strategy to achieve its goal as the world's maritime axis. one that can be offered is to increase coastal resources and small islands. management of coastal resources and small islands is the duty of the community (ulisyah, 2017). planning, utilization, supervision and control of coastal zone and small islands still encounter many obstacles and must be synergized with the provisions of law number 23 of 2014 concerning regional government. this situation illustrates that there are still many obstacles and obstacles in terms of management of coastal areas and small islands. the results of research and academic studies of the dpr ri, for example, state that understanding and limitations regarding general provisions, both “fishermen” and “coastal communities” must be a concern and findings of field data input. in the general provisions (chapter i) of law number 27 of 2007 concerning management of coastal areas and small islands (pwp3k), as amended by law number 1 of 2014, it is stated that the definition and limitations referred to in the pwp3k law. of the 44 definitions, it does not specifically (explicitly) mention the definition or limitation of “fishermen”, who are actually part of the coastal community. likewise, the definition of “coastal communities” is not specifically mentioned in the general provisions. the pwp3k law, in fact, emphasizes “coastal area 49 management” as its spatial management. however, it is certainly related to coastal communities, as indigenous peoples, local communities and traditional communities who live (settle) and have activities in coastal areas. coastal areas are clearly defined in the pwp3k law, are transitional areas between land and sea ecosystems that are affected by changes on land and at sea. this emphasizes the spatial spatial of terrestrial and marine ecosystems. meanwhile, "communities" related to coastal areas are defined as communities consisting of indigenous peoples, local communities and traditional communities who live in coastal areas and small islands. the findings of observers of the implementation of the pwp3k law in various regions who discussed with indonesian fishermen association (hnsi), maritime partners and non-governmental organization (ngos) (both in south sulawesi, north sumatra, and di jogjakarta), emphasized that the lives of fishermen as a weak community group need to be considered and empowered. this law should be in favor of fishermen's lives, as traditional communities and coastal communities. based on the results of the study, analysis and evaluation of the implementation of law number 27 of 2007 concerning pwp3k as amended by law number 1 of 2014 has been carried out by the center for monitoring the implementation of the law on expertise board of the republic of indonesia. there are several basic things as a formulation of norms contained in the said law, which give rise to multiple interpretations which could potentially not be implemented properly. the occurrence of overlapping rules and various interpretations of all stakeholders, consequently causing a commotion in terms of control and use of land in coastal areas and small islands, which have a direct impact on the community and the resources themselves. there is a tendency to use positive laws governing the area to be used to smooth out the interests of certain groups in the control and utilization of natural resources. in such conditions, the role of the central government and regional governments is urgently needed to become a judicial judge in order to function the law in order to provide certainty and protection to all parties, both individuals, communities, private sector and the government itself. according to roescoe pound in fuadi (2013), the existing law must be able to function as a tool of social engineering and an instrument of community renewal (agent of change). the presence of law should be able to guide the government and its people towards what they aspire to. a good law is a law that can be accepted by the community without enforcement efforts (coercion) but a necessity. in relation to this legal function, the legislators, through interpreting the meaning of article 33 paragraph (3) and paragraph (4) of the 1945 constitution, have laid the juridical foundation and intergenerational justice. to realize justice between generations, the government must put itself in a neutral position. for the sake of creating something that is created in the form of a legal product that is desired by the community and the course of a positive legal rule, what is needed is in the form of legal goodness while according to leawoas and radbruch (2000), legal goodness is defined into 3 types of legal subjects. the two laws which were drawn up with that aim resulted in a collective legal system; not individual or collective human, but includes culture. according to w. friedman (1975), harmonization of rules and their implementation will never be realized if the government as the regulator does not place itself as a provider and in a neutral position. in addition, it is necessary to apply the principle of social justice in the sense of prioritizing interests that have an impact on welfare for most levels of society, compared to mere exploitation interests which only have an impact on the interests of certain individuals and groups (rasjidi and rasjidi (2007). management of coastal areas cannot be separated from the status of the function and ownership of land in the area. the granting of land rights, whether individually controlled or traditionally controlled for land areas that are not affected by the tides, is easier to complete, because it has been regulated by the uupa and other laws and regulations (arisaputra, 2015). the management of coastal areas and small islands so far has put more emphasis on the economic aspect, resulting in a tendency for massive exploitation that has an impact on environmental aspects and the social order of the people. a legal instrument in the use of coastal waters and small islands as regulated by law no. 27 of 2007 concerning the management of coastal areas and small islands which are considered by the legislators to be able to become a strong basis for their use, namely the right instrument in the form of hp-3 (coastal waters concession rights). the constitutional basis for the control and ownership of the land mentioned above is to provide signs in the regulation of land control and ownership, including the control and ownership of land in coastal areas and small islands. however, because coastal areas and small islands have distinctive characteristics and are different from the mainland, such as being vulnerable to environmental changes, which are also a buffer zone for national sovereignty, the regulation of land tenure and ownership should also take into account these distinctive characteristics. in addition, it must pay attention to the aspect of the coastal border as a protected area and regulation of public access. the coastal border is land along the edge whose width is proportional to the shape and physical condition of the beach at least 100 (one hundred) meters from the highest tide point towards the land. the determination of coastal boundaries is carried out by the regional government by adjusting the characteristics of topography, biophysics, coastal 50 hydro-aerography, economic and cultural needs and other provisions. the tendency to regulate land tenure and ownership in coastal areas and small islands in particular can be seen in the development of regulations related to it. government regulation no. 40 of 1996 concerning cultivation rights, building use rights and land use rights, article 60 stipulates, that: "the granting of cultivation rights, building use rights and use rights on a piece of land which is entirely an island or bordering the coast is regulated separately by government regulations". this explanation of article 60 confirms that with this provision, requests for new land rights which are entirely islands and bordering the coast will not be served until the issuance of the said government regulation. however, if referring to the provisions of article 62 of government regulation (pp) number 40 of 1996, land rights for small islands may be granted certain land rights, but with strict conditions. as long as the government regulations referred to in article 60 have not been issued, the laws and regulations regarding cutivation right (hgu), building right (hgb), and usufructuary right (hp) remain valid as long as they do not conflict with the provisions in government regulations. the minister of state for agrarian affairs/head of the national land agency of the republic of indonesia gave directions for the implementation of the government regulation in circular letter number 500-1197, dated june 3, 1997, which was later reaffirmed by circular letter number 500-1698, dated july 14, 1997, which was addressed to the head of the office of the republic of indonesia. the consideration of the issuance of the circular letter is because of the large number of applications submitted to obtain land rights which are entirely islands or those bordering the coast, while the provisions of article 60 and its explanation expressly state that applications for land rights which are entirely islands should not be served until the issuance of this regulation. the circular letter is the reference for the head of the regional office of the provincial national land agency and the head of the regency/city land office in responding to requests for land rights on small islands, because there have been no government regulations issued relating to land regulations in coastal areas and small island. a legal instrument in the use of coastal waters and small islands as regulated by law no. 27 of 2007 concerning the management of coastal areas and small islands which are considered by the legislators to be able to become a strong basis for their use, namely the right instrument in the form of hp-3 (coastal waters concession rights). however, the hp-3 has been revoked by the constitutional court in the decision of the constitutional court number 3/puu-viii/2010 which was pronounced on thursday, june 9, 2010 in the plenary session of the constitutional court (mk) open to the public. the constitutional court's decision has stated that it has no binding force on 14 articles related to hp-3. all provisions relating to hp3 in those articles were considered by the court to be contrary to the 1945 constitution. the main issue that the court considered was the constitutionality of the articles which were deemed to be contrary to the 12 (twelve) constitutional norms in the 1945 constitution. the court was of the opinion that the use of the territory coastal and small islands with hp-3 instruments cannot guarantee the greatest prosperity of the people. there are 4 (four) benchmarks used by the constitutional court in measuring the benefits for the greatest prosperity of the people, namely (ranto, 2017); (a) utilization of natural resources for the people; (b) the level of equitable distribution of the benefits of natural resources for the people; (c) the level of people's participation in determining the benefits of natural resources; (d) respect for the rights of the people from generation to generation in utilizing natural resources. these four benchmarks are used by the constitutional court to judge hp-3 as against the constitution. in its legal considerations, among others, affirming that, the constitutional court assessed that although there are guarantees in article 61 of the coastal law for the recognition, respect and protection of the rights of indigenous peoples over coastal areas and small islands that have been used for generations, the rights of the customary law community have the potential to be handed over to the private sector by providing compensation in the form of hp-3. in addition, the provision of hp-3 is a form of legalization of the division of coastal areas and small islands to be used as private ownership and close ownership to individuals, legal entities or certain communities. it is even more ironic that the placement of hp-3 as property rights is assessed by the constitutional court to result in the transfer of ownership and control by the state in the form of single ownership and close ownership to individuals, community groups and legal entities so that it will close access for everyone to the area given by hp-3. giving hp-3 violates the principle of economic democracy based on togetherness and the principle of justice. the principle of togetherness must be interpreted that in the implementation of the economy it must involve the people as widely as possible and be profitable for the welfare of the people. 51 hp-3 is considered to only benefit owners of large capital. therefore, to avoid the transfer of responsibility for state control over the management of coastal waters and small islands to the private sector, the state can grant the right to make the constitutional court's decision, in fact, affirming two things (waluyo, 2013); first, that the utilization of coastal areas and small islands must be carried out through a licensing mechanism from the government and local governments. however, for indigenous peoples or local communities who have lived in the area for generations, they must be given a strengthening of their position in the form of rights. second, the use of coastal areas and small islands must be in the interests of the people as a whole, not only for the interests of individuals or certain groups or only owners of capital, by ignoring the constitutional rights of the people to obtain prosperity for monitoring the resources of coastal areas and small islands. thus, there is a need for balance and harmonization between positive law and the law that lives in society as a guide in carrying out legal actions. for this reason, referring to the legal system adopted in indonesia, the presence of positive law is still needed to provide legal certainty, but its incarnation must be in the absorption of natural law that is integrated into the positive law, so that justice can be realized. john rowls in his book a theory of justice explains the relationship between natural law and positive law. for rawls, the binding power of positive law (lex humana) is based on natural law (lex natura) which is based on fairness values. these values of justice require the existence of togetherness which is the desire of all human beings. this is what is meant as social justice which must be incarnated in the wider community (soetiknjo, 2005). 3.1. state sovereignty, defense aspects of land control by foreigners against the outermost small islands which indicate the existence of a sale and purchase agreement in order to increase opinion through foreign exchange, indonesia is competing with various countries to create legal instruments for the welfare of the people by giving permission for the international community, especially investors to invest directly in indonesia, either in the form of leasing or public private ownership. this also invites fresh air from both the government itself and foreign investors in indonesia coupled with the geographical location of the strategic region, namely between the asian continents and the australian continent and between the pacific ocean and the indian ocean while in indonesia itself consists of unique coastal areas with 70% the waters and land use in the form of various islands, as well as qualified natural resources both on land and at sea make indonesia one of the countries that are highly targeted by foreign investors to invest. in addition, indonesia itself is a country that has fairly good ease of doing business. as for the rights obtained by foreigners, it is regulated in the following series: 1. pp 103 of 2015 concerning the ownership of residential/residential houses for foreigners; 2. pp 40 of 1996 concerning cultivation rights, building use rights and land use rights; 3. uu no. 5 of 1960 concerning basic agrarian regulations, etc. by law, many foreign investors have met the requirements for permits for residence, business or vacation. unfortunately, there are several indications of violations regarding foreigners and domestic investors who are even more sad to be involved in it and the community itself, where there are buying and selling of land related to foreigners in the unitary territory of the republic of indonesia in the form of small islands and coastal areas of indonesia, tempted by the beauty the natural surroundings sometimes don't sometimes make anyone fall in love. the issue of buying and selling this island has spread since the end of the new order regime which was replaced by the era of democracy. this is of course closely related to the poverty level of the community, sometimes making there are naughty elements who sell the sipadan area or the small outermost island of indonesia. what makes it sad is that sometimes the government sometimes seems slow in handling this matter even though it is also related to aspects of state defense and security which has violated the principle of state life. indonesia is one of the largest archipelagic countries in asia with a vast area that includes maritime and ocean expanses as well as natural resources in it, indonesia is known to be very rich in addition to its natural resources, indonesia is also considered to have productive and superior human resources and is quite superior in indonesia. area is about 70%. geographically, indonesia is a country with a tropical climate, while the number of islands in indonesia is 17,508 islands. first, “the total area of indonesia is 7.81 million km2, which consists of 2.01 million km2 of land, 3.25 million km2 of ocean, and 2.55 million km2 of the exclusive economic zone (eez)", so indonesia deserves the title of the largest archipelagic country. in this world (septiadi, 2017). the number of islands in indonesia is a blessing from god almighty, in the form of natural resources, to be controlled by the indonesian people which are used for the full benefit of all 52 indonesian people, by present and future generations.second, specifically, the sustainable management of marine resources is aimed at improving the welfare of the indonesian people (amiek, et al., 2019). one of the largest sources of the economy in indonesia, not a few who depend on the catch from local fishermen. it is said that because if the total area of indonesia is calculated, it is about 70% of the water area and the rest is archipelago (pratikto, 2003). based on the juridical analysis of the regulations above, it is known that the determination of the area to be designated as special economic zone (sez) must meet 4 (four) criteria. the first criterion, “sez must be in accordance with the regional spatial plan and not have the potential to disturb the protected area”. there are three (3) types of regional spatial planning (rtrw) based on their level, namely: national rtrw, provincial rtrw, and regency/city rtrw, which must be integrated with one another. the government of the republic of indonesia number 26 of 2008 concerning the national spatial plan is a policy direction and strategy for the use of state territory space”. regarding the provincial rtrw and regency/city rtrw, they are prepared by adjusting the characteristics of each region but must refer to the national rtrw. in addition to being in accordance with the rtrw, the determination of the sez area must also not interfere with the protected area. based on the explanation of article 4 letter a, of the law on special economic zones, "protected areas are areas designated with the main function of protecting environmental sustainability which includes natural resources and artificial resources". the government certainly has the authority in terms of maintaining, supervising, developing and using natural resources anywhere that are included in the territory of the republic of indonesia for the prosperity of the people as the essence of article 33 of the constitution of the republic of indonesia, then with the task of authority given by the constitution alias rights of every indonesian citizen. , then the government formed a study of the establishment of special economic zones for small and outermost islands (sez-pkt) plan, this plan was then implemented by the legislation on special economic zones. 1. law number 39 of 2009 concerning special economic zones, presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 33 of 2010 concerning the national council and national council for special economic zones; 2. government regulation number 2 of 2011 concerning the implementation of special economic zones; 3. presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 33 of 2010 concerning the national council and national council of special economic zones, presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 124 of 2012 concerning amendments to presidential regulation number 33 of 2010 concerning the national council and council for special economic zones; 4. coordinating minister for the economy regulation number 7 of 2011 concerning guidelines for proposing the establishment of special economic zones. in addition to the economic crush, there are rogue elements, both from the community or claiming to be coastal communities, and then being tempted by the lure of the sale of land from foreign parties, which causes not a few from coastal areas, especially small and outer islands to make guile to then trade land or small islands. the outermost and outermost areas to meet the needs of a personal interest without looking at the environmental aspects and the legal impact of the sale and purchase agreement of the outermost small island land by the surrounding population. as for usually the sale and purchase is categorized into a nominee agreement. this is not only a community problem but also the government as a representative of the people has the task of maintaining people's sovereignty through the misuse of land and islands in remote and outermost areas itself, further complicated issues and have not been resolved to date due to limited infrastructure and facilities to provide guidance, supervision, and development especially for islands that are remote, difficult to reach and uninhabited, the size of the islands on the border are generally very small islands that are very vulnerable to damage both by nature and humans, not yet synchronized border management, including institutional, programs, as well as clarity of authority, the absence of clear and comprehensive laws and regulations in the management of pkt, misinterpretation of the law on regional government which causes various conflicts in the authority of the management of water areas, lack of socialization i about the existence and importance of the outer islands (adiyanto, et al., 2007). the ministry of maritime affairs and fisheries conveyed a number of land problems that occurred in the small islands of indonesia. minister of maritime affairs and fisheries, susi pudjiastuti, said her agency was reorganizing the management and utilization of small islands for the greatest prosperity of the people. the following are problems that often occur on small islands: 1) state defense and security, especially in small and outermost islands (ppkt). 2) sale of land or small islands to foreign nationals, for example maratua island in berau regency. 53 3) private control of small islands by foreigners and indonesians, such as nikoi island in tanjung pinang, bawah island in anambas, and manis island in batam city. 4) the use of nominees (name borrowing agreements) in land tenure and investment processes, as happened on maratua island, berau regency, and bidadari island, labuan bajo. 5) the issue of occupancy or claims of island ownership by citizens of other countries, as happened in pulau manis, batam city. 6) environmental damage and pollution on small islands, such as bangka island in north minahasa and small islands in bangka belitung province. 7) closure of access to local communities and fishermen by investors in small islands, such as gili gede, in west lombok, nikoi island in tanjung pinang, and several islands in wakatobi. 8) conflicts over land use and forest conversion between investors and communities, such as on romang island in southwest maluku island, pari island in the thousand islands, and jemaja island in the anambas islands. 9) illegal activities on small islands, such as smuggling of people and goods, slavery, illegal fishing, illegal logging, drugs, such as on benjina island in the aru islands regency and bawah island in the anambas islands. 10) violation of land regulations, granting individual land rights (shm) which reaches 20 hectares per person in one stretch, such as maratua island in berau. utilization of small islands has not provided optimal pnbp for the state. (budiyanto, 2017). 11) the president himself has issued a decree on the list of geographical coordinates of the bases of the indonesian archipelago, which was later abbreviated as this presidential decree. based on presidential decree 38 of 2002 concerning the list of geographical coordinates of the baselines of the indonesian archipelago, as amended by government regulation no. 37 of 2008, there has been a change in the number of islands. the outermost small island, making it 111 (one hundred and eleven) outermost islands, president joko widodo signed presidential decree number 6 of 2017 concerning the designation of the outermost islands. which outer islands have white sandy beaches and are very exotic, so they are in great demand both as tourism destinations and until then, they are sought after by foreigners in various ways; either by "purchasing" the individual owners of the land with the right of ownership on the island, the question is, how come the island bordering the high seas can be issued a certificate even though the stipulations that govern it are clear, article 60 and article 62 of pp 40 of 1996. as has been explained regarding the procedure defects in the ownership of land tenure above where foreigners become landlords while the rogue person becomes the object of power over the foreigners themselves, in fact certificates are still issued by the local land office/land office. do they not know, do not understand or pretend not to understand? because after being controlled by foreigners, many problems arise. in essence, small islands may not be owned by foreigners or foreign legal entities. if a foreign party wishes to exploit a small island and the surrounding waters for the purpose of foreign investment, it must obtain a permit from the minister. foreign investment must prioritize the national interest (hasanah, 2017). if this is the case, the 11 points above must be the attention of the ministry of kkp and should be of no small concern to the coordinating minister for political and security affairs; not only at the level of rules on paper, but implementation and strict supervision in the field, and if there is a clear violation, action must be taken, moreover it will endanger the country's resilience. in terms of what can be dangerous/there is a claim to the island in riau by malaysia, and has happened with the loss of the island of sigitan. the sale of the island in labuan bajo, the control of the island in the gilis, either sold under the name of a local person or controlled through a long lease. if so, where is the nationalism of ppat's fellow notaries for making such a model deed and the supervisory body for land control by foreigners. 5. conclusions as an indonesian nation, the purpose of managing coastal resources and small islands in article 22 paragraph (2) of law number 32 of 2014 and also article 4 of law number 27 of 2007 should be implemented more into practice, not only expecting implementation from the government, but as a community we also take part in the management so that these goals can be realized, also for the good and progress of the indonesian maritime sector. besides that, the government must take a stand in correcting deficiencies in its regulation, not only that the community must also be given counseling on policies that have been issued by the government and its regulations regarding land tenure on the outermost and remote islands, on how to manage, supervise and use the surrounding land so that it does not cause the occurrence of the agreement which is legally called illegal. full attention is expected for the author to the government in coordination with the local council representatives. this aside from providing information on issues in the field of resilience, the government also pays more attention to legal, economic, political and cultural issues for the welfare of the local people. to avoid the recurrence of related issues where the community gives ownership of their land to foreigners because the value of the foreigners themselves are high. legal arrangements for ownership and control of land need to be realized immediately as an integrated ecosystem with the 54 surrounding waters, in the form of separate laws and regulations by taking into account economic, political, socio-cultural, environmental and defense and security aspects in an integrated manner. besides that, it is also technical in the field, if the law allows the control of the outermost and marginalized island lands which must be considered carefully how to make such a deed and supervision of institutions related to the existence of arrangements that in the future provide legality to foreigners who want to own the outermost island land. few of the authors said that if this happened, there would certainly be discrimination against indigenous people in the area because the status of the community's own rights is no longer prioritized or special and seems to deviate far from the management, supervision and use of rejuvenation for the surrounding environment because it is possible that the indigenous people are increasingly being marginalized. will be excluded. related to the resilience and security of the state, it becomes the last focus for the government in protecting the internal security and resilience of the outermost and remote islands against the interests and objectives of advancing the republic of indonesia. references 1. adiyanto, e., eidman, e., adrianto, l. 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(2017). tujuan pengelolaan sumber daya pesisir dan pulau-pulau kecil dalam pasal 4 http://journal.ipb.ac.id/index.php/bulekokan/article/view/2654/1637 http://journal.ipb.ac.id/index.php/bulekokan/article/view/2654/1637 https://doi.org./10.14710/mmh.48.3.2019.241-248 https://disperkim.samarindakota.go.id/asset/filelib/ads/22-34-1-pb.pdf https://disperkim.samarindakota.go.id/asset/filelib/ads/22-34-1-pb.pdf http://kkp.go.id/an-component/media/upload-gambar-pendukung/djprl/humas/kebijakan%20dan%20implementasi%20pengelolaan%20dan%20pendayagunaan%20p3k%20edit.pdf http://kkp.go.id/an-component/media/upload-gambar-pendukung/djprl/humas/kebijakan%20dan%20implementasi%20pengelolaan%20dan%20pendayagunaan%20p3k%20edit.pdf http://kkp.go.id/an-component/media/upload-gambar-pendukung/djprl/humas/kebijakan%20dan%20implementasi%20pengelolaan%20dan%20pendayagunaan%20p3k%20edit.pdf http://kkp.go.id/an-component/media/upload-gambar-pendukung/djprl/humas/kebijakan%20dan%20implementasi%20pengelolaan%20dan%20pendayagunaan%20p3k%20edit.pdf http://kkp.go.id/an-component/media/upload-gambar-pendukung/djprl/humas/kebijakan%20dan%20implementasi%20pengelolaan%20dan%20pendayagunaan%20p3k%20edit.pdf https://ejurnal.esaunggul.ac.id/index.php/formil/article/view/1082/995 https://ejurnal.esaunggul.ac.id/index.php/formil/article/view/1082/995 https://m.hukumonline.com/klinik/detail/ulasan/lt58acfa5997514/bolehkah-pulau-pulau-kecil-diberikan-hak-atas-tanah https://m.hukumonline.com/klinik/detail/ulasan/lt58acfa5997514/bolehkah-pulau-pulau-kecil-diberikan-hak-atas-tanah https://m.hukumonline.com/klinik/detail/ulasan/lt58acfa5997514/bolehkah-pulau-pulau-kecil-diberikan-hak-atas-tanah https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/195590-id-kebijakan-penataan-pesisir-dan-pulau-pul.pdf https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/195590-id-kebijakan-penataan-pesisir-dan-pulau-pul.pdf 55 undangundang nomor 27 tahun 2007 tentang pengelolaan wilayah pesisir dan pulau-pulau kecil serta pasal 22 ayat (2) undang-undang nomor 32 tahun 2014 tentang kelautan, gema keadilan, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 13-23. https://doi.org/10.14710/gk.4.1.13-23 20. waluyo, a. (2013). permodelan pengelolaan wilayah pesisir dan pulau-pulau kecil secara terpadu yang berbasis masyarakat (studi kasus pulau raas kabupaten sumenep madura). jurnal kelautan, 6(1), 74-88. available at https://journal.trunojoyo.ac.id/jurnalkelautan/article/v iew/835/734 law and regulations 21. indonesia, the constitution of the republic of indonesia 22. indonesia, basic agrarian law no. 5 of 1960 (supplement to the state gazette number 2043) 23. indonesia, law number 23 of 2014 concerning regional government 24. indonesia, law number 27 of 2007 concerning management of coastal areas and small islands (pwp3k), as amended 25. indonesia, law number 1 of 2014, states the definition and limitations of the pwp3k law. 26. indonesia, government regulation 40 of 1996 concerning cultivation rights, building use rights and land use rights (supplement to the state gazette of the republic of indonesia 1996 number 3643) 27. indonesia, presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 10 of 2006 concerning the organizational structure of the national land agency 28. indonesia, decree of the president of the republic of indonesia number 38 of 2000 concerning the establishment of a national independent investigation team for the maluku conflict. https://doi.org/10.14710/gk.4.1.13-23 https://journal.trunojoyo.ac.id/jurnalkelautan/article/view/835/734 https://journal.trunojoyo.ac.id/jurnalkelautan/article/view/835/734 procedura pwr krijimin e faturws sw gatshme pwrmes funksioneve vlookup dhe if prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 27 database creation through if, vlookup, sum and sumif functions of microsoft excel jusuf qarkaxhija aab collegefaculty of computer science jusuf.qarkaxhija@aab-edu.net abstract using databases is a fundamental matter for every business and non-business related activities. their creation is more important than their usage, because creating a software through which we could track stock status in a enterprise’s warehouse is a huge burden for a newly founded enterprise. microsoft excel, a part of microsoft office packet, is a suitable program as it contains the needed tools and fuctions to create a database. we are going to practically show you how to create a database using excel functions such as if, sum, sumif and vlookup and also using other tools such as condictional formatting and freeze panes. first of, you create a table with the warehouse articles; then you create an invoice for sale articles, and lastly the made sales will substract the article in the warehouse. the result of this worksheet gives us a practical software which calculates what the warehouse has left after the sales. this is important because a beginner enterpreneur doesn’t have to pay lots of money to create a database, but this worksheet will help them create one without being an expert in microsoft excel. in conclusion, we can say it is very important to be innovative in the activities we conduct, because the enterprenur spirit will not let their work be affected by someone else, including a software of advanced technology. key words: software, microsoft excel, database, warehouse etc. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 28 introduction it is important for the activity of an enterprise to save their all activities and transactions somewhere. the place where it is saved is called a database1. the database, as we all know, transfers organized data from a table to another, from a sheet to another, from a cell to another, or from an object to another, and today we cannot believe any business related activity can funcion without it2. an enterprise will experience lack of knowledge for its articles in its warehouses, there will be delays in its clients’ provision, and as a consequence it will fail due to competition3. microsoft excel is a program for table calculation but it can be used to create databases, statistica analysis, various financial, mathematical, or logical analysis, etc. there are much sophisticated programming languages than excel, which is an application program that can help create various more advanced software to create databases, but it is important to have a practical program that interested people can later on use. its usage is even simpler because you do not need to know different languages, but excel is installed in every computer as a part of microsoft office’s packet. creating a database we create a database as shown below: source: author 1 qarkaxhija, j “online database publication and management”, par international leadership conference press, isbn 978-953-57258-5-5, fq 443-500 2 rexhepi, a “microsoft access”, printing press, prishtinë kosovë, 2002, fq 10 3 http://www.dbta.com/editorial/trends-and-applications/good-performance-management-reduces-costsminimizes-risk-to-database-57830.aspx prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 29 we save this database as warehouse in the menu: formulas/define name/define name as shown below: source: author and we get the following window: source: author we also rename the first sheet sheet1 to warehouse. then in the sheet2 we create an invoice model as shown below: source: author we remove the gridlines through the menu : tools/options/view/gridlines. in a18 cell, we enter the following formula to show the date and time: =now() prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 30 we can see all the formulas for the invoice down below: source: author to continue creating the databsem we click under the invocei, in a20 cell and we apply the following command view/freeze panes. source: author in this case, the surface splits in half, the upper part that we do not edit, and the lower part where we conduct required activities. then in the m19, n19, o19 cells we add : nr (number of articles), quantity (the sold quantity), invoice (number of invoice). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 31 source: author then we go to the following cellsb731:b740, c731:c740, where we add the information as shown below: source: author the cells c731:c740 get their data from the picture above through the following formulas: c731 = sumif($m$20:$m$2000,1,$n$20:$n$2000) c732 = sumif($m$20:$m$2000,2,$n$20:$n$2000) c733 = sumif($m$20:$m$2000,3,$n$20:$n$2000) c734 = sumif($m$20:$m$2000,4,$n$20:$n$2000) c735 = sumif($m$20:$m$2000,5,$n$20:$n$2000) c736 = sumif($m$20:$m$2000,6,$n$20:$n$2000) c737 = sumif($m$20:$m$2000,7,$n$20:$n$2000) c738 = sumif($m$20:$m$2000,8,$n$20:$n$2000) c739 = sumif($m$20:$m$2000,9,$n$20:$n$2000) c740 = sumif($m$20:$m$2000,10,$n$20:$n$2000) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 32 sheet2 will likely look like this : source: author now we go back to the first sheet (warehouse) and next to the database we add two columns and name them: sold quantity (which gets the relevant values from c731:c740 cells and the prefix sheet2! before the cells) and remnant in the warehouse (difference between quantity and sold quantity). we can add another column i.e. critical remnant which we can add an if function to, so if the quantity of articles is under a specified quantity, there is a comment, such as =if(i4<20,"articles should be bought",""). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 33 source: author while we see used formulas in the figure below: source: author prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 34 conclusions from the practice example described in a chronology way through figures above, we saw that table calculating program of microsoft excel is multifunctional and also using it helps us creating a data base. we crate this using logical function if, trigonometric functions sum and sumif, also referential function vlookup. this is a typical example that even with limited access excel thanks to it visualizer can do grate things. surely that business requirements are greater and always growing. and that is partially due to the-so-called 'costumer relationship management', but this is a step done in the next phase. references rexhepi, a “microsoft access”, printing press, prishtinë 2002 shmalz m, “integrating excel and access”, o’reilly media,inc, pennsylvania usa, 2005 qarkaxhija, j “online database publication and management”, par international leadership conference press, isbn 978-953-57258-5-5 http://www.dbta.com/editorial/trends-and-applications/good-performance-managementreduces-costs-minimizes-risk-to-database-57830.aspx reisner, t ”microsoft office excel 2003”, sams publishing, cacak 2004 104 reconstruction of the diversion concept in a child criminal jurisdiction system based on dignified justice i nyoman dipa rudiana ¹* i ketut rai setiabudhi 2 ¹ university udayana, faculty of law, dipa_rudiana@yahoo.com *correspondent author. 2 university of udayana,, faculty of law, raisetiabudi_fhunud@yahoo.co.id article history: submission 02 january 2021 revision 20 february 2021 accepted 14 march 2021 available online 30 april 2021 keywords: diversion concept. restorative justice, child protection. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i1.210 a b s t r a c t the renewal of the orientation of punishment for children in conflict with the law from a retributive justice approach to restorative justice is a good start for efforts to restore a victim-oriented situation by giving the perpetrator the opportunity to express his regret to the victim with the concept of diversion. however, not all cases of children are entitled to diversion. in accordance with article 7 paragraph (2) of the sppa law, the requirement for diversion is a criminal act punishable by imprisonment of under 7 (seven) years and not a repetition of a criminal act. meanwhile, criminal acts that are punishable by more than 7 (seven) years and repetition of criminal acts are not entitled to diversion. the concept of diversion and the terms of diversion are interpreted very narrowly so that they do not reflect dignified justice. the law cannot only regulate legal certainty. the law must provide a sense of justice with dignity and justice that humanize humans. this writing aims to determine the concept of diversion of the juvenile criminal justice system based on dignified justice. the type of research used is literature, the nature of this research is descriptive, the results of the research are the reconstruction of the concept of diversion based on dignified justice must be reconstructed by expanding the concept of diversion so that every child without exception has the right to get diversion. 1. introduction children are part of citizens who must be protected because they are the generation of the nation who in the future will continue the leadership of the indonesian nation. the general principles of child protection are non-discrimination, the best interests of the child, survival and development and respect for children's participation. children who commit criminal acts must continue to obtain legal protection in the court proceedings in the best interest of the child both legal protection for the child perpetrator of a criminal act, the implementation of examination of the child who is the perpetrator of a criminal act, and the punishment of the child who is the criminal offender. the law of the republic of indonesia number 11 of 2012 concerning the juvenile criminal justice system (hereinafter abbreviated as the sppa law) seeks to build a system capable of providing a stronger legal basis for existing legal mechanisms by accommodating it with a mechanism in statutory provisions. this is a way out for mechanisms that have worked in society by involving law enforcers as part of the operation of this system. as a member of the united nations, the state of indonesia has ratified the convention on the rights of the child (kha), by issuing presidential decree no. 36 dated august 25, 1990, in essence declaring its commitment to respect and guarantee children's rights without discrimination in the jurisdiction of the republic of indonesia. on this basis, the indonesian state is obliged to pay attention to and maintain the rights of every child to be able to grow and develop like a human being who has dignity. the regulation of children's rights is regulated in the universal declaration of human rights (udhr) and the international on civil and political rights (icpr), which states that children's rights are part of human rights guaranteed and protected by international law and national law. the vienna declaration in https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:dipa_rudiana@yahoo.com mailto:raisetiabudi_fhunud@yahoo.co.id https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i1.210 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4096-6566 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7747-0666 105 1993 at the world conference on human rights (ham) reaffirmed the principle of first call for children, which emphasizes the importance of national and international efforts to advance children's rights survival, development and participation (harkrisnowo, 2002). protection for children in conflict with the law (hereinafter abbreviated as abh) in the juvenile criminal justice system must be interpreted broadly, not only handling children who are dealing with the law alone, but must include root causes, namely why children commit criminal acts and how prevention efforts. the scope of the juvenile criminal justice system covers many varieties and complexities, starting from the issue of children making first contact with the police, the judicial process, conditions of detention, and social reintegration, including the perpetrators in the process. the term juvenile justice system refers to the legislature, norms and standards, procedures, mechanisms and provisions, institutions and bodies that specifically deal with children who commit crimes. the increasing level of violations committed by children that lead to criminal acts, encourages efforts to handle and handle them specifically in the field of criminal law (children) and its procedural law. this is closely related to the special treatment of juvenile offenders (wahyono & rahayu, 1983). in the settlement of criminal acts, there needs to be a difference between the behavior of adults and child offenders, and if seen from the position of a child legally has not been burdened with obligations compared to adults, as long as a person is still called a child, as long as he is also not held accountable, if a problem arises against the child, efforts are made how their rights are protected law (kusumah, 1986). handling of children's problems in conflict with the law to date is a serious dilemma, if the solution approach is too repressive, it will have a negative impact on the child's physical and psychological aspects. observing the conditions of handling cases of children in conflict with the law in indonesia so far, there has been a new breakthrough to protect children from bad impacts in resolving children's problems in conflict with the law through the sppa law which emphasizes solving problems with restorative justice (hereinafter referred to as justice restorative). restorative justice is defined as a process to involve, enable the involvement of a wider range of parties, namely those who have an interest in a specific violation. then together, identify and direct the losses, needs, and obligations in order to heal and place the rights of the parties as possible points to be resolved. restorative justice has fundamental characteristics with various values called inclusion (participation), democracy, responsibility, recovery, security, healing, and reintegration. according to the united nations office on drugs and crime (unodc), restorative justice refers to the process of solving a criminal act (crime) by focusing on repairing the victim's loss (injury), determining the perpetrator responsible for his actions, and engaging the community in resolving conflicts that occur. the process of restorative justice is any process in which victims and perpetrators or other individuals or members of the community who are affected by a crime, actively take part in solving various problems that arise as a result of the crime with the help of a facilitator. thus, restorative justice is one way to answer the problem of criminal behavior by balancing the needs of the community, victims and perpetrators of criminal acts. the shift in the paradigm of punishment for children in conflict with the law from a retributive justice approach to a restorative justice approach is a good start for protection efforts in the juvenile criminal justice system. the form of reform in indonesian criminal law is the regulation of law in perspective and achievements after criminal justice events and processes known as restorative justice. restorative justice emphasizes justice in improving or restoring circumstances, is victim-oriented, gives the perpetrator the opportunity to express his remorse for the victim and at the same time takes responsibility for his actions, gives the perpetrator and victim the opportunity to meet to reduce hostility and hatred, restore balance in society and involve community members in recovery efforts. the aim orientation of the criminalization of restorative justice is different from retributive justice, which emphasizes justice for children's retaliation in the position of being the object and resolving unbalanced legal problems. meanwhile, restitutive justice emphasizes justice in compensation (rizal & suhariyono, 2016). the paradigm shift from the punitive model or the restriction of freedom that has been carried out so far to a model of punishment that provides justice, especially justice directed at justice, is the starting point for the birth of the concept of restorative justice. the implementation of restorative justice against children is carried out directly against the criminal act that occurs, before the perpetrator enters the criminal justice system, where cases that enter the legal apparatus will use their discretionary rights to take diversionary actions by transferring criminal cases that occur to informal processes. according to article 1 point 7 of the sppa law stipulates that diversion is the transfer of settlement of child cases from the criminal justice process to the process outside the criminal court. the idea of diversion was proclaimed in the united nations standard minimum rules for the administration of juvenile 106 (smrjj) or the beijing rules (united nations general assembly resolution 40/33, november 29, 1985) where diversion is included in rule 11.1., rule 11.2., and rule 17.4. diversion and restorative justice are alternative forms of criminal settlement directed at informal settlement by involving all parties involved in the criminal act that occurred. diversion is interpreted as an effort to keep a case with certain criteria away from the formal criminal justice process towards community support to avoid negative impacts caused by the criminal justice process. the concept of diversion is in line with the non-penal justice route, namely the juvenile criminal justice model which is carried out in a non-litigation manner. the purpose of this court is to protect the interests and future of children, prioritize the principle of the best interest for the juvenile’s delinquency, override the principle of ultimum remedium and are preventive in nature. in a social perspective, diversion is a constructive effort to rebuild disharmonious social relations due to criminal acts, rather than exclusion of perpetrators from the context of their social life. in the perspective of state budget allocation, detention of perpetrators of criminal acts will burden the state budget. this view is in line with the aim of diversion as stipulated in article 6 of the sppa law. based on the legal phenomenon of children in conflict with the law that continues to develop coloring the law enforcement process, the implementation of law enforcement must be implemented directly through the implementation of diversion, namely the transfer of settlement of children's cases from criminal justice processes to processes outside of criminal justice, with the principle that the best interests of the child must be primary consideration in all countermeasures. the form of government responsibility for this phenomenon is to form the sppa law as a specialist leg to replace the ri law. no. 3 of 1997 concerning child court. the substance of the regulation of the sppa law, one of its principles, is restorative justice and diversion which aims to avoid and keep children away from the judicial process so that they can avoid stigmatization of children who are in conflict with the law and it is hoped that children can return to the social environment properly. legal processes and imprisonment often have a destructive effect on children, ranging from the label evil or naughty that is often attached to children who are proceeding with the law, traumatic conditions, interruptions in the educational process to physical and psychological violence experienced by children. the above explanation is used as material for legal considerations for children in conflict with the law and children as victims so that the handling of children is not aimed at retaliation and grief but as self-awareness for children so that later they can behave better. handling of children in conflict with the law through a diversion process aims to protect and nurture children so that their future will be better and provide opportunities to grow and develop optimally with a better future. the development of the practice of the juvenile criminal justice system that has been implemented so far as regulated in the sppa law is expected to fill the space of justice as the concept of restorative justice is the basic substance in the sppa law so that the physical and spiritual existence of children remains dignified as their human rights. settlement of child crime in conflict with the law by using the concept of diversion through a dignified justice-based restorative justice approach. article 2 of the sppa law stipulates that the principles of sppa are implemented based on the principles of justice, the best interests of the child, the survival and development of children, proportional, deprivation of freedom and punishment as a last resort and avoidance of retaliation. this view indicates that children are an inseparable part of human survival and the continuity of a nation and state. therefore, children have a strategic role in which it is explicitly stated that the state guarantees every child the survival, growth and development. the logical consequence is that every settlement of a child's case must reflect a sense of justice for the child, and all decision making must always be the most basic human right for children which is protected by the state, government, society, and parents. in reality, not all criminal acts committed by children who conflict with the law, can be carried out by diversion efforts. normatively, article 7 paragraph (1) of the sppa law stipulates that at the level of investigation, prosecution and examination of children's cases in district courts, it is mandatory to seek diversion. furthermore, paragraph (2) stipulates that the diversion as referred to in paragraph (1) shall be carried out in the case of a criminal act that is committed: a. threatened with imprisonment of less than 7 (seven) years; and b. is not a repetition of a criminal act? if we observe the provisions of article 7 paragraph (2) letters a and b, then on an contrary can be interpreted that diversion cannot be carried out in the case of a criminal offense punishable by imprisonment of more than 7 (seven) years and if it is repetition it is not criminal. when viewed from a progressive legal perspective, that law is made and applied to humans, not the other way around, namely humans for law. the existence of law is to make humans happy, the law serves the interests of humans and the rule of law is obliged to make people happy. in this context, 107 diversion must be applicable in the sppa process as long as the parties involved as stipulated in article 8 of the sppa law agree to diversify so that it must be accommodated and should deliberation-based justice or justice be the highest dimension in order to resolve children's cases. the norm of article 7 paragraph (2) of the sppa law has been discriminatory by giving different treatment in terms of handling cases of children in conflict with the law. the attitude of the formation of the sppa law is contrary to the considerations in the sppa law and does not reflect the principles of the sppa law, namely article 2 letter a, namely the principle of protection, letter b is the principle of justice, letter c is the principle of nondiscrimination, letter d is the best interest of the child, letter h namely the principle of proportionality, letter i, namely the principle of deprivation of liberty is the last resort and letter j, namely the principle of avoiding retaliation (erwadi, 2020). guided by the principles of the sppa law as described above, diversion should not need to limit the threat of imprisonment under 7 (seven) years and not repetition of criminal acts, but diversion efforts should be implemented for all criminal acts committed by children. legal treatment of children must not be differentiated as stipulated in article 28 d paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia stipulates that every person has the right to recognition, guarantees, protection and legal certainty that is just and equal treatment before the law (ernis, 2017). based on all the descriptions of the phenomena mentioned above, the writer provides a thought in the form of an idea. that an idea is an idea, a thought about a certain object or phenomenon which is used as a benchmark or point of view orientation. ideas will guide what to aspire to, so that ideas become a means of action, and ideas will be applied because they will be useful and successful in solving problems and determining human behavior. an idea is considered correct if the idea is needed because it is to solve problems that arise in society. thus, the idea serves to guide us to the reality. starting from the notion of this idea, the notion of "diversion idea" is thought, the idea of diversion is used to guide in solving problems that arise in society (wahyudi, 2007). the thinking as described above is important in the context of criminal policies regarding efforts to overcome children with problems with criminal law (perpetrators and / or victims), so it is necessary to conduct studies of statutory provisions concerning the problem of children (perpetrators and victims) currently in effect (ius constitutum) and the practice of handling child perpetrators and / or victims carried out by law enforcement officials (ius operatum) regarding the reconstruction of the concept of diversion in the juvenile criminal justice system. the results of the study of substantive, procedural and cultural provisions on the constitutum ius and operatum iur on the one hand and international instruments, the development of non-penal studies (including criminology) on the other hand, become input in the framework of the expected criminal law formation (ius constituendum). in 2005, the national development for indonesian children 2005-2015 was declared by the state minister for women's empowerment. this declaration can be used as an indicator or parameter that there is a need to carry out in-depth studies of the substance, legal structure of all statutory provisions concerning child protection in indonesia, primarily assessed from the compliance (consistency) of the principles, rules, and institutions regulated by laws and regulations related to child protection and the convention on the rights of the child, especially the sppa law, which indicate that there are still substantive and structural weaknesses related to the concept of diversion against children in conflict with the law. based on the above problems, the writer wants to know how the reconstruction of the concept of diversion in a juvenile justice system based dignified justice? 2. research methods the type of research used in this research is library research or library research, which is research carried out through collecting data or scientific papers aimed at the object of research or data collection that is literature or analysis carried out to solve a problem which is basically based on research critical and in-depth towards relevant library materials. library research or library research is a series of activities relating to methods of collecting library data, reading and taking notes and processing only library collection materials without requiring field research (mestika, 2004). some of the sources used include; books, scientific journals, magazines, statistical references, newspapers, research results in theses, dissertations, internet, and other relevant sources (samusi, 2016). judging from its nature, this research is a descriptive study. descriptive research focuses on systematic explanations of facts obtained when the research is conducted. 3. results and discussion in terms of lexical and grammatical meanings, the word reconstruction has the meaning of returning to its original state or rearranging (depicting) (mulyadi, 2020). garner (2000) called that, “re construction is the act or process of rebuilding, recreating, or reorganizing something”, so that reconstruction here is interpreted as the process of rebuilding or re-creating or reorganizing something. according to hamzah (2010), reconstruction comes from the word reconstruction which is 108 given the meaning of restructuring or rearranging and can also be given the meaning of reorganization. zakaria (2014) in syafiq (2014) stated that the meaning of reconstruction can be understood by renewal or re-actualization. these aspects and dimensions have three meanings, namely: 1. reconstructing or updating with things that have been there before (reviving); 2. reconstructing or updating something that is out of date (patchwork); 3. reconstructing or updating with completely new forms / innovative creations. the word reconstruction in this research is reshaping or reconstructing the concept of diversion based on the protection of children who are faced with the law in a dignified juvenile justice system. one of the substances of the sppa law is the concept of diversion which is interpreted as a mechanism for the transfer of a criminal case that the law enforcement subsystem such as the police, prosecutors and judges must seek to carry out their judicial authority. in this context diversion becomes an instrument in using restorative justice as an approach in handling criminal cases, which according to duff, as quoted by lode walgrave (2004), stated that restorative justice is not alternative to punishment but alternative punishment. restorative justice is implemented in two ways, namely the diversion mechanism and through mechanisms that work in the juvenile criminal justice system. the diversion mechanism is understood as divertion programme is a program that refers certain criminal defendants before trial to community programs on job training, education, and the like, which if successfully completed may lead to the dismissal of the charges (garner, 2000). according to stephen vp. grvey in rizal and suhariyono (2016), restorative justice as a way of responding to crime. these two views provide legitimacy that restorative justice is not just an out of court statute in handling criminal cases. discretionary powers as a tool for diversion in the criminal justice process can be exercised by judges, prosecutors, police and correctional officers as part of their sub-system. the terminology of children facing the law in accordance with the general provisions of article 1 of the sppa law is children who are in conflict with the law, children who are victims of criminal acts, and children who are witnesses of criminal acts. children who are in conflict with the law or in the sppa law use the terminology children are children who are 12 (twelve) years old, but not yet 18 (eighteen) years old who are suspected of committing a criminal act. a child who is a victim of a crime (child victim) is a child under 18 (eighteen) years of age who has suffered physical, mental, and / or economic loss caused by the crime. children who are witnesses of a criminal act (child witnesses) are children under the age of 18 (eighteen) who can provide information for the purposes of investigation, prosecution and examination in court about a criminal case they have heard, seen and or experienced themselves. according to mulyadi (2014), the sppa law stipulates the definition of children who are not yet 18 (eighteen) years old is still incomplete. what if the child is not yet 18 (eighteen) years old but has been married and then divorced, is it included in the category of child or is considered an adult? first, there is the view that if the child is not yet eighteen years old but has married, it is assumed to be an adult. however, if divorced and is under 18 (eighteen) years of age, then it is again categorized as child. aspects and assumptions of this dimension are based on the provisions of article 1 point (1) of law number 23 year 2002 concerning child protection, and article 1 point (3) of the sppa law. in essence, such views start from a positivistic perspective. second, there is the view that if so the child is still categorized as an adult. from a juridical perspective, it is impossible for a child who has been considered an adult, then retreated to be considered a child. these aspects and dimensions are based on the dimensions of civil law, the explanation of the provisions of article 20 of the sppa law stipulates that children who are married and not yet 18 (eighteen) years of age are still given civil rights and obligations as adults. hermenuetic interpretation where the provisions of various previous laws, assume the dimensions of the above context, are categorized as adults, not children anymore. according to the author's polarization of thought, the definition of a child as regulated in the sppa law, which is 12 (twelve) years old, but not 18 (eighteen) years old, who is suspected of having committed a criminal act, is not yet complete. from a juridical, sociological and philosophical perspective, it is relatively more complete if the meaning is added with the sentence never married. the nature of the context of never being married is important, because if the child is not yet 18 (eighteen) years old, but has already been married, the child is not tried and does not fall under the jurisdiction of juvenile court anymore, but is equalized and enters the jurisdiction of justice for adults. 109 in terms of the development of criminal law and the nature of modern punishment, it has introduced and developed the doervictims relationship approach, which is a new approach that has replaced the deed or perpetrator approach or "daad-dader straftecht". legal experts have introduced a formula for justice especially in the protection of human rights. three aspects of the approach to building a legal system in the context of modernization and legal reform, namely in terms of structure, substance and culture, all of which are feasible to run integrally, simultaneously and parallel. the relationship between diversion and restorative justice is viewed from the perspective of the sppa as an element of the criminal justice system involved in handling cases of abh, the police, the attorney general's office and the court as well as community advisors or correctional centers (bapas), advocates or legal aid providers, special child development institutions (lpka), temporary child placement institutions (lpas) and social welfare organizing institutions (lpks) as institutions or institutions that handle abh, starting from the child touching the justice system, determining whether the child will be released or processed in juvenile court, to the stage when the child will be placed in options ranging from being released to inclusion in the institution of punishment in the corridor of restorative justice. the implementation of the juvenile criminal justice system in the concepts of diversion and restorative justice as described above is in line with: 1. united nations declaration on the basic principles on the use of restorative justice programs in criminal matters; 2. vienna declaration on crime and justice: “meeting the challanges of the twenty-first century” items 2728 concerning restorative justice; and 3. eleventh united nations congress on crime prevention and criminal justice, in point 32: synergies and responses: strategis alliances in crime prevention and criminal justice. punishment for juvenile offenders does not then achieve justice for the victim, on the other hand, it still leaves its own problems that are not resolved even though the perpetrator has been punished. looking at the principles of child protection, especially the principle of prioritizing the best interests of the child, it is necessary to process the settlement of children's cases outside the criminal mechanism or commonly known as diversion. punishment institutions are not a way to solve children's problems because they are prone to violations of children's rights. therefore, procedural law and procedures are needed in a system that can accommodate case settlement, one of which is by using a restorative justice approach, through a legal reform that does not only change the law but also modifies the existing criminal justice system, so that all objectives what the law intended was achieved. one form of restorative justice mechanism is dialogue among the indonesian people, better known as musyawarah for consensus. the concept of diversion through restorative justice is a very important consideration in resolving criminal cases committed by children. if the diversion agreement is not fully implemented by the parties based on a report from the correctional institution (bapas), the judge will continue the case examination in accordance with the procedural law for juvenile criminal justice. judges in making their decision are obliged to consider the implementation of the diversion agreement. diversion justice is the process of solving juvenile criminal cases involving the perpetrator, the victim, the perpetrator's family / victim's family, and other related parties. then, it is transferred to the process of resolving child criminal cases outside the criminal justice process by involving the perpetrator, the victim, the perpetrator's family, the victim's family, other related parties, community counselors, communities and professional social workers based on a restorative justice approach, to jointly overcome, resolving legal conflicts faced by children is better, providing solutions, reconciliation, reassurance or solving child criminal cases is the best interest for the children not creating retaliation that makes children stegma.” the diversion concept, according to article 11 united nations standard minimum rules for the administration of dignified justice (the beijing rules), it is stated that diversion is a process of transferring children in conflict with the law, from the criminal justice system to the informal justice system, such as returning to social institutions, both government (state) and non-government. this action is done to avoid negative effects on the psyche and development of children. diversion is carried out by officers by exercising authority which is called discretion. according to article 11.1 the beijing rules, states that legal consideration of juvenile offenders should be given anywhere, outside of formal or juvenile justice processes that are not subject to formal court arrangements such as the district court and the laws used are subject to the provisions of the beijing rules 1985, or applicable national law in indonesia. thus, juvenile criminal cases should not be delegated to the court, it will be more effective if using a policy or discretion in the form of a diversionary court with other sanctions.” according to the author, juvenile justice in accordance with the explanation above is a diversion court model by reconciling the principle of equality before the law with the family group 110 conferencing model from wundersitz, the principle of ultimum remedium, law of the republic of indonesia no. 35 of 2014 concerning child protection, uu sppa. by comparing the rules of the beijing rules general assembly resolution 40/33 of 29 november 1985, the child protection act in south australia which emphasizes the protection of victims and perpetrators of child crimes (the children's protection and young offender act 1979) and the criminal law children in new south wales (the children's criminal protection act 1987, of which article 56 a, stipulates that children have right and freedom before the law equal to those enjoyed by adults and in the process. article 56 a the children's criminal protection act of new south wales says all children have the same rights and freedoms before the law as adults have. the principle of equality before the law for children's cases must be implemented in a diversion justice model. if the wishes of the community do not want the punishment of children to be imposed, then the punishment cannot be (given) to the child. crime cannot be applied if there are other solutions that are beneficial for the child, for example, diversion solutions. the diversion justice model is intended to avoid the stigma that children are considered to have committed a criminal act. the term crime is not appropriate to apply to children who are in conflict with the law. children should not be subject to maximum punishment because in essence children in conflict with the law are victims, victims of broken home from their families, victims of social conditions, victims of economic conditions, victims of educational and cultural conditions, or victims of acts of violence from the surrounding environment. in essence, the child is also a victim of culture, victims of economic neglect, victims of education, victims of injustice, victims of social exploitation and victims of policies in a country. if diversion efforts have been carried out but are unsuccessful, then the juvenile criminal justice model in conflict with the law can be resolved through the penal court. penal justice channel means that the judicial process is completed formally or penal court in court. the process of juvenile justice in court is based on the sppa law. according to hadisupraptop (2006), the prevention of dignified delingquency is part of the criminal policy which in its operational motion can use 2 (two) routes, namely: (a). criminal policy, the penal line is more repressive, and (b). nonpenal criminal policy, which focuses more on preventive properties. in line with this criminal policy, achmad ubbe (2013) cited barda nawawi arief's opinion in the explanatory memorandum and recommendation of the european council no. r (99) 19 regarding mediation in penal matters, penal mediation can be done with a model: 1) informal “mediation” 2) traditional “or tribal moots” 3) victim-offenders mediation 4) reparation “negotiation programs” 5) community “panels or courts” 6) family and community group conferences. the juvenile criminal justice process through the penal route is a juvenile justice process that is specific in nature, meaning that the quality of cases, delinquency or crimes committed by children is already a crime that attracts public attention, the modus operandi that is carried out is more professional, carried out by mens rea criminal are concerned about public interests and security, for example narcotics trafficking, involvement in criminal acts of terrorism, committing premeditated murder”. two years after the sppa law was enacted on august 1, 2014, the indonesian supreme court responded to the sppa law progressively by establishing the supreme court regulation of the republic of indonesia number 4 of 2014 concerning guidelines for the implementation of diversion in the juvenile criminal justice system (abbreviated as perma no.4 of 2014). the perma even took effect before the formation of a government regulation which is a derivative of the sppa law. provisions of article 3 of perma no. 4 of 2014, stipulates that juvenile judges are obliged to seek diversion in the event that a child is charged with committing a criminal offense punishable by imprisonment of less than 7 (seven) years and also charged with a crime punishable by imprisonment of more than 7 (seven) years in the form of a subsider indictment alternative, cumulative or combination. establishment of perma no. 4 of 2014 shows that the supreme court of the republic of indonesia has acted progressively by accommodating, expanding and flexing the provisions of diversion. normatively, the scope of implementation of diversion is regulated in article 7 paragraph (2) of the sppa law, where article 7 paragraph (2) letters a and b of the sppa law is on an contrary interpreted to mean that it is impossible to carry out diversion against criminal acts punishable by imprisonment of more than 7 (seven) years and commits a criminal act repeated. however, the next problem is what if the child who is suspected or charged with a single count is threatened with imprisonment of more than 7 (seven) years, is it still possible to do diversion? the idea of expanding the implementation of the diversion concept in accordance with the provisions of article 7 paragraph (2) of the sppa law will be reviewed on the basis of the theory of dignified justice initiated by teguh prasetyo (2015) hereinafter called dignified justice. the concept of diversion will later be 111 used not only in solving cases of children who are threatened with imprisonment of less than 7 (seven) years and are not a repetition of a criminal act, but can also be applied to cases of children who are threatened with imprisonment of more than 7 (seven) years. the benefits behind such an idea include reducing the level of conflict in law enforcement in the community according to the diversion objectives in the sppa law. dignified justice departs from the basic premise that has the aim that law can provide a sense of justice that is dignified and justice that can humanize humans. dignified justice delves into law from the layers of legal science including legal philosophy, legal theory, legal dogmatic and the last law and legal practice. the character of justice is dignified, namely directing all rules and principles (material legal discipline), including the value of the network of rules and principles in which there are virtues (policies) that bind one another”. the structure of the relationship between principles and values makes justice with dignity a strong foundation of knowledge in building just law because the spirit of the living law comes from indonesian law, namely pancasila (volksgeist) (prasetyo, 2015). the emphasis is placed on the principles of just and civilized humanity, which underlies the humanizing conception of humans. dignified justice also explains the purpose of law in terms of justice, certainty and benefit that exist in each legal principle and rule that are interrelated with one another in the system. dignified justice is of the opinion that the benefit and legal certainty is an integral part of justice. dignified justice can be interpreted that punishment or punishment is still carried out (for the sake of legal certainty) but the spirit of humanizing humans should not be ignored but still upheld. provided by a legal system with spiritual and material dimensions, based on the values of pancasila especially the second principle, namely the principle of humanity that is just and civilized and is imbued with the first principle of god almighty. the concept of diversion must provide dignified justice and respond to conditions that exist in society. the law must not make itself as a person who only regulates legal certainty. therefore, the law must be able to harmonize, balance the existing needs in the context of legal flexibility, regulate human behavior, because these laws exist to regulate society and not society for laws. the meaning of humanizing a human being in the concept of diversion based on dignified justice is that even though the child is alleged to be guilty according to the law of committing a criminal act which is punishable by more than 7 (seven) years and committing a repeat offense, the child must still be treated as a human being in accordance with the rights of the child attached to him, then justice with dignity becomes justice that balances rights and obligations. based on the explanation above, the author is of the opinion that diversion efforts can be carried out against all criminal acts as long as the parties want and are involved in diversion, in this case the victim and / or his family according to the provisions of article 8 of the sppa law agree to diversion so that such a desire must be accommodated with a justice approach. dignified justicebased restorative which is the highest dimension in order to resolve children's cases. thus, diversion attempts for children who are subject to imprisonment for more than 7 (seven) years and committing repetition of a criminal act are obligatory under the law to undertake diversion efforts with the aim of protecting the interests and future of the child, both as the perpetrator and as the victim of a criminal act. 4. conclusions the concept of the diversion of the juvenile criminal justice system law is interpreted very narrowly. not all children who are in conflict with the law are entitled to diversion. in accordance with article 7 paragraph (2) of the sppa law, the requirement for diversion is a criminal act punishable by imprisonment of under 7 (seven) years and not a repetition of a criminal act. meanwhile, criminal acts that are punishable by more than 7 (seven) years and repetition of criminal acts are not entitled to diversion so that the concept of diversion does not reflect dignified justice because the law cannot only regulate legal certainty. the law must provide a sense of justice with dignity and justice that humanize humans. the reconstruction of the concept of diversion of the child criminal justice system based on dignified justice must be built by expanding the concept of diversion so that every child, without exception, who commits a criminal act is entitled to diversion. so that the national authorities, namely the legislature and the executive, take strategic steps, namely revising the sppa law and its derivative regulations by expanding the concept of diversion and reformulating the concept of diversion which is based on the protection of children in conflict with the law in a dignified justice-based juvenile justice system. references 1. ernis, y. 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(2007). pengantar epistemologi. yogyakarta, badan penerbit filsafat ugm, lima. http://ejournal-jp3.com/index.php/pendidikan/article/view/103 http://ejournal-jp3.com/index.php/pendidikan/article/view/103 https://openlibrary.telkomuniversity.ac.id/pustaka/14997/metodologi-penelitian-bisnis.html https://openlibrary.telkomuniversity.ac.id/pustaka/14997/metodologi-penelitian-bisnis.html http://dx.doi.org/10.26532/jph.v1i2.1484 https://www.unodc.org/pdf/criminal_justice/handbook_on_restorative_justice_programmes.pdf https://www.unodc.org/pdf/criminal_justice/handbook_on_restorative_justice_programmes.pdf 95 transparency of financial reports of companies in the republic of kosovo ylber prekazi ¹ south east european university, faculty of business and economics, ylberprekazi@gmail.com article history: submission 17 december 2021 revision 01 march 2022 accepted 25 april 2022 available online 30 april 2022 keywords: financial information, financial reporting, financial statements, transparency. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.318 a b s t r a c t the financial reporting of any business entity wherever it operates is essential for the efficient management of that entity. financial reporting in accordance with ifrs, international best practices and eu directives helps to create a more transparent business environment and enhances the credibility of other stakeholders. the financial reporting of companies in the republic of kosovo is important for a well-functioning market economy and provides some of the basic elements for a proper and sound financial system in kosovo. the purpose of this research is to analyze whether the financial statements of companies in kosovo are transparent, and each interested party can find their financial statements and other necessary information, as well as how they are prepared in accordance with ifrs/ias requirements. providing quality financial reporting helps users of that information to make important economic decisions. financial information published and available to stakeholders in most cases to companies in kosovo is considered not very reliable and not very transparent, as well as incomplete. the results of this research reflect the lack of transparency of financial information from companies in kosovo, which is easily verified through the qualifications of the opinion of the auditor's report, clicks on the website, etc. 1. introduction in the context of today's economic reality, information is very necessary in making the right decisions for the future. to be useful and timely, financial information must also be reliable, comparable, fully compliant with acceptable standards, and clearly transparent. in order to achieve transparency in financial reporting, high quality financial information must be prepared in full compliance with generally accepted accounting principles. in the managerial environment of companies, their management is always faced with situations where sometimes necessary decisions must be made, for its sound future. but to make such decisions, which are nevertheless in the best interest of the company they lead, it is necessary to make fair and accurate assessments of all the information that they send with complete certainty. in order for that information to be accurate, fair and in the best interest of the company, the information must be provided in a timely manner, it should be complete and based on either national or international accounting standards. also, it must be in accordance with certain rules and norms drafted by state regulatory bodies or by the company itself. the pace of internationalization of trade and investment has accelerated in recent years, so all this has been accompanied by calls for financial reports to be internationally comparable (elliott & elliott, 2007). so, the financial information extracted from the financial reports of a particular economic entity of a certain country can be compared freely and seamlessly with similar information of another economic entity in another part of the world. nowadays, this has led to working more and more in regards to harmonizing the same standards in all countries and by all companies. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:ylberprekazi@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.318 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5638-7804 96 accounting standards came to light as an attempt to act against subjectivity and to achieve comparability between the financial statements of different entities. these standards have been developed both nationally (in most countries) and internationally, such as ias and ifrs. 2. objectives of financial report financial reporting offers data that is practical in doing business and economic decisions. as a result, the overall aims of external financial reporting come from the necessity of external users that need to trust the data that managers communicate. fasb in its conceptual framework identifies the main objectives of financial reporting. these objectives can be summarized as follows (charles, 1993):  a financial report should offer information that is handy to investors, creditors, and other current potential stakeholders in making rational investments, lending, or similar decision.  financial reporting should provide information to assist investors, creditors, and other current and potential interest groups in estimating the amounts, timing, and uncertainty of cash receipts from dividends or interest as well as returns from the sale, maturity of securities or loans.  financial reporting should provide information on the enterprise's economic resources, requirements for those resources (the company's obligations to transfer resources to other entities and owners’ equity), and the effects of transactions, events, and circumstances that alter these resources. the major focus of financial reporting should be providing information on earnings and their components. earnings analysis provides knowledge on:  management performance,  long-term profit capabilities,  future earnings  the risk that are related to borrowing or investing. so, the main objectives of financial reporting should be in terms providing information that is useful to investors, who will be able to decide whether to invest or not, creditors in order for them to make the right decisions regarding lending, and analysts, who will make a fair analysis of the probable situation in which a company is actually located. also, this can be beneficial for other users regarding the assets owned by an entity, the sources of the flow of that asset, claims on those sources, etc. a complete financial report, harmonized with the required local and international standards and published as such, with the greatest possible transparency, will meet not only its objectives regarding the providing of information on the financial condition and situation for a given business entity, whether it is a current situation or a state of perspective, but it will also meet the needs of different users, both those within the entity and those outside it. today, financial reporting in companies is no longer limited to financial statements but also includes a wide range of data and information that need to be reported, for reporting to be as complete and transparent as possible. so, furthermore, other data should be published and made transparent, such as: disclosures of financial statements, auditors' reports, a five-year summary of key financial data, net sales or operating income, income or loss from operating operations, income or losses from ongoing operations for ordinary shares, total assets, long-term liabilities, and preferred shares as well as cash dividend per ordinary share, market data, higher and lower sales prices of ordinary shares for each quarter during the last two years, etc. (xhafa, 2005). 3. preparation of financial statements for reporting the financial statements show the final stage of accounting data processing and are presented as the bearer of accounting information. the preparation of financial statements requires management to make estimates, judgments and assumptions that affect the implementation of accounting policies and the information reported regarding the assets, liabilities, income and expenses of the entity. financial statements that are in discrepancy with the standards may result in disagreement and inconsistencies in the basic principles and as a result, may lead to ambiguity, and all this may have an impact on true and fair financial reporting. the iasc states that the purpose of financial statements is to provide information about the financial position, performance, etc. that is useful to different users in making economic decisions (iasc, 1989). so, when preparing financial statements, care should be taken to disclose information such as the current financial condition or situation of a business entity, information on good or bad performance for a given period, so that this information which use 97 by different users, both inside and outside the entity, to influence their decisions based on this information provided by the construction of the financial statements. the conceptual framework of the iasb presents the main qualitative characteristics that the financial statements should contain after their preparation. these features represent that information presented in the financial statements are practical and usable to many users. four main qualitative features are:  comprehension;  importance;  reliability;  resemblance. also, when preparing financial statements, some basic assumptions should be considered, which are also defined by accounting standards. thus, ias 1 identifies some of the basic assumptions or principles such as:  the principle of fair presentation of financial statements  the principle of going concerned  the principle of causality of revenues and expenditures  the principle of a treatability (consistency)  ethical responsibility of financial reporting while making preparation for the financial statements, other documents of the financial statements regarding the obligations that certain business entities have for financial reporting, in addition to having to comply with the laws, norms, rules and standards set by the country, meanwhile ethical aspects must be looked after, because the reputation of an enterprise or corporation also depends on its good image as known, in most entities that managers have a task, that of achieving the greatest possible profits. but at the same time, the standards of modern ethics impose another task, to contribute to maintaining and increasing the values of the entity for the benefit of all those directly or indirectly involved with the entity, including the public. large organizations are more responsible for this, always keeping in mind the impact that a large organization can have compared to small ones. 4. financial reporting period a subject is required to prepare its financial statements at least once a year. this is also set out in ias 1 which requires entities to prepare annual financial statements. yearly financial statements are usually published once in three months after the end of the firm's fiscal year. (stice et.al., 2001). in kosovo by law, the financial statements of companies that are audited no later than april 30 of the following year, and the consolidated financial statements that are audited in accordance with isa no later than june 30 of the following year. a complete package of financial statements contains:  a statement of financial position;  a profit/loss statement;  a statement of changes in equity;  a statement of cash flows;  notes (ifrs 1, paragraph 8). in preparing the financial statements, the company's management decides on the application of certain accounting policies and evaluates their implementation. the applied accounting policies should be disclosed:  the measurement basis (or bases) used in the preparation of the financial statements,  other accounting policies are used, as required for a proper understanding and proper presentation of the financial statements. the international accounting standards committee (iasc) recognizes that not all users' information needs can be by the financial statement, still, it considers that some necessities are common to all users: in particular, they have some interests in the financial situation, performance, and suitability of the enterprise as a whole (i.a.s.c., 1989). users of financial statements and accounting information are investors, managers, shareholders, employees, creditors, tax authorities, financial analysts and advisers, and the public. 5. transparency of financial reports transparency refers to the principle of creating an environment where information published by the company on the current situation, such as assets, liabilities, capital, revenues, and expenditures are understandable to all users of information. transparency is a prerequisite for accountability, especially for lenders and borrowers, for investors, national authorities, and international financial institutions. more transparency makes the economic decisions easier to make alongside other agents in the economy. additionally, transparency encourages greater accountability, internal discipline, better governance, higher decision-making quality, etc. (greuning, et.al. 2011). 98 providing information that is both transparent and beneficial to market players is an important prerequisite for a regular and efficient market. greater transparency in financial markets makes them more stable and less volatile over time. disclosure of financial information is in any case in line with the requirements of accounting standards. disclosure of information that will be available to other competitors, is one of the preconditions that is often reluctant to make public complete information during a financial reporting by various entities. in the context of the disclosure, financial statements should be easy to interpret. the information available enables monitoring of the entity's financial performance. this helps to foster transparency and market discipline as two crucial aspects of good company governance. in addition to the goal being, in empowering stakeholders, transparency can be a tool to achieve more progressive governance. adoption of internationally recognized financial reporting standards is a vital step toward greater transparency and correct financial statement interpretation. today, there are numerous instances that complete and transparent financial reporting can damage the financial fraud or financial evasion that occurs in many corporations whether small or large. financial evasion are actions that intentionally misinterpret the performance of a financial statement. they range from the easiest, such as changes in accounting forecasts to the most severe, the recognition of fraudulent recognition of false income (xhafa, 2005). the primary responsibility in the preparation of a company's financial statement lies with the management of that company. therefore, the preparation and presentation of these financial statements in line with ifrs is the responsibility of management. 6. transparency of financial reports of companies in kosovo the purpose of this research is to analyze whether the company's financial statements in kosovo are transparent, and each interested party can find their financial statements and other necessary information, as well as how they are prepared in accordance with ifrs/ias requirements. to see how transparent, the financial statements of companies are, we have used the external auditor's reports for a significant number of companies as well as their websites. as it is known, the law determines which companies, in addition to the annual financial reports, those reports should also be audited by an independent external auditor. therefore, given that we are dealing with an objective audit of what these companies have reported, this increases the value and reliability of the information reflected in those reports, and from the final report of the independent auditor can be judged then how many companies has complied with the requirements, rules, local and international standards for financial reporting. in other words, based on the response to the report of the independent auditor, the level of transparency of those financial reports can be assessed to some extent, depending on what the external auditor thinks about the report. according to the law in kosovo, the annual financial statements contain:  statement of financial position at the end of the period;  statement of comprehensive income for the period;  cash flow statement for the period;  statement of changes in equity; and  notes. the external report of the author should be prepared in compliance with the isa and give his opinion regarding the financial statement of the companies that have been audited for that period. the most common opinions that may arise from the analysis of some of the auditor's reports are: a) unqualified opinion. b) unqualified opinion with emphasis of matter paragraph. c) qualified opinion d) qualified opinion with emphasis of matter paragraph. e) opposite opinion. f) opposition opinion with emphasis of matter paragraph. g) withdrawal from giving an opinion. from the analysis conducted on a considerable number of companies in the republic of kosovo, this situation is presented in the external audit report: 99 table 1. audit opinions issued 2017 2018 2019 type of auditor's opinion number of reports number of reports number of reports unqualified 65 69 79 unqualified emphasis of matter 14 10 19 qualified 36 34 41 qualified emphasis of matter 1 4 8 opposite 0 0 0 opposite emphasis of matter 0 0 0 disclaimer of opinion 4 3 3 the sample researched in this paper 120 120 150 total reports submitted to the authority 361 361 394 source: data from kcfr, analyzes performed by the author based on table 1, it can be concluded that a considerable number of reports or about 54 percent in 2017 have an unqualified opinion of the auditor, while 46 percent are reports that have an unqualified opinion with emphasis of matter, then qualified to the point of denial of opinion. in 2018, about 57 percent have an unqualified opinion of the auditor, while 43 percent are reports that have an unqualified opinion with emphasis on the issue, then qualified and up to the disclaimer of the opinion. and in 2018 about 52 percent have an unqualified opinion of the auditor, while 48 percent are reports that have unqualified opinion with emphasis of matter, then qualified and up to the disclaimer of the opinion. therefore, from all that was pointed out in the paragraphs above, it is a situation where only a little over 50 percent of the financial reports are with an unqualified opinion by the independent audit, or that in all key areas of the company's financial status, the financial statements provide the information fairly., as well as financial performance and cash flow for year when the audit was performed and are in accordance with ifrs. whereas almost half of the reports have an opinion with emphasis of matters, up to the disclaimer of the opinion by the external auditor. also, based on the information gathered from these companies’ websites that are included in this study, financial data and annual reports can be found together with the audit report of only about 10 percent of them. so, mainly or over 90 percent of the financial reports with the opinion of the auditor we have found only in the supervisory authority such as kcfr, as an independent professional body and competent authority in the republic of kosovo which is responsible for publishing reports submitted by companies for the relevant period. then, if we take a look on the financial reports submitted by companies in this period 2017-2019, there is no information about the future which would help to predict the future, there is no nonfinancial information, there is little or no information at all on corporate governance, lack of applied accounting principles and policies, etc. 7. conclusions this study concludes that the transparency of financial reporting is the degree to which external users and especially investors have access to as much information as possible financially and nonfinancially about a company. the main objective to be achieved during the financial reporting of companies, is to provide various stakeholders, especially investors, with at least the minimum necessary information, on 100 which they will rely when making investment decisions in the various company. through audits of the financial statements, through an assessment from a “neutral” perspective, it is assumed that the problem of agency (agency theory) between equity owners or shareholders and managers is reduced. also, the process of auditing financial statements reduces the costs of using financial statements by various stakeholders, making it possible, in the first place for shareholders but also other users of financial information, not to additional costs are incurred in investigating the accuracy of the information published by the company. finally, companies during the financial reporting process must adhere to the rules, requirements, laws, and standards for financial reporting, so that their financial reports are reliable, understandable, and especially easily comparable. references 1. elliott, b., & elliott, j. (2007). financial accounting and reporting. pearson education. 2. van greuning, h., scott, d., & terblanche, s. (2011). international financial reporting standards: a practical guide. world bank publications. 3. stice, e. k., stice, j. d., & diamond, m. a. (2006). financial accounting: reporting & analysis. thomson/south-western. 4. xhafa, h. (2005). analysis of financial statements. tirana 5. a. s. c. (1989). framework for the preparation and presentation of financial statements. international accounting standards committee, london, uk. 6. iasb, f. (2008). exposure draft: conceptual framework for financial reporting: the objective of financial reporting and qualitative characteristics and constraints of decision useful financial reporting information. 2008-05-29) [201109-10]. http://www.fasb.org 7. ifrs foundation. (2017). international accounting standard 1, presentation of financial statements. republic of albania, national accounting council. http://www.kkk.gov.al/faqe.php?id=1&l2=135&gj=s h 8. charles j. w. (1993). financial statement analysis: the investor's self-study to interpreting & analyzing financial statements, revised edition. mcgraw-hill. 9. iasb. (2008). exposure draft on an improved conceptual framework for financial reporting: the objective of financial reporting and qualitative characteristics of decision-useful financial reporting information. london. https://www.ifrs.org/content/dam/ifrs/project/concept ual-framework-2010/conceptual-frameworkexposure-draft.pdf 10. iasb. (2012). international accounting standard 1: presentation of financial statements. ministry of finance, labor and transfers. the republic of kosovo. https://mf.rks-gov.net/page.aspx?id=2,99 11. ifrs. (2009). international financial reporting standards: international financial reporting standard for small and medium-sized units. ministry of finance, labor and transfers. the republic of kosovo. https://mf.rksgov.net/desk/inc/media/0095870d-e242-40238c4c-33af189441e0.pdf http://www.fasb.org/ http://www.kkk.gov.al/faqe.php?id=1&l2=135&gj=sh http://www.kkk.gov.al/faqe.php?id=1&l2=135&gj=sh https://www.ifrs.org/content/dam/ifrs/project/conceptual-framework-2010/conceptual-framework-exposure-draft.pdf https://www.ifrs.org/content/dam/ifrs/project/conceptual-framework-2010/conceptual-framework-exposure-draft.pdf https://www.ifrs.org/content/dam/ifrs/project/conceptual-framework-2010/conceptual-framework-exposure-draft.pdf https://mf.rks-gov.net/page.aspx?id=2,99 https://mf.rks-gov.net/desk/inc/media/0095870d-e242-4023-8c4c-33af189441e0.pdf https://mf.rks-gov.net/desk/inc/media/0095870d-e242-4023-8c4c-33af189441e0.pdf https://mf.rks-gov.net/desk/inc/media/0095870d-e242-4023-8c4c-33af189441e0.pdf 11 evaluating the landscape design of 3rd generation spaces through a studio study elif ayan çeven, phd kastamonu university, faculty of engineering and architecture, eayan@kastamonu.edu.tr article history: submission 27 august 2022 revision 22 november 2022 accepted 17 december 2022 available online 31 december 2022 keywords: landscape design, concept, form, 3rd generation cafe landscape. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.368 a b s t r a c t the transformation of the concept-form relationship into a concrete expression in the design experience, which is considered a challenging process, is one of the essential parts of this process. in this process, in which various methods are evaluated, the form seen as a communication tool occurs through distinct connotations. within the scope of this study, students' search for form in a landscape design project problem, their connotations in the education process, and thus their solutions to the design problem were evaluated. in the study, the studies of the students made during a semester were criticized in the presence of the coordinator. the concept of coffee and its associations in the landscape design of the 3rd generation coffee sales unit in a campus venue, the sources they inspired and their final projects constitute the material of this study. the concept-form relationships of the projects were examined and, as a result, it was determined that it was easier for students to transfer certain formal objects to the projects in the search for form. 1. introduction design is an activity that is based on creativity (bonnardel, 2000; simon, 1988), non-routine, defined, open-ended problem solving (bonnardel, 2000) and requires multidimensional thinking, and the ability to connect different objects-concepts (yılmaz et al., 2018) and one of its most important goals is to ensure a strong organization by creating harmony throughout (alpak et al., 2018). considered a high-level cognitive skill (visser, 1994), it consists of a conceptual design stage and a process (tang, 2002). the design process is a conversation between designers and design representations, with an emphasis on the interaction between cognitive actions and the works to be designed (başar, 2013). the process is a unique knowledge production in line with the requirements of the problem (yabanigül, 2021). in the design process, the designer determines the boundaries of the problem and generates ideas using analytical and creative approaches (başar, 2013; dorst, 2006) in line with a concept. concrete or abstract ideas turn into forms and emerge as the first sketches of design (howard et al., 2008). as a means of communication in design, form reflects thought (erarslan, 2014). the pursuit of form can be articulated in various ways. in design education, particularly studio work, it is a detailed process that includes many stages. in the environmental design process of landscape architecture, the relationship between concept and form is emphasized heavily in the construction of systems. 2. literature review goldschmidt (1997) states that the most important factor in shaping the final product in the design process is interpretation. the most important step in design is not to predict the features of a previously conceived product, but to design the form of that product. in sharp contrast to this, the transition of form to function indicates the fact that many scientific knowledge and methods are available, while the function of transition to form largely depends on the creative abilities and insight of the designer (roozenburg, 1995). yılmaz et al., (2018) draw attention to the significance of imitating nature in the transformation of ideas into forms in the search for solutions to the design problem in studio courses held in landscape architecture education, and they state that the abstraction approach facilitates the form creation process of the student and contributes to their anological thinking ability. anological thinking aims to reflect the idea inspired by the transfer from the source of the selected idea in the search for a cognitive evaluation form (casakin & goldschmidt, 1999). https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:eayan@kastamonu.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.368 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0858-3899 12 özkan et al., (2016) emphasize that in design studios, particularly in first-year students' creativity and design process relationship, the concrete examples of the abstract concept make a positive contribution to the generation of ideas and the solution of the problem in the transformation of abstract expression into a product. in university education, the design process is completed with a conceptual approach to problem solving and a need to be recognized, and then an answer from various options is approved as a result of evaluation and interpretation (gazvoda, 2002; şentürer, 2004; yaşar & düzgüneş, 2013). there are distinct stages within the design process. the most important of these is the availability of the system. the system setup in design is created by associating the designed elements with each other. system theory, which is the subject of many different disciplines, was proposed as the "general systems theory" by bertalanffy in 1950 and argued that examining each event in relation to other events in a certain environment is more effective for understanding, predicting and controlling events (alpak et al., 2018). in landscape architecture, the system, in its most comprehensive definition, is a result that aims to preserve the unity of the product consisting of a limited, physical or conceptual component and the relationship between them (ackoff, 2010). the relationship between the theory of signs developed for the systems approach and the components and elements of the space emerges as syntactic function, semantic function and pragmatic function (erdem aksoy, 1975). the pragmatic function, which indicates that the users add meaning to the space through their experiences (akkul, 1998), is that the formal expression responds to the user's needs (alpak et al., 2018; creswell & clark., 2007). while the operant function, which constitutes the first stage and responds to user needs, aims to encapsulate aesthetics in a logical framework beyond the need for syntax (morris, 1938). the aesthetic concern here is that it demonstrates a holistic approach by revealing the character unity of the visual elements (stewart, 2007) and ensuring the harmony of the forms in terms of orientation and distance (alpak et al., 2018; regular & alpak, 2020). many expert educators state that landscape design should be a process that enables the student to communicate with the field by activating perception, impression, observation, research, association, invention, knowledge, evaluation and many other intellectual processes, while at the same time, it should be a process that brings it to original forms with new arrangements (bayramoğlu et al. al., 2019; mumcu & regular, 2021; pazarlioglu bingol, 2016; san, 2003; yılmaz et al., 2018). in this context, a solution is sought for the problem of the kır kahvesi environment within a 14-week term in the landscape design project i course at the landscape architecture department of kastamonu university. during the course education period, students are expected to complete the concretization of the abstract concept through the relationship between the cafe space and the coffee connotations in accordance with a certain concept. this study is based on the landscape design projects designed according to the user needs of the cafe environment of first year students within the scope of the landscape design project i course, in the design process according to the principles stated by mumcu & regular (2021) in the transformation of the concept idea into form, alpak et al., (2018), considering the syntactic and pragmatic aspects of the design of regular & alpak (2020), the training process was carried out in line with the information conveyed by the trainer. in this direction, the projects that reveal the relationship between connotation and form have been examined. 3. material and method in this study, kastamonu university department of landscape architecture 2nd semester “purple coffee and its environment” student projects (ptp i) were used. the area between the existing faculty buildings in the open green area system of kastamonu university kuzeykent campus was designated as the study area. with the students who know the basic design principles and elements in their education, the study was carried out according to user needs for a total of 14 weeks. a total of 8 students participated in the course, however only 3 projects were examined in this study. during the first 3 weeks of the course, conceptual studies on coffee, coffee sales units, and their environments were discussed and the analysis process of the natural, cultural and perceptual values of the study area was carried out. within the scope of the course, more emphasis was placed on the connotations in the relation of the concept to the subject. during the 4th and 6th weeks, it was examined how the concept, which is associated with abstract expressions through coffee connotations, transforms into form in the design process and how it is associated with activities according to user needs. between the 7th and 10th weeks, sketches were carried out in a system according to the basic design concepts of the form. in the last 4 weeks, the analysis of the spaces, depending on the system approach, was completed with sections and views of how the area looks. 4. results in the light of the information given in the studio work, the landscape design projects of 4 students who successfully completed the design process by associating them with association were examined. 13 in the first project, a student named beyza focused on when, why and how to drink coffee, and in the answers to these questions, she evaluated coffee through the words "cold" and "chill". when these words were examined with their actions, they examined the hands and hand movements for warming up. taking into account the curved structure of hand movements in the formal understanding, she tried to analyze the spaces and circulation using two intersecting arc forms. it started the design process with the connotation of coffee and cold. in this process, he completed the outdoor seating and eatingdrinking areas where the users could satisfy their coffee drinking needs, taking into account the unity of character, in line with the criticism of the lecturer (figure 1). in the coffee-cold relationship, the student realized the warming theme with seating areas around the fire, and the chilling theme was realized with an understanding of ideas that would create an ice-like appearance in the material over urban equipment. in this concept, students focused more on games played using hands, and students created playgrounds where they can spend their free time and play games while enjoying coffee. figure 1. coffee and cold themed project another project was directed toward a concrete expression through the words “bubble”, “honeycomb” and “transparency” with the association of foams formed in coffee as a result of conceptual evaluations of a student named eslem. in search of form, he attempted to incorporate the ideas of honeycombs and bubbles into spaces. while constructing the bubble and honeycomb expressions, he used in transforming the foam concept into form, he evaluated them with formal lines by emulating honeycombs in the activity and green area analyzes within the spaces. with the concept of coffee and foam, the student addressed user demands in seating, study and rest areas in the design process, as a result of the criticism given by the lecturer (figure 2). while using the honeycomb expression in the formal form of the space, he evaluated foam and transparency in the cover systems of semi-open spaces. figure 2. coffee and foam themed project the last project evaluated, by a student named dilara, focused on coffee and its connotations, tachycardia, which is seen in people due to excessive consumption of coffee, and the design that was created using the words "heartbeat", "rhythm" and "movement", based on user needs and area analysis, eating-drinking areas, completed the study areas within the system (figure 3). in his project, which began with the formal form of tachycardia, he tried to reveal the heartbeat through the spatial and circulatory solutions. the idea of mobility, on the other hand, encompassed active activities that would provide movement as opposed to sitting and resting activities. figure 3. coffee and heartbeat themed project 5. conclusion the concept, which is one of the most important stages in problem solving in landscape design project courses, and the transformation of this concept into a project is a challenging process. the creativity of the students and their perspective on the subject matter have a significant bearing on their ability to correctly comprehend and solve the problem. in this process, it has been observed that the student's construction of the concept and form relationship, and also giving direction in the application of the activity relationship, based on the associations facilitated the solution of the design problem. similar to yılmaz et al. (2018) 's notion that imitating nature provides benefits to students in the design process, it was observed in this study that association with the subject facilitated the student's form anxiety. it has been observed that concrete expressions guide the student's design faster, especially when the association becomes a form, and the concept is more readable in the search for problem-oriented activities. the outdoor use of these buildings should not only serve a functional purpose, but also provide social spaces suitable for usage by students and administrative-academic staff. in this study, a coffee shop was evaluated based on the concepts created with student-oriented coffee and its association in the landscape design process of the environment. looking at the results, it is seen that the concrete and abstract connotations of coffee can be evaluated in terms of both formality and efficacy in the reflection of the project. in summary, it is thought that associations help the student to construct the relationship between form and activity in solving a landscape problem. acknowledgments this study was evaluated through student studies within the scope of the ptp i course in the 2021-2022 fall semester at kastamonu university, the department of landscape architecture. 204412039 beyza toy, 204412021 eslem al, 204412041 aleyna kaçar, whose projects the author benefited from, would like to thank the students for their contributions. references 1. ackoff, r. l. 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may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 35 the relationship between tourism revenues and financial ratios of enterprises in the bist tourism: panel data analysis tanju güdük gokceada vocational school canakkale onsekiz mart university tanjuguduk@comu.edu.tr abstract in today’s world, many countries that want to realize economic development use tourism as a tool. the first definition of tourism that supported this was made in 1910 by the austrian economist hermann von schullar. he defined tourism as “the whole of the activities that relate to the economic direction of the movement that comes from the arrival of strangers from another country, city or region and their temporary stay” (kozak vd, 2009: 1). in this study, the relationship between the tourism revenues obtained from tuik and the financial ratios of the enterprises in the bist tourism (xtrzm) index are examined by panel data analysis. for this purpose, the financial ratios of the tourism revenues and the enterprises in the bist tourism index were used between 2007-2016. in also, hausman test was applied to the data for panel data analysis and the results indicate that there is a random effect. the acceptance of the null hypothesis implies that there is no correlation between random effects and explanatory variables and that constant effects on unit and time dimensions are not taken into consideration. key words: tourism revenues, panel data analysis, bist tourism jel code: d1, e2, i13 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 36 1. introduction with the globalization of the world and the economic crises that countries have experienced, tourism comes into prominence day by day. in also, lots of countries all over the world take advantage of tourism for the closure of foreign trade deficits. the international tourism movements, which have grown steadily since the 1950s, have expanded and diversified as much as everyday. the number of international tourists increased from 25 million in 1950 to 1.2 million in 2016. over the past several years, the number of international tourists and tourism revenues has been steadily increasing, despite the large number of crises that have been influential in some periods and affecting different tourism regions in different ways. it is estimated that international arrivals will reach 1.4 billion by 2020 and 1.8 billion by 2030. according to the figures of the year 2016, international tourism movements increased by 3.9% compared to the previous year and reached 1 billion 235 million people. also, the expenditures of tourists traveling internationally amounted to 1.22 billion dollars in 2016. according to the statistics on employment in the tourism sector, it is seen that the travel and tourism industry provides employment opportunities to 109 million people in 2016 (unwto, 2017; türofed, turizm raporu, 2017). turkey's tourism revenues increased by 37.6 percent compared to the same period of the previous year in the third quarter of this year reached 11 billion 391 million 668 thousand dollars. 77 percent of the tourism income from foreign visitors, 23 percent of citizens who reside abroad were obtained from the camp. 8 billion 855 million 369 thousand dollars in personal spending and 2 billion 536 million 299 thousand dollars in package tour expenses were made in this quarter (tüi̇k, 2017). this study, using the data of the companies in the bi̇st tourism index, investigates current rate (cr), total debt / equity (tde), stock turnover rate (str), profit per share (pps), net sales (ns), variables' impact on tourism revenues (tr). 2. literature review when we look at the studies about tourism revenues, it is seen that there are many studies in the literature. in a survey conducted by weber (2001) in australia, exchange rate changes have affected tourism demand. dritsakis (2004) argues that there is a relationship between international tourism income and real effective exchange rate and real growth. sequeira and campos (2005) found that tourism revenues did not have an impact on economic growth. the research was conducted on africa, asia, latin america and prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 37 european countries. khalil et al. (2007) have stated that there is a strong relationship between tourism revenues and growth. mervar and payne’s (2007) the impact of the demand for foreign exchange on tourism in croatia is weak. fayissa et al. (2007) have concluded that tourism revenues have an effect on gdp and economic growth. lee and chang (2008) have come to the conclusion that per capita tourism spending is influential on the number of tourists and real exchange rate growth. bahar and bozkurt (2010) found that a positive and meaningful relationship between tourism and economic growth in terms of developing countries. ünlüönen and şahin (2011) claimed that all income entering the tourism sector directly affects employment in the tourism sector and indirectly affects employment in other sectors. samimi et al. (2011) and lashkarizadeh et al. (2012) argue that there is a long-term bilateral relationship between tourism revenues and growth, and that both variables influence each other. srinivasan et al. (2012) in sri lanka have observed that tourism revenues have a positive impact both on short and long term on economic growth. chatziantoniou et al. (2013) indicate that ndicate that oil specific demand shocks contemporaneously affect inflation and the tourism sector equity index, whereas these shocks do not seem to have any lagged effects. by contrast, aggregate demand oil price shocks exercise a lagged effect, either directly or indirectly, to tourism generated income and economic growth. krelling et al. (2017) found that the trade-off local authority's make between investments to prevent/remove beach litter and the potential reduction in income from a tourist destination change. 3. methodology the data used in this study were obtained from the website of the kamuyu aydınlatma platformu (2017), the related companies' own sites, the financial information news network (2017) website and tüi̇k official site. the data set consisted of 10 years observation values covering the years 2007-2016 and analyzes were made using eviews 9 package program. in this study, located in bist tourism index (avtur, ayces, etilr, kstur, maalt, marti, merit, metur, pkent, tektu, ulas, utpya), with tourism revenues between the years of 20072016 in turkey it was examined using data generated by the company's twelve variables. using the financial data of the companies included in the bist tourism index in annex 1; the model created to investigate the relationship between variable of tourism revenue (tg) and variables of current rate (co), total debt / equity (tbo), stock turnover rate (sth), profit per share (hbk), net sales (ns): tgit = β0 + β1coit + β2tboit + β3sthit + β4fkit + β5hbkit + β6nsit + εit prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 38 table 1: pooled estimate results dependent variable: logtg? method: pooled least squares date: 01/06/18 time: 22:33 sample (adjusted): 2008 2016 included observations: 9 after adjustments cross-sections included: 10 total pool (unbalanced) observations: 34 cross sections without valid observations dropped variable coefficient std. error t-statistic prob. logco? -2.63e-17 1.15e-16 -0.228664 0.8208 logtbo? 2.97e-17 5.00e-17 0.594671 0.5568 logsth? -1.92e-17 7.59e-17 -0.253595 0.8017 logfk? 1.01e-16 9.28e-17 1.084109 0.2876 loghbk? -3.79e-17 7.87e-17 -0.481940 0.6336 logns? 0.374883 0.283415 1.322735 0.1966 r-squared 0.115947 mean dependent var 41.83524 adjusted r-squared -0.041919 s.d. dependent var 73.42058 s.e. of regression 74.94364 akaike info criterion 11.63014 sum squared resid 157263.4 schwarz criterion 11.89949 log likelihood -191.7123 hannan-quinn criter. 11.72199 durbin-watson stat 0.870345 (logtg)it = 2.63e-17(logco)it + 2.97e-17(logtbo)it + (-1.92e-17)(logsth)it + 1.01e-16(logfk)it + (-3.79e-17)(loghbk)it + 0.374883(logns) + εit table 2: random impact test results dependent variable: logtg? method: pooled egls (cross-section random effects) date: 01/06/18 time: 22:35 sample (adjusted): 2008 2016 included observations: 9 after adjustments cross-sections included: 10 total pool (unbalanced) observations: 34 swamy and arora estimator of component variances cross sections without valid observations dropped variable coefficient std. error t-statistic prob. c -92.25602 108.1784 -0.852814 0.4013 logco? 1.39e-17 1.76e-16 0.078739 0.9378 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 39 logtbo? 1.76e-16 1.77e-16 0.995130 0.3285 logsth? 6.08e-17 1.42e-16 0.428743 0.6715 logfk? 1.59e-16 1.12e-16 1.423693 0.1660 loghbk? -9.04e-17 1.35e-16 -0.669952 0.5086 logns? 0.348663 0.291160 1.197497 0.2415 random effects (cross) _avtur--c -37.44688 _ayces--c 31.44854 _etilr--c -34.96717 _kstur--c -8.371120 _maalt--c 15.79555 _marti--c -14.56646 _metur--c 20.66410 _pkent--c -16.40221 _tektu--c -0.943638 _utpya--c 44.78927 effects specification s.d. rho cross-section random 51.72806 0.3331 idiosyncratic random 73.19280 0.6669 weighted statistics r-squared 0.174677 mean dependent var 24.33830 adjusted r-squared -0.008728 s.d. dependent var 69.47116 s.e. of regression 69.13964 sum squared resid 129067.8 f-statistic 0.952411 durbin-watson stat 1.010426 prob(f-statistic) 0.475139 unweighted statistics r-squared 0.112436 mean dependent var 41.83524 sum squared resid 157888.0 durbin-watson stat 0.825987 according to hausman test results in table 3 probe = 0.9072> 0.050, the h0 hypothesis was accepted at both the unit and time dimensions at the level of 5% significance. so there is a random effect. the acceptance of the null hypothesis implies that there is no correlation between random effects and explanatory variables and that constant effects on unit and time dimensions are not taken into consideration. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 40 table 3: hausman test results and random impact forecast results correlated random effects hausman test pool: untitled test cross-section random effects test summary chi-sq. statistic chi-sq. d.f. prob. cross-section random 2.132098 6 0.9072 cross-section random effects test comparisons: variable fixed random var(diff.) prob. logco? -0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.4865 logtbo? 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.9812 logsth? 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.8922 logfk? 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.6186 loghbk? -0.000000 -0.000000 0.000000 0.9154 logns? 0.375365 0.348663 0.002874 0.6184 cross-section random effects test equation: dependent variable: logtg? method: panel least squares date: 01/06/18 time: 22:36 sample (adjusted): 2008 2016 included observations: 9 after adjustments cross-sections included: 10 total pool (unbalanced) observations: 34 variable coefficient std. error t-statistic prob. c -112.1366 125.8953 -0.890713 0.3848 logco? -3.70e-17 1.91e-16 -0.193855 0.8485 logtbo? 1.78e-16 1.91e-16 0.930776 0.3643 logsth? 8.36e-17 2.20e-16 0.379930 0.7084 logfk? 2.02e-16 1.41e-16 1.431415 0.1694 loghbk? -1.08e-16 2.12e-16 -0.508674 0.6172 logns? 0.375365 0.296054 1.267893 0.2210 effects specification cross-section fixed (dummy variables) r-squared 0.457925 mean dependent var 41.83524 adjusted r-squared 0.006195 s.d. dependent var 73.42058 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 41 in accordance with the data set, the natural logarithms of the series are taken first. the results of the hausman test are given in table 3. according to the test results obtained, probe= 0.9072> 0.050, the h0 hypothesis was accepted at both the unit and time dimensions at the level of 5% significance. so, there is a random effect. the acceptance of the null hypothesis implies that there is no correlation between random effects and explanatory variables and that constant effects on unit and time dimensions are not taken into consideration. 4. result this paper empirically investigated both the short-run and longrun effects of inbound tourism on financial ration in turkey, directly to bist tuourizm index over the period of 2007–2016. we collect yearly data betwen these period in bist tourizm index. the model created to investigate the relationship between variable of tourism revenue and variables of current rate, total debt / equity , stock turnover rate, profit per share, net sales. the analysis in table 2 we analyzed random effect betwen values, as the result shows that there is no correlation between random effects and explanatory variables and that continuous effects on unit and time dimensions are not taken into consideration. the hausman test was also conducted to prove this data, the test results were significant at the 5% level (probe= 0.9072> 0.050), there is a random effect. the acceptance of the h0 hypothesis indicates that there is no correlation between random effects and explanatory variables and that continuous effects on unit and time dimensions are not taken into consideration. the result is that although there is a harmony between the data sets, the bist tourism index and finacial ratios does not seem to be a direct contribution to tourism. references bahar o. ve bozkurt k. (2010). “tourism and economic growth relationship in developing countries: dynamic panel data analysis,” anatolia: turizm araştırmaları dergisi, 21(2), güz, 255-265. chatziantoniou, i., filis, g., eeckles, b. & apostolakis, a., “prices, tourism income and economic growth: a structural var approach for european mediterranean countries”, tourism management 36, 331-341. s.e. of regression 73.19280 akaike info criterion 11.72926 sum squared resid 96429.35 schwarz criterion 12.44755 log likelihood -183.3974 hannan-quinn criter. 11.97422 f-statistic 1.013714 durbin-watson stat 1.322746 prob(f-statistic) 0.483151 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 42 dritsakis, n. (2004). “tourism as a long-run economic growth factor: an empirical investigation for greece using causality analysis”, tourism economics, 10, 305-316. fayissa, b., nsiah c. ve tadasse b. (2007). “the impact of tourism on economic growth and development in africa”, department of economics and finance working paper series, august, 1-22. khalil samina, mehmood khan kakar, and waliullah, (2007). “role of tourism in economic growth: empirical evidence from pakistan economy”, the pakistan development review, vol. 46(4), part ii, 985–995. kozak, n., kozak, m. & kozak, m. (2008), “genel turizm”, detay yayıncılık. ankara. krelling, a. p., williams, a. t. & turra, a. (2017), “differences in perception and reaction of tourist groups to beach marine debris that can influence a loss of tourism revenue in coastal areas”, marine policy 85, 87-99. lashkarizadeh, m., keshmir, z., gashti, h. p., shahrivar, r. b. (2012). “evaluation of the relationship between tourism industry and economic growth in iran”, asian journal of business and management sciences, 1(9), 88-97. lee, c.c ve chang, c.p. (2008). “tourism development and economic growth: a closer look at panels”, tourism management, 29, 180–192. mervar, a. ve payne, j. (2007). “analysis of foreign tourism demand for croatian destinations: longrun elasticity estimates”, tourism economics, 13, 407-420. samimi, a. j., sadeghi, s. ve sadeghi, s. (2011). “tourism and economic growth in developing countries: p-var approach”, middle-east journal of scientific research, 10(1), 28-32. sequeira, t. n. ve campos, c. (2005).“international tourism and economic growth: a panel data approach”, the fondazione eni enrico mattei, natural resources management, november, 125. srinivasan, p., santhosh p.k. ve ganesh, l. (2012).“tourism and economic growth in sri lanka: an ardl bounds testing approach”, the romanian economic journal, year: 15, no:45, september, 211-226. türofed, turizm raporu, (2017). unwto, tourism highlights, (2017). ünlüönen, k. & şahin, s. z., “employment in tourism sector”, electronic journal of social sciences, vol. 10, iss. 37, 01-25. weber, a. g. (2001), “exchange rate volatility and cointegration in tourism demand”,journal of travel research, sage publications,.vol. 39, 398-405. https://www.kap.org.tr/tr/ accessed: 02.01.2018. türkiye i̇statistik kurumu (tui̇k), http://www.tuik.gov.tr. accessed: 02.01.2018. https://www.finnet.com.tr/finnetstore/tr/ accessed: 02.01.2018. https://www.kap.org.tr/tr/ http://www.tuik.gov.tr/ https://www.finnet.com.tr/finnetstore/tr/ 40 the impact of the pandemic on the growth of online purchases burim kastrati university “ukshin hoti” prizren, faculty of economics, burim.kastrati1997@hotmail.com article history: submission 23 december 2021 revision 12 february 2022 accepted 31 march 2022 available online 30 april 2022 keywords: consumer behavior, pandemic, covid-19, online shopping, e-wom doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.307 a b s t r a c t the paper presents information about consumer behavior and is concerned with collecting and analyzing data on consumer behavior versus online shopping. the whole focus is on how much online shopping has increased since the pandemic to understand how businesses are operating with online sales and whether consumers are satisfied with their services. this paper uses the descriptive methodology and concluded that people make online purchases in our market and from selected businesses. in this place, respondents make the most purchases is giraffe. we also analyzed the questionnaire's data and compared it with the information extracted, where the result is that: people are greatly influenced by word of mouth on the internet (e-wom). so read the experiences of others before buying products. also analyzed the demographic data, where we concluded that the most cooperative age group for online shopping is 18-23 and the highest participation in the research is female. 1. introduction covid-19 was declared global remorse in 2020, and thus this virus has overturned societies and dramatically changed daily life across the globe, and led to a dramatic loss of human life, posing a challenge unprecedented for public health, food systems, routine, the world of work, etc. the pandemic has created an economic and social disruption. in addition, the pandemic has had a positive impact on several other aspects. special attention is paid to e-commerce, which has experienced a considerable increase during covid-19. this has changed consumer behavior and developed online commerce, thus raising awareness and enhancing the online shopping experience. businesses also benefited from this; wherein the impossibility of physical presence, this field of business was developed and they had great benefits. it also made life easier for people, especially those afraid of online shopping, who removed the barrier and created a good relationship between them and online shopping. this means that global blockade, social distancing and other measures introduced to limit the spread of the covid-19 pandemic have prompted consumers to buy more in online markets. as a result, the business landscape underwent rapid transformations during the quarantine period. ultimately, the corona crisis accelerated the development of e-commerce. globally, a new digitally immersed consumer has emerged, a more selective consumer with financial difficulties. in addition, revenue losses, limited transportation opportunities, and pandemic mitigation measures that have reduced supplier activities have forced manufacturers and retailers to reduce production and marketing costs, find new suppliers both at home and abroad, and speed up decision-making. while visits to physical stores were limited and many were running out of money, consumers went online to shop, causing online shopping to grow more and more, and covid-19 accelerated things in that direction. this research aims to test the proposed approach to evaluating online consumer buying behavior, which can contribute to identifying trends and patterns of online shopping. the structure of the study includes an introduction, a literature review showing the growing scientific interest in e-commerce issues during the pandemic. this methodology describes the proposed approach, the results, their discussion and conclusions. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:burim.kastrati1997@hotmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.307 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2680-4715 41 2. literature review online shopping is the act of purchasing a product or service through any online store with the help of any website or app. shopping through online channels is actively thriving due to the opportunity to save time and effort (alharthey, 2020). the term e-commerce refers to a business model that allows companies and individuals to buy and sell goods and services online. ecommerce operates in four major market segments and can be conducted through computers, tablets, smartphones and other smart devices. almost every product and service imaginable is available through e-commerce transactions, including books, music, airline tickets, and financial services such as equity investing and online banking. as such it is considered a highly disruptive technology (bloomenthal et.al., 2021). the covid-19 pandemic has forever changed online shopping behaviors. it is essential to study e-commerce consumption during the covid-19 crisis for three reasons. first, we assume that pandemic-related circumstances will affect consumer behavior in the long run and that e-commerce companies need to fully understand consumer behavior patterns during this time to maintain a competitive advantage. therefore, the role of determined incentives of e-commerce shopping behavior during a global crisis such as the covid-19 pandemic needs to be clarified. second, there is a lively public debate on addressing the pandemic globally, nationally and individually. third, measures of social distancing, such as quarantine, need to be investigated to understand how they affect behavior patterns (koch, frommeyer, & schewe, 2020). the covid-19 pandemic forced everyone to change the way they shop. grocery store shelves were quickly emptied of toilet paper and cleaning supplies as everyone struggled to reserve amid the global stalemate. as the blockade continued, supply chains tightened, cleaning supplies became increasingly complex, and everyone was trying to find food items and necessities (nielsen, 2020). there is a high awareness that digitalization is vital for business; however, there are setbacks in designing and implementing digital strategies. the private sector is aware that digitalization can help it perform better in the future. still, companies face barriers to the transformation, such as a lack of digital skills in the workforce, a lack of technical knowledge to move the digitalization process forward, and a lack of / access to finance. in the digital sense, the kosovo industry is divided depending on the work and the operating sector. among other things, it has been noticed that the management of kosovar companies on which the burden of digitalization falls invests more in digital solutions but not in it security (jashari, 2020). during the pandemic, consumers have moved dramatically towards online channels, and companies have responded similarly. the covid-19 pandemic has created a new narrative of how to do business considering the changes caused to companies of all sectors (crosta et.al., 2021). the potential of digital transformation for companies has been highlighted, especially after the outbreak of the covid-19 virus pandemic and due to the imposition of restrictive measures to prevent its spread. whether small, medium or corporate, kosovar businesses have faced many changes in the way of doing business and have found themselves in an unprecedented situation that necessarily requires reaction and change (kosovo chamber of commerce, 2020). e-commerce has been prevalent during the covid-19 pandemic, and retailers have made great efforts in building, improving, and promoting their online stores (despin, 2020). some small retailers that did not manage online stores before closure developed temporary solutions to sell their products online, e.g., by posting products on social media sites and offering product pick-up or delivery services. others have offered discounts for their online channels and started promotional campaigns on social media. to ensure that these efforts succeed, it is important to investigate the motives of online consumer purchases during this pandemic (koch, frommeyer, & schewe, 2020). with vaccines now being administered and the economy reopening, several post-pandemic shopping trends are emerging: there has been a steady increase in sales of hand sanitizers, trips to see family and friends take precedence over international travel, home cooking yes benefits from grocery stores, consumers are being shown to be selective about retail spending, there is a growing demand for e-commerce and payments without physical contact (tymkiw, 2021). vendors need to develop the right strategies to satisfy their customers regarding the online sector. previous studies of (zhang, 2015) and (ariffin, yusof, & putit, 2016) contributed to the literature that customer satisfaction is important in retaining a customer. this research has also suggested that customer satisfaction plays a vital role in maintaining them. moreover, online shoppers offer the fastest wom distribution for the exemplary product/service. second, consumers need to feel valued and committed to sellers. to be successful, e-commerce companies need to understand new trends in pandemic-stimulated consumer shopping behavior. what pushes customers is different from what it was. thinking about the end-to-end e-commerce shopping experience, what do consumers expect now? moreover, what can retailers do to meet the new expectations brought about by this rapid and drastic change in e-commerce? this means that, before examining recent trends in e-commerce and how to meet consumer demands, it is important to understand consumer behavior online. this new era 42 of retail is marked by the transition of the customer's shopping experience from brick and mortar purchases to online purchases. and this happened much faster and on a much larger scale than ever predicted (wenzl, 2021). some of the online consumer behaviors after the covid-19 pandemic are these (rao et.al., 2021): • convenience is a top priority because most consumers value comfort as one of their top priorities. • easy access to all devices means that when shopping online, no problems occur because consumers do not have much patience if there are system outages. • the simplicity of payment options pushes consumers to make faster purchasing decisions. • fast delivery is also an advantage because customers also do not have much patience and prefer not to have shipping delays. customer frustration is a negative response to a product or service. anger is the negative emotion that the consumer experiences when he buys something entirely against his demands. in addition, when the buyer's perception is violated, such behaviors occur. as a result, they are involved in communicating their anger through e-wom. outraged consumers actively harm the firm or brand from which it hurts (goyette et.al.,2010). consumers provide online e-wom reviews to reduce negative emotions from consumer experiences and restore a calm mental state to equilibrium. thus, such consumers tend to give negative comments about the brand or product, which fails to meet their expectations. e-wom (electronic oral marketing) has been characterized as negative evaluations shared between people or interpersonal communication between buyers about their experiences with a particular brand or service provider (durante & laran, 2020). 3. research methodology this paper was realized with secondary data from various literatures as well as with primary data which were collected through a questionnaire. the questionnaire was distributed electronically, where 81 respondents from kosovo cities were part of the survey. the platform used to process the questionnaire is 'survey monkey', an online platform that facilitates the construction of questionnaires. the questionnaire was divided into two parts; it initially started with demographic questions (gender, age, place of residence, income level). meanwhile, the second part of the questionnaire contains questions about online shopping and customer experiences with online shopping. it started with general questions about online shopping frequency, followed by concrete questions about research variables. data collection lasted a total of 10 days. the statistical program spss did the processing of primary data deriving from this questionnaire, and in the following chapter, we will present descriptive statistics of variables. hypothesis: h1: after the covid-19 pandemic, people are more inclined to buy online. h2: people are used to online shopping culture and do not hesitate to choose this channel of shopping. h3: online shopping causes a high degree of insecurity among people. h4: online shopping depends heavily on 'word of mouth online. h5: the impact of the pandemic is assessed as positive by ecommerce. h6: the impact of the pandemic is assessed as positive because people save time while shopping online. three research questions: 1. has the covid-19 pandemic affected e-commerce? 2. how has consumer behavior towards e-commerce changed? 3. is the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on online commerce assessed as positive or negative? 4. research analyzes in the survey questionnaire, we compiled a total of 17 questions. we used the funnel method (first the most general questions, then the concrete questions) in the questionnaire. the number of respondents is a total of 81 and we have collected their responses to look at consumer behavior for online shopping as well as the growth of online shopping during the covis-19 pandemic and also some divisions and comparisons have been made between variables which we have selected them as suitable for comparison. below are the results in which we were most interested in explaining clear conclusions. the first questions of the questionnaire are related to demographic variables, then the questions that we have assessed as the most appropriate to reach the findings of consumer behavior, which results are presented as follows: 43 table 1. participation of age groups frequency percentages % valid percentage cumulative percentage % age-group 18-23 46 56.8 56.8 56.8 24-30 22 27.2 27.2 84.0 31-40 6 7.4 7.4 91.4 41-50 4 4.9 4.9 96.3 over 50 3 3.7 3.7 100.0 total 81 100.0 100.0 from the table above, we look at one of the demographic questions to understand the age of the research participants. here we see that more than half of the respondents belong to 18-23, while another significant part is 24-30 age group. the participants with the lowest percentage in the research are the age group over 50 and this for the reason that this, this age group is much more difficult to be educated for online shopping. table 2. gender of respondents frequency percentages valid percentage cumulative percentage gender: female 49 60.5 60.5 60.5 male 32 39.5 39.5 100.0 total 81 100.0 100.0 the results show that, out of 81 respondents, more than half of the respondents (+ 60%) are female, while the rest belong to the male gender. table 3. income level frequency percentages valid percentage cumulative percentage income: under 100 euro 23 28.4 28.4 28.4 100 300 euro 27 33.3 33.3 61.7 300 500 euro 18 22.2 22.2 84.0 500 800 euro 6 7.4 7.4 91.4 800 1000 euro 2 2.5 2.5 93.8 over 1000 euro 5 6.2 6.2 100.0 total 81 100.0 100.0 income level is critical to understanding the economy after the covid-19 pandemic. the table above shows that many respondents do not have high enough incomes to make multiple online purchases. over 33% of respondents have an income level between 100 and 300 euros, which means they do not have many opportunities for online shopping. the smallest part of the respondents, of 2.5%, have an income level of 800 to 1000, and so on. 44 table 4. visits to shopping malls frequency percentages valid percentage cumulative percentage every day 21 25.9 25.9 25.9 every week 35 43.2 43.2 69.1 every month 16 19.8 19.8 88.9 once in a few months 9 11.1 11.1 100.0 total 81 100.0 100.0 given that shopping malls are a place frequented by everyone, there is no question about it. this is evidenced by the result of respondents, where almost half of respondents go to shopping malls every week. at the same time, a considerable part of them visit every day. this means that businesses belonging to shopping malls, from the numerous visits of customers, also have high profits. table 5. frequency of online shopping frequency percentages valid percentage cumulative percentage every week 5 6.2 6.2 6.2 every month 16 19.8 19.8 25.9 once in a few months 60 74.1 74.1 100.0 total 81 100.0 100.0 online shopping is a phenomenon which is growing every day more and more, thanks to digitalization. from the table above, we see how often online purchases are made. out of 81 respondents, over 74% of them make online purchases once every few months. then about 20% of respondents make online purchases every month and the rest make purchases every week. the latter should be targeted at businesses operating online due to the frequency of purchases. with these results, it turns out that hypothesis 5 presented above turns out to be correct, which is as follows: h2: people are used to online shopping culture and do not hesitate to choose this channel of shopping. table 6. increase in online shopping during the pandemic frequency percentages valid percentage cumulative percentage yes 33 40.7 40.7 40.7 no 48 59.3 59.3 100.0 total 81 100.0 100.0 the pandemic has changed us for many things! one of them is the awareness of consumers about online shopping. the table above describes whether online shopping has increased since the pandemic, where it turns out that, in more than half of the respondents, the pandemic has not affected the growth of online shopping. in contrast, the rest has increased online shopping, where the hypothesis raised does not turn out to be correct: h6: the impact of the pandemic is assessed as positive because people save time while shopping online. table 7. buy online stores frequency percentages valid percentage cumulative percentage gjiraffa 42 51.9 51.9 51.9 ali express 20 24.7 24.7 76.5 bejtani 4 4.9 4.9 81.5 neptune (online) 15 18.5 18.5 100.0 45 total 81 100.0 100.0 table 7 looks at the online stores that respondents most frequent. over 51% of respondents make online purchases in gjirafa, over 24% before purchasing on ali express, over 18% make purchases on neptune, while the rest make purchases on buynow. table 8. price reasonableness of online products frequency percentages valid percentage cumulative percentage strongly agree 16 19.8 19.8 19.8 agree 26 32.1 32.1 51.9 neutral 29 35.8 35.8 87.7 disagree 9 11.1 11.1 98.8 strongly disagree 1 1.2 1.2 100.0 total 81 100.0 100.0 above are the respondents' answers regarding the online products and whether those products have a reasonable price. it turns out that over 51% of respondents justify the price with the value of the products they buy online. another result is that about 36% are neutral about the cost of the product and its value. table 9. perception of uncertainty (online shopping involves a high degree of uncertainty) frequency percentages valid percentage cumulative percentage strongly agree 19 23.5 23.5 23.5 agree 30 37.0 37.0 60.5 neutral 22 27.2 27.2 87.7 disagree 9 11.1 11.1 98.8 strongly disagree 1 1.2 1.2 100.0 total 81 100.0 100.0 let's say that the pandemic has affected consumers' awareness about online shopping. the table above shows us that the citizens of kosovo are still not safe with online shopping. apart from the neutral respondents regarding this issue, another significant part, or 60% of them, thinks that online shopping is highly uncertain. this means that businesses operating online need to consider this part of influencing consumers' beliefs about online shopping. of course, this should be proven only with quality goods / services offered by them. table 10. risk perception (product may not be the same) frequency percentages valid percentage cumulative percentage strongly agree 37 45.7 45.7 45.7 agree 24 29.6 29.6 75.3 neutral 14 17.3 17.3 92.6 disagree 5 6.2 6.2 98.8 strongly disagree 1 1.2 1.2 100.0 total 81 100.0 100.0 the biggest fear of online shoppers is if their product is different from what they think. the table shows that over 75% of respondents are insecure about online shopping and fear that the product may not be the same. this is also a concern that online retailers need to consider and prove otherwise and thus also contribute to consumer awareness. 46 table 11. customer satisfaction with online shopping frequency percentages valid percentage cumulative percentage strongly agree 9 11.1 11.1 11.1 agree 22 27.2 27.2 38.3 neutral 36 44.4 44.4 82.7 disagree 11 13.6 13.6 96.3 strongly disagree 3 3.7 3.7 100.0 total 81 100.0 100.0 after every purchase, both online and physically, the main thing for both consumers and businesses is customer satisfaction. in this way, you gain trust in companies and online shopping. the data show that 38% of respondents are satisfied with online shopping, then neutrality varies, and a small proportion of respondents have negative responses regarding consumer satisfaction during online shopping. table 12. the impact of 'word of mouth' on the internet frequency percentages valid percentages cumulative percentages strongly agree 25 30.9 30.9 30.9 agree 37 45.7 45.7 76.5 neutral 12 14.8 14.8 91.4 disagree 7 8.6 8.6 100.0 total 81 100.0 100.0 word of mouth is the most reliable method of 'marketing'. according to other studies, it turns out that word of mouth is many times more reliable than marketing that companies do for themselves. from table 12, we see that word of mouth has a lot of impact on online shopping. over 76% of respondents read the recommendations online before making online purchases, which best shows how important they are. companies need to pay special attention to the delivery of their goods or services because if customers are satisfied, they always speak well, which affects sales growth. therefore, the hypothesis raised is correct: h4: online shopping depends heavily on 'word of mouth online. as mentioned in the second table, 60% of respondents are female, and 53% buy in the online store gjirafa. the same result is for males, where 50% of them also make purchases in the online store gjirafa. 5. conclusions undoubtedly, the covid-19 pandemic has accelerated the digital transformation process of companies. the covid-19 pandemic has impacted companies treating digitalization not only as an opportunity but as a realistic solution to business survival. considering digitalization as survival in business, consumers should also get used to this sales channel and be maximally aware of the advantages of online shopping. from the data presented in the previous chapter, we presented the results of the primary data from the questionnaire, including demographic and analytical data, using the likert-5 system. the size of the research sample is 81 respondents. the research shows that most of the respondents (33%) do not have very high incomes, starting from 100 300 euros and this means that there is a stagnation in online shopping due to financial impossibility even though there has been an evolution in bringing consumers online for online shopping and this evolution is as a result of the covid-19 pandemic. on the other hand, an important feature is that people are satisfied with their online purchases. still, the downside is a high degree of risk of online purchases due to data dissemination. also, the favorite place for online shopping turns out to be gjirafa. let's compare with the research of (rao et.al., 2021), where it turns out that online shopping has flourished during the pandemic in our research. but, of course, it is not that the pandemic has greatly affected online shopping. but the same conclusions turn out to be in consumer satisfaction, where it is emphasized that the experience and satisfaction of buyers play an important role in survival in the market and that consumers are greatly influenced by the 'word of mouth online' before making purchases. 47 references 1. alharthey, b. 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submission 1 september 2021 revision 10 october 2021 accepted 24 november 2021 available online 31 december 2021 keywords: variables, rating, indexes, globalization, western balkans. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.274 a b s t r a c t globalization does not have the same impact on countries, it acts differently in countries with different levels of political, economic, social and technological development. its unequal distribution by region, country or community confirms that it is a complex and deeply asymmetric process. it is confirmed by numerous theories and debates that only explained and defined the phenomenon, but paid little attention to the complexity of globalization and measuring its extent. empirical indicators can be used to measure the differences between the national and the international in different domains. in this way, it is possible to see to what extent the countries are globalized, i.e., to see the strong influence of globalization processes on the overall state of society. that is why a large number of countries try to use the processes of globalization to promote national interests and improve their position in international relations. therefore, the analysis of the indexes of globalization will help us to understand with which components of national power the countries dominate on the regional and global scene. the focus of the research is on the analysis of several globalization indexes that include the countries of the western balkan. namely, the degree of globalization of countries is empirically analyzed through the prism of several different indicators that are constructed to measure the overall index of globalization, as well as to measure the political, economic and social dimension of globalization. the inclusion of a larger number of variables enables a more objective and accurate ranking of countries. as the results of the globalization rating of the western balkan countries show, it is concluded that the processes of globalization greatly contribute to strengthening and improving cooperation between countries, intensify interdependence, affect euro-atlantic integration processes, stimulate economic growth and improve the situation in societies. however, according to the elaborated data, these countries are still in the phase of adjustment or “maturation”, therefore, they are in the category of partially globalized countries. 1. introduction the discourse of globalization is based on theories that provide certain explanations and definitions of the phenomenon, but the complexity arises when globalization should be reduced to empirical indicators. for the first time, in the journal foreign policy, the title “measuring globalization” appeared, emphasizing that “everyone talks about globalization, but no one has tried to measure its extent, at least not until now” (foreign policy, 2001: 56-65). hence, in the mentioned text, indicators that contribute to and encourage integration are taken into account, and they are: cross-border personal contacts, international telephone calls, international postal exchange, the number of users of world wide web, foreign direct investments, trade, participation in international peacekeeping missions, etc. in fact, the empirical indicators are an attempt to give a “picture” of the differences between the national and the international, and which in fact are the main forces that show the degree of globalization. at the same time, there are no clearly defined rules according to which countries should be governed, on the contrary, there is a word for “manipulation of variables”, so that one indicator of the degree of globalization applies to one country, but not to another. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:zendelovski@fzf.ukim.edu.mk https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.274 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4936-1408 87 therefore, due to the complexity of globalization, in many cases misdiagnosis is given, because it is not a single process but a set of processes that operate simultaneously and unevenly on several levels and in different dimensions (steger, 2003). this implies the need for detailed identification, research and assessment of the processes of globalization in each domain, while not going beyond the set framework of its functioning and realization. but let's see who and how much is globalized, to whose detriment or for what benefit, who globalizes who and under what conditions? 2. how is the extent of globalization measured? there are several renowned indexes of globalization, which give a picture of the rating of countries and developments in this segment, these indexes are developed by the center for study of globalization and regionalization csgr, a.t. kearney and the swiss institute of economics kof (konjunkturforschungsstelle kof). their results for the globalization of the countries are based on indicators that are categorized into three groups: economic, political and social aspects of globalization. however, some of the above indexes have certain shortcomings that relate to the way of selecting the variables that “distort” the picture and show it in a non-objective way the degree of globalization of the countries. the center for the study of globalization and regionalization (cpgr) was established in 1997 and is the largest academic center in europe dealing with this issue. cpgr research focuses on political economy, especially on the connection between global and regional aspects and on debates related to contemporary politics (lockwood & redoano, 2006). however, according to the cpgr, the most exposed countries are from western europe, which are dominant according to the degree of globalization especially in the past three decades. a huge drawback is that there is no relevant data on the globalization of the countries of the western balkan. the globalization index according to a.t. kearney (which is the leading global company for management and consulting services in more than 40 countries in the world and which cooperates with more than 2/3 of the largest companies in the world according to the fortune global 500), includes 62 countries that account for 96% of world gdp and make up 84% of the world's population. the index is based on 14 variables grouped into four categories: economic integration, (free trade and foreign direct investment), personal contact, (international travel and tourism, international telephone traffic, people transfer and etc.), technological connectivity, (internet users) and political engagement, (membership in international organizations, personnel and financial contributions in un peacekeeping operations, international ratified agreements, etc.) (foreign policy, 2009). the shortcomings of the index are that a small number of countries are covered and the dominance of the western european countries, which are among the top ten in terms of rank, is preserved. at the same time, countries such as belgium (which according to other indexes is one of the most globalized countries in the world) are not taken into account, nor are critical countries such as afghanistan, iraq and other countries represented in order to avoid the connection of globalization with terrorism, although there are unsubstantiated theories that are confirmed by the globalization index, that more globalized countries are less vulnerable to terrorist attacks than non-globalized states (foreign policy, 2005: 56). in addition, we consider that the authors of this index have tried the usa, australia and new zealand to bring them closer to the european countries, which does not cooperate with the real situation. similar to the previous index of globalization, this index does not cover most of the western balkan countries. unlike previous indexes, the globalization index of the swiss institute of economics kof (whose economic research dates back to before the second world war) is more representative as it covers more than 200 countries and territories, and a large number of variables that rank countries more objectively and accurately are included (dreher, 2006; dreher, noel & pim, 2008). the globalization index is based on 43 individual variables, which are aggregated to a de facto and a de jure index of three dimensions (economic, social and political globalization), five sub-dimensions (trade, financial, interpersonal, informational and cultural globalization), and one total index (gygli, florian, niklas & jan-egbert, 2019). economic globalization is measured by two categories, i.e. sub dimensions. the first category is trade globalization, i.e. consideration of economic globalization through trade, tariffs, taxes and trade agreements. the second category refers to financial globalization, which is measured by foreign direct investment, international debt, international income payments, international reserves, international investment agreements and the restrictions that countries take on in order to protect their economies from competing countries. social globalization is presented in three categories. the first is interpersonal globalization, which covers personal contacts, and refers to the direct interactions between people living in different countries. the second category is informational globalization, which includes variables related to the flow of information and ideas, television and internet access, high technology exports, 88 press freedom, etc. the third category presents cultural globalization, which is measured by the number of mcdonald's restaurants and ikea stores, trade in cultural goods and personal services, gender parity and civil liberties, which for many are synonymous with globalization with western prominence. political globalization is measured by the achieved political cooperation between countries. that is, the degree of political globalization is measured by the number of accredited embassies and high representatives, membership in international organizations and participation in un peacekeeping missions, as well as the number of ratified agreements between two or more states (dreher, 2006). according to the methodological approach of the kof globalization index, the changes of globalization are followed with the help of several variables for a larger number of countries and for a longer period of time. in doing so, relevant sources of organizations and institutions are used, such as the world bank, the international monetary fund, the united nations, the cia world factbook and others. the authors of this index of globalization have made a balance between the variables, i.e. equal representation of the same. the focus is on the economic and social aspects of globalization, taking into account a smaller number of variables for measuring the political aspects of globalization. there are other shortcomings, and they refer to the fact that some indicators, (for example, the economic ones), are more valid than the others, which gives them an advantage in some countries in relation to others. on the other hand, there is a lack of variables that measure the essential, economic and social aspects related to poverty, inequality, social inclusion and living standards. however, unlike other indexes, the kof globalization index provides a comprehensive statistical analysis of the globalization of countries. in general, all globalization indexes are dominated by the countries of western europe and north america, which were and still are the most globalized countries in the world for the period from 1980 to 2020. at the bottom are mainly the poor countries located in the southern hemisphere of the globe in regions such as sub-saharan africa, latin america and the caribbean, the middle east and north africa. this is another confirmation that modern globalization is an unequal process that mainly benefits the highly developed countries, while other countries and regions bypass them. the old-new leaders of globalization, the united states, the european leaders france and germany, the most developed asian country, japan, and the brics countries (brazil, russia, india, china, and south africa), as well as some arab countries, are far from the required level they are less globalized than some countries that do not belong to the first world. there are doubts about the results in terms of how some smaller and less developed countries are in a higher position than the states that are considered world powers in the field of economy, politics, security and technology. 3. the degree of globalization of the western balkan countries until the beginning of the 21st century, the countries of the western balkan were facing unfortunate developments, starting with the events that led to the disintegration of the former sfry, where several wars were being fought, the constant political pressures, economic blockades, refugee crises, genocides and conflicts that have contributed to this region being marginalized by world events related to globalization. it took a long time for the countries of the western balkan to adapt and fit into global trends. the road that these countries took was the construction of a new system different from the already existing one. the order of political, economic, security military and cultural factors determined the manner and speed of progress towards globalization, on which the future development and prosperity of the countries in this region depended. however, with the gradual overcoming of the crisis situations and with the permanent assumption of obligations and fulfillment of the duties at the international level, most of the balkan countries managed to fit in, primarily in the course of regionalization, and later in the globalization one’s processes. in doing so, it was easier for some countries to adapt to the processes of globalization unlike some others. the period of adaptation that countries had to go through in order to gain the status of globalized countries varied from several years to several decades. in the modern era of globalization, it depended on the country's capabilities and the speed of adaptation to the new changes. as for the countries in this region, it can be noticed that in a relatively short period of their independence, they have succeeded in entering the globalization processes. the progress of countries in relation to globalization can be seen in table 1, which shows the countries of the western balkan. 89 table 1. the degree of globalization of the western balkan countries for the period from 2010 to 2020. country 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 croatia 29 32 33 35 29 29 serbia 51 45 63 46 40 37 bosnia and herzegovina 58 62 50 55 53 64 n.macedonia 65 71 74 93 54 61 albania 94 78 86 88 63 75 montenegro 198 43 49 59 57 57 kosovo / / / / / / source: dreher, 2006; dreher, noel & pim, 2008; gygli, florian, niklas & jan-egbert, 2019. according to the report, the most globalized country from this region is croatia, followed by serbia, and the least globalized countries are republic of north macedonia and albania, while for kosovo there are no data on the degree of globalization. of the countries, the highest progress was made by montenegro, which jumped from 198th place in 2010 to 43rd position in 2012. despite the fact that most of the western balkan countries are members of nato and are candidates for eu membership (except croatia, which has been a member of the eu since 2013), there are still no indications as to whether euro-atlantic integration has contributed to the rapid progress and globalization of countries. for example, serbia, which is not a member of nato, (for the period from 2016 to 2020), is better ranked than albania, montenegro and macedonia, which are members of the alliance. in general, in the past decade, not a single country from this region should be included in the 20 best globalized countries nor in the category of the 20 weakest globalized countries in the world. as for the situation in the republic of north macedonia, it is concluded that the country has the best position in 2018 (54th place) out of a total of 209 countries in the world. according to the political, economic and social aspects of globalization, for the period from 2010 to 2020, it is the weakest ranking according to the political parameters of globalization, while in the past five years it has the best rating according to the economic parameters. the situation is similar in albania and montenegro, which are best ranked according to economic indicators, and weakest according to political parameters. table 2. the degree of globalization of the western balkan countries according to the economic, social and political parameters of globalization. country 2010 2015 2020 economic globalization social globalization political globalization economic globalization social globalization political globalization economic globalization social globalization political globalization croatia 35 36 49 43 42 41 36 36 39 serbia 56 68 82 79 58 80 41 63 40 bosnia and herzegovina 49 96 69 76 65 64 87 87 70 n.macedonia 62 52 141 57 67 143 49 97 86 albania 88 121 87 74 122 130 54 99 111 montenegro 182 109 208 33 72 95 28 56 126 kosovo / / / / / / / / / source: dreher, 2006; dreher, noel & pim, 2008; gygli, florian, niklas & jan-egbert, 2019. however, according to certain empirical indicators north macedonia in the past was among the highly globalized countries in the world. for example, the world bank report (doing business 2008) states that the country in the category of implementing economic reforms was ranked 4th in competition with 175 countries. therefore, in the category of starting a business in 2015, it was on the 3rd place, or in general, according to the economic indicators, it was ranked on the 30th place in competition with 189 world economies (world bank, 2014). in terms of information technology, or according to the report on information technology for 2015, the republic of north macedonia is best ranked in terms of internet use and its prevalence in the country, and it ranks 47th out of a total of 143 countries in the world. while, according to the number of internet users from the total population in 2014, it was on the 43rd place (ministry of information society and administration, 2015). over the past decade, the country has been most recognizable and globalized, with participation in missions led by international organizations. in the isaf mission in afghanistan, it is ranked 90 among the top ten allies. that is, according to nato data (for the contribution of the republic of north macedonia to the isaf mission), it (per capita) was ranked 4th, and was behind the highly developed western countries of the united states, the united kingdom and denmark (ministry of defense of the republic of north macedonia, 2010). these dilemmas and oscillations in the rating show that the modern processes of globalization are unpredictable and quite risky, seen from the political, economic and social aspects, and have a deep impact on the overall general situation in the societies. this means that in a short period of time certain countries from the category of highly globalized countries can move to less globalized countries and vice versa. for example, ireland was in second place in 2009 and fell to 11th position within a year. this does not mean that ireland is less globalized, but that other countries have improved their globalization rating much faster. also, iceland, one of the most desirable places to live and with the best standard in 2011, experienced a financial collapse the following year and went bankrupt. for some countries, the globalizing will be a difficult and complex task, almost an impossible mission, because some of them are still not politically and even less economically or information-technologically mature. this refers approximately to “how to get them to drive a formula 1 car, when they rode donkeys until yesterday” (friedman, 1999). does this mean that the less able will not “taste the fruits” of globalization that have been harvested by developed countries for decades? at the same time, distinctions should be made between the strong and the weak countries, which will formulate their national economic, foreign and security policies accordingly and thus give an appropriate answer to the dynamics of globalization. in the context of the text above, we will mention the events at regional and global level that contributed to the improvement or deterioration of the degree of globalization in a number of countries, but also in the countries of the western balkan, and refers to the following:  the global financial recession of 2008 has drastically reflected on the political, economic and social situation of the countries of europe and north america;  events such as the arab spring (2011), the crisis in ukraine (2014), the migrant and refugee crisis (2015), the global pandemic with covid-19 (2020) contributed to a series of changes;  the enlargement of the eu and nato with new member states contributed to the increase of the globalization rating of a group of countries, thus improving their economic, political, social and security status;  the involvement of countries in international organizations (wto, imf, world bank) and participation in missions led by the un, nato and the eu has contributed to increasing the degree of globalization of countries in relation to economic, political and security aspects. in doing so, the highly developed countries, which are the most represented in international organizations and bodies, have a huge advantage over the countries that are not members or have a less decisive role in them;  countries affected by armed conflict or under the auspices of international organizations (such as bosnia and herzegovina and kosovo) are less likely to globalize, because the least globalized countries are those that come from conflict regions, as opposed to highly globalized countries that are a benchmark for peace and stability;  bilateral disputes between the countries of the western balkan affect euro-atlantic integration processes. due to this, this region is becoming more remote, i.e., marginalizes from the processes of progress and represents a “barrel of gunpowder”, a danger to regional stability (zendelovski & nacev, 2014).  regional initiatives contribute to strengthening and improving cooperation between countries in many areas. for example, the regional initiative “open balkan” (formerly called “mini schengen”) is an economic and political zone of albania, n. macedonia and serbia, which aims to allow free cross-border flow of people, capital, goods and services from the three countries from 2023. empirical results also point to the fact that globalization does not have the same effect in many areas, it acts very differently, and it determines the countries’ ability to engage. the relationship of subordination and superiority is recognized, as well as the international division in relation to the engagement of individual institutions and international organizations. some authors are right when they say that only statistical comparisons are offered among the societies and on the basis of some indicators they are ranked, without giving a specific explanation. this means that the methodological approach analyses the countries only quantitatively, or superficially, without delving into the essence of globalization. hence, there is a doubt that the prevailing processes of globalization are viewed only through indicators and statistical analyses. in the previously presented hierarchy, the 91 global actors are underlined the countries that manage globalization and in which the optimistic scenario for the concept of globalization reigns, while the second category consists of the countries that are only observers and consumers of the consequences of the actions of global actors (gjurovska, 2007). in fact, the entire globalization discourse is based unilaterally on democratic and economic-financial indicators, while the socioecological and those related to the state welfare are out of consideration (mcgrew, 2008). this was evident in the ranking of the western balkan countries, which since independence have opted for the western neoliberal democratic concept. this indicates that some are more involved in the processes than the others, and are due to different criteria and geographical aspects. as modern asymmetric globalization continues at this pace, the question is whether most of the developing countries, including the western balkans region, will “catch the last train” that leads to prosperity and well-being? 4. conclusions measuring globalization with the help of empirical indicators is a very complex process in research. there is confusion about what constitutes a globalized country and a country at the forefront of globalization. these are two opposing categories for which there is no precise scientific explanation. we have identified a number of shortcomings and dilemmas about how globalization works. it is noted that it is not politically neutral, nor is it economically equally distributed, but that it is a series of processes that generate political and economic implications and serve the interests of the great powers. the countries of the western balkan, which are in the category of small developing countries, can fit in and make significant progress in terms of globalization, as it will be easier to govern them than the larger countries. this group of developing countries have embraced the model of western liberal democracy, are open to free trade and economic development, and some of them are integrated into euro-atlantic structures, thus gaining a higher position in international relations. we believe that globalization processes create conditions for the countries of the western balkan to move closer to the countries of the first world. although the rapprochement process is very slow (more than a decade), these countries, as they gradually become globalized, will have the opportunity to be competitive in the global market and achieve a higher level of development and prosperity. through regional integration, the countries of the western balkan will be able to globalize faster, because regionalization will strengthen the forces in the process of globalization and lead to multilateral cooperation and openness of national economies. although these countries have a similar model of governance, each of them autonomously fits into the political, economic, social and security trends, at the same time globalizing and becoming a credible actor in international relations. empirical results show that globalization has not had an equal impact on the western balkan countries. thus, some of the countries are best ranked according to economic parameters, and weakest according to political indicators and vice versa. according to the data of globalization indexes, we noticed that the globalization discourse is based mainly on economic and financial indicators, and less on political, social and environmental indicators. from the presented indexes, the most representative is the updated kof globalization index, which covers a large number of countries and is based on 43 specific variables that measure different dimensions of globalization. the disadvantage of this index is that there are fewer indicators that measure the political aspects of globalization. hence, the recommendation is for future research to focus on greater representation of the more significant indicators that are a benchmark for globalization, and through which the consequences of the processes of globalization can be reexamined. therefore, it should be possible to combine multiple indicators to measure different aspects of globalization in order to rank countries more objectively and accurately. in this way, we will get answers as to why globalization is happening faster in some 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(world bank 2008; ilo 2002). according to the international labour organization (ilo), the "informal sector" is characterized by ilo (1998): “extraordinary diversity [...]. informal units comprise small enterprises with hired workers, household enterprises using mostly family labour, and the self-employed. production processes involve relatively high levels of working capital as against fixed capital, which in turn reflects the relatively low level of technology and skills involved” (p. 167). local weekly market or "haat" is a customary way of retailing where, on a specific day of seven days, unimportant merchants show their products on an improvised course of action in spots approved by the municipal authorities against instalment of some fixed compensation. the weekly market is immediate showcasing community for farmers, in which they offer their agricultural produce to buyers. (saran & gupta, 2003). it is portrayed by relatively low valued products and enterprises, poor infrastructure, undefined stalls, absence of storage facility, nonappearance of credit in exchange and poor vehicle and communication medium (deka and bhagbati, 2010). by and large the site of a commercial centre is arranged where it is most favorable for both vendors and consumers as far as availability and network of streets are most plausible site for area of market. in such spot a market can be held intermittently that might be day by day, week by week, fortnightly, month to month, etc (mukharjee,1970). it turns into a principle center for trade of https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:aayushivermajnu01@gmail.com mailto:pmisrasocio@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.242 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5115-0661 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8649-9479 111 basic products and ventures in both the sub-urban as well as countryside all over the world (roy and basu, 2010). weekly markets have a huge authentic importance, wire in its article 'the history behind delhi's weekly bazaars' attempted to investigate the recorded meaning of weekly markets of delhi, and follows the set of experiences even before the rule of tomars and khilji. hashmi (2006) says about the authentic particularity of weekly market and its relationship with individuals having a place with that social class that was viewed as lower order during mughal period has very little changed in contemporary occasions. further talking about the history of weekly market, suvrata chawdhary (2017) quoted: “punjabi and sindhi refugees who came from pakistan leaving their business and jobs to india had initially nothing in their hands to sustain themselves. some of them then used to walk in the neighborhoods of delhi with the goods on their shoulders; they were called pheriwallah. walking on foot with a heavy load was a tiresome activity; some people whom they used to sell their wares asked them to sit on the roads in front of their entrances, on particular days of the week instead of walking in different areas alone. thus, the trend of weekly markets in delhi began. one of the earliest locations of weekly markets established by such refugees in delhi is on the road that runs behind the old fort. this place was where some hundred to two hundred pheriwallahs used to assemble on a particular day of the week and sell different things. gradually these pheriwallahs came with the idea of starting other weekly markets in different locations of delhi.” (p.11). 1.1. street vendors street vending is a widespread activity in global south urban communities regardless of its absence of formal guideline. it contributes in a positive manner to mitigating destitution, providing merchandise and ventures for low income gatherings, and setting out work and business open doors for vulnerable social gatherings (brown 2006). street vendors have consistently stayed an essential part of a several economies around the planet. as indicated by the national policy for urban street vendors, street vendor in india comprised practically 2% of the whole populace of a city 10 years back (bhowmik, 2005). as a labor opportunity, street vending is seen as a feature of the casual area in light of the fact that (eic, 2006) as referred to by (sekhani. et.al., 2019):  street vendors have restricted access to formal/managed market spaces, can't get state-level help for formal preparing and training, including help from credit organizations and so forth:  street vendors are unregistered and unrecorded in the data collection exercises including census or other authority measurements consequently, giving them an unrecognized status by the public authority.  street vendors are constrained to work outside the lawful structure and past the pale of social insurance, work enactment or defensive measures, regardless of whether they had enlisted and regard certain parts of the law.  street vendors get restricted legal protection from work rights, regularly confronting poor working conditions. 2. theoretical review of literature 2.1. weekly market and street vendors as an informal space several investigations on street vending and informal market across the cities of delhi, bombay, and calcutta (bhowmik, 2005; bose and mishra, 2013; bromley, 2000) clarify the causal elements responsible for the extension of informal market fragments in these urban communities, frequently found in the expansion of ghettos and unregulated land use. as per mcgee and yeung (1977), street vendors offer products or services available to be purchased in broad daylight for sale on roads and pavement, assuming a huge part in shaping unregulated/casual parts of developing economies. they are considered as an informal economy in view of following reasons. as indicated by amitabh kundu globalization and advancement have instigated negative urbanization in india. it isn't that every one of the individuals who have gone to the urban communities have work in the conventional area of the economy. absence of work in the organized sector has required the development of the informal sector where roughly 90% of the populace is employed. this area has become a refuge for the tremendous number of reserve labour who were jobless by three sided marvel of globalization, liberalization and privatization. constant development of the informal sector has come to nullify the mainstream neo liberal and marxist investigation, which laid on assumptions that informal sector is passing and principally an element of peripheral economies (portes et. al., 1989). increased migration of low-skilled workers from rural areas to urban areas and diminishing employment opportunities for such laborers inside regulated (formal) areas of the metropolitan economy are perceived as imperative elements in expanding 112 levels of street vending especially in asian nations of thailand (bangkok), bangladesh (dhaka), cambodia (phnom penh and siem reap), hanoi, india (delhi, kolkata and so on), kuala lumpur, manila, seoul, singapore and sri lanka. results from bhowmik (2005) show that after the financial emergency of 1998, there has been a fast ascent in the quantity of street vendors in malaysia, singapore, korea and the philippines. in this stage it tends to be contended that the identity of weekly markets as chaotic or casual business sectors turned out to be more settled in. it came to be viewed as market that provisioned for the necessities of lower working classes. its incentive as a type of market for trade of products and enterprises with a distinct association and design is yet to be given its due credit. there is a systematic progression of material, products and related data among providers, organizations, retailers, and buyers. while the process is similar for both manufacturing and services, it is the intricacies of the chain that differs from industry to industry, firm to firm and market to market. the equivalent goes valid for informal and formal business sectors. while formal business sectors follow coordinated and organized design, with continuous flow data and criticism framework, the informal market doesn't follow a normalized model due to the turbulent structure of inventory management (mohan and sekhani, 2017). on the other hand, inventory management is the "cemetery of the business" that concerns with the ideal degree of venture for every segment of the stock with the end goal that segment is proficiently utilized, and audit instrument is successfully controlled. there is an enormous interest in this stock administration in proper economy when contrasted with informal one. barbara harriss-white has composed an extraordinary arrangement on the meaning of the informal sector in india and about the reasons why it is so essential for developing economies. she says that the india of 88% is now and again called 'local', instead of national, or state-provincial. its economy is in some cases called 'chaotic' to recognize it from the 'coordinated' and enlisted economy; and this is valuable insofar as plainly 'unregulated' doesn't signify 'unregulated' by this the author draws out a basic viewpoint to the manner by which the informal sector is examined and the argument that chaotic doesn't really mean unregulated holds very obvious in the event that one glances at the lwms which are a lot of managed by state arrangements and administration despite the fact that they are informal in the more wider sense of the term. 2.2. vendor profiling and behaviour a study conducted by school of management and labor studies tata institute of social sciences for national association of street vendors of india (2012) found that: “while looking at the sex ratio of street vendors in the different cities, we find that an overwhelming majority are males. females constitute around 30 per cent in all the cities taken together. the sole exception is that of imphal, where an overwhelming majority (88.5%) are females, while males constitute 11.5%. the predominance of females in imphal is not an isolated case, because if we look at other cities in the north east such as shillong, dimapur, aizwal, we would find the same trend. guwahati and agartala may show slightly different trends. each of the cities shows a different feature of male and female composition. in some, the percentage of females is very low and in others, it is slightly higher. for example, in bengaluru and delhi, female vendors form 30 per cent, and in jaipur 30.5 per cent. in other cities however, the proportion is lower. in bhubaneshwar, female vendors constitute a mere 7% of the total vending workforce. this is significant because bhubaneshwar is the only city of the ten studied, where the national policy has been implemented and vendors enjoy higher security and slightly higher income (see section on income). would this imply that in cities where the incomes of street vendors are high, women are pushed out of vending and the men take over? cities like mumbai and indore have around 27% female vendors. in the remaining four cities, female vendors constitute less than 20 percent of the whole vending population. hyderabad (16%) and patna (19%) are two such cities, whereas lucknow has the worst sex ratio with only 3.5 per cent” (p. 12). while particularly discussing the profile of shopkeepers in weekly markets of delhi, it was discovered that, the extent of male merchants was relatively bigger than that of the female. for example, out of the 300 enrolled shops and numerous other unregistered shops in old delhi, we could just distinguish one female street vendor who claimed a shop. some street vendors in delhi had set up their shops during the 1970s (instance of the mayur-vihar market) when they at first relocated from various places. in one of the contextual investigation of cept university in 2011 on street vendors of surat city, it was discovered that the quantity of female road merchants found in surat city is just 13.5% against 86.5% male. further it was discovered that larger part of the sellers of surat are hindu by religion and just 23% are muslims. among the hindu seller’s dominant part have a place with general station. the area of market, distributing type and strict foundation are additionally interrelated in urban 113 communities like surat. proficiency patterns among the street vendors, show that the more unskilled merchants have more modest organizations like natural product slows down. over 90% of all overviewed sellers are educated, and have learned at any rate up to fifth grade. around 32% have concentrated up to eighth grade, 22% have passed tenth, 6% have concentrated up to twelfth grade and 3% have been to school for graduation. just a single seller in our sample is a post graduate that establishes 0.3%, of all vendors. proficiency patterns among the street vendors show that the more ignorant merchants have more small business organizations like small natural product stalls. bhomik, (2005) in his underlying examinations contended that the income of ladies’ vendors is lower than the men on the grounds that fundamentally of two reasons. the majority of the ladies in these markets are from families that were more poor than those of male street vendors so they had less money to put resources into their business. besides, they couldn't invest as much energy on their work as the males since they needed to deal with the home too. additionally, in urban areas like kolkata and patna, women vendors were annoyed by the male merchants and were not permitted to sit on the pavements. in urban areas where they are unionized, as in ahmedabad, their issues are not as intense. in mumbai, the investigations show that the majority of the women vendors have a place with families wherein the male individuals were once utilized in better paid, secure positions in the conventional area. they were jobless when their undertakings shut. their spouses took to street vending to get by. pushing forward of gender dynamics elements, nasvi concentrate additionally attempted to examine merchant profile on different parameters, for example, caste, religion and conjugal status, and they found that a large portion of them are hitched. the high rate of conjugal status of the merchants shows that the greater part of them ought to be in the 20+ age gathering. on looking at the information on religion, we locate that an overwhelming majority (more than 80%) have a place with the hindu people group. the standing creation shows that in many urban areas the obcs are the single biggest gathering. in weekly markets merchants act as mobile traders. in these business sectors the vast majority of the dealers are portable and they visit more than one market in seven days. each market has on sale things of absolute necessities which incorporate, pestles and mortars, crushing stones, utensils, moving pins, moving sheets, frying pans, woks, garlic, ginger, onion, potatoes, rock salt, entire flavors, readymade pickles, cooking oils, entire grains, beats, lentils, papads, lengths of texture, washing cleanser cakes. a couple of shops will, obviously, be selling jalebis and laddoos. the items in these business sectors additionally incorporate outfits, underpants, pants, shirts, shirts, tops, dresses, skirts, comforters, draperies, embroidered artwork material, towels, mops, flyswatters, products of the soil, both normal and exotic. many things in weekly markets are accessible at less expensive rates. this is on the grounds that when shops are in permanent buildings, they bring about a great deal of expenses – they need to pay lease, power, expenses to the public authority. they additionally need to pay wages to their laborers. in weekly market, these retailers store the things they sell at home. the greater part of them are helped by their relatives and, henceforth, don't have to employ laborers. weekly markets likewise have an enormous number of shops selling similar products which implies there is rivalry among them. in the event that some shopkeeper was to charge an excessive cost, individuals would move to another shop where something very similar might be accessible all the more efficiently or where the purchaser can deal and bring the cost down. the scope of items changes with the adjustment in season and with the coming of celebrations. in summers there are cotton garments while in winters comes in woollen garments. the strength of these business sectors can be situated in social and monetary ties that shopkeepers share with one another and the trust and reliance that shopkeepers have on their pradhans. in the weekly markets, it was revealed that merchants were identified with one another either through their family or kinfolk association, and since large numbers of them came from same locale from where they had relocated that additionally fellow a feeling of fraternity. these business sectors can't be coordinated in a deliberate way in the restricted space of the road or pathway except if merchants have assent about their particular spot on the lookout. bhowmik et.al (2012) in their study for nasvi argued that: “the total employment provided through street vending becomes larger if we take into account the number of industries it sustains by marketing their products. a lot of the goods sold, such as clothes and hosiery, leather and molded plastic goods, household goods and some items of food, are manufactured in small scale or home-based industries. these industries engage an 8 large number of workers but they could have hardly marketed their products on their own. in this way street vendors provide valuable service by helping sustain employment in these industries” (p. 7). 114 echoing their argument, they cited ela bhatt, the author of sewa, however street vendors are seen as an issue for metropolitan administration, they are in fact be the answer for a portion of the issues of the metropolitan poor. by giving them less expensive products street vendors are in actuality giving appropriation to the metropolitan poor, something that the public authority ought to have done. the presence of many exotic fruits and vegetables in weekly markets and with street vendors shows that there is an evident connection between local and global. this is explained by giddens (2001): “sociologist use the term globalization to refer to these processes which are intensify world-wide relation and interdependence. it is a social phenomenon with vast implication” (p. 51.) 2.3. consumer profiling and behaviour engel, et al. (1986) as referred to by kumar (2017) characterize consumer culture as: "those acts of individuals directly involved in obtaining, using, and disposing of economic goods and services, including the decision processes that precede and determine these acts". according to lazarsfeld (1935), any demonstration of decision includes an interchange among three wide arrangement of factors which he called predispositions, influences and product attributes. predispositions, in his conception refer to all the characteristics an individual brings with him when he executes an act of choice, and when he experiences the consequences of this choice. predisposition then also include the individual’s personality. it also includes all the beliefs, values and norms to which he is socialised since childhood and which, in themselves, are largely influenced by his changing position in social structure. further he also explains how social variables significantly influence a wide range of consumer acts. product attributes and influences which can be considered as ‘external’ variables and predispositions as ‘internal’ variable both collectively determine consumer behavior. while examining various purchasers and their practices in weekly market it was found in various examinations that the middle class comes to purchase fresh vegetables, organic products, chicken and fish, the majority of which are accessible at costs lower than regular market. the investigation of wire on street vendors demonstrated that the lower income group spend a higher extent of their pay in making buys from these road sellers mostly on the grounds that their merchandise is modest and hence affordable. had there been no street vendors in the urban areas the predicament of the metropolitan poor would be more terrible than what it is as of now. in this manner one section of the metropolitan poor, specifically, street vendors, helps another segment to survive. the worker goes to a similar weekly market not exclusively to purchase dresses embellished with messages that makes no sense in any language and 'true fakes resembles 'adibas', 'nice', 'slajinger' and 'kelvin klean' yet additionally a whole kilogram of wheat flour, 250 grams of arhar dal, rs 2 worth of gram masala blend, entire dried chilies, 50 grams of turmeric powder, a rupee worth of salt, enough cooking oil for light frying and vegetables that have seen better days. item separation influences inclusion. the inclusion increments as the quantity of choices that they need to browse increments. this might be because of the way that shoppers feel assortment which implies greater risk. consumers are the principle members in weekly markets and their way of conduct is a deciding element of the current status of market as well as for their future presence. in weekly markets the greater part of the rural consumers are likewise merchants. one of the principle attributes of weekly market urban consumers is the bargaining factor. bargaining is a lot of evident in these business sectors. aside from promoting, weekly markets are additionally a position of social contact. the rural consumers likewise go to these markets for social contact, settlement of relationships, settlement of debates, for diversion, for fixing marriages and so forth these days, political leaders likewise utilize these business sectors (markets) for their gatherings exceptionally during political race period. the weekly market shopping is an intricate and long interaction starting with a comparative mental exploration of quality and expenses, of purchasing more for less, of taking care of a delicate spending plan, of taking care of kids and feeding them with street food and getting them simple and not-so-expensive toys, of meandering about and appreciating the glow of turbulent markets. 3. problems and policies related to informal market street vendors across a few indian urban areas have commonly been viewed as nuisance, their quality seen as hostile to metropolitan development. notwithstanding, the scope of products and ventures they give renders them helpful to different 115 segments of the metropolitan poor and hence they are a significant section of the informal economy. this segment of informal market gives a big part of population a significant source of earning and to carry on with existence with dignity. the complete business through hawking increases on the chances that we consider that in a way it supports certain ventures by promoting their items. a ton of the merchandise sold by sellers, for example, garments and hosiery, cowhide and formed plastic products, family products and a few things of food, are made in small-scale or home based industries. as referenced above that how these street vendors are exploited for the space they use for vending. the supreme court has taken an alternate position. over 10 years back, the new delhi municipal corporation expelled a common street vendor. sodhan singh, who sold articles of clothing at janpath in new delhi. he spoke to the supreme court through a pil asserting that the government abused his fundamental rights, all the more explicitly his entitlement to carry on business or exchange (article 19(1) g). in a very significant judgment, the court ruled that, as cited by bhowmik (2010). "if properly regulated according to the exigency of the circumstances, the small traders on the sidewalks can considerably add to the comfort and convenience of the general public, by making available ordinary articles of everyday use for a comparatively lesser price. an ordinary person, not very affluent, while hurrying towards his home after a day's work can pick up these articles without going out of his way to find a regular market. the right to carry on trade or business mentioned in (article 19(1) g) of the constitution, on street pavements, if properly regulated cannot be denied on the ground that the streets are meant exclusively for passing or re-passing and no other use" (sodhan singh vs ndmc, 1989) consequently, the national policy for urban street vendors was drafted to give a favorable environment for merchants just to guarantee absence of congestion and support of cleanliness in public spaces and roads. the strategy has planned to give vendors a lawful status and to permit them do their business in assigned zones. these assigned regions are to be called peddlers' zones and non-vendors' zones. these zones need to be a part of development process of the city. vendors are likewise expected to enrols and ought to be checked by the town vending committee (section 4.1.1). active participation of vendors in the town vending committee ought to be guaranteed. the approach likewise gives rules or guidelines for relocation, restoration and rehabilitation of vendors. merchants are to be helped and any deficiency of resources ought to be avoided during rehabilitation. section 8 examines the protection and financial issues of the sellers. for financing, the national bank for agriculture and rural development (nabard) and swarna jayanti shahari rojgar yojana (sjsry) plot have been demonstrated in strategy. this policy when investigated by sundaram (2008) on ground he found that there has been little change in the status of merchants throughout the long term and the explanation could be simply the policy. since the policy has not demonstrated a time period or a guide for the enlistment and assignment of room or space for street vendors. it likewise neglects to perceive that legislatures have restricted resources and they may not focus on merchants, subsequently making it a guarantee that won't ever get executed. additionally, on issue like protection, the policy is quiet leaving a great deal to the self-help groups and non-government organization (ngo’s). this is a zone where an organized long haul arrangement should be worked out. around 2012, the government moved to draft a bill which would offer rights to street vendors. the sanctioning of the street vendors act (protection of livelihood and regulation of street vending), 2014 pointed toward changing the then present condition of street vendors, empowering them to sell items in open public spaces and seek after their vocations in a protected, badgering free climate. as indicated by the act, a town vending committee (tvc) is needed to be comprised according to the arrangements set down in section 22 of the act. tvcs are needed to guarantee that rights and privileges of all street vendors to get comfortable a zonal space is ensured with the important assistance of fundamental infrastructural services to help their market to flourish. further, there can be more than one tvc in a town/ward/zone, contingent on the spatial necessity. the tvc should have a ceo/municipal commissioner who will be the executive. the suitable government authority is likewise needed to put its nominated individuals. the board of trustees will likewise to establish a base of 10% participation from ngos and local area based gatherings. in particular, 40% of the board ought to have represented from amongst the street vendors (with least 33% portrayal from ladies). this was to give all street vendors – particularly ladies – a solid presence in form of members in tvc for better and effective bargaining. besides, as per section 26, it should distribute a street vendors’ charter determining the time and issue of an endorsement of distributing and the restoration of the certificate. 116 the wire while exploring an examination on metropolitan informality led by the center for new economics studies, o.p. jindal global university discovered deficiencies in the usage of the act in various spatial market zones in delhi. meetings with road merchants in various parts of the city shed light on the way that few vendors don't know about any such tvc: – an obligatory necessity according to the act. moreover, the greater part of the sellers is not even mindful of the actual act. the lone complaint redressed instrument they are aware of is that of a pradhan or a market head who might casually negotiate disputes for a portion of the sellers with the neighborhood police and municipal authorities. this augments the data unevenness between the street vendors and the acknowledgment of their privileges. further study also likewise found that the idea of exfoliation from local state authorities (counting nearby municipal authorities and police) additionally incorporated a seizure of their products for a long length, separate fines and a physical violence against road sellers (sometimes). for instance, in the weekly wednesday market in mayur vihar, one of the sellers who was the previous head of the market expressed that the police used to charge him rs 100 day by day. this was notwithstanding that the market was directed by the east delhi municipal corporation and an ordinary rental of rs 10 was charged. segment 3 of the act requires the tvc to direct an overview of the road sellers inside the region of their ward. no such reviews were directed by any tvcs. the motivation behind such an overview is to ensure that vending zones don't get congested by new participants. a disappointment in leading such an overview has not just brought about congestion of chosen market spaces (especially in pieces of north delhi close to chandni chowk) yet has additionally made it hard for existing road merchants to have space for vending, setting off clash among old and new street vendors. section 3 of the street vending act additionally offers rights to the sellers against getting ousted by local state authority. as per section 4 of the act, each road seller distinguished according to the provisions of the act will get a certificate of vending. this certificate authentication gives the informal seller an opportunity in the city for meeting his fundamental needs. the identity certificate likewise carries a heap of rights with them, which were recently considered as unique advantages. notwithstanding, in our perceptions made in the report, no such identity certificate has been given by the tvcs or local municipal authorities to road sellers in delhi. in case of weekly market, the act relating to street vending which came to impact from march 2014, the act is known as the street vendors (protection of livelihood and regulation of street vending) act, 2014 is applicable and offers authenticity to these business sectors and before it turned into an act, the equivalent was treated as policy recommendation and the supreme court had guided the states to follow the suggestions while making plans for road distributing. the issue of space as found in road sellers case is additionally evident in the event of weekly market. suvrata chowdhary (2017) found that the state decides to stay negligent of such markets‟ legitimate or formal status". agents of formal establishments can extort cash from thse sellers much more than required to pay revenues to mcd, had it been regularized such extortion could be checked. without such formalization they can request any amount of cash from the lwms. however, there are as numerous unapproved lwms that are coordinated in different places in the city, possibly they are coordinated using power or negotiations and in collaboration with police, nearby inhabitants and local leaders. in response to the question on the need for authorization of weekly market, mr. sunil shaha who is the president of delhi saptahik bazaar welfare association shared that: “we keep sending application after application to the mcd to recognize our weekly markets but it has not been recognized so far. they are not paying any heed to those applications. we feel that authorization is important because it gives us legal status and legitimacy to fight for protection in court in case our weekly markets come under threat of closure either from the local goons, police or the mcd itself.” (pp. 24) as indicated by j c cross (1998), through bribary a benefactor customer relationship is produced with the individuals who need to keep up observation over the market and it cuts out a "safe space" with true control framework. this relationship illustrates "weak state integration" which handicaps the policy in practice. revanchism is a typical wonder rehearsed in the urban communities of global south which alludes to exclusionary policies looked to eradicate metropolitan spaces for specific areas of the populace, for example, road merchants, destitute, hobos and others of the like. revanchism tasks are rehearsed through zero resistance, as indicated by smith, who begat this idea to comprehend improvement in metropolitan spaces and to create space in urban sphere for all the section of citizens to live their life with utmost dignity. 4. limitations and scope for future study discussing the restrictions, this paper just covers the profile of vendors and consumption pattern of consumers from an 117 expansive perspective. this can be additionally explained on premise of different boundaries like class, age, income, religion, gender and so on. likewise, this investigation depends on around 40 journal articles, a significantly more complete examination and correlation is conceivable covering other revealed ones, thus these discoveries can't be summed up. this investigation additionally doesn't have any experimental information. there is a great scope of investigation of how these consumption pattern has advanced during covid-19 stage. the impact of covid-19 on these informal business sectors and consumption behaviour of various segment can likewise be examined. in lucknow (city in india), it was seen that numerous shops week after week advertises are selling moderate planner covers. indeed, even road merchants filled their carts with various immunity boosters like chayawanaprash (cooked combination of sugar, nectar, ghee, indian gooseberry (amla) jam, sesame oil, berries and different spices and flavors). further it will be fascinating to inspect that how these weekly markets and street vendors have reacted to the approach of shopping centers. most likely the primary experimental examination of vulnerability was made by dabir-alai (2004) on street vendors in delhi in the late1990s. he utilized seven components for building the vulnerability index. these included profit, tormenting, dependants, formal training or education, extended periods, relationship with provider/loan boss line and spatial disengagement from the family. age, sex, relocation status and head/specialist status were additionally viewed as in the investigation. then again, an examination by brata (2010) made a few adjustments to dabir-alai's variable and added three components to make the complete components ten. the additional components included separation from the house to work place, not full ownership of business and not participation in vending associations (both formal and casual). their investigations are additionally expounded by esayas and mulugeta (2020) in his investigation of weakness of road sellers in dire dawa city, eastern ethiopia. in this examination he attempted to expound the weakness regarding space they work and furthermore the items they sell. they are misused at various intersections of market. future investigations can illuminate the exploitation part of road sellers. additionally, it will be fascinating to examine the vulnerabilities brought about by de-monetization and escalated covid-19 lockdown, to which both street vendors and weekly market sellers are exposed. additionally, different relief pacakges dispatched by government for e.g. (pm svan’idhi) for road sellers regarding a microcredit office to assist them with restoring their business. it intends to give advances to around 5 million merchants. under this plan, a capital credit of up to rs 10,000 payable in monthly instalments can be taken by sellers to restore the business with the reopening of the markets. consequently, the execution and effect of this plan can be an intriguing and interesting zone of study under the heading of informal market 5. conclusions this study captures closed analysis of different studies of street vendors (seen as invisible entrepreneurs) working in weekly markets and on roads and public places. talking about the advent or beginning of weekly markets or street vendors is migration of huge amount of people to urban areas for better employment and better standard of living. due to lack of appropriate amount of employment in formal sector, many people turned towards these informal sectors. weekly markets and street vendors are considered as an informal market but it is also found that informal market does not mean that they are not regulated. there are pradhans (pradhan means head) of these markets who organise them and also resolve. the study also analysis and examines policies and programmers of government for the advancement and better regulation of these markets. the national policy for urban street vendors was drafted to give a favorable environment for merchants just to guarantee absence of congestion and support of cleanliness in public spaces and roads. there are regulation bodies for weekly markets also. but in continued study we found that though these policies and programmers are very effective on papers they are not very well implemented on ground this leads to the continued exploitation of shopkeepers and merchants. further kinship plays a very effective role in these markets. while analyzing the profiles of the vendors it was found in the authentic study of nasvi that there exists a gender inequality among the vendors of weekly market. while further analyzing nasvi reports on other demographic grounds such as religion, caste etc, it was found that majority of vendors are hindu (religion) and belong to other backward classes (obc). through different studies it was also found that these markets try to fit themselves into modern world. they change their stocks and sales according to necessities of people. different needs for festivals and seasons are fulfilled by these markets. they use funny slogan and rhymes to attract customers and also use innovative sales strategy to augment their sales. moving on to consumer’s profile and behaviour, the products which consumer buys from these markets hugely depends on the class of the consumer. consumers of high class come here to buy fresh vegetables and fruits while low -income groups get their 118 household needs fulfilled. the lowincome section of society spends their huge section of income in these markets. these markets not only give employment to a huge section of population but also help to low -income people to survive in expensive cities. bargaining is also a very evident in these markets. no matter consumer belongs to which section of society bargaining is must while purchasing. while analyzing the entire concept weekly market and street vendors, it was found that they assimilate huge section of urban poor into society. government and authorities should try to implement the policies in best effective manner. further they should also be regularized and should be given benefits of social security, which are available to formal sector employees. credit guarantee should also be availed, so 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(2019). street vending in urban ‘informal’ markets: reflections from case-studies of street vendors in delhi (india) and phnom penh city (cambodia), https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_bk_pb_132_en.pdf https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_bk_pb_132_en.pdf https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_bk_pb_132_en.pdf https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_bk_pb_132_en.pdf https://doi.org/10.2307/26915290 https://thewire.in/economy/street-vendors-act-implementation-gaps https://thewire.in/economy/street-vendors-act-implementation-gaps https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12031 https://kafila.online/2007/08/06/the-hafta-bazaars-of-delhi/ https://kafila.online/2007/08/06/the-hafta-bazaars-of-delhi/ https://thewire.in/culture/the-history-behind-delhis-weekly-bazaars https://thewire.in/culture/the-history-behind-delhis-weekly-bazaars https://thewire.in/urban/delhi-weekly-bazaars-villages https://thewire.in/urban/delhi-weekly-bazaars-villages https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/dwcms_080628.pdf https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/dwcms_080628.pdf https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/dwcms_080628.pdf https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_626831.pdf https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_626831.pdf https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_626831.pdf http://www.jstor.org/stable/4291274 http://www.jgu.edu.in/public/pdf/governing-dynamics-of-informal-markets-report.pdf http://www.jgu.edu.in/public/pdf/governing-dynamics-of-informal-markets-report.pdf https://cept.ac.in/userfiles/file/cue/working%20papers/revised%20new/15cuewp15_vendors%20and%20informal%20sector%20-%20a%20case-study%20of%20street%20vendors%20of%20surat%20city.pdf https://cept.ac.in/userfiles/file/cue/working%20papers/revised%20new/15cuewp15_vendors%20and%20informal%20sector%20-%20a%20case-study%20of%20street%20vendors%20of%20surat%20city.pdf https://cept.ac.in/userfiles/file/cue/working%20papers/revised%20new/15cuewp15_vendors%20and%20informal%20sector%20-%20a%20case-study%20of%20street%20vendors%20of%20surat%20city.pdf https://cept.ac.in/userfiles/file/cue/working%20papers/revised%20new/15cuewp15_vendors%20and%20informal%20sector%20-%20a%20case-study%20of%20street%20vendors%20of%20surat%20city.pdf https://cept.ac.in/userfiles/file/cue/working%20papers/revised%20new/15cuewp15_vendors%20and%20informal%20sector%20-%20a%20case-study%20of%20street%20vendors%20of%20surat%20city.pdf https://doi.org/10.1108/ijssp-07-2020-0285 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijssp-07-2020-0285 https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247816653898 120 cities, 89, 120-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.01.010 39. shah, a., & khadiya, h.(2020). covid-19: a shockwave for street vendors in india. social policy association. available at http://www.socialpolicy.org.uk/spa-blog/covid-19-a-shockwave-forstreet-vendors-in-india-by-shah-and-khadiya/ 40. sundaram, s. (2008). national policy for urban street vendors and its impact. economic and political weekly, 43(43), 22-25. available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/40278095 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.01.010 http://www.social-policy.org.uk/spa-blog/covid-19-a-shockwave-for-street-vendors-in-india-by-shah-and-khadiya/ http://www.social-policy.org.uk/spa-blog/covid-19-a-shockwave-for-street-vendors-in-india-by-shah-and-khadiya/ http://www.social-policy.org.uk/spa-blog/covid-19-a-shockwave-for-street-vendors-in-india-by-shah-and-khadiya/ http://www.jstor.org/stable/40278095 11 academic aspect of the leather industry: an interpretation from the perspective of business science assist. prof. dr. hatice er tekirdağ namık kemal university, çorlu vocational school, her@nku.edu.tr article history: submission 01 november 2020 revision 20 october 2020 accepted 27 february 2021 available online 30 april 2021 keywords: leather industry, business science, meta-analysis. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i1.205 a b s t r a c t in the leather industry, a production process that is the subject of many different disciplines is dominant. many studies on these branches of science have examined the sector in detail in terms of production. on the other hand, studies dealing with the sector in terms of business administration department and sub-disciplines are not common. in this study, academic publications examining the relationship between the leather industry and the business administration department are the subjects. 98 scientific studies obtained after the search in the web of science database were examined in terms of the form of publication, the year of publication, the country where the publication was made and the sub-disciplines of the business department. 1. introduction leather is one of the first materials used by man to meet his needs. while it was used for covering purposes in primitive ages, it became a strategically important material as scabbard, stirrup and quiver in wars. leather industry, is supplying the raw materials necessary for the production of the livestock sector. raw leather is a byproduct of prime importance among the by-products of meat production. leather and leather products sector has its own characteristics or differences according to many sectors (leather and leather products sector report western black sea development agency; december 2012). leather and leather products are among the most traded products worldwide and are based on a renewable and readily available resource. it is estimated that international trade exceeds 80 billion dollars annually, and it is expected that developing and emerging countries will continue to become a member with the increase in population and urbanization. considering this great importance of the sector, its relationship with many disciplines in scientific terms is clearly visible. it is known that this sector, which is indispensable for the disciplines of animal husbandry chemistry, management, economy, finance and marketing, is the subject of many scientific researches. the aim of this study is to examine the studies that deal with the sector scientifically in terms of business science and sub-disciplines other than livestock and chemistry. for the purposes of this article, we would like not only to look at what happens in a tannery from raw hide to finished leather, but also to consider the long journey of raw material to the finished product (handbag, car seats, gloves, or shoes) and the disciplines it needs in this journey. 2. leather industry leather and leather products manufacturing industry covers the production of skins and furs of all kinds of animals, especially the raw hides obtained from animals slaughtered for their meat. the leather industry has a feature unlike any other industry. this feature is directly related to the unique texture of the leather, which is the raw material of the industry, and its ability to maintain this texture until it is consumed. at the same time, the https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:her@nku.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i1.205 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2125-7406 12 supply of quality raw materials is of particular importance. for this reason, the leather industry can determine its profitability in the long term. leather and leather products manufacturing industry; it operates in a wide range of production ranging from tanning and leather processing, from raw leather to artificial leather, from leather chemicals to leather garments, from shoes to footwear sub-industry, leather goods, leather clothing, sheepskin goods, and also includes main branches and sub-sectors that show quite different characteristics. . the food and agriculture organization (fao) collects the leathers and hides that come into output by being included in this process in 14 categories: bovine hides and hides, calf hides and hides, buffalo hides and hides, sheep hides and hides, karakul hides and hides, goat skins. and hides, pig hides and hides, horse hides and hides, mule hides and hides, camel hides and hides, rabbit hides and hides, fur, other hides and skins (www.fao.org). from this point of view, the sector's value chain becomes important. one way to look at this is by examining what is called the value chain. the value chain looks at the value added activities within a business. it defines 'primary activities' in inbound logistics, production, outbound logistics, sales and marketing, and service (maintenance). "support activities" include administration, personnel, r&d and purchasing. most management tools such as management by objectives, business process engineering, and product life cycles have been developed by academics in the last fifty years (redwood, 2006) . value z fig was described and popularized in 1985 by professor michael porter of harvard university. the global leather value chain begins with animal husbandry and ends with leather goods manufacturing. bovine hides, sheep and goat hides are the main hides used, and leather is processed in tanneries before becoming accessories such as shoes, clothes and bags and belts. leather is also used for technical products and upholstery (memedovic & mattila, 2008). the leather value chain, in other words, the processes required for raw leather to become a wearable leather product, are summarized as follows by memedovic (2005). figure 1. leather value chain accordingly, the process begins with the recovery of the hides and skins of animals slaughtered in slaughterhouses. this is followed by the transformation of leather and hides into leather in tanneries. in other words, the process starts on a farm and ends with consumer or industrial products. as can be seen from the value chain, creating value in the leather industry requires full management skills. it is clear that the process is closely related to every field of business management, from pre-production idea to after-sales service. 2.1. leather industry and business science globally, the value chain of the leather sector is in a rather complex form. quality raw material is the prerequisite for the best quality leather product and in this context it is in close relationship with the livestock sector. in other words, its main input is based on animal production rates and the ability to collect and maintain hides. in another sense, it can be said that the leather industry is in close relationship with meat production. therefore, it is very meaningful to evaluate together with these two main sectors with which it is in relation, and to deal more intensely with these two main sectors of academic studies. on the other hand, additional features such as high production skills, design knowledge, computer-aided design systems, branding and marketing are required in the shoe, leather clothing and goods sector. for this reason, this particular sector should be considered academically in terms of business science. 2.2. leather industry and finance-economy leather industry with high added value is very important for turkey's economy because it contains the largest product exports. turkish leather sector, in terms of export potential is considered as one of the leading sectors of turkey's economy. when evaluated in an industrial sense, the leather sector is among the main sectors that are seriously affected by the cyclical 13 fluctuations in the economy (yamamoto and şekeroğlu, 2011). from this point of view, it is seen that the sector is in a close relationship with economy, finance and accounting disciplines. it is clear that quite high fixed investment costs will be needed in the leather value chain process. covering the fixed investment cost will be through long-term liabilities or equity in terms of accounting. this situation confronts companies in the leather industry with important questions of finance science such as finding financing resources, ensuring that the costs of these resources are kept at a minimum and transferring the funds obtained to the right investments. undoubtedly, the most basic income of a profit-making firm will come from its sales revenue. however, in the current capitalintensive production situation and in production units where fixed costs are high, it will be difficult to reduce unit costs and hence achieve high profits. in this sense, improvements in the leather value chain seem inevitable. on the other hand, the general trend towards the leather industry in the world is environmental approaches. environmental approaches are generally accepted as factors that increase the unit cost. improvement in the leather value chain should be understood as moving to activities that offer higher survival opportunities and higher returns. higher returns can be achieved by shifting production to higher priced products or acquiring new functions in the value chain, such as participating in design and marketing. indeed, gereffi (1999) defines industrial development as the process of improving a firm's ability to become more profitable, technologically sophisticated, and serve more capital and technology-intensive market niches. 2.3. leather industry and marketing in today's conditions, while the turkish leather industry has serious knowledge of production, changing world and consumer preferences and trends have made it necessary for consumers to adopt different expectations and develop new products with different characteristics. however, only product-oriented studies are not enough for companies to survive. marketing activities should be improved, but should be carried out at minimum cost considering the current conditions (yamamoto, şekeroğlu and bayramoğlu, 2011). leather z value of the figs in the call and the different stages of the marketing of the final product, is the key to success in the modern business leather products. at the global level, market knowledge and complex supply chain for both ri mechanism to manage to have a broad network of sales channels that allow them to serve customers on time and must be exercised (memedovic and mattila, 2008). at the top of the value chain, design and marketing are very important to gain competitive advantage. however, these activities tend to be controlled by leading companies in the chain, putting leather manufacturers in developing countries in a difficult position. because leather sector companies operating in developing countries lack the necessary knowledge, experience and management skills in determining the target market, making production suitable for the market, sales and after-sales service. marketing activities in the leather sector are as critical as companies in the global competitive environment. it is extremely important to compare international activities, monitor the activities of competitors, adopt models from other countries' best practices and improve marketing activities. following marketing activities and current general trends, marketing and promotional activities using various electronic media are among the issues that need to be followed meticulously in the leather industry (yamamoto, şekeroğlu, & bayramoğlu, 2011). 2.4. leather industry and corporate social responsibility at the point we have reached today, no sector or any business is in a position to stay away from global climate problems. no one should be optimistic that "this issue is too far from me" or "the blessing of the world is inexhaustible." serious global problems ranging from global warming anxiety to pollution issues, energy conservation, personal fitness and obesity are problems that require everyone and everybody to take responsibility. the leather industry has to do its part in this regard. we do not think the world has enough time left for the industry to say 'we are special; this does not concern us. when we consider all the problems we face globally in terms of the manufacturing industry, it is seen that consumers also impose certain sanctions on businesses. these sanctions are more related to supply and demand rather than being legal. for example, a group of consumers defined as lohas can be considered within this scope. in the usa alone, lifestyles of health and sustainability (lohas) defines a us $ 270 billion market for goods and services focused on health, environment, social justice, personal development and sustainable living. consumers who are interested in this market en masse " cultural creatives " as it is referred to, and represent a fairly large group is. about 30 percent of adults in the us, or 50 to 60 million people, are currently considered lohas consumers (redwood, 2006). while it is so essential for all sectors, all businesses and all consumers to act with a common consciousness, it would be wrong to put the responsibility only on businesses. because the cost increases that businesses will bear due to some new 14 regulations are a step to solve our global problems, but the prices that have to increase due to the increasing costs will directly affect the consumers. in this sense, it is essential to make the necessary arrangements to fulfill corporate social responsibilities, especially for public institutions, regardless of the sector. due to the natural structure of the leather industry, its close relationship with the livestock sector, which plays an important role in the ecological system, requires the leather industry to pay more attention to the issue. because the negative effect of animals hunted for their fur or skin on the ecological balance is obvious. 3. application 3.1. method due to the importance of the leather industry in exports and national economies, the term "leather sector" has been handled from the perspective of sub-disciplines in the field of business administration. management disciplines, which are seen as constraints, are covered under the basic headings of finance and accounting, marketing and management organization. 3.2. constraints the web of science database was scanned to reveal only relevant articles as "leather industry" keyword. the years 2000-2020 were preferred as the publication year range. the fields of "business, management and accounting", "marketing" and "economics, econometrics and finance" were included in order to separate the search results from zoology, chemistry and other related literature, which are the origin of leather, and focus only on business and its sub-branches. 98 publications were accessed through the web of science database within the framework of the specified restrictions. 4. results 4.1. descriptive statistics of the 98 publications reached within the scope of the study, 77 were published as articles, 1 3 as papers presented at congresses or conferences, and 8 were published as books and book chapters (graphic 1; b=book or book chapter, j=journal article, s=statement). graphic 1. publication type publication years of 98 publications are shown in graphic 2. according to this, the years 2017, 2018 and 2019 draw attention according to the number of scientific studies conducted with the leather sector in terms of business administration. it was determined that there were 10 publications in 2017, 12 in 2018 and 11 in 2019. graphic 2. number of publications by years when the distribution of 98 publications included in the study by countries is examined, the distribution of the publications is shaped as shown in figure 1. countries with less than 4 broadcasts were not considered in the list led by india, china and the uk. figure 2. number of publications in terms of countries on the basis of universities, it is seen that only ege university has 2 publications in our country in universities that have 2 or more publications. 15 figure 3. number of publications in terms of universities the main purpose of the study is to determine to what extent the scientific studies on the leather sector are handled together with the business discipline and horse disciplines. when viewed for this purpose (figure 3), it is seen that most publications are under the titles of management and operation. considering the importance of the sector in exports and imports, the number of publications in economics and finance disciplines becomes important. figure 4. number of publications in terms of business discipline and sub-disciplines considering all the results, it is striking that the number of joint scientific publications in the leather industry and business are insufficient. 16 5. article data the author, title and summary information of 98 publications considered within the scope of the study are as follows. p u b li c a ti o n t y p e author full names article title abstract j o u r n a l a r ti c le kittikunchotiwut, ploychompoo the roles of organizational learning capability and firm innovation in the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and firm performance this research aims to examine the relationships among entrepreneurial orientation, organizational learning capability, firm innovation, and firm performance. to achieve a data collection, a mail survey procedure via questionnaire was implemented by using executives or managers of gems & jewelry industries, textile and clothing industries, leather and accessories, fashion apparel industries in thailand as the key informants. of the surveys completed and returned, 388 were usable. hence, a model with a structural equation was used to evaluate the data survey of 388 respondents. the results reveal that, in terms of the mediating effect, organizational learning capacity and firm innovation can complement each other in order to improve entrepreneurial orientation. findings show that entrepreneurial orientation improves firm innovation, which in turn improves firm efficiency. firm innovation acts as a variable mediating between enterprise orientation and firm performance. our findings contribute to the current emergence of organizational learning capacity that mediated the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and firm performance. entrepreneurial orientation is normally a firm performance that enterprises develop which can have use the information available and make an impact. it can be considered through the mediation of organizational learning capability, and firm innovation variable and as stated in previous literature, it can influence firm performance. j o u r n a l p a p e r karaosman, hakan; perry, patsy; brun, alessandro; moralesalonso, gustavo behind the runway: extending sustainability in luxury fashion supply chains from a resource-based view, this paper investigates sustainability integration across multiple tiers in two italian luxury supply chains producing fashion and leather footwear, a complex and fragmented industry sector that is highly dependent upon raw materials and a human skills base. qualitative in-depth interview data were collected from senior industry informants within 10 businesses, spanning multiple supply chain tiers. industry practices are systematically decomposed into product, process and supply chain levels to analyze supply chain sustainability. findings reveal that product-level practices focused on raw materials more than design initiatives, with operational benefits of cost reduction and market benefits of consumer valueadd. process-level practices in water and energy reduction were motivated by cost reduction benefits more than environmental concerns. at supply chain level, traceability projects and supplier audits were limited by a lack of end-to-end supply chain visibility, despite the criticality of raw materials and evidence of close and long-term trading relationships. supply chain transparency and supplier engagement are critical areas for development. both technical and relational resources must be developed across supply networks. current practices are geared towards reducing negative impacts associated with current operations, falling short of the radical strategies needed to address root causes and embrace sustainability at large. j o u r n a l a r ti c le boffelli, albachiara; golini, ruggero; orzes, guido; dotti, stefano open the box: a behavioural perspective on the reshoring decision-making and implementation process in the realm of manufacturing location decisions, reshoring has increasingly attracted the attention of practitioners, policy makers and scholars. while many articles have analyzed the drivers of reshoring decisions, the decision-making and implementation process still lacks empirical analyses. this paper addresses this gap with a grounded theory approach, in particular, through an iterative process going back and forth between the theoretical and empirical worlds. by analysing four cases from the textile-clothing-leather-footwear industry, we demonstrate that the process characteristics are affected by the behavioral features of the decision itself, such as rationality, complexity and anchoring. our study highlights the relevance of the behavioral approach in reshoring decisions and provides evidence of many challenges that managers should be prepared to face. it further offers advice to policy makers, warning them about the dark side of reshoring and emphasizing their role in supporting companies to take structured rather than intuitive sub-optimal decisions. 17 j o u r n a l a r ti c le al hasnawi, hussien hurajah; abbas, ali abdulhassan workplace ostracism as a mediating variable in the relationship between paradoxical leader behaviors and organizational inertia background and purpose: many organizations suffer from an increased in the paradoxical behaviors of leaders, leading to followers to feel lonely and the workplace ostracism, which negatively effects the emergence of organizational inertia. the main purpose of this study is to examine direct and indirect effect of paradoxical leader behaviors on organizational inertia through the mediating role of the workplace ostracism. design / methodology / approach: using the convenience sampling technique, a self-administered survey was conducted at the level of a sample (n = 564) of employees in the factories of the state company for textile and leather industry in iraq. structural equation modeling (sem) was employed to test the proposed research model using the amos v.24 software. results: the findings revealed that paradoxical leader behaviors have a significant effect on workplace ostracism and organizational inertia. further, workplace ostracism significant effect on organizational inertia. in addition, the study empirically supports the mediating effect of workplace ostracism on the relationship between paradoxical leader behaviors and organizational inertia. conclusion: when paradoxical behaviors arise in the behavior of an organization's leaders, it will have an influence on the emergence of workplace ostracism amongst employees, hence the subsequent emergence of organizational inertia in general in the work environment. based on these results, this study should be of help to leaders in avoiding paradoxical behaviors in terms of maintaining a certain equilibrium in dealing with employees to find a positive work environment that reduces staff ostracism, and thus organizational inertia. j o u r n a l a r ti c le djastuti, indi; rahardjo, susilo toto; perdhana, rvvan surya; daryono; supriyati , sri internationalization model for increasing the competitiveness of local creative industries in asean economy community the main problem in this study is the weak performance of smes. this can be caused by business culture factors (market orientation and entrepreneurial orientation) as well as competitive strategy factor in smes. the research problem raised was how the effect of market orientation, entrepreneurial orientation, and competitive strategy on sme performance. the purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of market orientation, entrepreneurial orientation, and competitive strategy on sme performance. the research sample was 100 creative industry smes in special region of central java province with business field of handicrafts (various handicrafts of silver, natural fibers, earthenware, leather, and wood) and fashion business field (various batik). hypothesis testing used path analysis. the results show that there is a positive and significant influence between market orientation and entrepreneurial orientation on competitive strategy (differentiation, low cost, and focus strategies). market orientation and entrepreneurial orientation have a positive effect on sme performance. competitive strategies (differentiation, low costs, and focus strategies) have a positive effect on sme performance. entrepreneurial orientation has a higher direct influence than market orientation. j o u r n a l a r ti c le shafique, imran; saeed, munazza linking elements of entrepreneurial orientation and firm performance: examining the moderation of environmental dynamism this research is designed to examine the impact of elements of entrepreneurial orientation (eo) on firm performance by considering environmental dynamism as a potential moderator. data was gathered from 143 textile and leather manufacturing small and medium-sized enterprises (smes) in pakistan. partial least square (pls) was employed to analyze the hypotheses. the findings reveal that eo elements positively affect firm performance directly, except in the case of reactiveness. however, the nexus between the elements of eo and firm performance are also positively moderated by the environmental dynamics. managers can exploit the eo elements according to the environmental situation of the industry. further, scholars can comprehend better the eo-firm performance link by considering the environmental dynamism of the industry. innovativeness, reactiveness and risk-taking as distinctive eo elements are hypothesized and their individual effects on firm performance analyzed considering the environmental dynamism as a potential moderator. j o u r n a l a r ti c le eyasu,anteneh mulugeta; endale, mamenie corporate social responsibility in agro-processing and garment industry: evidence from ethiopia currently, large industries like agro-processing and garment (textile and leather) industries in ethiopia have interested to implement csr activities. hence, this study examined the causal relationship between stakeholders 'and csr implementation in agro-processing and garment industries based on employees' perceptions. after reviewing several works of literature we developed csr implementation measurements. for analysis of csr implementation, a total of 891 respondents were taken from agro-processing and garment industries of the amhara region, ethiopia. then we applied frequency, percentage, confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation model for this data analysis. the empirical result showed that environment, customer, owner / shareholder, community have a significant positive effect on csr implementation in agroprocessing and garment industries. however, it was also confirmed that employees have a negative significant effect on csr implementation. consider identified evidence of determinant factors of csr implementation, managers of agro-processing and garment industries should take actions to improve csr implementation and to alleviate those problems. 18 j o u r n a l a r ti c le rivera godoy, jorge alberto accounting performance and eva in the sme of the leather, footwear and leather goods industry in colombia this article presents the results of an investigation that aims to evaluate the financial performance of the sme of the leather, footwear, and leather goods sector in colombia in the period 2010-2016, by means of a study that follows as a methodology the analysis of accounting indicators and economic value added that measure its growth, efficiency, and effectiveness. the research showed that this sector's sme generates accounting returns in the period, which are superior in small business because they have greater efficiency in the administration of production and sales costs. and greater efficiency in the use of the assets and positive financial leverage. smes destroy economic value added (eva) in each of the years; however, small business is the one that least destroys eva for each monetary unit invested. this destruction of value is due to the fact that the cost of financial resources is higher than the operating income after taxes. these findings will be strengthened with similar studies for more homogeneous smes in age and geographic location. j o u r n a l a r ti c le gupta, sandeep kumar; gupta, sanjeev veera tanneries private limited: an indian leather enterprise's drive towards sustainability it is essential to monitor the development of resource and pollution intensive industries such as textile, leather, pharmaceutical etc., under burgeoning pressure of environmental compliance. keeping the above-mentioned objective in mind, the case analyzes the sustainability strategies of a leading leather enterprise in india veera tanneries private limited. veera has undertaken initiatives to determine how it should address sustainability challenges to reduce environmental impact and ensure business growth. a discussion on such a problem would allow the case to look at the company's motivations for adopting ecofriendly measures in the indian leather industry (to address sustainability), the potential impact on business performance of such measures, for instance increasing cost to production and other business strategies to support the company's growth. j o u r n a l a r ti c le sato, andre kubagawa; martins, thiago castro; gomes, antonio miguel; guerra tsuzuki, marcos sales raster penetration map applied to the irregular packing problem among the most complex problems in the field of 2-dimensional cutting & packing are irregular packing problems, in which items may have a more complex geometry. these problems are prominent in several areas, including, but not limited to, the textile, shipbuilding and leather industries. they consist in placing a set of items, whose geometry is often represented by simple polygons, into one or more containers such that there is no overlap between items and the utility rate of the container is maximized. in this work, the irregular strip packing problem, an irregular packing variant with a variable length container, is investigated. the placement space is reduced by adopting a rectangular grid and a full search is performed using preprocessed raster penetration maps to efficiently determine the new position of an item. tests were performed using simple dotted board model cases and irregular strip packing benchmark instances. the comparison of our results with the state of the art solutions showed that the proposed algorithm is very competitive, achieving better or equal compaction in 9 out of 15 instances and improving the average density in 13 instances. besides the contribution of the new best results, the proposed approach showed the advantage of adopting discrete placement, which can be potentially applied to other irregular packing problems. (c) 2019 elsevier bv all rights reserved. j o u r n a l a r ti c le filketu, sisay; dvivedi, akshay; abebe, birhanu beshah decision-making on job satisfaction improvement programs using fuzzy qfd model: a case study in ethiopia research interest in job satisfaction (js) seems solely focused on cause identification. understandings about solution proposals have not advanced at a pace commensurate with research efforts. the purpose of the current study is twofold. first, the study aims to propose the possible solutions for the improvement of js in the leather products manufacturing industry in ethiopia. second, the study aims to demonstrate the fuzzy quality function deployment (qfd) model in the sphere of js construct with an attempt to prioritise js improvement programmers. at first, to facilitate the main issue of the qfd problem, the 'whats' (ie js attributes) have been investigated, followed by identifying the 'hows' (ie js technical solutions) and proposing procedures for the use of a fuzzy qfd model. subsequently, a fuzzy relationship matrix (ie the house of quality) is constructed to link the whats and hows based on cross-functional expertise. then, the rank of hows for their order of implementation is identified. the successful application of the fuzzy qfd has provided an idea with attention focused on 'remuneration packages' followed by 'incentive packages' and then 'participating in decision-making'. this finding is important for the industry for making optimal decisions on the implementation of js improvement strategies. 19 j o u r n a l a r ti c le dwivedi, ashish; agrawal, dindayal; madaan, jitender sustainable manufacturing evaluation model focusing leather industries in india a tism approach purpose sustainability is an integrating concept and demands strategic attention in developing countries like india. due to strict environmental regulations and ongoing government sustainable policies such as namami gange, leather industries are extensively facing challenges to conform themselves toward these sustainable policies. the major challenge faced by leather industries is the exponentially increasing cost of adaptation to sustainable product and process. under these operational constraints, survival of indian leather industries has become a major challenge. in this context, this paper aims to identify and evaluate sustainable manufacturing policies. the key performance indicators (kpis) based on triple bottom line of sustainability can assist leather industries that are about to initiate adopting sustainable practices. design / methodology / approach this paper demonstrates the role of kpis for evaluating sustainable manufacturing policies for leather industries in india. initially, an in-depth literature review analysis has been carried out to identify indicators for evaluation of sustainable manufacturing policies. in this work, an integrated methodology has been developed to refine the priority map of the aforementioned kpis based on consensus building among experts using kappa analysis. total interpretive structural modeling (tism) has been used to demonstrate relationships which explain the significance of the kpis. further, matriced impact croises multiplication applique analysis has been carried out to explore the relationships amongst kpis. findings based on above analysis, identified interactive relationships among the kpis will assist managers and decision-makers to incorporate effective sustainable policies in leather industries. originality / value this study carries out an in-depth literature review analysis of sustainable manufacturing policies in leather industry. the author proposes an integrated methodology using kappa analysis, consensus building and tism for evaluation of sustainable policies based on the literature review analysis and expert opinion. j o u r n a l a r ti c le gupta, sandeep kumar; gupta, shivam; dhamija, pavitra an empirical study on productivity analysis of indian leather industry purpose it is essential to track the development of resource and pollution intensive industries such as textile, leather, pharmaceutical, etc., under burgeoning pressure of environmental compliance. therefore, the purpose of this paper is to analyze the progress of indian leather industry in terms of individual factors and total factor productivity. design / methodology / approach this study applies and examines the various concepts of productivity such as labor productivity, capital productivity, material productivity and energy productivity. further, it assesses and compares the performance of indian leather industry in tamil nadu (tn), west bengal (wb) and uttar pradesh (up) based on productivity analysis, spatial variations determinants in productivity and technology closeness ratio. findings the findings suggest that as per the productivity analysis, wb leather clusters have performed remarkably better in terms of partial factor productivity and technical efficiency (te), followed by tn and up. this can be attributed to shifting of leather cluster of wb to a state-of art leather complex with many avenues for resource conservation. further, the findings reveal that the firm size and partial factor productivities have significant positive correlation with te which supports technological theory of the firm. practical implications the results of this study can be useful for the policy makers associated with the indian leather industry specially to design interventions to support capacity building at individual firm level as well as cluster level to enhance the efficiency and productivity of overall industry. social implications the findings also support the resource dependence theory of firm according to which the larger size firms should reflect on resource conservation practices, for instance the concept of prevention is better than cure based upon 3r (reduce, recycle and reuse) principles. originality / value the paper gives an explanation of the productivity in the leather industry in terms of its factor productivity and te. 20 j o u r n a l a r ti c le swiadek, arkadiusz; dzikowski, piotr; tomaszewski, marek; goraczkowska, jadwiga sectoral patterns of innovation cooperation in polish industry research background: contemporary research on industry concentrates on the relations between enterprises and their environment. research on industrial structures conducted throughout the world, including poland, are not extensive and limited due to the confidentiality of statistics. k. pavitt (1984) was the first researcher who evaluated the relationship between industry structure and innovation activity. according to pavitt, innovation dynamics and trajectory depend on the structure of domestic industry and is unique. in poland t. rachwal (2010) determined that over the studied years, changes in the indicator defining diversification in industrial divisions were minimal, but at the same time there was an observable fall in the importance of traditional divisions, such as the production of clothing, textiles, and the leather. in contrast, divisions as the production of metal, rubber, and plastic goods increased their share in terms of employees, as did furniture and vehicle manufacturing. purpose of the article: the purpose of the paper is to identify sectoral patterns of innovation cooperation as revealed by data on about 5209 polish enterprises. the authors attempt to find the answer to the following three questions: (1) is the domestic aggregation sufficient for stimulating innovation cooperation in the polish industry? (2) is there any sectoral heterogeneity in innovation cooperation? (3) are enterprises representing high technology industries the most involved in innovation cooperation? the main goal of the study was an attempt to seek out the directions and influence of various industries on the innovation cooperation of enterprises in poland. methods: empirical data that served as the basis for conducting calculations were collected with the help of a questionnaire survey sent to industrial companies throughout poland. a total of 5,209 properly completed forms were collected. the average rate of return was 11,6%. the collection was held over the years 2008-2013. the methodological part of the study was developed using the logistic regression method based on probability theory of the study. findings & value added: the study has shown that the higher the technology, the more often enterprises cooperate in the area of innovation. the research has not only shown the specifics of the domestic industrial system as well its level of technological advancement, but it has also taken into account the significance and input into the analyzed system. j o u r n a l a r ti c le de klerk, helena m .; kearns, madelein; redwood, mike controversial fashion, ethical concerns and environmentally significant behavior the case of the leather industry purpose the purpose of this paper to report on the role of luxury value perceptions and ethical concerns in consumers' environmentally significant behavior and purchase intent for genuine leather products. design / methodology / approach nonprobability sampling was done and 429 south african males and females, aged 26 years and older and who fell in a household income bracket that allowed them to purchase genuine leather products, completed a structured questionnaire during september 2016. the study determined that south african consumers' strong functional and individual luxury value perceptions drive their above-average purchase intent for genuine leather products. strong individual value perceptions correlated negatively with their purchase intent. respondents' expressed strong ethical concerns but almost never participate in environmentally significant behavior. originality / value this study was the first of its kind about the multi-cultural south african leather market's luxury value perceptions, ethical concerns and environmentally significant behavior. b o o k / b o o k c h a p te r liliana serrano-junco, claudia; lucelly urregomarin, maria; salcedomojica, jesus how the knowledge management impacts small and medium-sized enterprises (smes) of the footwear industry in bogota, colombia the phenomenon of globalization has generated that competitiveness will be one of the main concerns for organizations in the business ecosystem because it will depend on their long-term sustainability. in that sense, this article presents the impact of knowledge management on smes in the footwear sector in the rafael uribe uribe, antonio narino and tunjuelito locations in the city of bogota. this research is exploratory, where initially the theoretical framework is exposed, followed by the methodology. the results are in the final section, where it points out the profound lacks of the knowledge management in the leather and footwear sectors of three locations under study, thus leading to a reflection on the need to implement a road map to increase productivity in the light of knowledge management. j o u r n a l a r ti c le horvathova, miroslava; lacko, roman; hajduova, zuzana using industry 4.0 concept digital twin to improve the efficiency of leather cutting in automotive industry purpose: the aim of this study is to propose alternatives of increasing the efficiency of material selection and processing in the selected company and reduce costs and leather sustainability as a result. methodology / approach: in this case study, an automotive company processing a natural leather material that enters the process of a large-scale production was explored. for this purpose, the internal documents of the firm selected including its internal database and know-how of its employees were used. the ways of improving the efficiency of the material processing were proposed and tested in a digital environment. in the proposed solutions, industry 4.0 principles were implemented. findings: by the use of digital twin and other industry 4.0 principles and solutions in the process of material selection and processing in the company selected, the increased efficiency and cost savings were achieved. research limitation / implication: the solutions proposed in this paper were based on exploration of the chosen data set of the selected company. for the future research, testing of the given proposals in other companies should be conducted. originality / value of paper: although there is an increasing number of publications describing the concept industry 4.0, the research providing evidence of its benefits for business entities is still scarce. this paper offers such a research in the enterprise selected. category: case study 21 j o u r n a l a r ti c le lee, minjung; karpova, elena; baytar, fatma the effects of information on young consumers' attitudes and purchase intentions of fashion products made of fur, leather, and wool the purpose of this study was to examine how sidedness of information affects consumer attitudes, subjective norms, and purchase intentions of fashion goods made of fur, leather, and wool. an experimental study using a randomized multi-group design with four levels of treatment was conducted. participants (n = 1,533) were assigned to read one of four product information texts before completing an online survey. participants' attitude and subjective norms toward purchasing fashion products made of fur, leather, and wool were significantly different depending on whether they were exposed to: (1) one-sided information against using animal-based materials, (2) one-sided information promoting use of animal-based materials, (3) twosided information presenting both sides; or (4) information not related to fashion products made of animal-based materials (control group). the findings are useful for marketing professionals, consumers who want to make informed and unbiased purchase decisions, and fashion educators for developing curriculum to prepare ethical and responsible future industry professionals and implementing effective teaching strategies. j o u r n a l a r ti c le nam, changhyun; lee, young-a multilayered cellulosic material as a leather alternative in the footwear industry the purpose of this study was to develop a biodegradable material that could be used as a leather alternative material for the footwear industry, leading to reduce the negative environmental impact. using an experimental research design, the researchers developed a multilayered cellulosic material (mcm) by bonding nonwoven cellulosic fiber mat, denim fabric, and hemp fabric and examined its properties compared with those of two-layered leathers, consisting of calf and pigskins (multilayered calf and pigskin leather [mcpl]), often used in the footwear industry. we hypothesized these two materials would have similar properties. no significant mean differences were found between mcm and mcpl in total heat loss and break force. the values of air permeability, evaporative potential, and permeability index of mcm were higher than those of mcpl. the findings of this study confirm the effectiveness of mcm for use as a leather alternative material when developing sustainable shoes and provide insights to the footwear industry. j o u r n a l a r ti c le nestic; danijel; babic, zdenko; buric, sanja blaievic minimum wage in croatia: sectoral and regional perspectives in this paper, we identify the sectors and regions in croatia most affected by minimum wage changes. by using four criteria, we identify 13 low-wage sectors. the analysis also reveals five regions (counties) in which the minimum wage can play an important role. low-wage sectors in croatia are found to be manufacture of textiles, manufacture of clothing, manufacture of leather and related products, manufacture of wood and of products of wood, manufacture of rubber and plastic products, manufacture of furniture, construction of buildings, specialized construction activities, retail trade, food and beverage services, security and investigation activities, services to buildings (cleaning etc.) and personal services. we analyze the employment and wage changes for these low-wage sectors in the period 2009-2015. it turns out that tradable low-wage sectors are highly affected by minimum wage changes due to a high concentration of employees with wages just above the minimum wage. however, during the recession, these sectors had a smaller employment decline and higher wage growth compared with both the manufacturing industry as a whole and non-tradable low-wage sectors. j o u r n a l a r ti c le kusum, pp ajith; song yinghua how do entrepreneurs 'perceptions on innovation effect inindustry competitiveness and sustainability entrepreneurs' perceptions on innovations remain crucial in successfully facing competitiveness challenges in industry enterprises that produce range of products in economies in transition all over the world. economies transit from factor driven to efficiency driven in which use of modern technology increases. this paper explores the effects of entrepreneurs' perceptions on product innovations which have impact on industry enterprises sustainability in leather products and footwear industry of sri lanka. this country is in transition from factor driven production process towards efficiency driven production processes based on technology. an expert reviewed and piloted questionnaire was used to gather primary data related to entrepreneurs' perceptions and competitiveness of enterprises in the industry. the research has found that the majority of entrepreneurs do not have an intention to engage in new product innovations in near future. they use designs already available which lead to competiveness and sustainability issues in this industry. level of innovations and use of internet for routine business activities in enterprises in the industry remains low. no similar research study done before in this industry thus the study is an original work which adds knowledge for academic and development purposes 22 j o u r n a l a r ti c le brautigam, deborah; weis, toni; tang, xiaoyang latent advantage, complex challenges: industrial policy and chinese linkages in ethiopia's leather sector industrial policy is back on the african policy agenda, with a number of countries following new strategies for rapid industrialization. none have done so more eagerly than ethiopia. the present paper draws on justin yifu lin's framework of new structural economics to assess ethiopia's industrial policies and engagement in the leather industry. making use of two rounds of semi-structured interviews (2012 and 2015) with all of the foreign firms and more than a dozen local firms in the leather sector, as well as other key stakeholders, it examines seven steps the government took to build the industrial policy: create a high-level focus on the sector; make strategic use of international development partners; attract a lead goose (chinese) in the footwear sector; build government capacity to support the sector; strengthen business associations; shock-to-shape upgrading; improve input supply. ultimately, while government interventions have led to improvements across several steps of the value chain, the paper identifies a number of factors that have prevented the country from fully realizing a latent comparative advantage in the leather sector. (c) 2017 pedl private enterprise development in low-income countries cepr / dfid joint research initiative. published by elsevier inc. j o u r n a l a r ti c le lopez-hurtado, jonnathan; rojas-santoyo, francisca; carolina elizalde-bobadilla, lucy recurrent practices to generate innovation based on non-r & d capabilities in the leather, footwear, and leather goods industry the purpose of this work is to develop a theoretical and practical proposal for the analysis of innovation that, in organizations, can be generated by alternative or different routes to research and development (r&d). based on an exploratory study with a qualitative approach, the theoretical bases on non-r & d innovation are proposed, in which activities, capacities, and mechanisms are considered to establish an interaction with the internal and external environment. subsequently, in a fieldwork phase in the leather goods and footwear sector in bogota, colombia, the application of theoretical assumptions in the organizational reality was validated, finding recognition of knowledge, technology, and design activities, as sources of innovation. in contrast, a low perception about associativity was found as an input for the generation or incorporation of innovation. j o u r n a l a r ti c le gupta, sandeep; gupta, shivam; dhamija, pavitra; bag, surajit sustainability strategies in the indian leather industry: an empirical analysis purpose burgeoning challenges of climate change and poverty alleviation across many parts of the world have enforced the policy makers and researchers to develop an alternate system for performance assessment of an individual, a country, and a corporate. the purpose of this paper is to analyze the sustainability strategies of three leading states in the indian leather industry tamil nadu (tn), west bengal (wb) and uttar pradesh (up) to gain insights into their efforts and progress in generating economic, social, and environmental values. design / methodology / approach this study used case study approach for investigative analysis, and triangulation method interviews and field visits, for data verification. the study examines the various sustainability strategies by applying economic value creation (evaluation of growth in total turnover, evaluation of the growth in profitability, evaluation of leverage), social value creation (evaluation of the growth in wages, evaluation of the growth in employee welfare expenses), and environmental value creation (conservation in raw material consumption, conservation in energy consumption, evaluation of waste management practices). findings the findings reveal that the three states differ significantly from each other both in terms of efforts made and progress achieved during the period of study, 19982013. up seems to be making the most consistent progress in achieving economic value, while wb shows the most progress in creating social value, and tn leads the pack in terms of creating environmental value. thus, the three leading states in the indian leather industry have been allowing trade-offs to get competitive advantage over others. research limitations / implications the opaqueness with which the indian leather industry conducts social and environmental practices clearly limits the sources of accurate and reliable data, and the ability of researchers to precisely identify the problems and suggest solutions. practical implications the opaqueness with which the indian leather industry conducts social and environmental practices clearly impacts the policy makers, practitioners, and researchers to continue such initiatives and improve the lives of people in india for whom continuing this profession is a big challenge and a hurdle to accomplish their livelihood. originality / value the paper gives a theoretical explanation of the sustainability in the leather industry with respect to its strategies in terms of economic value, social value, and environmental value. 23 j o u r n a l a r ti c le wahga, aqueel imtiaz; blundel, richard; schaefer, anja understanding the drivers of sustainable entrepreneurial practices in pakistan's leather industry: a multi-level approach purpose the purpose of this paper is to analyze the drivers of sustainable entrepreneurial practices in smes operating in a developing economy. the secondary objectives are to explore the relationship between these drivers and to draw out the implications for policy and practice. design / methodology / approach the paper is informed by the literature on sustainable entrepreneurship, and on the drivers of pro-environmental practices in smes. it reports on the results of an intensive multilevel empirical study, which investigates the environmental practices of smes in pakistan's leatherworking industry using a multiple case study design and grounded analysis, which draws on relevant institutional theory. findings the study identifies that coercive, normative and mimetic isomorphic pressures simultaneously drive sustainable entrepreneurial activity in the majority of sample smes. these pressures are exerted by specific micro-, mesoand macro-level factors, ranging from international customers' requirements to individual-level values of owners and managers. it also reveals the catalytic effect of the educational and awareness-raising activities of intermediary organizations, in tandem with the attraction of competitiveness gains, (international) environmental regulations, industrial dynamism and reputational factors. practical implications the evidence suggests that, in countries where formal institutional mechanisms have less of an impact, intermediary organizations can perform a proto-institutional role that helps to overcome pre-existing barriers to environmental improvement by sparking sustainable entrepreneurial activity in sme populations. originality / value the findings imply that the drivers of sustainable entrepreneurial activity do not operate in a piecemeal fashion, but that particular factors mediate the emergence and development of other sustainability drivers. this paper provides new insights into sustainable entrepreneurship and motivations for environmental practices in an under-researched developing economy context. b o o k / b o o k c h a p te r wahga, aqueel i .; blundel, richard k .; schaefer, anja case study: human capital and environmental engagement of smes in pakistan a comparative analysis of the leather industry the purpose of this paper is to analyse the drivers of sustainable entrepreneurial practices in smes operating in a developing economy. the secondary objectives are to explore the relationship between these drivers and to draw out the implications for policy and practice. the paper is informed by the literature on sustainable entrepreneurship, and on the drivers of proenvironmental practices in smes. it reports on the results of an intensive multi-level empirical study, which investigates the environmental practices of smes in pakistan’s leatherworking industry using a multiple case study design and grounded analysis, which draws on relevant institutional theory. the study identifies that coercive, normative and mimetic isomorphic pressures simultaneously drive sustainable entrepreneurial activity in the majority of sample smes. these pressures are exerted by specific micro-, mesoand macro-level factors, ranging from international customers’ requirements to individual-level values of owners and managers. it also reveals the catalytic effect of the educational and awareness-raising activities of intermediary organisations, in tandem with the attraction of competitiveness gains, (international) environmental regulations, industrial dynamism and reputational factors. c o n fe r e n c e p a p e r lim, heejin thematic analysis of youtube comments on disclosure of animal cruelty in a luxury fashion supply chain while consumers' increasing demands for luxury leather goods drives luxury brands to secure supplies of exotic and highquality animal skins, animal welfare activists have attempted to raise the public's awareness of cruelty in the luxury fashion supply chains. adopting the attribution theory, this study aims to uncover the pattern of consumers' responses to the issue of animal cruelty in the luxury fashion industry. data were collected from consumers 'responses to animal cruelty as revealed in peta (people of ethical treatment of animal)' s video on youtube. data analysis revealed distinct blame attributions and coping strategies, which depend heavily on viewers' attitude toward the video content. findings from this study suggest that consumers' blame attributions are dispersed among different stakeholders, with luxury fashion brands and their customers treated as the causes of animal cruelty, slaughterhouse workers, and humans in general treated as perpetrators, and peta and commenters that support peta's message treated as accusers. implications for the luxury fashion business and animal welfare promotion are discussed. j o u r n a l a r ti c le addis, sisay; dvivedi, akshay; beshah, birhanu determinants of job satisfaction in ethiopia: evidence from the leather industry purpose the purpose of this paper is to identify the contextual work factors in ethiopia and to evaluate the relative influence of each of these factors on job satisfaction (js) of employees. design / methodology / approach the study draws on a sample of shop floor workers from the leather products manufacturing industry in ethiopia. data were collected using a structured survey questionnaire and focus group discussions. after testing scale reliability and validity, multiple linear regression was used for the analysis. findings the study results suggest that the js is mainly explained by extrinsic factors. pay is found to influence overall job satisfaction (ojs) at least four times of other work factors. training opportunity and ethnic diversity showed unexpected negative relationship with ojs. originality / value given the importance of understanding js in laborintensive industries, and paucity of research on the topic in ethiopia, the study provides practical insights and groundwork that can guide practitioners to understand the drivers of js in the region. moreover, the study adds to the empirical literature that may yield important insights on organizational behavior for under-researched emerging economies, particularly for the eastern part of africa, where nations share similar cross-cultural norms, economic and ethnic settings. 24 j o u r n a l a r ti c le xu, jiajun; hubbard, paul a flying goose chase: china's overseas direct investment in manufacturing (2011-2013) this paper examines whether rising wages have driven chinese manufacturers to make foreign direct investment abroad to reduce the costs of production. we match the chinese ministry of commerce's register of overseas direct investments with china's industrial enterprise survey data from 2011 to 2013 and annual average wage data for prefecture-level cities. although high-income developed economies are the preferred destinations for chinese manufacturing investment abroad, labor-intensive light manufacturing sectors related to the textiles, clothing and leather industries are focused on the low-income countries consistent with a 'flying goose' effect. but, these are only a small part of the chinese investment account for 6% of the number of matched official odi registrations. yet, it might be still too early to observe that rising factor prices are systematically driving investments offshore. b o o k / b o o k c h a p te r soleman ,lazar; subroto, athor development model for creative industry in indonesia: a case from leather craft cluster in magetan district by using system dynamic approach this study has a purpose of modeling the industrial leather craft cluster development by dynamics system approach. the construction of the model based on a research study by afonso, monteiro, & thompson (2012) that adopted in concept of creative industry development planning in indonesia with quad helix model approach for analyzing how the role and actors can influence the development of the industry. the actors of this approach are government, business, academic, and civil society. system dynamics approach is a way to analyze parts of the system that have interactions and emerges for specific goals. this study also takes insights from the diamond model of cluster development by porter (1998). small medium enterprises (smes) production influenced by the amount of desired production and capacity planning. the most business unit in the cluster industry has the form home industry or smes that have small to medium business scale. the simulation is run in 3 scenarios and compared with base scenario. thus, we found that labor availability and labor productivity are the primary dynamics source of the situation to develop the cluster. j o u r n a l a r ti c le park, yong an; medda, francesca romana spatial effects of container ports on production of the leather, bag and shoe industry in korea container port operations are widely regarded as being beneficial to regional economies, particularly in aggregated terms. the present paper examines this common knowledge in the specific case of the leather, bag and shoe industry in korea. the authors use two panel datasets of the industry, one dataset of 16 regions and the other dataset of enduring establishments from 1991 to 2011. in our analysis with panel data of the regions, the authors find that an increase of container throughput in ports affects production of the industry positively during the examined period. when dividing the examined period into two periods, the authors observe the negative effects during the period before 2003 and primarily in the groups of regions without large ports. the panel data model of enduring establishments presents a negative coefficient of port throughput on production. the contradictory results may be caused by the characteristics of the two different panels. j o u r n a l a r ti c le correa, santiago; parentelaverde, ana-maria consumer ethnocentrism, country image and local brand preference: the case of the colombian textile, apparel and leather industry the present article shows the relation that colombian consumer ethnocentrism has with country image and local brand preference in the textile, apparel and leather industry and it infers the possible implications this relation has when planning marketing strategies for the colombian market in such industry. this study follows an interpretative approach which included a survey of colombian consumers in antioquia. results show that (i) gender and age are not determinants of ethnocentric consumer tendencies, (ii) the less income a colombian person has, the more ethnocentric he / she is, (iii) consumer ethnocentrism does not have a universal pattern but varies from country to country, (iv) the more educated a colombian person is, the less ethnocentric he / she is, (v) the developed or developing condition of the countries where the consumer is from, is not a determining factor to conclude whether or not a consumer has a tendency towards ethnocentric behavior patterns and (vi) if a person has a positive image of his / her own country, he / she is likely to develop ethnocentric behavior patterns. this article contributes to filling the gap in the literature since it shows that ethnocentrism is positively related to preferences for local brands in colombia. j o u r n a l a r ti c le belvedere, valeria; goodwin, paul the influence of product involvement and emotion on short-term product demand forecasting sales forecasters in industries like fast-fashion face challenges posed by short and highly volatile sales time series. computers can produce statistical forecasts, but these are often adjusted judgmentally to take into account factors such as market intelligence. we explore the effects of two potential influences on these adjustments: the forecaster's involvement with the product category and their emotional reactions to particular products. two forecasting experiments were conducted using data from a major italian leather fashion goods producer. the participants' judgmental adjustments tended to lower the forecast accuracy, but especially when the participants had strong preferences for particular products. this appeared to result from a false consensus effect. the most accurate forecasts were made when the participants had no knowledge of the product and only received time series information, though a high level of involvement with the product category also led to a greater accuracy. (c) 2017 international institute of forecasters. published by elsevier bv all rights reserved. 25 j o u r n a l a r ti c le chakraborty, pavel; chatterjee, chirantan does environmental regulation indirectly induce upstream innovation? new evidence from india exploiting a quasi-natural experiment, which involves the imposition of a ban by germany in 1994 on an input ('azo-dyes') used by the indian leather and textile industries, we estimate the indirect impact of the environmental regulation on innovation activities of upstream (dye-producing) firms in india and examine how it varies by different firm characteristics: size and ownership. we find robust evidence of a significant increase (11-61%) in innovation expenditure for the dye-makers in response to the 'azo-dyes' ban. additionally, we find: (i) increase in technology transfer to the tune of 1.2-2.5 times more than that of internal r & d; (ii) increase in innovation expenditure with firm size; (iii) domestic firms investing more in technology transfer as compared to r&d, whereas foreign firms only undertaking the latter and (iv) decrease in investments towards innovation by downstream firms, thereby pointing towards a possible substitution effect in aggregate innovation by upstream firms. our results are consistent with a variety of estimation methods and robustness checks. (c) 2017 elsevier bv all rights reserved. j o u r n a l a r ti c le jorge, ricardo reolon; faco, julio fb; acacio, alexandre andrade credit risk transmission in supply chains this paper aims to analyze the potential credit risk transmission among commercial firms and industry of the brazilian leather footwear supply chain. the data correspond to the monthly average of the delinquency index. the analyzed period embraces january 2008 to july 2013. time series analysis, the augmented dickey fuller (adf) and the kwiatkowski, phillips, schmidt e shin (kpss) unit root tests, the johansen co-integration test, the vector error correction model (vecm) , the granger causality tests, the variance decomposition of the variance, and the estimation of impulse-response function were used. the results indicate the existence of a unidirectional transmission of credit risk at the supply chain studied, as well as its long-run equilibrium, confirming the importance of analyzing the credit risk of companies in an enlarged context that includes other firms in the supply chain. j o u r n a l a r ti c le kusum, pp ajith; song yinghua competitiveness of leather products and footwear industryof sri lanka this research paper explores the relationship among skills of entrepreneurs of leather products and footwear industry in sri lanka and entrepreneurs' involvement of innovations in product, process, raw material and market in the industry. further, the survey investigates firms' competitiveness and innovation in the industry. database of firms in the industry available in sri lanka industrial development board was used to administer an expert reviewed and piloted questionnaire among the population of firms. personal interviews and a mail survey were undertaken which jointly brought above-average response rate of completed questionnaires used for analysis. the research has found that there is a strong link between skills of entrepreneurs and their involvement in innovations. research has found that entrepreneur focus on product innovations rather than process, raw material and market innovations due to their low level of general education and the main mode of acquiring skills remains on-the-job-training. usage of technology has been found to be lower level which has a negative effect on innovations. however, the entrepreneurs have a positive attitude towards innovations the relevant agencies can capitalize-on for expansion of the industry and increase competitiveness. the research unearths an intelligent view that in an efficiencydriven economy, what matters is productivity where skilling of entrepreneurs will yield enormous results for harnessing the potential of this ever growing industry. j o u r n a l a r ti c le gebrewahid, gebreyohannes gebreslassie; wald, andreas export barriers and competitiveness of developing economies: the case of the ethiopian leather footwear industry export competitiveness is an important success factor for developing economies. however, several barriers can prevent firms from exporting. this study empirically investigates export barriers in the ethiopian leather footwear industry. we identify 10 conceptually linked barriers that are prevalent in the industry. whereas some of the export barriers are in line with previous research, we find several new barriers such as logistics and export marketing. on the firm level, we identify different clusters of firms that are facing specific sub-sets of barriers. depending on cluster membership, management must focus on certain export barriers for increasing competitiveness. 26 c o n fe r e n c e p a p e r muhyi, herwan abdul; suryanto the development of the leather industry center of sukaregang district garut regency west java the leather industry center of sukaregang is located in sukaregang, garut regency. it is the center of small and medium industries that become the mainstay of sukaregang district residents. it is important to develop this industrial center to increase local economy. this research was conducted to analyze the development process and the effort of stakeholders. this research used qualitative research method to describe and analyze the real facts in the research field. the informants were leaders of entity or institutions who involved in developing the industrial center. triangulation technique was used to ensure the data validity. this research found that there are five parties who have roles in developing the leather industry center of sukaregang. they are the local government, academician, business, society and media. this study found three main problems in the development of the leather industry center of sukaregang. the three problems are the ineffective coordination between the five parties, the limited facilities and development budget, and the low business management capability of the entrepreneurs. the authors recommend other researcher to explore the effectiveness of coordination between five institutions that have roles in developing the leather industry center of sukaregang, garut regency. this is interesting because there is still overlap of industrial development activities. c o n fe r e n c e p a p e r yuan, hua; zhang, yun; zhao, hongzhong research on total factor productivity of manufacturing enterprises in the yangtze river economic belt manufacturing, the important industries in the yangtze river economic belt, is a hot issue for many scholars to study. in this paper, data envelopment analysis (dea) method is used for calculating the total factor productivity (tfp) of enterprises in the yangtze river economic belt. the results show that tfp of manufacturing enterprises in these areas has gone through four stages of development: steady decline decline fast rise maintenance from 2005 to 2014. as for industrial sectors, seven sectors including tobacco, textiles, leathers, furs, feathers, shoemaking and medicine manufacturing showed rise in tfp, and tfp of high-tech manufacturing enterprises increased while low or medium-tech declined. j o u r n a l a r ti c le zakharchenko, ov assessment of waste formation and prospects of implementing environmentally friendly wasteless technologies in livestock industry urgency of the research. the main objective of functioning livestock enterprises is to provide population with food (meat, milk, eggs, and other) and to provide food industry with raw materials (meat, milk, eggs, leather, wool, feathers, and other). during the vital activities of animals and poultry get, there is a big quantity of waste (manure), which is the main pollutant for the environment together with sewage. most of disposing facilities that are in operation of agricultural enterprises are technologically obsolete, physically overused, and do not comply with sanitary standards. target setting. emissions from livestock farms pollute the air, ponds, reservoirs, groundwater, rivers with biologically active bacteria, which affects not only the ecological situation around the enterprise, but also adversely affects the health of the population of the adjacent areas. thus, the specified problems must be solved comprehensively taking into account all the aspects directly or indirectly involved in this process. analysis of actual scientific researches and issues. the problems of livestock industry waste attract the attention of many researchers. the research of environmental problems of livestock industry is carried out by ms malovanyi, vm bogoliubov, tp shanina, vf funtiov, il starykh, on starykh, am suzdalieva, rg gladyr, and other scientists. uninvestigated parts of the general matter. in the current economic conditions, entrepreneurs focus their attention mainly on getting high economic outcomes (revenue growth, gross and net profit growth). the problems of using the waste, generated as a result of animal keeping, are not always solved properly, leading to pollution of the environment. the research objective is to assess the formation of waste and prospects of implementing environmentally friendly wasteless technologies in livestock industry. the statement of basic material. the problems of formation, storage and use of animal waste are investigated. the quantitative composition and dynamics of the number of animals and poultry are analyzed. the amounts of the formed manure and the used process water in livestock and poultry industry are calculated. conclusions. the main directions of manure use in order to reduce the burden on the environment are determined. 27 j o u r n a l a r ti c le abbas, shujaat; waheed, abdul trade competitiveness of pakistan: evidence from the revealed comparative advantage approach purpose pakistan's natural endowment of labor and land is suitable for labor-intensive agriculture and manufacturing sector. this study aims to investigate international trade competitiveness of pakistan in 14 major industries of agriculture and manufacturing sector, accountingmore than 85 per cent of total export receipts. design / methodology / approach the competitiveness of pakistan in selected industries of agriculture and manufacturing sectors from 2003 to 2014 is investigated using the revealed comparative advantage (rca) index, introduced by balassa (1965) onhs data collected from the united nations commodity trade database. the obtained indices in this study are then subjected to panel regression analysis to investigate the effect of domestic productivity growth and real exchange rate on international trade competitiveness of major industries. findings the results show that the agriculture sector of pakistan has higher comparative advantage in raw cotton, cereals, raw leather and fruits. the raw cotton shows the highest competitiveness of 54.46 which is followed by cereals (17.13), leather (9.83) and fruits (1.97). the rca of the manufacturing sector shows that textile (54.85), carpets (10.72), sports goods (2.18) and beverages (1.47) have higher competitiveness. the rca, in relatively capital-intensive industries, shows a high disadvantage. the trend analysis shows distorted competitiveness in labor-intensive, textile, carpet and footwear industries. the results of panel regression analysis show that the domestic productivity growth and real exchange rate depreciation have a significant positive impact on the international competitiveness of selected industries. the study urges pakistan to make its macroeconomic environment investment-friendly and encourage investment in deteriorating laborintensive industries. practical implications globalization has significantly increased international competition, and pakistan is losing its competitiveness in labor-intensive industries owing to lack of domestic value addition and development efforts. the major problem with the productivity of these industries is the lack of proper infrastructure, acute energy crisis, lack of domestic and foreign investment and overvaluation of real exchange rate. the domestic investors are shifting their capital either to other domestic sectors and / or other investment-friendly countries. policymakers in pakistan should address the problems of these important labor-intensive industries. the government needs to understand macroeconomic uncertainties and make investment-friendly policies to encourage domestic and foreign investment. the future studies should perform indepth research to identify both microeconomic and macroeconomic variables responsible for deterioration in competitiveness of major labor-intensive industries in the agriculture and manufacturing sectors of pakistan. originality / value this study is a comprehensive examination into the nature and pattern of international competitiveness of pakistan in 14 important industries of the agriculture and manufacturing sector which has seldom been investigated empirically. the obtained indices in this study are also subjected to panel regression analysis to explore the effect of domestic productivity growth and real exchange rate depreciation on the international competitiveness of pakistan. j o u r n a l a r ti c le anwar, sajid; sun, sizhong foreign direct investment, domestic sales and exports of local firms: a regional perspective from china using a simultaneous equations model, this paper investigates how / whether the presence of foreign direct investment (fdi) affects the performance of local firms in china's (1) leather shoe manufacturing and (2) textile and garment manufacturing industries. we use the value of sales (total revenue) as a measure of firm performance in domestic and export markets. the distinguishing feature of this paper is the use of an fdi presence measure that takes the regional dimension into account. the empirical analysis presented in this paper reveals that the presence of fdi leads to a significant positive impact on the domestic sales and export intensity of local firms in both industries. this result is found to be robust to alternative measures of fdi. based on the result, it is recommended that, in order to maximize the benefits from inward fdi, chinese policy-makers must encourage domestic and foreign-invested firms to locate in close geographical proximity. j o u r n a l a r ti c le palyvoda, olena; plavan, victoria assessment of synergies in forming of cluster organizational structures introduction. effectiveness of territorial and industrial clusters is defined with regard to the ability of companies to generate synergies from cooperative relationships. the article is aimed to resolve the problem of the creation an optimal cluster system of companies to get synergies. purpose. to create a method for evaluating the relative synergy effect and construct schemes to establish optimal relationships between the companies of the cluster in order to ensure maximum synergies. methods. the calculations are the sequence of the following steps: identification of factors of synergy which can be quantified; calculation of the matrix of relative synergy indicators of the companies on the basis of the defined factors; calculation of the overall synergy effect from the cooperation of the companies taking into account all the factors and their coefficient rankings; establishment of ranking of various options for cooperation; construction of the scheme for optimal synergy relationships between the companies within the cluster. results. the authors have developed a method of calculation of various synergy factors for leather companies, among which are: cooperation in the field of repair service equipment; joint procurement of raw materials; joint promotional activities, advertisement, exhibitions, etc. .; cooperation in research development; sharing of infrastructure. conclusions. the optimal scheme of cooperation areas was built on the basis of the calculation in order to generate the greatest synergies. 28 j o u r n a l a r ti c le schardong, gerson; diehl, carlos alberto strategic control in a company of the leatherfootwear industry management control is the set of processes and tools for the exercise of authority over an organizational phenomenon, which is used in order to achieve organizational goals. we used simons' levers of control model (1995) to evaluate the use of these devices in an organization of the leather-footwear industry. evaluation was based on four subsystems: beliefs, limits, diagnostic control and interactive control, which are presented and discussed in this paper. this model allows to balance the use of inspiring elements and restrictive elements, thereby seeking to balance the tension between creativity and discipline. subsequently, a strategic diagnosis is presented by means of a case study of the abovementioned company, which identifies the characteristics of elements from levers of control. strategic management issues are then found, and alternatives for improvement are proposed. the main results include evidence that the belief system and the interactive control system are balanced, whilst the limit system and the diagnostic control system are deficient, thus exposing management to unnecessary risk due to lack of control. from a practical viewpoint, this study provides alternatives for improvement at the organization studied; from a theoretical stance, this study also contributes to understanding organizational reality in terms of strategic control. c o n fe r e n c e p a p e r vaia, giovanni; oshri, ilan outsourcing and innovation: a comparative study of italy and the uk italy is known for bringing to the world some of the greatest inventions and arts. indeed, creativity and innovation are not strange phrases in many italian sectors such as fashion, automotive and leather. but challenges to achieve innovation in the italian service outsourcing sector still lay ahead. recent reports have highlighted the complexity involved in fostering collaborative innovation between a client firm and a supplier, often resolving is unsatisfactory results. hence, in this report, we seek to unveil whether the long innovative tradition plays a role in its local service outsourcing industry. a study of 150 british and italian service outsourcing executives was carried out to examine their comparative innovation performance and the mechanisms that support innovation in each country. the results show that italian client firms reported more satisfaction with the quality, frequency and impact of innovation delivered by suppliers than their british counterparts. the main differences between the italian and british cases that may explain our results were (i) italian client firms' strategic intent has been revolving around the objective to increase the pace of innovation within the firm while their british counterparts have been focusing on cost reduction, (ii) italian client firms have mainly been using outcome base pricing model while british client firms have mainly been using fixed-price model and (iii) italian client firms have been using advisory firms to a far more extent than their british counterparts. we conclude by offering a practical framework to achieve innovation through outsourcing. b o o k / b o o k c h a p te r kusum, pp ajith; song yinghua skilling entrepreneurs on innovations: a key for improving competitiveness of leather products and footwear industry of sri lanka this research paper explores the relationship among skills of entrepreneurs of leather products and footwear industry in sri lanka and entrepreneurs' involvement of innovations in product, process, raw material and market in the industry. further, the survey investigates firms' competitiveness and innovation in the industry. database of firms in the industry available in sri lanka industrial development board was used to administer an expert reviewed and piloted questionnaire among the population of firms. personal interviews and a mail survey were undertaken which jointly brought above-average response rate of completed questionnaires used for analysis. the research has found that there is a strong link between skills of entrepreneurs and their involvement in innovations. research has found that entrepreneur focus on product innovations rather than process, raw material and market innovations due to their low level of general education and the main mode of acquiring skills remains on-the-job-training. usage of technology has been found to be lower level which has a negative effect on innovations. however, the entrepreneurs have a positive attitude towards innovations the relevant agencies can capitalize-on for expansion of the industry and increase competitiveness. the research unearths an intelligent view that in an efficiencydriven economy, what matters is productivity where skilling of entrepreneurs will yield enormous results for harnessing the potential of this ever growing industry. b o o k / b o o k c h a p te r rua, orlando lima; alexandra, franaca how does entrepreneurial orientation influences exploitation of knowledge? the processes for exploitation of knowledge became an essential element for firms to adapt to changes in the competitive environment. the exploitation of this knowledge should be undertaken with proactivity, innovation and risk-taking. building on well-established theories, our research explores the influence of entrepreneurial orientation in exploitation of knowledge of portuguese small and medium enterprises (smes) of footwear associated to the portuguese footwear, components and leather association (apiccaps). based on survey data from 42 firms, our empirical results indicate that globally entrepreneurial orientation have a positive and significant influence on exploitation of knowledge, and that the entrepreneurial orientation's dimensions that most contribute to this end are innovation and risk-taking. 29 j o u r n a l a r ti c le kumar, anita a quick scan audit of the 'socio-technical' system in a leather accessories manufacturing sme leather fashion and footwear industry contributes significantly to the indian economy through employment generation and earning foreign exchange. both public and private sectors have increasingly emphasized on the planned development of this industry and encourage more sme involvement and participation. however, recent studies indicate that indian leather manufacturing smes are, often, unable to compete effectively and efficiently on a global platform due to certain inherent and external constraints. this paper adopts a case research methodology with 'quick-scan' audit tool to review the socio-technical system of a leather export sme. it draws attention to the inefficiencies in the production system and highlights the human resource 'gaps' faced by the company. the two-fold findings of the case investigation point to a need to develop 'social' competencies not only in an individual organization but also at the sectorial level. the selected case has been used as a fundamental prism through which current labor regulations and standards prevailing in the country need to be examined and possibly reformed. j o u r n a l a r ti c le mubarik, muhammad shujaat; govindaraju, chandran; devadason, evelyn s. human capital development for smes in pakistan: is the one-size-fits-all policy adequate? purpose pakistan adopted one-size-fits-all policy for human capital (hc) development with the assumption that the level of hc is equal across industry and firm size. the purpose of this paper is to test this major assumption on which this policy is based, by comparing the differences in the levels of hc, overall and by dimensions of hc, by industry and firm size. design / methodology / approach the study is based on new data set of a sample of 750 manufacturing sme firms in pakistan, compiled through a survey. applying the independent sample t-test, one-way analysis of variance and multivariate analysis of variance, the hypotheses of differences in levels of overall and dimensions of hc were tested. findings the results indicate significant differences in the levels of hc by industry and firm size. the levels of hc were found to be higher in textiles, food, metal and leather industries, and for medium-sized firms. practical implications the findings provide supporting evidence on the inadequacy of the current human capital development (hcd) policy in pakistan. the study therefore recommends customized hcd policies, accounting for differences across industry and firm size. originality / value by taking the data on nine major dimensions of hc from 750 manufacturing sector smes, the study tests the level of overall hc and its nine dimensions by industry and size. the study also challenges the one-size-fits-all policy of the government of pakistan for developing hc in smes. j o u r n a l a r ti c le kauric; alica grilec; grubisic, dragana; renko, sanda the impact of supply chain agaility onto business results and customer satisfaction in textile, clothing and leather industry this paper presents results of the study testing impact of supply chain agility onto business results and customer satisfaction. research was carried out on the sample of 34 textiles, clothing and leather manufacturers. research results showed that there is a positive and significant impact of supply chain agility both onto business results and customer satisfaction. the paper concludes with theoretical and managerial implications as well as with limitations of the conducted research. j o u r n a l a r ti c le black, esen; erdur, duygu acar determinants of capital structure: a research on sectors that contribute to exports in turkey this study aimed to determine the factors that affect the capital structure of companies in automotive, food & drink and textile & leather industries, whose shares were traded at the borsa istanbul (bist) covering the period of 2006 and 2014, and at identifying the industry -specific differences with respect to their capital structures. in an attempt to achieve this goal, the data obtained from the financial statements of the related companies were subjected to panel data analysis. at the end of the study, we concluded that while, on one hand, the financial hierarchy theory was valid for the automotive industry for the studied period, on the other hand, both the financial hierarchy and trade-off theories were valid for food & drink and textile & leather industries. another specific finding of the study was that the factors affecting the capital structure decisions were different across the industries. j o u r n a l a r ti c le goaied, mohamed; sassi, seifallah trade liberalization and employment intensity of sectoral output growth: lessons from tunisia the purpose of this article is to assess the relationship between trade liberalization in tunisia and the employment intensity of sectoral output growth, in order to examine the claim that free trade creates jobs by stimulating growth. using panel data for 15 tunisian sectors over the period 1983-2010, we compare estimated sectoral output-employment elasticities prior to and following the free trade agreement process with the european union. the results provide evidence that trade liberalization in tunisia has led to an increase in the intensity of employment in exporting manufacturing sectors like textiles, clothing and leather industries, and mechanical and electrical industries. however, their ability to generate jobs in response to value-added growth remains weak. conversely, since the free trade agreement process, the most labor-intensive service sectors, notably tourism and miscellaneous services, have shown a significant decrease in the employment intensity of their output growth. our findings suggest that the free trade agreement with the european union has not really fostered the shift of the tunisian economy towards a more inclusive model and support the argument for a reorientation of investment policy in favor of sectors generating more job opportunities. 30 b o o k / b o o k c h a p te r ogwo, ogwo e .; okpara, gazie s. pro-foreign consumption phenomenon in africa insights from nigeria one of the recurring challenges of entrepreneurship in africa is the unrelenting preference for foreign-labeled products over the home-made ones. christened aba-made in nigeria (after a major commercial and entrepreneurial hub in southeastern part of the country), the phenomenon is more pronounced in clothing, footwear, and other leather works. this chapter explores the underpinnings of this sustained choice irrationality, drawing insights from a study on the footwear industry in aba, nigeria. the resultant consumption complex syndrome (ccs) a state of consumer mind that consistently predisposes him to foreign-labeled products, even when the local versions are preferred in a blind brand experiment is examined. a model, hinged on the hierarchy of effects, is proffered for better entrepreneurial and policy management of this phenomenon. j o u r n a l a r ti c le ghoshal, moloy descriptive analysis of present quality management practices of indian micro, small and medium enterprises this paper is based on an empirical study of quality management practices in micro, small and medium enterprises (msmes) of india. the main focus of the study was to identify current quality readiness of indian msmes and how much they are prepared to handle the challenge in world market. this study was taken place on leather, plastics and chemical industries, in and around of kanpur (india), where the main focus was to collect the primary data mainly from export oriented msme based on the well-known quality management criterions drawn from malcolm baldrige national quality award (mbnqa), european federation for quality management (efqm). it also examines possible connections between msme's growth, and the implementation of quality-related practices. descriptive statistical analysis will try to reveal whether any significant difference exists in the implementation and use of quality-related practices, across the low, moderate and high growth msme development pathways. the outcomes of this research may help the owner of these msme to take initiative as well as implement quality management in their organization so as to improve the quality of their product / services. j o u r n a l a r ti c le brown, william; guo, lin obama's bag: high quality with no qc at barrington this case describes an american leather firm in china that has obtained a reputation for high productivity, excellent quality without qc inspectors, and very low turnover, in spite of offering only industry average compensation. though many scholars and practitioners contend that soft management practices are ineffective in a high power distance country such as china, barrington has successfully adapted programs such as character first and open door policy to create a high-involvement culture with a mix of control and commitment human resource management practices. barrington now faces the need for rapid growth in a highly competitive, low entry barrier niche market, and management is concerned about how to maintain the intimate company culture. the teaching notes provide background for reviewing barrington's challenges in evolving a healthy corporate culture and management-labor relationships within the context of china's unique historic, cultural and political contexts dynamics. yet another perspective upon these challenges is given by briefly addressing the similar experiences of china's asian neighbors, as well as the implications of some scholars' arguments that, even in the west, commitment hrm may be more prevalent in theory than in practice. after discussing barrington's hrm practices of control, commitment, or hybrid, and their potential influence upon employee motivation and job satisfaction, students argue the pros and cons of the rapid expansion strategies that barrington is considering to cope with intensifying competition and their potential influence upon the firm's j o u r n a l a r ti c le goedhuys, micheline; janz, norbert; mohnen, pierre knowledge-based productivity in low-tech industries: evidence from firms in developing countries using firm-level data from five developing countries-brazil, ecuador, south africa, tanzania, and bangladesh-and three industries-food processing, textiles, and the garments and leather products-this article examines the importance of various sources of knowledge for explaining productivity and formally tests whether sectoror country-specific characteristics dominate these relationships. knowledge sources driving productivity appear mainly sector specific. also differences in the level of development affect the effectiveness of knowledge sources. in the food processing sector, firms with higher educated managers are more productive, and in least-developed countries, additionally those with technology licenses and imported machinery and equipment. in the capital-intensive textiles sector, productivity is higher in firms that conduct r&d. in the garments and leather products sector, higher education of the managers, licensing, and r&d raise productivity. b o o k / b o o k c h a p te r li, huiyan research on global tasks division status of chinese manufacturing to avoid policy misleading problem, evaluating division status objectively and comprehensively is very important. by the entropy method, composite index to evaluate tasks division status is created. results show that chinese manufacturing can be divided into three classes. industries have higher status, including electrical and optical equipment, textiles and textile products, leather, leather and footwear, transport equipment. for wood and products of wood and cork industry and other non-metallic mineral industry, we should enhance technology introduce, boost technology absorption, promote technology spillover, and ability of improving independent innovation. 31 c o n fe r e n c e p a p e r renko, sanda; kauric; alica grilec; lesina, mario dealing with crisis: using subcontracting for the development of the croatian leather manufacturing and processing industry as literature suggests, subcontracting presents an important source of support of various kinds to small and medium-sized companies from large ones as well as an important source of efficiency and competitiveness. it is considered as an instrument of industrial and economic development and employment creation in developed and developing countries, and particularly in labor intensive industries. a reduction of demand, a change in consumption patterns, a global shift from production and economic crisis have increased the interest of many researchers analyzing subcontracting relationships mostly in textile and clothing industry. this paper is investigating the role of subcontracting in the case of the croatian leather manufacturing and processing industry with an aim of getting better insight into its contribution to the development of this sector. therefore, for the purpose of this paper, a two-phase research study, including a qualitative approach, was used: 1) the first phase on the sample of companies operating in the croatian leather manufacturing and processing industry which intended to find out overall perception of benefits and limitations of subcontracting for the croatian footwear and leather manufacturing companies; 2) the second phase on the group of the croatian footwear and leather manufacturing companies, focusing on the success of subcontracting in dealing with global crisis. the findings of the study confirm that positive relationships between subcontracting and business performance was found as well as some areas for improvement. j o u r n a l a r ti c le iazzolino, gianpaolo; bruni, maria elena; beraldi, patrizia using dea and financial ratings for credit risk evaluation: an empirical analysis the article deals with the methodologies for credit risk evaluation. it describes an empirical analysis carried out on a sample of italian firms belonging to the leather manufacturing and wholesale industry. the study uses the efficiency, calculated through data envelopment analysis (dea), and the credit rating at the same time. as long as efficiency is calculated by using inputs and outputs strictly linked to the credit reliability of the firm, the study confirms that there is a relationship between efficiency and credit rating, and then that efficiency can be considered as an early warning index for evaluating credit risk. j o u r n a l a r ti c le hu, albert gz; png, ipl patent rights and economic growth: evidence from cross-country panels of manufacturing industries the objective of patent rights is to foster innovation and economic growth. however, to date, there is little robust evidence that patents achieve this objective. here, we study the impact of changes in effective patent rights within panels of up to 54 manufacturing industries in up to 72 countries between 1981-2000. stronger patent rights were associated with faster growth in more patent-intensive industries, and the effect was larger in higher-income countries. between 1991-1995, an increase in the level of effective patent rights from turkey to singapore was associated with the average growth of the other chemicals and leather industries being respectively 1/6 and 1/17 higher. patent rights were associated with faster growth through both factor accumulation and raising productivity. our findings were robust to alternative measures of patent rights and patent intensity. c o n fe r e n c e p a p e r can, chen enlightenment of the traditional industry of the transformation and upgrade form mbaobao's phenomenon the problem how to realize the transformation and upgrade of traditional industries, must be carefully think about in the jiaxing's economic development process during the twelfth five-year plan. mbaobao network technology co., ltd., which known as oem leather manufacturing enterprise formerly has successfully realized the transformation and upgrade of modern electronic business enterprise. firstly, the paper analyzes mbaobao's management ideas from three aspects and discusses the cause of the rapid growth. the enlightenment of the traditional industry of the transformation and upgrade form mbaobao's phenomenon is drawn. c o n fe r e n c e p a p e r beshah, birhanu; kitaw, daniel; gelan, mi fame workstation design in an ethiopian small scale leather garment industry there are many survey based researches in the recent literature to investigate the critical factors that affect the development of small and medium enterprises (smes). no study, however, dealt about workstation design which integrates the most important resources of smes, ie, labor and machineries. the aim of this research is to fill this gap by a different and practical approach. one of the labor intensive industries, leather garment sector was selected for the study. moreover, genuine leather crafts (glc), a small scale industry, is taken as the case. the analyses revealed that glc's labor and machine productivity have been very low associated with poor workstations design. a new method is proposed to improve the resource utilization of glc in particular and smes in general. business development agencies should also give especial attention to the internal factors where the strength of smes made up of. (c) 2013 published by elsevier ltd. selection and peer-review under responsibility of the second international conference on leadership, technology and innovation management 32 b o o k / b o o k c h a p te r sultan, suhail sami applying porter's competitiveness model on smes: the case of occupied palestinian territory (opt) palestinian industries are trying to move from totally depending on the israeli economy to the gradual de-annexing stage, and hence building the independence stage and achieving a competitive advantage to the palestinian industries that lead the economic process and sustain prosper and luxury to the people. the main objective of the research paper is to discuss the competiveness of small and medium sized enterprises (smes) working in the leather and shoe industry in the occupied palestinian territory (opt). the paper discusses the challenges facing the smes such as instability of economic and political environment, acquiring capital, bureaucratic rules and regulations, infrastructure availability, infrastructure cost, availability of technical qualifications and clustering in addition to the highly competition with the cheap chinese products. the main recommendations are: simplifying rules and regulations related to the smes' growth, providing and developing the infrastructure facilities and utilities at reasonable prices and adequate quantities and qualities, building up the human capacities through training, maintenance and laboratory testing, developing lending institutions and making easy access to finance, encouraging the diffusion of ict into the different business functions of the industry, and encouraging the strategic cooperation and clustering in the industry. j o u r n a l a r ti c le khorana, sangeeta; soo, kwok tong exporter's perceptions to obstacles faced in the eu: evidence from indian textiles and leather goods firms firms encounter barriers to exporting activity in foreign and domestic business environments. in this paper, based on primary research, we analyze barriers faced by indian textiles as well as clothing and leather and footwear firms, in exporting to the european union (eu). first, we document the manifold types of barriers that impact on indian firms exporting to the eu. second, using interview data we explore the relationship between perceptions of barriers to exports and firm characteristics. we find those firms closer to ports to report lower transport costs and less corruption than firms further away from ports. firm size, exporting experience, and whether the firm is from the textiles or leather goods industry have no significant impact on firms' perception of export barriers. finally, we assess the policy implications of econometric results to shed light on issues that need addressing within ongoing negotiations for a free trade agreement between the eu and india. c o n fe r e n c e p a p e r womb, mia mahmudur legal regulation of csr in weak economies: the case of bangladesh the aim of this chapter is to assess the extent to which laws relating to csr in bangladesh might contribute to including csr as a central theme in self-regulated corporate responsibility. it explains why the major bangladeshi laws relating to corporate regulation and responsibility do not possess the required features necessary to compel corporate self-regulators to contribute to developing a socially responsible corporate culture in this country. it argues that development of a socially responsible corporate culture in bangladesh should not rely on either corporate self-regulation or authoritative modes of regulation. rather, this should be based on a combination of force majeure and economic incentive-based legal strategies, as long as civil society, the media, ngos, and the consumers of bangladesh are able to systematically monitor corporate self-regulation. this chapter is divided into three parts. the first describes the general characteristics of corporate attitudes in bangladesh. to explain these attitudes, it provides three case studies related to three of the major industries of this country: the ready-made garment (rmg) industry, the ship-breaking industry and the leather goods and processing industry. (1) the second part assesses three laws related to corporate regulation and responsibility, with the aim of clarifying their roles in the development of csr. (2) first, it assesses the companies act 1994 (bangladesh); second, the bangladesh labor law 2006 (bangladesh) and finally the environmental conservation act 1995 (bangladesh). the last part assesses the scope of incorporating a meta-regulating approach in the major corporate laws and regulations that relate to the development of csr in bangladesh. it is divided into four sections. in the first section, it provides a brief synopsis on the precepts of the meta-regulation approach developed in the previous chapter. second, it assesses the scope for incorporating this approach into three bangladeshi laws that relate to the development of the nexus between csr principles and corporate regulation. third, it assesses the scope for incorporating a meta-regulatory approach within the factors that impinge on csr and corporate regulation. at this stage, it also assesses some other pieces of legislations and sociologic policies associated with these three laws. this chapter concludes that as a weak economy, the existing regulation strategies in bangladesh is not suitable to raise social responsibility of companies and the incorporation of objects of meta-regulation into the major laws of bangladesh would make it possible to insist that companies incorporate the core principles of csr within their self-regulated responsibilities. it highlights the options for this incorporation into the driving factors associated with these laws, and concludes by presenting criteria to test the effectiveness of the incorporation of csr principles in company regulatory strategies. 33 j o u r n a l a r ti c le labuschagne, adri; van zyl, sonna; van der merwe, daleen; kruger, annamarie consumers' expectations of furniture labels during their pre-purchase information search: an explication of proposed furniture labeling specifications this study aimed to investigate consumers' expectations of furniture labels during the pre-purchase information search, in order to propose furniture labels that would serve as a more relevant source of external information during the consumer decisionmaking process. a mixed-method approach using a two-phase exploratory design was followed. the qualitative phase consisted of semi-structured interviews with experienced sales assistants, while the quantitative phase entailed a questionnaire filled out by consumers during furniture shopping. these results were used to design potential furniture labels during a final phase. qualitative findings indicated participants' opinions regarding the appearance of and information on specific types of furniture. general information requested to be on furniture labels included price, care instructions, guarantees, warrantees, style and dimensions. quantitative results showed that the majority of respondents deemed the price, materials used, cleaning instructions, guarantees and warrantees as important information that should appear on furniture labels. this coincided with their pre-purchase search criteria. there was no practically significant difference between consumers' expectations of the information and appearance of different types of furniture labels. consumers therefore expect all labels to be similar in appearance and to contain general information, apart from product-specific information that would be necessary on different types of furniture, for example leather furniture. appearance characteristics of furniture labels, such as color, size and layout, were summarized and potential furniture labels were recommended accordingly. these labels can be used by product developers, marketers and the furniture industry to assist consumers during their pre-purchase information search. j o u r n a l a r ti c le schemes, claudia; de araujo, denise castilhos nh journal and the fenac: midia role on identities construction this paper aims to analyze how the questions related to the shoe and leather industries in novo hamburgo city were conducted by jornal nh (regional journal), in the beginning of the 60's. the speeches journalistic maintain liaison with the social reality in which they are produced, helping in the drafting / fixing of certain stocks in the social system. there then contracts between partners in the situational plan and the communication plan and discursive. we will analyze fenac (national shoe fair) that was considered as a mark to this industrial sector and has stimulated the exportation of shoes in the region. this analysis becomes possible to perceive how the journal has constructed, through its discursive productions, the concepts related to the structuration process of the memory and identity of the industrial sector by the press media. j o u r n a l a r ti c le li, huizhong; qi, fei; zhang, shaoxuan home market effects of foreign trade in china's manufacturing sector: analysis using international standard industry classification panel data in this paper, we use 20022008 international standard industry classification two-digit bilateral trade panel data for manufacturing industries in china and the oecd countries to test for the existence of home market effects. we find that significant home market effects exist in 8 out of 12 industries. these industries include the food, beverage and tobacco industry, wood products, the paper products and printing industry, chemical products, other non-metallic mineral products, machinery and equipment, transport equipment, and miscellaneous products and waste resources recycling industry. textile, clothing and leather manufacturing, oil refining and nuclear fuel manufacturing, rubber and plastics, and basic metals and fabricated metal products industries do not exhibit home market effects. indeed, strong reverse home market effects occur for oil refining and nuclear fuel manufacturing and for the rubber and plastics industry. the empirical results reveal that certain industries benefit from new export opportunities due to the expansion of domestic demand in china. b o o k / b o o k c h a p te r bandinelli, romeo; tailor, sergio an exploratory study on product lifecycle management in the fashion chain: evidences from the italian leather luxury industry new product development (npd) in most manufacturing sectors is stressed by an increasing global competition and pressure to improve product quality and innovation, reduce product cost and time-to-market (ttm), and rapidly respond to changing customer needs and shortened product lifecycles. these requirements are increasingly fulfilled by applying the plm (product lifecycle management) approach, a widely accepted concept that generally defines the adoption of a large number of ict (information and communication technology) solutions for managing product data along the product lifecycle. this contribution shows the results of research concerning the application of plm within the luxury fashion supply chain, conducted in 2009 in italy, with the analysis of 20 companies of the leather market. the research shows some of the differences that exist between the luxury industry and other more plm-oriented sectors (eg automotive) in terms of adopted ict tools, criticalities, problems, and benefits expected and realized. j o u r n a l a r ti c le meinshausen, steffen; schiereck, dirk dressed to merge small fits fine: m&a success in the fashion and accessories industry in this paper we examine the value implications of 192 m&a transactions in the fashion and leather accessories industry during the period from 1994 to 2009. contrary to general cross-country evidence we find highly significant, positive abnormal returns to acquiring shareholders. cross-sectional analysis further reveals that the key value drivers are diversifying fashion m&a transactions for smaller, profitable companies that reduce idiosyncratic risk whereas deals executed by large companies that act as frequent acquirers do not, on average, significantly enhance shareholder wealth. (c) 2011 elsevier inc. all rights reserved. 34 j o u r n a l a r ti c le geng, nan the dynamics of market structure and firm-level adjustment to india's pro-market economic liberalizing reforms, 1988-2006: a time varying panel smooth transition regression (tv-pstr) approach this paper for the first time employs the time varying panel smooth transition regression (tv-pstr) approach to model the dynamic adjustments of firms and the evolution of industrial structure in the bigger setting of decades against the backdrop of india's dramatic liberalizing reform starting from 1991. using indian manufacturing firm data, it finds that the transition of market structure and productivity after liberalization did follow a smooth transition process. instead of the previously assumed instantaneous 'big-bang' shift just after reforms, it actually took years for the indian manufacturing industries start to react to the reforms, and the transitional impact of reforms took approximately four to eight years to complete. there is strong evidence of increased competition after the transition, with shrinked returns to scale (rts) in most industries except for leather and chemical industries. the results on total factor productivity (tfp) are mixed: most import-competing industries, which suffer most from the shrinking of market size experienced no change or decreasing tfp growth; whereas the export-oriented industry, as the industry which benefits most from economy of scale, enjoyed a huge tfp growth following the reforms. (c) 2010 elsevier inc. all rights reserved. j o u r n a l a r ti c le gautam, raj kumar; singh, raghbir competitive perception of small indian manufacturers: a study of punjab units the paper aims at identifying the main competitors and competitive advantages of small scale manufacturers. the manufacturers were selected from four manufacturing industries producing textiles, bicycle and bicycle parts, food products and beverages and leather and leather products in the state of punjab, india. the data were collected from 200 units out of which 173 units were considered for data analysis purposes. in this study, a number of statements indicating the relevant quality certification, competition and cluster association were developed and the respondents were asked to respond to the statement on a five-point likert scale. the kruskal-wallis test was applied to know the significant differences among the respondents with regards to different industries, age, and turnover groups with respect to the impact of cluster association. the test was applied at an assumed p-value = 0.05. the statements with less than 0.05 p-value are considered significant and those with pvalue more than the assumed p-value are considered to be insignificant. the weighted rankings were also calculated for the purpose of data analysis in respect to competitive advantages by assigning the weights 4, 3, 2 and 1 to ranks 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. j o u r n a l a r ti c le yamamoto, gonca telli; sekeroglu, ozgur crisis management in the turkish leather industry the economic developments and modifications in the world cause to imbalances from time to time and these imbalances lead to crises. businesses are seriously influenced from the birth of sometimes territorial and sometimes regional crises, and need crisis management. sometimes, crises may also arise from managerial structures in the company. regardless of the reason, those who can correctly manage the crisis, can also turn the risks of crisis into advantages and even grow after the crisis. moreover, sometimes certain companies open to foreign countries by means of the crisis and take steps towards globalization. leather industry is highly important for the economy of turkey as it includes vast exports of finished goods with high value added. turkish leather industry is considered as one of the locomotive industries of the turkish economy in terms of its export potential. it has been the subject of our research as it is among the industries which have been most affected from the recent crises, due to its importance for the turkish economy and its current conditions. in this context, the tendencies of the turkish leather industry regarding crisis management have been examined with a questionnaire study in order to identify their thoughts about the crisis. j o u r n a l a r ti c le witkowska, janina globalization and foreign direct investment in the textile, garment, and leather industry the subject of this paper is analysis and assessment of foreign direct investment (fdi) as made by transnational corporations in the textile, garment, and leather industry on a world economic scale under conditions of globalization. significant changes are occurring in the sector and industry structure of global fdi. in terms of the three sectors of the economy, a longterm shift of fdi to the service sector at a cost to investments in manufacturing may be seen. foreign investments are being made in the textile, garment, and leather industry. they are growing in the long term. however, the dynamics of the fdi streams flowing to this industry is one of the lowest in manufacturing. over the long term (1990-2007), the share of the textile, garment, and leather industry in global fdi stock decreased from 1.5% to 0.6% in 2007. in spite of the labor-intensive character of this industry, in their bulk , the fdi are destined to the highly developed countries. 35 j o u r n a l a r ti c le rosa, felipe; de freitas, ernani cesar family businesses: the complexity of continuity family businesses occupy a prominent position in the brazilian business, for their contribution to the economy. many large brazilian companies are (or have been) familiar in essence, that number could be even higher were it not for the complexities faced by these companies during their generations. because of this, justified the study to address the organizational and managerial practices of these companies, with the overall objective of research to investigate and analyze the processes of professionalization and management of family businesses are small, industry segment, in the vale of bells (rs), in order to understand and relate the impact of such processes in fact these companies. for this, the theoretical basis, it is well known among the principal authors searched for the following: bernhoeft and gallo (2003); bornholdt (2005); casillas, vazquez and diaz (2007), freitas and frezza (2005), oliveira (1999, 2006). to develop this study, we applied the methodology for exploratory research, performing literature-based case study, and the transformation of soft leather ltda. the object of this, a family company dedicated to the leather and shoe industry, located in the city of novo hamburgo / rs. analysis of data was through qualitative and descriptive approaches. focused on the processes of management, professional and organizational culture of family firms, we stress the need for improvements in management practices for the growth and perpetuation of the family business. j o u r n a l a r ti c le decreux, yvan; milner, chris; peridy, nicolas some new insights into the effects of the eu-south korea free trade area: the role of non-tariff barriers the present study proposes an updated and extended quantitative assessment of the eu-south korea fta, through a new version of mirage cge model. several distinctive contributions are offered. firstly, the quantitative assessment takes into account non-tariff barriers (ntbs) as well as tariffs. second, it considers trade liberalization of goods, services as well as fdi (establishment). a third contribution is that simulations of policy changes are closely aligned with the actual agreement for each industry and service category. finally, this article relies on recent techniques for calculating the tariff equivalents of ntbs following kee et al. (2009). the main findings show that the eu may increase trade performance in several industries (chemicals, machinery, other manufactured and food products) as well as in specific services to a lesser extent (business, insurance and transport services). on the other hand, korea takes advantage of the agreement for specific manufactured products (textiles, leather / clothing, cars and other transport equipment). j o u r n a l a r ti c le yamamoto, gonca telli; yilmaz, bekir; bayramoglu, eser eke; sekeroglu, ozgur an analysis and a solution for the existence of turkish leather industry leather industry is one of the leading sectors of the turkish economy in terms of industrial production and employment. the gradual transformation of leather companies towards automation in their production processes, and towards transferring a portion of the company and product promotions to the internet via computers can be considered as the early steps of ecommerce entrepreneurship in this regard. this paper attempts to analyze the turkish leather industry in the light of ecommerce and e-marketing practice issues. j o u r n a l a r ti c le tarasenko, io methodological grounds for forecast of stable development of light industry enterprises the article presents the key methodological grounds for the forecast of the results of stable development of the light industry enterprises. basing on the results of the conducted research key stages in forecasting are determined and their contents are presented, taking into account the peculiarities of the problematic area of the forecast for leather-manufacturing enterprises. j o u r n a l a r ti c le aktan, bora; wang, jia; zikovic, sasa market portfolio impact on textile, wearing apparel and leather industries in turkey: sharpe diagonal model approach in this paper we have examined the use of the sharpe diagonal model as a way to assess the risk of the textile, wearing apparel, and leather industries in turkey within the framework of the capm over the period between january 2002 and june 2008 when there is no financial crises and big shocks in the market. the purposes of this paper are threefold: first is to examine the explanatory power of market portfolio return on stock returns in istanbul stock exchange (ise), second is to investigate how the capm performs on the sample of stocks in those industries, and third is to explore if the capm is a valid model to estimate the expected returns. the results show that the capm is not rejected in the second pass regression whereas tests of alphas and betas partially validate some of its assumptions. 36 b o o k / b o o k c h a p te r zhao junli vertical disintegration in global value chain and industry upgrading: evidence from china's textile and apparel industry the vertical disintegration and integration in global value chain are two important characters in the global economy today, which call for more theoretical and empirical research to better explain the effects of global value chain on different national industry and economy. the paper presents insights into the role of vertical disintegration of global value chain on the performance of textile and apparel industry on the side of developing country. as one of earliest open industries, china's textile and apparel industry has inserted the global value chain since the open-door policy in 1978. through analysis, china's textile and apparel industry still locates in the low value-added activities now. however, with the years gone by, the degree of vertical disintegration in china's textile and apparel industry in global value chain is gradually deeper. it will promote the efficiency in both overall china's textile and apparel industry and the different sub-sectors to insert the global value chain. while, vertical disintegration in the global value chain has different effects on different sub-sectors. textile industry and fiber industry benefit from vertical disintegration more than apparel industry and leather industry. finally, the paper puts up with some suggestions such as basing on comparative advantages, strengthening technological innovation, channel control and relying on the local market. j o u r n a l a r ti c le da costa machado, maria berenice; dos santos, marcelle silveira the advertising market in the city of novo hamburgo: a retrospective of the last four decades advertising became a professional activity in the city of novo hamburgo, brazil, in the 60's, following an important economic growth of the local leather industry, the creation of the national shoe fair (fenac), the foundation of the local daily jornal nh and the appearance of the first advertising agencies in the city. the research project history and memory of advertising in novo hamburgo has been tracking down for the past two years all the events that have contributed to create the local advertising market. the leading role played by the pioneer agencies has been outlined in the research whose methodology includes a literature review, source materials and oral history. j o u r n a l a r ti c le honey, gurpreet; judge, paramjit s. innovations, entrepreneurship and development: a study of the scheduled castes in punjab this article explicates entrepreneurship as a means to empower the underprivileged sections, particularly the scheduled castes, in our society. the cases of the scheduled castes from jalandhar and amritsar (cities of punjab) reveal that they have experienced social, economic and political mobility through entrepreneurship. the entrepreneurial activities are, however, unevenly distributed among the rural and urban scheduled castes. it is mainly the two scheduled caste groups, namely, the addharmi and the megh, in both the cities, who have ventured into entrepreneurship, largely by diversifying their traditional caste occupations. the ad-dharmis have modified their skills in handling and processing the rawhides and have started leather-based industries, factories and workshops. the meghs, who have been engaged as workers in the manufacturing of surgical instruments before migrating to these cities from sialkot after the partition of india (1947), have excelled in sports goods and surgical instruments industries. the overall empowerment of scheduled castes is possible through entrepreneurship. the policy makers may encourage entrepreneurship as a means to achieve equality for them. j o u r n a l a r ti c le vasquez paniagua, jose alfredo; gonzales isaza, diana patricia methodology to implement an example of social responsibility business (srb) in the leather industry in colombia tannery industry is a big water resources pollutant in colombia. by this, a bigger environmental responsibility has on waters resources pollution in the country. this paper presents a methodological proposal to implement a corporate social responsibility methodology for colombian tannery industry. in this case, donna wood's theory, environmental impact, economic valuation of environmental quality, and citizen participation are used. j o u r n a l a r ti c le sznajder, andrzej; witekhajduk, marzanna katarzyna the marketing strategies of polish light industry enterprises on the european union market: standardization and adaptation the paper examines the marketing strategies of polish light industry enterprises in european union countries. it also analyzes the determinants of a process whereby companies are adapting their marketing strategies to eu standards. the authors used the computer assisted telephone interviewing (cati) method to collect data for their research. the survey was made on a random sample of 61 medium-sized and large enterprises in light industry, including textile, clothing and leather producers. the research shows that many polish light industry enterprises have modified their marketing strategies and pricing policies after poland's eu entry in 2004. this especially applies to their business in the new member countries of the bloc. the results obtained by sznajder and witek-hajduk are in line with the findings of other studies quoted in the article. 37 j o u r n a l a r ti c le sagheer, silpa; yadav, ss; deshmukh, sg developing a conceptual framework for assessing competitiveness of india's agrifood chain purpose the purpose of this paper is to present a conceptual framework and set of propositions to analyze competitiveness of india's agrifood chain. nine components constitute the framework. these are identified on the basis of theoretical studies and expert consultations. each component leads to at least one proposition. design / methodology / approach the framework is dependent on two major streams of management value chain analysis (vca) and strategic competitiveness. porter's diamond at the industry level and momaya's asset-process-performance (app) model at the firm level provide the base for competitiveness discussions. findings the framework comprises of human and non-human components. they are more like members of a network where action of each has an impact on the other. by examining the roles of human components like national government, producers, processors, etc. and non-human components like food quality, regulatory scenario, etc. sideby-side, this study breaks new grounds in exploring the synergy of vca and competitiveness management. research limitations / implications journal article s based on indian food industry's competitiveness or supply chain are very limited. there is also a dearth of literature on india's agrifood sector. this has reduced the scope for published references from india. practical implications the paper can serve as a reference point for researchers / students and other stakeholders interested in indian food and retail industry. the framework has implications for developing countries like india that are exploring opportunities in global retail diffusions. it is also of use to researchers from developing economies where the role of national government can be significant in the development of an industry. the framework is built as a flexible and adaptable tool, which can suit other industry sectors with minor modifications. originality / value the paper has attempted to create a common ground where the two theories of vca and competitiveness are able to meet. an empirical validation of the framework can encourage more future research on this topic. this paper can also be used by researchers as a reference point for studies on indian agrifood sector. the proposed framework can be used as an analytical tool by researchers to study similar industries from developing economies like textiles, leather, etc. that are unorganized. j o u r n a l a r ti c le shafaei, rasoul; shahriari, hamid; moradi, morteza investigation of leather industry competitiveness in iran purpose the purpose of this paper is to investigate the competitiveness of the iranian leather value chain (lvc) and compare that with those of nine other countries including china, pakistan, turkey, republic of korea, indonesia, spain, italy, brazil and the usa. the results presented in the paper seek to assist in assessing the competitive performance of the lvc in iran. in addition, based on porter's diamond of competitive advantages, the aim is to provide recommendations to improve the competitive performance of the industry. design / methodology / approach an economic method, ie revealed comparative advantage (rca), as a well-known approach, is used to investigate the competitive performance of lvc in iran. the lvc products analyzed in this research include hide, skin, leather manufacture, trunks and cases, and footwear. in addition, in order to investigate the factors which, affect the low competitive performance, a questionnaire based on porter's diamond of competitive advantages was designed and completed by researchers and practitioners working in the field of leather industry. finally, the reasons for low competitive performance of the industry are discussed. findings the results reveal that the competitiveness of the iranian lvc is low, compared with those of some other countries. china and italy have superior comparative advantages in the period studied. the results also indicate that except one product, iran has no comparative advantage in lvc industry. in addition, iran has mainly focused on the upstream sector of lvc whereas china and italy compete more in the downstream sector which offers more value added products. the results also reveal that among the elements studied, specialized factors, availability of capital, quality of demand and stability of macroeconomics highly influence the competitive performance of lvc in iran. this is followed by subsequent recommendations on how best to improve the competitive performance of the industry. originality / value the results of the investigation presented in this paper give an insight into the competitiveness of the lvc in iran compared with nine other countries which play an important role in this industry in the world. the results also confirm that rca can be used as an effective approach to assess the competitive performance of industries. furthermore, recommendations provided in this paper assist in improving the competitive performance of the industry. in general, the findings should prove useful for both researchers and practitioners. b o o k / b o o k c h a p te r xu, xu breakthrough of wenzhou synthetic leather industry under financial crisis influenced by international financial crisis, after november 2008, the export volume of wenzhou synthetic leather industry had a year-on-year decrease in an increasing range, and the working rate of the enterprises is far from enough. besides, wenzhou synthetic leather industry also faced the troubles such as increasing environmental protection pressure and massive resettlement of the enterprises. relying on the modes such as integrative recombination, development and innovation, expanding emerging market, increasing environmental management and accelerating the construction of public innovative system, this paper proposes the breakthrough of wenzhou synthetic leather industry under financial crisis. 38 b o o k / b o o k c h a p te r welsh, tomaso never underestimate the importance of details by some estimates, tire luxury goods industry generates roughly 175 billion euros turnover each year, with products ranging from yachts, to cars, jewelery, watches, leather goods and apparel. companies that want to flourish in this business need to offer more than cutting edge products and exceptional quality to justify the price tag that is often associated with luxury items. this is one of the reasons, why brand reputation is so well-guarded. in the interview, tomaso galli, who has 25 years’ experience working in communications, 10 years of which in the luxury industry, offers insights into how iconic brand status may be achieved and retained through communications. j o u r n a l a r ti c le festic. mejra; repina, sebastijan economic activity and natural gas as a potential destabilizer of the slovenian economy this article empirically. investigates whether natural gas has the potential of destabilizing the slovenian economy. the results confirmed the indirect relation that the increase in gas prices decelerates the dynamics of aggregate domestic consumption, which further decelerates activities in individual industries. an empirical analysis has proven that the natural gas does have the potential of forecasting the production trends in individual industries within the slovenian economy. by using the dynamics of natural gas price movements (and other explanatory variables), we can forecast the dynamics of movements in the production of textiles, leather, fur and clothes, rubber and plastic-based products, metals, furniture, as well as in the processing industry, recycling, electricity, natural gas, steam and hot water supplies in slovenia. the obtained results suggest that natural gas price shocks can influence economic activity beyond those explained by direct input cost effects and via the indirect effect of possibly delaying the purchase of goods. b o o k / b o o k c h a p te r he yongda zhejiang synthesized leather industry pollution problem analysis bases on gaming theory synthesized leather industry is a heavy environmental pollution industry, which has the great effect on the local environment. this article employed the gaming theory to analyze the interrelationship among environmental protection department, synthesized leather industry and public. results shows: when the higher the inspection cost of environmental protection department, the weaker the penalty to enterprise polluting, the higher the cost of enterprise treating contaminated waste, the lower the public's environmental protection participation consciousness, then the expectation payoff of enterprise for nontreating contaminated waste would be higher, then the bigger possibility of enterprise polluting. on the other side, enterprise will choose pollution control. j o u r n a l a r ti c le goncharuk, anatoliy g. impact of political changes on industrial efficiency: a case of ukraine purpose the paper aims to devote itself to the researching of the changes in firm efficiency in consumer goods industry under the political changes and tightening of competition. this study has for an objective the estimation of the consequences of changes in policy on firm efficiency and the development the ways of improving of the efficiency of both separate firms and the whole industries. design / methodology / approach the industrial efficiency is measured by data envelopment analysis (dea). the change of efficiency by reason of political events during 2004/2005 is evaluated by the malmquist total factor productivity index. some firm attributes are examined for their impact on efficiency. they are firm size, regional location and property category. the results are based on a sample of 336 ukrainian firms of consumer goods industry. findings sharp socio-oriented reforms that promoted the rise of public welfare, led to many negative economic trends. but the impact of political changes on industrial efficiency was multivalued. the political changes had positive influence on efficiency of beverages and food industry and negative on light industry efficiency. the manufacture of food, textiles, wearing apparel and leather products is among the lowest efficient industrial activities in ukraine and need to be improved. the empirical results reveal the influence of firm size, regional location and property category on firm efficiency. research limitations / implications the research is limited by three main consumer goods industries and by relatively short data set. the former explains that they are the most socio-oriented industries and kindle researcher interest under the changes of socio-economic policy. to the latter belong high requirements to the data and necessity to avoid the data errors in dea. therefore, the input-output data, reliability of those are proved by the audit reports, are considered here. practical implications the paper examines the impact of sharp political changes on industrial efficiency. through the results of the analysis the recommendations for the decision making for the purpose of efficiencyimproving in the consumer goods industry of ukraine were formulated. originality / value this is the first paper that adopts dea for measuring of efficiency in consumer goods industries of ukraine under political changes. 39 j o u r n a l a r ti c le speight, alan eh; thompson, piers is investment time irreversible? some empirical evidence for disaggregated uk manufacturing data it has long been suggested that investment may be time irreversible, and consideration of the option value of waiting to invest has aroused renewed interest in this issue. this study tests for time irreversibility in uk investment according to disaggregation by type of investment expenditure and across manufacturing sector groupings. the test results reported indicate that the irreversibility of investment patterns varies not only from industry to industry but also according to the type of capital being purchased, with significant time irreversibility detected in gross fixed capital formation and aggregate vehicles expenditure, and industrial sector groupings comprising fuels and oil refining, engineering and vehicles, and textiles and leather. however, only in the first and last of these series is time irreversibility attributable to non-linearities in the underlying data generating process, and consistent with threshold effects which may be associated with (s, s) type models of investment dynamics. j o u r n a l a r ti c le dubey, jayashree; dubey, rajesh investment opportunities in madhya pradesh relative to other indian states in the wto regime: a comparative analysis with special emphasis on the pharmaceutical sector the world trade organization (wto) has set rules for international trade, with the objective to provide maximum benefits to the consumers. one of its aims is to remove trade barriers to international competition. the organization is based on the principles of free trade; predictability through binding and transparency; national treatment (treating foreigners and locals equally); granting most favored nation status; dismantling trade barriers, for example, removal of quota restrictions and tariff bindings; and promoting fair competition. at the same time developed nations have used their power while negotiating the rules of trade, and this has posed a great challenge to developing countries. it can be claimed that the rules have been framed in a way which gives opportunities to serve customers of the wto countries. only companies with a competitive advantage can survive in the global arena, and this also applies to indian industries. since the wto prevents the use of subsidies and other protective measures, the economic environment will change. this requires bringing major changes in the business system in india. under this system, the textile, food processing and leather industries will benefit. although there is confusion among the indian pharmaceutical companies at present, in this area also india can take the opportunity to grow. madhya pradesh needs to create a welcoming atmosphere for these companies. this article presents the economic conditions in madhya pradesh and discusses the reasons for the backwardness. it makes a comparison of the industrial potential specific to the pharmaceutical industry of madhya pradesh with other developed states in india. j o u r n a l a r ti c le arnould, ej; mohr, jj dynamic transformations for base-of-the-pyramid market clusters extending scholarship on industry clusters, this article reconsiders the relationship between development and marketing opportunities in base-of-the-pyramid market (bopm) nations. recent literature on industry clusters suggests a set of theoretical themes regarding cluster efficiencies, governance, adaptability, and performance. these themes are scrutinized using an extended case employing longitudinal, ethnographic data collected from an indigenous leather-working cluster in west africa. the authors' findings provide guidance in identifying local clusters with global market potential in bopms. they lead us to a dynamic market-driven transformational model of bopm clusters. consequently, the authors recommend several keys for leveraging investments in boundary-spanning firms in bopm clusters. finally, the article demonstrates the value of micro level, longitudinal analyses in assessing cluster performance in bopms. j o u r n a l a r ti c le bowonder, b .; sadhulla, s .; jain, akshay evolving an ict platform for a traditional industry: transforming artisans into entrepreneurs the leather industry is a traditional industry. the kolhapuri is a traditional 'chappal' manufactured through a manual process. this is a case study of the manner in which the design process, manufacturing process and marketing was reengineered using information and communications technology (ict) interventions. use of ict helped this industry to reposition itself. the main reason for the early adoption and rapid diffusion of the new technology has been the systematic training carried out by central leather research institute for imparting skills in the local craftsman using two people from the same community. the income of craftsman increased considerably after the adoption of ict for designing and market access. the change process was navigated and implemented in an evolutionary manner. this helped the change process to occur rapidly. j o u r n a l a r ti c le ghani, jawaid abdul bata: strategic choices the case describes the history of bata (pakistan) together with relevant information on major competitors in pakistan's footwear industry. bata started as a vertically integrated manufacturer and soon dominated the industry. the development of the leather export industry and growth in consumer buying power in the eighties, selective imposition of sales tax in the mideighties, and lowering of trade barriers in the twenty-first century, resulted in the emergence of firms specializing in different stages along the value chain. when this occurred, bata's wide scope and vertical integration no longer remained a source of competitive advantage, and resulted in threats from inexpensive imports and leaner and more specialized firms. the case allows students the opportunity to analyze outsourcing decisions, issues related to franchised versus company-owned stores, and introduction of global brands, in the context of a highly competitive and rapidly changing industry. 40 j o u r n a l a r ti c le perry, m; sohal, as effective quick response practices in a supply chain partnership an australian case study presents a case study on quick response practices in a supply chain within the australian textiles, clothing and footwear (tcf) industry, conducted as part of a government-led project aimed at improving the performance of the australian tcf industry towards becoming more internationally competitive. details of the australian tcf industry quick response program are provided which comprised six major activities: assessing company commitment and readiness; formulation of supply chain clusters, roundtable meetings; workshops and seminars; implementation of quick response techniques and technologies; and audits to assess improvements. the supply chain consists of myer / grace brothels (retailer), diana ferrari (shoe manufacturer), burrowes (shoe components supplier), and packer tannery (leather supplier). the activities undertaken within this supply chain are discussed and some of the ley lessons learned from this case study are investigated. j o u r n a l a r ti c le muchie, m leather processing in ethiopia and kenya: lessons from india this article discusses the successful value-added chain within india's leather industry, and then draws contrasts with the evolution of the leather products industries of kenya and ethiopia. much of india's success derives from the ability of its stakeholders-from government to industry-to set their own policies and priorities regarding the development of the leather industry. the fact that india selectively liberalized the entry of a variety of industries into the global economy added to the improved performance of its leather products sub-sector. by contrast, both ethiopia and kenya followed different policies regarding liberalization, with differing results. although the leather industry is important for both countries, moving up the value-added chain remains tenuous at best for kenya and only slightly better for ethiopia. this article recommends that both countries need to formulate and implement policies that will move the leather industry from raw and semi-processed production outward to the leather products and leather goods sub-sectors. (c) 2000 elsevier science ltd. all rights reserved. 41 6. conclusions and evaluation the leather industry must adapt to the changes around it in order to survive and compete against rivals. globalization and developments in technology accordingly, s , especially with all the communication technology developments in the last fifty years leather industry, has already changed the cpm and gun hand in the future will be forced to make more changes seem . especially under the increasing pressure of environmental adaptation, textile, leather, medicine etc. monitoring the development of resource and pollution intensive industries such as. because the only issue these industries have to deal with and reflect on their costs is not related to environmental protection. the decline of animal husbandry in the world, the danger of extinction of fertile pastures for animals, and the drastic change in attitude towards the leather sector from person to person, from group to group are other factors that put the sector in a difficult situation. considering our developing technology and changing global dynamics, different strategies may come to the fore in order to overcome all these difficulties. for this purpose, strategies such as professional management approach, correct marketing strategies, creating sufficient fund resources at affordable costs and making maximum use of production technologies with effective and efficient investment of the fund obtained gain importance. however, it is extremely wrong to expect these strategies only from leather engineering. it is necessary to get support from experts and institutions regarding business administration and its sub-disciplines. however, when looking at the publications related to the sector, it is obvious that the number of scientific studies dealing with business science and leather sector is insufficient in academies. references 1. addis, s., dvivedi, a. and beshah, b. 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(2018). a flying goose chase: china's overseas direct investment in manufacturing (2011-2013). china economic journal. vol. 11, issue 2, p. 91 – 107. https://doi.org/10.1080/17538963.2018.1449445 https://openaccess.maltepe.edu.tr/xmlui/handle/20.500.12415/6102 https://openaccess.maltepe.edu.tr/xmlui/handle/20.500.12415/6102 http://openaccess.maltepe.edu.tr/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.12415/6078/crisis_management_in_the_turkish_leather_industry%20%284%29.pdf?sequence=1&isallowed=y http://openaccess.maltepe.edu.tr/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.12415/6078/crisis_management_in_the_turkish_leather_industry%20%284%29.pdf?sequence=1&isallowed=y http://openaccess.maltepe.edu.tr/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.12415/6078/crisis_management_in_the_turkish_leather_industry%20%284%29.pdf?sequence=1&isallowed=y http://openaccess.maltepe.edu.tr/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.12415/6078/crisis_management_in_the_turkish_leather_industry%20%284%29.pdf?sequence=1&isallowed=y https://doi.org/10.1108/ijebr-11-2015-0263 https://doi.org/10.1080/17538963.2018.1449445 69 trauma and social work in south africa, need for a comprehensive trauma intervention model for social workers tessa van wijk ¹* ngenisiwe ntombela ² vincent mabvurira ³ ¹ north-west university, community psychosocial research (compres), tessa.vanwijk@nwu.ac.za *correspondent author. 2 north-west university, community psychosocial research (compres), ngenisiwe.ntombela@nwu.ac.za 3 north-west university, community psychosocial research (compres), vinmabvurira@gmail.com article history: submission 19 september2021 revision 18 october 2021 accepted 29 november 2021 available online 31 december 2021 keywords: trauma, trauma intervention, social work, south africa. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.265 a b s t r a c t a significant proportion of south africans are exposed to traumatic life experiences annually. the trauma is exacerbated by high crime rate which ranges from murder, violence, house breaking and theft. the trauma victims end up in the hands of social workers who are ill prepared to deal with such clients. the motivation for this study was built on assessments that indicated at the time of the study that social work students in south africa receive little or no training on trauma and trauma intervention. the purpose of this literature study was to draw together relevant knowledge on trauma in south africa, trauma intervention and the importance of trauma intervention training for social workers in south africa. articles reviewed were identified through search engines such as google scholar, jstor, proquest, ebscohost, boloka-nwu institutional repository (nwuir), scopus, science direct and web of science were the databases and search engines utilized in the search. the inclusion criteria that were used to help identify relevant and recent studies using key words regarding the topic of trauma, were chapters in books; conference proceedings; full-text journal articles and higher degree papers. the literature consulted exposes how south africans are exposed to traumatic life events and provided a deeper understanding of the problem of trauma and trauma intervention. the literature study also clarified why it is critical to have a trauma intervention model for social workers in south africa and provided guidelines for the development of the trauma intervention manual. 1. introduction the predominance of traumatic occurrences in south africa is a challenge for social workers who regularly deal with traumatized people in practice. it is thus not only important but essential for social workers to have accurate information and proper comprehension of trauma. south africa has always been characterised by violence, from the time of colonization, through apartheid up till the post-apartheid period, with crime and traumatic experiences occurring on a daily basis. south africa’s crime statistics report for 2019/2020 reporting year shows that a shocking 21, 325 people were murdered in a year. the total number of contact crimes against a person amounted to 621 282 (south african police service, 2020). imiera (2018) agrees with the general consensus that violent crime in south africa is outstandingly high, maintaining that crime put severe threats on the south african economy and negatively affects the country’s development. south africans are constantly threatened by crime. what is daunting however is that most crimes remain unreported to the police. for example, business tech (2020) reports that of an estimated 1.1 million incidences of theft of personal property that occurred in 2019/2020, on 38% of the cases were reported to the police. people are murdered, raped, tortured and robbed each day. as far back as 2019’s, imiera (2018) explained, south africa was https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:tessa.vanwijk@nwu.ac.za mailto:ngenisiwe.ntombela@nwu.ac.za mailto:vinmabvurira@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.265 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4408-4595 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2365-2664 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0960-230x 70 indicated as the “crime capital of the world” consequently many people believe that crime is out of control and consequently south africans live in fear. this is even more accurate today with everrising crime and atrocities against women and children (van diemen, 2019). imiera’s (2018) point of view regarding south africans living in fear is reiterated by business tech (2017) with reference to the latest victims of crime survey released by stats sa which indicates the crimes that scare south africans. in the survey, families and people were asked which crimes they see as the most prevalent in the country and which violations terrified them the most. the outcome of the survey is outlined by business tech (2017) indicating the following: “the 10 crimes south africans perceive to be the most common in south africa are, housebreaking / burglary 58.8%; street robbery 41.5%; home robbery 38.5%; assault 19.4%; business robbery 17.9%; pickpocketing or bag-snatching 17.9%; murder 15.9%; livestock / poultry theft 10.9%; car theft or any type of vehicle 10.4% and vehicle hijacking 10.2%”. business tech (2017) also indicated the crimes south africans fear the most are: “housebreaking / burglary 49.2%; home robbery 45.5%; street robbery 41.9%; murder 35.7%; assault 21.5%; pick-pocketing / bag-snatching 17.2%; business robbery 15.8%; vehicle hijacking 15.0%; car theft or any type of vehicle 12.8% and child abuse 10.9%”. the violent crime discussed here should not overshadow the many other forms of violence such as child abuse, wife battering, domestic assaults and rape. these "out of sight" forms of violence, which are generally directed towards women and children and the more helpless of society, affects more people than what is publicly acknowledged. the country has always been characterized by violence, from the time of colonization, through apartheid up till the crime related trauma of today. williams and erlank (2019) discuss the term "continuous” traumatic stress, rather than "post" traumatic stress. they explain that this is because of the ever-rising rates of trauma related incidents, for example, violent crime, sexual assault and trauma related deaths experienced by south africans. subsequently, it is fundamental that the extent of social work practices focus more on emotional wellness, trauma and ptsd. social workers should strive to intervene professionally in dealing with trauma, as south africans are apparently exposed to "continuous traumatic stress" as a norm for the foreseeable future. as far back as 2002 herman (2002) used the term complex trauma. balch and loomis (2017) say that complex trauma refers to “multiple and/or prolonged experiences of adverse events during early life”, which often happen within the family or caring system. although social workers are confronted with the “out of sight” forms of violence on a daily basis, the underlying aspect of trauma is seldom addressed. the reason for that might be that the significance of trauma is not properly understood. schnyder et al. (2017) are of the opinion that adult survivors of childhood abuse and neglect are hesitant to seek specialized help based on reasons of stigma, shame, fear of rejection, lack of knowledge and fear to re-experience the trauma. trauma is a subject we can no longer ignore and we therefore need professionals in the helping professions, including social workers that are equipped to address the traumatized society in south africa. it is thus critical for social workers to have sufficient knowledge of the impact of trauma and the treatment thereof. kawam and martinez (2016) clarify that social workers work with people with extended and difficult pasts of exploitation and brutality, sometimes with demanding physical and emotional needs. social workers work every day with people who have experienced a traumatic event that has had an impact on their lives. williams and erlank (2019) confirm the problem in submitting that “social workers in south africa have to deal with victims of trauma on a daily basis and, with the already overstrained, limited resources available to communities, it is a significant challenge for social workers to assist traumatized victims promptly and appropriately”. it is clear that the existing undergraduate training given to social work students does not prepare them satisfactorily to deal with trauma in practice. williams and erlank (2019) are of the opinion that it is the responsibility of social workers in practice who deal with traumatized people to develop their knowledge and skills with regard to trauma intervention. social workers should engage in continuing professional development (cpd) as it is not possible to equip them for every possible practice challenge in a generic undergraduate course. it is therefore clear that “a social work practice can take on many forms and regardless of the roles you fulfil as a social worker, you will need skills to master the roles and meet the needs of your clients. each person has a story to tell and the social worker must elicit and understand that story in order to be an effective helper”, (cummins, sevel & pedrick, 2014). this paper explored the need for trauma intervention by south african social workers through literature study. 2. importance of trauma intervention carbajal (2014) states that: “trauma is a psychological or physical wound resulting from combat exposure, crimes, rape, kidnapping, natural disasters or accidents, which causes great distress and disruption in a person’s life and leaves long lasting psychological effects. these psychological effects affect the person cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally and diminish the function and quality of life as the traumatic symptoms increase.” carbajal (2014) further says that when traumatic 71 symptoms develop, the recognition thereof or ability to adapt weakens. the individual starts to lose trust in self, others, and their surroundings and cannot realize any meaning in the trauma. moreover, trauma influences an individual somatically and neurologically. the message sent through the sensory system is excessively actuated and incongruent with the experience the individual goes through. these different messages at the emotional, cognitive, neurological, and physical levels stimulate signs of trauma like the ones triggered during the traumatic event, in spite of the fact that the individual is protected and out of risk. van dyk and van dyk (2010) describe trauma as “a psychologically distressing event that is outside the range of usual human experience”. they explain that trauma is most often the result of incidents such as rape, disasters, war, introducing fear, terror and helplessness to a person. “trauma can also be seen as the influx of violent and urgent events which exceed the defensive capacity of the person, such that the person cannot master these events through normal adjustment processes” (crocq, & crocq, cited by van dyk & van dyk, 2010). herman (2015) is of the same mind that traumatic events do not occur on the odd occasion but are extraordinary because of the overwhelming changes they cause in the lives of ordinary people. 2.1. prevalence of trauma in south africa the prevalence of trauma in south africa is confirmed by schnyder et al. (2017) who observes that trauma is a global problem and traumatic events are shared and collective in the lives of people. welsh (2018) refers to the fact that trauma is typically underreported and it is therefore difficult to obtain true statistics and a clear picture of the incidence. furthermore, we often do not recognize the pain of others because we have very different notions of what a traumatized person should look like. some people live with symptoms of trauma for years but cannot define them, or do not realize that they signal the presence of trauma. because most south africans have encountered in any event one trauma, and many have endured numerous horrendous encounters, the assumption is that trauma is not an unusual occurrence in south africa society, but rather a typical one. for that reason, the researcher’s observations from practice are in agreement with kaminer and eagle (2010) asking the same important questions such as, if trauma is normal, does this standardize it?; do individuals living in states of incessant brutality and traumatization in the end become desensitized to trauma and find useful approaches to adapt and adjust, or would they say they are in actuality more in danger for mental challenges and different ways of living?; do south africans who live with daily viciousness build damaged characters or subjectivities for themselves (that is, do they consider themselves traumatized); without trauma free standards against which to quantify their experience? violent crime in south africa is currently very high according to south african government crime statistics (2018) and concerns have been raised by south africans that crime and violence pose severe threats to the south african economy and negatively affect the country’s development. kaminer and eagle (2010) confirm the concern: “south african citizens are widely and commonly confronted with anecdotal accounts of traumatic events, both in the course of their everyday lives and in the mass media, often articulated in the discourse of living in a dangerous and traumatized society. along with this awareness of the frequent occurrence of trauma is a preoccupation with its psychological consequences. the notion of ‘posttraumatic stress’ has entered the public domain to the extent that this terminology is in common usage and is even used to describe the state of characters in popular local television dramas or ‘soap operas’. it is also noticeable that in media accounts of traumatic events there are frequent references to the fact that victims are receiving debriefing or counselling, suggesting that trauma intervention is offered by many practitioners of various levels of skill to large numbers of trauma survivors, with an assumption that such intervention should take place as a matter of course.” de la porte and davids (2016) sketch the reality of living in south africa today and say that south africa has a long history of political brutality because of the battle against politicallysanctioned racial segregation, joined with progressing relational, community based, financial and political viciousness that have cumulatively prompted an abnormal additional exposure to trauma in communities. de la porte and davids (2016) further indicate that south african communities are confronted everyday with crime and violence and highlight some key traumatic incident tendencies such as violent crime, robbery with aggravating circumstances, sexual offences and assault with the intention to inflict grievous bodily harm. kaminer and eagle (2010) argue that research has not reliably upheld the prevalent idea that south africans, in general, are presented to more trauma than the universal standard. practically 50% of all south africans die because of the after-effect of relational viciousness, which is four-and-a-half times the rate of violence related deaths internationally. accordingly, the generalization of south africa as an especially risky society appears to be bolstered by such proof. be that as it may, the best weight of trauma presentation falls upon south africans who have been the casualties of political mistreatment (under the ongoing politically-sanctioned racial segregation framework inside the more extensive recorded setting of colonization), a 72 considerable lot of whom still keep on living in states of destitution and debilitation. in september (2019) it was the 50th anniversary of the tulbagh, ceres earthquake. that was one of many natural disasters in south africa. there is a high prevalence of flooding in south africa, compounded with intermittent drought. in 1999 there was a freak storm or mini-tornado in cape town which resulted in structural damage to many properties. other common incidents are related to thunderstorms, and in particular incidents where people are struck by lightning. the poor people are often influenced severely by natural disasters such as flooding, when they build their informal housing under the flood-lines, as they have no other alternative land. they also have no risk insurance and this only further challenges their resilience. kaminer and eagle (2010) identify other types of traumatization that are regular among the south african populace. this incorporates diagnosis with a life-threatening sickness, for example, hiv/aids, injuries that are persistent because of business related mishaps (especially in the mining area). van der spuy (2014) remarks that the difficulties that face south africans, for example, impoverishment, criminality, violence and hiv/aids, make south africans especially vulnerable to trauma. these high indicators of trauma are worrisome and further point to the extraordinary trauma continuum in south africa. saakvitne et al. (2000) present vicarious traumatization and define it as a result of empathic concern for a second-hand engagement with traumatized individuals. the connection of the helping professions such as social work and psychology to vicarious trauma as an unavoidable part of working with traumatized clients are confirmed by clark et al. (2015). the social worker’s openness and sensitivity to the traumatized person can cause feelings of defeat, betrayal and distress just by listening to traumatic stories and their effects. williams and erlank (2019) conclude by introducing the expression "continuous” traumatic stress, rather than "post" traumatic stress, that has become additional jargon in the field. they explain that continuous trauma happens because of the progressing rates of trauma related incidents, for example, violent crime, sexual assaults and trauma related deaths experienced by south africans. subsequently, it is fundamental that the extent of social work practices focus on emotional wellness, trauma and ptsd. social workers should prepare themselves adequately for the successful use of practices when dealing with trauma, as the south african national scenario seems to be assailed by "continuous traumatic stress" for quite a while to come. substance abuse and mental health services administration samhsa (2017) together with taylor (2016) confirm that an individual may experience more than one very hurtful and disturbing traumatic incident. these incidents do not just disappear over time. instead, one may feel the pain and the impact of these traumas for many years, even for the rest of one’s life. at times, one may not even be aware of the impact directly after the trauma occurs and the lack of knowledge becomes a destructive force in one’s life. the status of south africans' emotional wellness remains a concern for social workers. to manage these psychological wellness is a concern in south africa, social workers need to be familiar with the different practice approaches, interventions and models that are accessible in the treatment of trauma. 2.2. need for trauma intervention in the social work profession in south africa the heart of the social work profession is to support people in difficult times, assisting individuals towards emotional healing, aiding them to reach their full potential and to improve their lives. hare (2004) supports this description contending that the motivation for social work is to uphold human rights, addressing needs, empowering people and creating social integrity. the 2015 educational policy and accreditation standards (cswe, 2015) definition of social work includes the promotion of human and community well-being and enhancing quality of life. cummins et al. (2014) indicate that the social work profession has a history of helping people in difficult situations and sometimes marginalized. they outline the social work profession as having the ability and discipline of helping others. fundamental to social work is attention to the environmental forces that create, contribute to, and address problems in living” (cummins et al. 2014). the motivation and focus of a social worker in practice therefore is to improve well-being, to help people with their basic needs and to empower the defenseless and burdened person. the social work profession utilises an array of methods to achieve these goals. wade (2009) confirms that although social work in practice has many variations, such as clinical social work, statutory work, group work and community work, the focus is always on the well-being of people. the challenge for social workers in south africa is that the effects of life-threatening traumatic events on their client population are ongoing and relentless and they have to deal with that daily. the passiveness of universities in south africa and the south african qualifications authority act (saqa), about acting on the needs of practicing social workers regarding trauma intervention training means there is a huge gap. the researcher wanted to clarify these issues and therefore focused on literature dealing with the importance and need for trauma intervention in 73 the social work profession. this literature was instrumental in confirming the need for a trauma intervention manual. taylor (2016) indicates that helping professionals frequently work in demanding and hostile conditions. he is of the opinion that sometimes the professionals are not aware that they are dealing with a person that experienced trauma because the conditions are not indicative of trauma, or they may be conscious of the trauma but have no adequate knowledge to offer treatment. the south african qualifications authority act (saqa), no. 58 of 1995 states that the president of south africa has authorised the development and implementation of a national qualifications framework. the motivation in this was to establish the south african qualifications authority and improve learning achievements, thereby enhancing the quality of education and training. the role of saqa is thus to guarantee that south african qualifications meet benchmarked criteria and is equal to international standards. all educational programs must therefore be registered with saqa. according to saqa the purpose and rationale of the qualification of bachelor of social work is to equip students with:  skills to challenge structural sources of poverty, inequality, oppression, discrimination and exclusion.  knowledge and understanding of human behavior and social systems and the skills to intervene at the points where people interact with their environments in order to promote social well-being.  the ability and competence to assist and empower individuals, families, groups, organizations and communities to enhance their social functioning and their problem-solving capacities.  the ability to promote, restore, maintain and enhance the functioning of individuals, families, groups and communities by enabling them to accomplish tasks, prevent and alleviate distress and use resources effectively.  an understanding of and the ability to demonstrate social work values and the principles of human rights and social justice while interacting with and assisting the range of human diversity.  the understanding and ability to provide social work services towards protecting people who are vulnerable, at-risk and unable to protect themselves.  knowledge and understanding of both the south african and the global welfare context and the ability to implement the social development approach in social work services.  understanding of the major social needs, issues, policies and legislation in the south african social welfare context and the social worker`s role and contribution.  the skills to work effectively within teams, including social work teams, multiand inter-disciplinary teams as well as multi-sectorial teams.” (sgb social work, 2015) from the researchers’ experience of working in the field of trauma intervention, networking with other trauma counsellors and lecturing at the north-west university, it has become clear that traumatized people and practicing social workers often do not know what to do with trauma. south africans feel unable to deal with the emotional pain caused by trauma. the impact and effect of trauma justifies specific skills and appropriate and correct intervention by a professional person. taylor (2016) confirms that specific skills and planning related to trauma work are essential for helping professions and without such skills social workers could unintentionally re-traumatize or aggravate a person’s symptoms and experience of trauma. trauma intervention expertise thus becomes a vital need for social workers. a good example is the boston university school of social work. they have a strong philosophy that trauma theory is a critical, fast developing field and that social workers need training in working with different people who are affected by diverse traumatic experiences, including community violence, natural disasters, war trauma, and terrorism. “the trauma certificate program is designed at boston university for social work students who are interested in gaining specialized training and knowledge in the field of traumatic stress and trauma-informed social work practice. students in the program select an advanced field placement related to trauma, complete a set of courses focused on trauma-informed practice at multiple levels, and participate in an advanced seminar facilitated by a core of faculty with trauma expertise” (boston university, 2017). consequently, the practices of social work in dealing with trauma call for understanding and knowledge of human development and behavior, civil and financial structures and different social 74 standards, accentuating the need for proper trauma intervention training of practicing social workers in south africa. cummins et al. (2014) further state that the essential social work values are grounded in the belief that all people want to reach their full potential. the aim of social work is to construct a safe environment to provide the opportunity to individuals to recover, develop and grow. booth and adlem (2016) introduce the link between social work and trauma intervention, explaining that the purpose of trauma counselling is to assist in confronting the traumatized person’s experience of the incident. through this action the social worker helps the person to regain control and security by reducing the emotional charge of the incident, to decrease the symptoms and to find meaning. taylor (2016) specifies that in order to provide proper trauma treatment, the professional person must competently use the knowledge, skills and values related to their professions. greenstone and leviton (2002) add that the social worker with inadequate clinical experience can worsen the trauma. they underline the importance of a specific systematic trauma intervention manual and confirm the unmet need for trauma intervention training of practicing social workers in south africa. greenstone and leviton (2002) further explain that an allinclusive model creates awareness, for the beginner as well as the experienced social worker, of the importance of keeping the fine line of facilitating the traumatized person in the right direction. finally, an intervention should suggest steps for how the social worker can purposely meet the person where he or she is at, evaluate the level of danger, activate resources, and move strategically to treatment. kawam and martinez (2016) confirm that it is vital and key for a social worker to realize the impact of trauma. social workers must know the nature of a traumatic event and what that experience does to a person, a family and a society. they contend that a social worker must be able to assess for traumatic events during intake and case management. in this manner, trauma selection progresses to be regulated and standardized in the services provided. by the same token, proper education on trauma strengthens the intervention given to clients who have experienced trauma. van der kolk (2014) agrees that the training of skilled trauma therapists must include the impact of trauma, exploitation, abandonment and neglect. he suggests that the therapist must be taught a range of techniques in order to stabilize the individual, to deal with the traumatic memories of the person and to help the person reconnect with fellow men and women. menschner and maul (2016) maintain that people who have experienced trauma can be best helped by social work practices in which the social workers are adequately trained in trauma intervention. these practices need both organizational and clinical changes to increase the engagement with the traumatized people and to deliver results. menschner and maul (2016) specify important elements of trauma intervention, starting with the two basic organizational components:  leading and communicating to the social worker the changes regarding trauma intervention process within the organization.  the social workers must be given proper and adequate training in trauma intervention. the clinical element commences by engaging the traumatized people in the treatment process. another important element is to engage the social work practices in referral sources and to partner with other organizations. menschner and maul (2016) further explain that this transformation of the social work practices is important to trauma intervention and the following core principles must be reflected on: empower the traumatized person.  tell people about trauma intervention options so that they can decide which option they like best.  get the best out of partnerships and associations with other health care professions and organizations.  ensure the physical and emotional safety of the traumatized person.  note exact expectations about what the trauma intervention will involve, who will provide the intervention and how the intervention will be delivered. these principles form a core standard for organizations and social workers when dealing with trauma. in order to deliver adequate trauma intervention some organizations may need to adjust operations, revising regulations, allocation more resources, changing strategies and sometimes update the clinical instruction handbooks. helping professionals are supposed to be created to help individuals dealing with the impact of trauma and assist in personal growth and developing their full potential. unfortunately, not all helping professionals are educated and equipped to assist in trauma intervention. taylor (2016) draws the 75 attention of professionals who work with trauma to the importance that they not only need competencies in helping people deal with the trauma, but also need to manage their own emotional involvement. he feels strongly that one of the difficult aspects of working with traumatized people is the emotional impact this may have on the helping professionals. competent professionals and, especially social workers, need to understand and develop emotional competency to cope with the secondary trauma that is likely to be generated from working with traumatized people. ruben et al. (2007) confirms that components of professional competencies form part of formulating standards to get accreditation for an institution to train future professionals. adequate knowledge is thus vital in the process of defining a programme curriculum, documentation of requirements and professional expectations related to the field. it would therefore be reasonable to argue that a competent social worker dealing with trauma must have adequate knowledge gained through proper education, that will develop conducts and actions associated with the profession and is currently an unmet need in south africa. unfortunately, helping professionals in many cases and specifically in the undergraduate social work programs in south africa are not afforded the necessary educational training to provide trauma treatment. social workers are often faced with cases involving trauma and may not be aware that the underlying cause is related to a traumatic experience. gardener et al. (2007) (cited by taylor, 2016:8) confirms the importance of sufficient training by quoting “those who believe they have mastered the knowledge related to a task are likely to endorse higher levels of self-efficacy. 3. conclusion the purpose of this study was to examine and interrogate the results of other studies that are closely related to trauma. the literature consulted established a continuous exchange of ideas on trauma and filled epistemic and evidence-based gaps. this literature study provided a structure for establishing the significance and meaning of the study as well as a benchmark to link the findings. the reviewed literature also provided guidance to state broad goals and specific objectives for designing a trauma treatment manual. the literature content channeled the selection of actions for the design of a manual that can train practicing social workers. different trauma intervention practices were clarified in this study, highlighting important activities that influence a person’s reactions to the healing process. it is clear that trauma intervention can no longer be viewed as an incipient action: it has now developed into a major healthcare field. all of the interventions discussed in this chapter stimulated ideas and influenced the development of a trauma intervention manual. the parallel and almost matching components of herman’s (2015) intervention model, the wits model described by masson et al. (2016) informed the outline of three phases as well as the different sessions within the phases, enhanced by the trauma incident reduction (tir) intervention (gerbode, 2006). a selective combination of the approaches in this literature study will contribute to the development of a trauma intervention manual. south africans remain threatened by events that expose them to trauma. social workers as one of the human service professionals in south africa are not well trained to deal with trauma patients. though there are trauma intervention models in place, we argue that there is a need for specific trauma intervention (s) model for social workers in south africa and recommend that such a model or models will form part of the social work curriculum in the country. references 1. balch, m.s., loomis, j. (2017). enhancing care models to capture psychological trauma. journal of psychosocial nursing, 55(4):29-36. https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20170330-05 2. booth, l., adlem, a. (2016). a basic understanding of trauma counselling. in herbst, a., & reitsma, g. e. ed. trauma counselling: principles and practice in south africa today. cape town: juta. 3. boston university. (2017). boston university school of social work. available at: https://www.bu.edu/ssw/boston-university-school-ofsocial-work-professional-education-programintroduces-trauma-certificate-program/ 4. business tech. (2017). sa latest crime stats: everything you need to know. available at: https://businesstech.co.za/news/government/161715/ south-africas-latest-crime-stats-everything-you-needto-know/ 5. business tech. (2020) crime in south africa-what the official stats don’t tell you. 6. available at: https://businesstech.co.za/news/lifestyle/453480/crim e-in-south-africa-what-the-official-stats-dont-tellyou/ 7. carbajal, j. 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(2016). key ingredients for successful trauma-informed care implementation. centre for health care strategies: 1-11. 18. south africa police service (2020) national crime statistics 2019-2020. available at: https://www.saps.gov.za/services/crimestats.php 19. south africa. (2018). crime statistics2017/2018. available at: https://www.gov.za › documents › crime-statistics-2017/2018 20. saqa (south africa qualifications authority). (2014). south african qualifications authorityact, 1995(english). available at: https://www.saqa.org.za 21. sgb social work. (2015). saqa.org.za bachelor social work. http://regqs.saqa.org.za/viewqualification.php?id=23 9 22. schnyder, u., schafer, i., aakvaag, h.f., ajdukovic, d., bakker, a., bisson, j.i., brewer, d., cloitre, m., dyb, g.a., frewen, p., & lanza, j. (2017). the global collaboration on traumatic stress. european journal of psychotraumatology, 8(7):1403257. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1403257 23. substance abuse and mental health services administration (samhsa). (2017). dealing with the effects of trauma: a self-help guide. available at: https://www.unh.edu/counselingcenter/sites/www.un h.edu.counselingcenter/files/media/copied/media/ima ges/safezo nessticker.png 24. taylor, c. (2016). relationships among resilience, trauma scientific knowledge, received competence to treat and emotional competence toward complex trauma cases among mental health trainees. (doctoral thesis). kansas: university of kansas. 25. van dyk, g.a.j., & van dyk, e.l. (2010). psychological debriefing (pd) of trauma: a proposed model for africa. journal for transdisciplinary research in southern africa, 6(2):369-394. 26. wade, b. (2009). unisa social work students' experiences of trauma: an exploratory study from a person-centered perspective (doctoral thesis). pretoria: university of south africa. 27. williams, m.h., & erlank, e.c. (2019). traumatic incident reduction: a suitable technique for south african social work practice settings. health sa gesondheid, 24: 1-7. https://doi.org/10.4102/hsag.v24i0.1106 https://www.cswe.org/getattachment/accreditation/accreditation-process/2015-epas/2015epas_web_final.pdf.aspx https://www.cswe.org/getattachment/accreditation/accreditation-process/2015-epas/2015epas_web_final.pdf.aspx https://www.cswe.org/getattachment/accreditation/accreditation-process/2015-epas/2015epas_web_final.pdf.aspx https://doi.org/10.18278/ijc.6.1.3 https://www.socialworker.com/feature-articles/practice/trauma-informed-care-in-social-work/ https://www.socialworker.com/feature-articles/practice/trauma-informed-care-in-social-work/ https://www.socialworker.com/feature-articles/practice/trauma-informed-care-in-social-work/ https://www.saps.gov.za/services/crimestats.php https://www.saqa.org.za/ http://regqs.saqa.org.za/viewqualification.php?id=239 http://regqs.saqa.org.za/viewqualification.php?id=239 https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1403257 https://www.unh.edu/counselingcenter/sites/www.unh.edu.counselingcenter/files/media/copied/media/images/safezo%20nessticker.png https://www.unh.edu/counselingcenter/sites/www.unh.edu.counselingcenter/files/media/copied/media/images/safezo%20nessticker.png https://www.unh.edu/counselingcenter/sites/www.unh.edu.counselingcenter/files/media/copied/media/images/safezo%20nessticker.png https://doi.org/10.4102/hsag.v24i0.1106 9 effect of continuous improvement and quality data and reporting on innovation performance onur çetin trakya university, faculty of economics & administrative sciences, onurcetine@gmail.com article history: submission 13 december 2021 revision 21 february 2022 accepted 28 march 2022 available online 30 april 2022 keywords: innovation, quality management, continuous improvement, quality data and reporting, structural equation modelling. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.290 a b s t r a c t it is stated that there is no certainty in the literature as to what sort of relationship between quality management practices and innovation exists. the literature on the relationship between continuous improvement (ci) and quality data and reporting (qdr) -two of the practices related to quality managementand innovation is even more limited. the aim of this study is to determine the relationships between ci and qdr and innovation performance (ip). the data were obtained from the companies with iso certificate in the manufacturing and service sectors. the model which consists of qdr, ci and ip variables was analysed with the structural equation model. the ip level was above the midpoint as well. it has been seen that ci and qdr have an impact on ip. in addition, it has been determined that qdr has a mediating role in the effect of ci on ip. 1. introduction it can be claimed that one of the vital resources that businesses use for competition is innovation. the fact that innovation is one of the key factors in competition has been suggested in schumpeter's studies (dobrinsky, 2008). schumpeter states that the main source of change is innovation, and innovation comes forward through doing things differently in economic life (sweezy, 1943). according to hobday (2005), innovation means doing something new in the areas of product, process, service, or within company structures (çetindamar et al., 2017). according to the eu and oecd, innovation refers, as a process, to “developing an idea into a marketable good or service, a primary or improved form of production or distribution, or a new method of social service”. it describes a new or improved product, method or service that is marketable and occurs as a result of the transformation process (pekşen, 2019). therefore, it should be noted that innovation is not the same as invention, but rather commercialized and commercially successful novelties or changes that create value. innovation is meaningful in terms of the competitiveness of businesses. it can be said that innovation is a very important competitive tool for businesses (elçi, 2006) and it is the most important element of modern economy. in addition, it can be mentioned that innovation is one of the key elements in creating value (hurmelinna‐laukkanen et al., 2008). when it comes to competitive advantage, the concept of quality has sustained its existence for a long time as an important competitive tool. especially total quality management (tqm) has emerged as an important tool to increase competitiveness since the 1980s (prajogo & sohal, 2001). as quality and innovation are in the frame as two elements that provide competitive advantage, it can also be said that these two concepts are related to each other. there are studies indicating that there is a positive correlation between quality management (qm) practices and innovation within the framework of relationship between quality and innovation. flyn et al. (1995) mentions the relations between qm practices and speed of new product development, and mc adam et al. (1998) between continuous improvement (ci) and innovation. kanji (1996), contending that tqm practices help innovation, underlines that achieving business excellence is possible by integrating these two concepts. another perspective on the relationship between the two variables is that tqm already covers the elements related to innovation, and there are researchers who argue that tqm is innovation in itself (zairi 1999). prajogo and sohal (2001) have summarized the positive and negative arguments in the quality-innovation relationship. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:onurcetine@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.290 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1835-3333 10 they stated that there may be a positive relationship between some elements of tqm and innovation, while a negative relationship might exist between some others. studies on the relationship between qm and innovation have emerged as an interesting and pristine field of study (prajogo & sohal, 2001). studies concerning the relationship between qm and innovations have also intensified especially after the 2000s (singh & smith, 2004; hoang igel & laosirihongthong, 2006; sa´ & abrunhosa, 2007; abrunhosa & sa, 2008; kim et al., 2012; bon & mustafa, 2013). on the other hand, singh and smith (2004) mention the scarcity of studies examining the relationship between quality and innovation, and the discrepancy among the results of existing studies in this area. similarly, perez-arostegui et al. (2013) also mention that, regarding this relationship, the results are complex and there is a lack of empirical studies in the literature. besides, as to the relationship between qm and innovation, the number of studies carried out in both the service sector and the manufacturing sector is limited. quality data collection and reporting (qdr), which forms the basis of qm practices in studies, has been included in a limited number of studies (kim et al., 2012). in addition, it is stated that ci has a mediating effect on innovation (mcadam et al., 2010). however, the number of studies examining the relationship between ci and innovation performance is limited (kohlbacher, 2013). furthermore, the number of studies over this topic is limited in turkey (ar & baki, 2011; zehir et al., 2012; karayel, 2017, pekşen, 2019). for these reasons, the main research question, an answer for which is sought in this research, is "is there a relationship between ci and qdr, which are qm practices in the manufacturing and service sectors in turkey, and innovation performance?". the aim of the study, which stems from this research question, is to determine the effect of qm practices, which are tackled as qdr and ci, on innovation performance (ip). in the study, apart from the effect of qdr and ci on ip, it has also been aimed to examine the mediating effect of ci on the effect of qdr on ip. the research continues with the literature section that includes the literature review concerning the relationship between quality and innovation, the methodology section that includes the methodology of the research, the research findings section, the discussion and conclusion sections. 2. literature there are many practices in tqm, and some of these practices have come to fore in different studies. in this study, ci and qdr practices of qm and innovation performance concepts were examined. 2.1. innovation and innovation performance for a better definition of innovation, it is necessary to apprehend different types of innovation. even though innovation seems to be related to technology, it is not solely comprised of technological progress because innovation can include important additions or radical changes emerging in products, processes or services; and it also appears in the form of thinking or organization (çetindamar et al., 2017). therefore, here, technological innovation and non-technological innovation can be seen as two main types of innovation. non-technological innovations consist of organizational innovation and marketing innovation. innovation types can also be classified as product innovation, process innovation and service innovation. another classification can be seen as radical innovation and incremental innovation (elçi, 2006). innovation performance can also be measured by innovation types. some of the innovation performance measures appear in the literature as product innovation and process innovation (martínez-costa & martínezlorente, 2008; altaweel, 2021) radical product innovation, incremental product innovation, radical process innovation, incremental process innovation, managerial innovation (kim et al. 2012), service innovation (hu et al., 2009; khan & naeem, 2018), technological innovation (sciarelli et al., 2020) and overall innovation performance (goodale et al., 2011). 2.2. qdr qdr can be defined as the execution of the collection, monitoring, analysis and reporting of quality-related data to achieve quality improvement objectives. qdr is defined as a component or practice of tqm (gotzamani & tsiotras, 2001). just as the quality data mentioned here can be statistical quality control data, it can also be the data about suppliers. it is emphasized that the collection and reporting of quality data is important for identifying problems within the business, solving them and making improvements (baird et al., 2011). therefore, qdr has an important place in tqm activities and many qm practices are based on qdr. in addition, qdr is one of the basic elements of the iso 9001 quality management system. among the tqm practices, qdr is also included. kim et al. (2012) examined the effects of tqm practices on product innovation, process innovation and managerial innovation in their study they carried out in manufacturing and service businesses. the indirect effect of qdr on innovation has been observed. they emphasized that other tqm practices are directly or indirectly related to innovation. 11 2.3. ci ci can be attributed to the concept of kaizen introduced by masaaki imai and to the small improvements that are continuously made. ci covers the culture of making sustainable and continuous improvements (dahlgaard et al., 2008). it is stated that ci can be achieved with incremental improvements, and also as radical improvements with an innovative idea or a new technology (bhuiyan & baghel, 2005). 2.4. relationship between qm practices and innovation according to the results they obtained with the structural equation model (sem), hoang et al. (2006) stated in their study that tqm elements are related to the number of new products and the level of novelty, and they affect both. martínez-costa and martínez-lorente (2008) put forward that tqm practices affect both product innovation and process innovation. in their study they carried out by using sem, ar & baki (2011) examined the effects of organizational elements, which can be counted as tqm elements, on product innovation and process innovation, and they found that while customer orientation and supplier relations affect product innovation, they do not affect process innovation. silva et al. (2014) stated that tqm practices have a positive effect on product innovation. augusto et al. (2014) stated that organizational innovation is not effective on performance, but product innovation and process innovation are effective on performance. kafetzopoulos et al., (2015) contended that tqm practices affect product and process innovation. honarpour et al. (2018) mentioned in their study carried out on r&d departments that tqm is related to product innovation and process innovation. altaweel (2021) noted in the research on the manufacturing sector that tqm practices affect product and process innovation. khan and naeem (2018) stated in their analysis with sem that quality management practices positively affect service innovation. pekşen (2019) stated that the level of service innovation differs according to the participation of employees in qm practices. abrunhosa & sa (2008) examined the relationship between tqm practices and technological innovation; and thus, stated that there is a relationship between technological innovation and communication, teamwork and supportive personnel management practices. karayel (2017) noted that the results of his study on shoe manufacturing sector in turkey support the relationship between technological innovation and teamwork, communication, and human management, which are elements of tqm. singh & simith (2004) examined the effect of tqm variables on innovation, but no clear finding on the relationship between tqm and innovation could be obtained. mcadam et al. (2010) noted in their study on smes carried out by using sem that tqm and ci have a mediating role in the effect of leadership, human and cultural elements on innovation practice. zehir, et al. (2012) put forward in their study on manufacturing and service sectors that tqm practices have an impact on innovation performance. bon et al. (2012) mention in their research on the relationship between tqm and innovation that there is an overall relationship between tqm and innovation. ooi et al. (2012) stated, in their study conducted about companies with iso 9001 certificate in the malaysian manufacturing industry, that process management, personnel management and strategic planning are positively related to innovation. perez-arostegui et al. (2013) claimed that qm practices have an indirect effect on innovation performance. bon and mustafa (2013) examined the relationship between tqm and innovation in service businesses. long et al. (2015) determined a positive relationship between tqm and innovation. zeng et al. (2015) stated that hard quality management practices have an impact on innovation performance, but soft quality management practices do not. similarly, sciarelli et al. (2020) stated that hard qm practices and innovation show a partial mediation effect on soft qm-organizational performance relationship. 3. research the aim of the research is to investigate the relationship between tqm practices and innovation performance (ip) on businesses in the manufacturing and service sectors. as mentioned before, in previous studies, the impact of various qm practices on various innovation outputs has been examined. even though there are adequate number of studies concerning the effects of some elements of tqm, the number of studies in literature about the effect of qdr on ci and ip is limited. therefore, in this study, the relationship between ip and ci activities and qdr was examined. qdr holds an important position in qm activities and many quality management practices are based on qdr. therefore, it is expected that qdr will affect such factors as ci. kaynak (2003) states that qdr has a direct impact on supplier relationship management and process management. kim et al. (2012) stated that qdr has a direct impact on process management, which is one of the elements of tqm. they have observed that qdr has no direct impact on innovation, but has an indirect one. therefore, the direct effect of qdr on ci, the effect of qdr and ci on ip, and the mediating effect of ci on ip will be investigated. in this context, the following hypotheses were formed. 12 h1: qdr has an impact on ci. h2: qdr has an impact on ip. h3: ci has an impact on ip. h4: ci mediates the effect of qdr on ip. 3.1. methodology survey method was used to collect data in the study. since the subject of the study includes the qm practices, the companies to be selected for data collection are required to have made a certain progress in qm. therefore, it is thought that it would be beneficial if the companies from which data would be collected have an iso certificate. since selecting the companies with iso certificate will be beneficial in terms of ensuring that the chosen companies have taken a certain path regarding quality, companies with iso 9001 certificate are selected in similar studies related to the quality-innovation relationship, (ooi et al., 2012). the research was carried out on employees of 30 different departments in 47 companies. a total of 771 questionnaires were obtained through convenience sampling method from 30 different departments of 47 different companies with iso certificate in istanbul. the analysis unit of the research is business departments. these questionnaires were evaluated on the basis of business department, and 256 different business and department combinations were obtained. some of these departments were different departments in the same businesses, and others were departments of different businesses with the same or similar names. since all variables were measured on a departmental basis, the department score for that item was obtained by taking the average of the answers given by the respondents to the items in each department. the total number of departments from which data was received is 256. thus, the number of data subject to analysis is 256. for data collection, the scales were obtained from the literature. the qdr scale was obtained from the study of kim et al. (2012) (qdr1, qdr2, qdr3, qdr4). the scale for ci was obtained from the study of grandzol & gershon (1998) (ci1, ci2, ci3, ci4). for both scales, respondents were asked to answer for the department they work for. both scales are five-point likert scales (strongly agree:5, strongly disagree:1). the scale related to innovation performance (ip) was obtained from the study of goodale et al. (2011). the scale used by goodale et al. (2011) includes a total of 16 items, eight of which are about how much the department manager attaches importance to these eight items related to innovation, and the other eight is about how satisfied he is with these items. each respondent was asked how much the department managers attach importance to eight innovation performances and how satisfied they are with these eight innovation performances. therefore, 8 importance scores and 8 satisfaction scores were obtained. these scores were not used raw. as goodale et al. (2011) suggested, the answers each respondent gave to satisfaction and importance questions were multiplied, and the result was divided by the importance score. the ip score of each respondent was obtained by the formula (1). 𝐼𝑃 = ∑(𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 ) ∑ 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 (1) for these items, as suggested by goodale et al. (2011), a fivepoint likert scale was used (for the importance scale: 1: not important at all, 5: very important; and for the satisfaction scale 1: not satisfied at all, 5: very satisfied). therefore, the answers will be in the range (1, 5). in order to avoid the multiplication of an unimportant item (1) and the highest satisfaction (5) from getting a high score (1x5=5), or the multiplication of a very important item (5) and of very low satisfaction (1), from getting a high score (5x1=5) while calculating ip, the answers given were coded as (-2, -1, 0, 1, 2) respectively, as suggested by goodale et al. (2011). therefore, an innovation performance item with ‘no importance at all’ is coded with (-2) instead of (1), and an innovation performance item that is ‘no satisfied at all’ is coded with (-2) instead of (1). the middle point (3) was coded as (0) in the new coding, and the highest importance or highest satisfaction as (2) instead of (5). then, by taking the average of each individual's ip score calculated with the formula (1) on the basis of the unit they are in, 256 ip scores were obtained for 256 units. it is stated that the sample size should be at least twice the number of items in the scale, but preferably ten times (kline, 2011). for structural equation models, it is preferred that the sample size is between 200-500 (civelek, 2018). from these perspectives, a sample size of 256 is considered to be sufficient. data collection was carried out through face-to-face survey method between january 2019 and september 2019. spss 23 package program and spss amos package program were used for data analysis. 4. findings 4.1. descriptive statistics the distribution of the units from which data were taken is shown in table 1 as public sector and private sector and service sector and manufacturing sector. therefore, while the service sector and the manufacturing sector are close to each other, the private sector has been represented more than the public sector. 13 table 1. sectoral distribution sector frequency frequency (%) sector frequency frequency (%) service 137 53,5% public 49 19,1% manufacturing 119 46,5% private 207 80,9% total 256 100% total 256 100% descriptive statistics of scale items are shown in table 2. the observed variables are shown in the first column of table 2. when the mean values in the second column are examined, it is seen that the mean values of items other than ip are between 3 and 4. this situation shows that activities related to ci and qdr are carried out to a certain extent. this is an expected situation since all institutions have iso certificates. for ip, the mean values are above the midpoint of 0. the last two columns show the values of skewness and kurtosis. table 2. descriptive statistics of scale items n mean standard deviation skewness kurtosis ci1 256 3,8818 ,72123 -,982 1,004 ci2 256 3,8872 ,68818 -1,204 1,867 ci3 256 3,9572 ,59714 -,988 1,680 ci4 256 3,8852 ,63361 -,749 ,691 qdr1 256 3,9661 ,70913 -1,192 2,056 qdr2 256 3,8345 ,72543 -,893 ,991 qdr3 256 3,8739 ,69795 -,935 1,628 qdr4 256 3,9583 ,73853 -1,198 1,988 ip 256 ,7221 ,57843 -,875 1,696 when the obtained kurtosis and skewness values are observed, it is seen that these values are not close to 0. for this, one of the transformations suggested in the literature has been carried out. according to the reflection transformation formula, new value = (the largest old value +1 the old value), the square root of the new value obtained as the result of the subtraction is taken (pallant, 2007). accordingly, the skewness and kurtosis values of the transformed data were between (-0.285, +0.724). kurtosis and skewness values in this range are accepted by the literature (tabachnick & fidell, 2014). in the next part of the study, the analysis was carried out on the transformed data. first of all, the obtained data were analyzed with the independent sample t-test to determine if they differ according to being in the service sector or being in the manufacturing sector. no difference was observed for qdr (p=0.85), ci (p=0.105) and ip (p=0.166). then, reliability analysis was performed for the scales. 4.2. reliability analysis reliability values for each scale were measured with cronbach's alpha. obtained reliability values are 0.843 for the ci scale and 0.915 for the qdr scale. these values appear to be appropriate. 4.3. confirmatory factor analysis confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) is an analysis carried out about whether the available data is suitable for a previously discovered structure. cfa examines whether the previously constructed factor structure is appropriate (meydan & şeşen, 2015). cfa was carried out using the amos program. in the performed dfa, modification was applied between qdr1qdr2 items. when the fit indices obtained as a result of cfa were examined, it was obtained as cmin/df=2.763, cfi=0.967, gfi=0.957, nfi=0.963, nnfi=0.963, rmsea=0.080, srmr=0.035, and there appears to be no problem in terms of fit indices (meydan & şenen, 2015; i̇lhan & çetin 2014). 4.4. sem model the standardized regression coefficients of the items ranged from 0.706 to 0.942. since the standardized regression coefficients of the items are greater than 0.5, it can be said that there is no problem with validity in this respect. ave and cr values of the scales are shown in table 3. since the ave value is greater than 0.5, and the cr value, which is desired to be as large as possible, is acceptable to be in the range of 0.6-0.7, there appears to be no problem with validity in this respect (hair et al, 2014). 14 table 3. ave and cr values ci qdr ci 0,760 qdr 0,744 0,847 ave 0,578 0,718 cr 0,845 0,910 comparing the correlations between latent variables and ave values gains importance when examining in terms of discriminant validity. the correlations between the latent variables should be less than 0.90 (kline, 2011), besides, the square root of the ave value of each latent variable should be larger than the correlation between that latent variable and other variables (ursavaş et al., 2014). in table 3, the values on the diagonal are the square root of the ave value of each latent variable. correlation coefficients for each latent variable with other latent variables are shown in other cells. as seen in table 3, the square root of the ave value for each column and row is the largest value. this case shows that the square root of the ave value is higher than the correlations between the variables, and thus discriminant validity is ensured. the structural regression model created after cfa is shown in figure 1. when the fit indices were examined, it was found that cmin/df=2.248, cfi=0.979, nfi=0.964, nnfi=0.969, rmsea=0.070, srmr=0.035, and there appears to be no problem in terms of fit indices (meydan and şeşen, 2015; i̇lhan and çetin 2014). figure 1. structural regression model the results obtained in the analysis performed according to the structural regression model are shown in table 4. table 4 shows the standardized regression coefficients of the paths between the latent variables. table 4. results of structural regression model coefficient standard error c.r. p standardized coefficient ci <--qdr 0,699 0,062 11,262 0,0001 0,746 ip <--ci 0,314 0,085 3,692 0,0001 0,330 ip <--qdr 0,343 0,077 4,458 0,0001 0,385 according to table 4, all the paths are significant, and all the hypotheses are accepted. 4.5. mediating effect of ci for the effect of qdr on ip, sobel test was used to determine whether the mediating effect of ci was significant. according to the sobel test, the mediating role of ci for the effect of qdr on ip is significant (sobel test statistic 3.51, p<0.001). 5. discussion and conclusions there is an ambiguity in the literature regarding the relationship between qm practices and innovation. accordingly, in this study, the relationship between qdr, ci and ip was examined. the results show that activities related to ci and qdr are carried out to a certain extent. this is an expected situation since all institutions have iso certificates. for ip, the item averages are above the midpoint of 0. therefore, ip is also above the midpoint, indicating a certain innovation. when the structural model is examined, a significant effect of qdr on ci and ip has been observed, and a significant effect of ci on ip was observed. this shows that innovation performance is affected by qdr and ci applications. in the literature, mc adam et al. (1998) stated that there is a relationship between ci and innovation. bon et al. (2012) mention that there is a relationship between tqm and innovation. a significant partial mediation effect of qdr on ip via ci was also observed. mcadam et al. (2010) stated that ci has a mediating effect on innovation performance. kim et al. (2012) observed the indirect impact of qdr on innovation. obtained findings are compatible with the literature in this respect. these findings, in reverse, support the view that ci can be achieved with incremental improvements, as well as radical improvements with an innovative idea or a new technology (bhuiyan & baghel, 2005). one of the administrative outputs of the study is that qdr activities have been seen to support both ci and ip. all the companies on which the research was conducted have taken a certain path in terms of quality. it is expected that the companies 15 that have taken a certain path in quality will increase their activities on qdr, which supports ci, and supports ip both directly and through ci. therefore, activities related to qdr should be increased to support both ci and ip. collecting and analyzing quality data is useful for generating new solutions and methods. one of the limitations of the study is that it was conducted among a limited number of companies. future studies can be carried out on more companies. another limitation is that only two of the qm applications were selected. the existing model can be expanded by examining other qm applications in new models. the ip measurement methodology used in this study can be used in new studies by associating it with other variables besides qm applications. references 1. abrunhosa, a., & sá, p. m. e. 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(2015). the impact of hard and soft quality management on quality and innovation performance: an empirical study. international journal of production economics, 162, 216-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2014.07.006 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-4972(00)00070-5 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-4972(02)00122-0 https://repositorio.ucp.pt/handle/10400.14/12845 https://doi.org/10.1080/14783360601043179 https://doi.org/10.1108/tqm-01-2020-0014 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijopm-03-2012-0098 https://doi.org/10.1108/17410380410540381 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/eku/issue/5462/74152 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.04.031 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2014.07.006 24 future air transportation ramification: urban air mobility (uam) concept mehmet necati cizrelioğullari ¹* pınar barut 2 tapdig i̇manov 3 ¹ cyprus science university, faculty of tourism, department of tourism and hotel management, mehmetcizreliogullar@csu.edu.tr *correspondent author. 2 cyprus science university, vocational school of applied sciences, department of tourist guidance, pinarbarut@csu.edu.tr 3 cyprus science university, vocational school of aviation, department of civil aviation cabin services, tveyranimanov@csu.edu.tr article history: submission 03 may 2022 revision 30 june 2022 accepted 04 august 2022 available online 31 august 2022 keywords: uam, vtol, urban, air transportation, operation. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.335 a b s t r a c t urban air mobility (uam) is a new concept offered for solving urban transportation system problems, contributing to reducing traffic congestion, atmospheric pollution and mobility around metropolitan areas which is progressively an evolved aviation market. facing the evolved dynamics in the airspace and on the ground, developed new technologies are able to withstand against destroy transportation infrastructures of the big cities, making it necessary to develop uam services in the megapolises and regional transportation sector. based on new technologies and modern business approaches, applying the next generation aviation infrastructure makes it capable of setting up a novel air traffic within the urban environment. this case study aims to explore the urban air transport advantages, particularly adoption of uam, which might be an alternative next generation air transportation system. referring to the collected operational data and design performances of the uam, in this paper, we will try to describe a multi approach studying differences between traditional aviation transportation and uam operation. the first step of the study consists of defining an airspace classification for uam mission and use of applicable requirements for air navigation service providers and second part of the study describes performing uam infrastructure and design of vertiports necessary for vertical take-off and landing (vtol) vehicles. detailed design specification is not included in this study but limited characteristics are indicated according to the vtol manufacturer that are obtained from the test results. as far as vtol vehicles have not started their mission yet, the uam operators are at the stage of development to set up their future operation. the expected trend provides justifiable assumptions of the necessity of establishing the new transportation ramification within the aviation industry, upon transforming existing business activities and regulations. 1. introduction the concept of urban air mobility (uam) is a collaborative idea proposed by aviation (faa) and space administration (nasa) of the usa that enables transportation of passengers and cargo by the air with new electric air vehicles in various geographies within the urban environment to set up brand-new air transportation nodes (bradford, 2022). the high density of the urban population and intensive increase of privately used ground transportation vehicles has become traffic congestion in metropolitan cities (koźlak and wach, 2018; rajendran and srinivas, 2020). nowadays, large-scale transportation systems with their complexity and high maintenance costs need a comprehensive approach for proper planning and optimization of traffic operation and control, the whole transportation system, to solve the congestion problem while securing the environment and reducing greenhouse emissions (teodorović and janić, 2017). particularly, engineering for air transportation includes new concepts of terminal design for passenger and freight services, https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:mehmetcizreliogullar@csu.edu.tr mailto:pinarbarut@csu.edu.tr mailto:tveyranimanov@csu.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.335 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9884-6084 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3624-1581 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5667-5678 25 construction of runways and landing surfaces, and installation of innovative navigation aids to provide safety for flights and route planning challenges (barmpounakis et al., 2016). the demand for light and fuel-efficient aircraft with electronic controls increases the necessity for a widened conventional structure of the air transportation system adding the uam operation in the near future in order to remove the traffic congestion problems in large cities. urban air transportation is not the first disruptive technology in air transportation, therefore in case of successful application of uam operation, the urban transportation system will be totally changed (garrow et al., 2021). the concept of urban air transportation has entered into the service using helicopters by los angeles and new york airways since 1947 during over 20 years of operations, carrying passengers and mail around the los angeles region as well as between manhattan connecting 3 major airports in new york city. in recent years, there has been significant design progress in the urban air vehicles (uav) by carrying out scientific analysis of the feasibility of using electric vertical take-off and landing (evtol) aircraft for air transportation purposes, and defining the future operation and ground infrastructure (thipphavong et al., 2018). thanks to these development successes, worldwide logistics, and aviation companies are vying to take potentially more market share with the use of urban air mobility for delivery cargo, goods, and passengers which are expected to launch in the near future. the famous aircraft manufacturer airbus (eu), boeing, sikorsky and kitty hawk (usa), lilium (germany), and e-hang (china) started actively building up electric uav design and development, years later followed by bell, joby aviation, and uber (usa) embraer (brazilian), rolls-royce (uk), and toyota (japan) have joined evtol production of the urban air transport market, and currently on the way to conduct flight tests process in countries across the world. thanks to the operation of offered full-electric vertical take-off and landing aircraft, urban air service is able to introduce safe, quicker, and trustworthy arms of the air transportation system (hawkins, 2020; rajendran and srinivas, 2020). collectively, there are striving different design concepts of evtol aircraft with different technical specifications and characteristics that have been invested in more than 2 billion usd. in 2020, there would be produced a total of 260 aircraft with different types of evtol across large variations in the seat numbers, distance and speed (see figure 1) (sherman, 2020; garrow et al., 2021). figure 1. different uam aircraft design type. (garrow et al, 2021) taking into attention the multiple design models and the different sizes of the evtol aircraft, international aviation organizations and government agencies are necessary to issue appropriate regulations, standards, and procedures for coordination of urban air mobility transportation systems (preis and hormung, 2022). here at this point, it is taken into account of take-off and landing weight, speed, maneuverability, automation, navigation, surveillance, and communication. to provide safe and efficient use, the airspace capabilities require a standardized set of procedures and rules that ensure flight safety (prevot et al., 2016). there is currently the elaboration of a modern style of air transportation ramification, so-called urban air mobility, driven by real market demand in the future. most of the preceding studies with regard to the uam operation have considered using traditional air transportation system (niklaß et al., 2020; straubinger et al., 2020; tuchen, 2020). in this study, it has been tried to establish a completely separate system serving urban air mobility which classifies the relevant details of air traffic control management and creates the appropriate infrastructure for uam vehicles. however, operational concepts and procedures are not yet approved by the legal authorities while traditional air transportation systems already use existing nextgen and single european sky's atm research (sesar) harmonization concepts. within the context of this research, it is important to identify and evaluate various key performances and main principles of city air operation and to analyse its overall technical and operational data for feasibility as an additional arm of the air transportation system. within the milieu of this study, the following questions will stand as the research questions: • what is the environmental impact of using uam air transport? • what are the applicable methods for uam operation? 2. literature review 2.1. uav characteristics urban air mobility (uam) is considered as the use of unmanned air vehicles (uav) in big metropolitan areas commonly perceived as inner-city air taxis, destined for various purposes and 26 special operations including passenger and cargo transportation in urban environments piloted or remotely piloted functions. besides, uavs also include the associated infrastructure with air and ground services ensuring flight safety (gollnick et al., 2020). uam vehicle take-off weights are varied in a range of between 350-900 kg with maximum indications of 2500 kg, while payload range is estimated between 200-400 kg which rises up to 1000 kg depending on aircraft size in figure 2 (lin and hung, 2011; yinka-banjo and ajayi, 2019; gollnick et al., 2020). figure 2. average take-off weights of uavs. (yinka-banjo and ajayi, 2019) referring to the analysis of 6 methods conducted by reis (2020) for conventional propulsion twin-engine uav carrying 4 passengers and freight with a payload up to 200-600 kg consisting of average maximum take-off weight (mtow) is 1434 kg. given the variety of uam aircraft and the design concept, determining specific dimensions (width, length, height) is time-consuming and ambiguous due to the lack of a wing, a keel of these aircraft. but, the operational characteristics of each of them are determined by the manufacturers indicating the take-off weight, passenger capacity, speed, and flight range. numerous authors’ publications have provided various uam aircraft data sheets and features related to different types of evtols. most popular vectored thrust aircraft such as a lilium jet, airbus a3 vahana, bell nexus 4ex, and joby s4 can use their powers either for lifting or cruise operation. as stated by sherman (2020), vectored thrust design is expected to become an effective evtol vehicle but the disadvantage consists of complexity because of airframe design which is unsafe during the transitional stage from vertical flight position to horizontal attitude. another popular aircraft category; aurora flight sciences pegasus, embraerx eve, and wisk cora stand currently in the design process in two configurations of autonomous thrusters used for lift+cruise purposes which is the first set used for vertical take-off and a secondary kit is used for cruise only. volocopter vc200, the ehang 216, and the ultralight lift aircraft hexa are wingless multi-copter families, designed to use two functions as a vertical lift-take-off and cruise flight. rotorcraft design types such as a jaunt air mobility gyrocopter and the palv pioneer flying cars are another area being considered for the uam concept that includes electric helicopters and novel autogyros. overall, this evtol are designed in different configurations in passenger seat numbers, cruise velocity, and distance in table 1 (garrow et al., 2021). table 1. characteristics of e vtol e-vtol types seat speed, km/h range, km lilium jet 2-5 300 300 airbus a3 vahana 1 190 50 bell nexus 4ex 5 240 240 joby s4 5 322 240 aurora-pegasus 2 180 80 embraerx eve 5 n/a n/a wisk cora 2 161 40 volocopter vc200 2 80-100 30 ehang 216 1 130 35 lift aircraft hexa 1 96 20-25 jaunt air mobility 5 280 n/a pal-v pioneer 2 160-180 400-482 the flight range on conventional aircraft is determined through depending on the take-off weight and the range of the desired flight on which the required amount of fuel consumption is calculated. while for evtol aircraft, the flight range is determined by based on the electrical storage capacity for particular air transport, and it is important to note that the performance of designed batteries plays the main role in the definition of specific flight range in urban environments (preris, 2021). 27 2.2. uam airspace classification for urban air transportation (uat) operation in urban airspace, the current crucial task is still to set up air traffic management problems. airspace classification has been created by icao that identifies controlled (a, b, c, d, e) and uncontrolled (f, g) areas. standardization of the airspace designated with seven class operations is defined according to flight rules and services rendered by air traffic control in figure 3 (bauranov and rakas, 2021). figure 3. icao airspace classification. (rattanagraikanakorn et al., 2018) except for class g, all aircrafts operated in controlled airspace and within every airspace class managed by air traffic control management, providing separation support, trajectory definition, and upon transition level. airspace-based flights in higher altitudes are not suitable for the vtol aircraft because intracity flights are carried on below or equal to 1000 feet. for the integration of uam operations in classes e, f, and g for existing atc systems, it stays necessary to increase airspace capacity and separation policy to be able to control all operations within specified classes (thipphavong et al., 2018; bauranov and rakas, 2021). today, the nextgen program proposed by the faa is in progress to apply modern technologies to enhance the current performance and reliability of airspace management and to increase automation capabilities. collaborative work between nasa and faa aims to develop new methods for atc management to improve air traffic capacity, enhance trajectory efficiency, mitigation of air congestion, and constraint management. the nextgen concept considers the development and implementation of urban air system (uas) and urban traffic management (utm) which will provide more automated traffic management remotely piloted urban air vehicles to follow air traffic separation minimum of the urban aircraft as well as to ensure safety requirements (bharadwaj et al., 2019; lundberg et al., 2018). the uav automation system provides self-separation and collision avoidance safety by applying onboard surveillance and program processing algorithms for threat detection and resolution. the future system will allow users desired routes, use of the applicable speed and related altitude, and better integrated operational capabilities (khan et al., 2017). 2.3. uam ground support structure the growth of the uam industry is dependent on its technical development and commercial eligibility which contributes to the certification process and production ramp-up in the future. the commercial concept requires a building of ground service infrastructure for supporting uam providers and operators in figure 4. figure 4. uam infrastructure requirement (hader, 2022) increasing demand of uam inner-city air transportation in the near future will become a reality among the population in metropolitan areas which would require development of ground infrastructure to serve the passenger and cargo particularly building of uam terminals. as urban air transportation vehicles are fully or hybrid electric with vertical take-off and landing performances, the ground surface service point is commonly referred to vertiports which is shown as follows in figure 5 (preris and hornung, 2022). figure 5. e-vtol vertiports for uam service (crumley, 2022) the essential ground structures, physical and facilities needed for uam aircraft are landing pads in different metropolitan areas ensuring take-off and landing, a central passenger traffic hub, and the formation of digital infrastructure for booking platform and set of service networks (rodriguez, 2021). according to gollnick study’s (2020) which stands based on methodology and results of the sustainable conception of urban air mobility (uam), it is assumed that the use of airspace for urban flight operation to be completely separate from commercial aviation used airspace 28 operation with air traffic control, interfaces and terminal infrastructures. 3. result and discussion a significant difference between urban air transport and commercial aviation is clearly expressed in the diversity of the philosophy of air transportation and the organization of ground infrastructure as well as according to the performance of aircrafts particularly relating to cruising speed, flight altitude, commercial payload, travel distance, and the most notable manned and unmanned concept in table 2. table 2. comparative characteristics traditional air transportation system and uam range, km altitude ft speed km/h power capacity noise co2 traditional air transportation short: 1000 medium: 3000 long: 11000 up to 40000 500-950 turbo fan turbo jet 50-550 80-100 db 3% uam air transportation intracity: up to 100 intercity: 100-400 500-1000 up to 5000 100-300 electricit y 1-5 noiseless 0 at first perceiving air transportation always focuses on aircraft, while the new transportation mode uam is complex of flying vehicles ultimately solving the urban traffic congestion problems. compared to traditional airplanes powered by jet engines using fossil fuel, which are able to conduct long-distance flights, uam is an electric vehicle adapted to battery powers and equipped with several rotors purposed for intercity and intracity flights at low altitudes. the usage of uam air transportation is considered to reduce the impact on the environment, such as the elimination of greenhouse gasses, air pollution and noise mitigation which is ecological sustainability that significantly overcomes traditional airplanes (bian et al.,2021). currently, when uam is in the process of designing and testing stage, relevant procedures and standards are under development by legal institutions, aviation authorities as well as the certification and property rights of uam operators are still a sensitive issue. as a novel mode of air transportation, uam might be a brand-new aviation industry with distinctive features regarding procedures for regulations, approvals, operations, infrastructures, maintenance, and certification (rizzi and rizzi, 2022). besides, as a new branch together with innovative applications and high technology design concepts, relevant aviation administration needs to ensure the quality and flight safety of uam operation referring to issued regulations. the concept of flying within urban areas is based on the idea of vtol which eliminates the necessity of the long runway and also makes it inevitable to design new infrastructure including vertiports and appropriate passenger terminals including energy/charging provision, storage, and maintenance. unlike the traditional logistic and freight forwarder distribution providers, uam is a better choice for e-commerce since it can offer the usage of communication network infrastructure using 5g access for faster delivery and shipment. regional and national airspace air navigation service is the main attribute of uam operation in urban areas which requires both national and international rule frameworks for common development concepts. taking into account the future increasing volume of air traffic used by uam operations, it must completely be separated and controlled from traditional air traffic in figure 6. figure 6. uam air transportation system the european aviation safety agency (easa) has already offered a community to discuss and suggest an acceptable regulatory-legal structure for enabling safe operation over cities at low altitudes for uam aircraft with vertical take-off and landing (vtol), which will help public acceptance of modern air transportation systems. involved countries continue the collaborative communication via icao to provide the maximum applicable level of similarity of the regulations, standards, and procedures concerning urban air vehicles (ua) for easement and perfection air navigation services. icao closely works with contracted civil aviation authorities (caa) in 193 countries, aviation industry stakeholders, and relevant organizations for the elaboration of standards and recommended practices (sarps) for unmanned aviation. the implemented remotely piloted aircraft systems panel (rpasp) is intended for instrument flight rules operations in controlled airspace and airports. the main attention of the rpasp is emphasized on the airworthiness of 29 vehicles, uam provider certification, atc management, 2-way communication-command and control system (c2 link), detect and avoid (dad) policy, safe operation, and overall protection (malaud, 2019). initially, the uam ecosystem can be used in similarity to the being helicopter operation rules by applying landing surface, routes, and air navigation services supported by atc organizations. faa is currently working on the projects to identify uam infrastructure for air traffic management procedures at low altitude flights among urban environments and the development of future vertiport standards. almost this year faa has issued interim guidance for facility requirements vtol, to support early operation (faa, 2022). in order to ensure safety of air vehicles, maintenance is a key area which is necessary to explore and apply for safe operation. a windfall of materials concerning full uam specification and detailed system description in the maintenance manual as well as the maintenance program is not yet accessible for the researchers to predict the maintenance concept of uav. however, new generation aircrafts including uav are designed using a variety of digital sensors and devices which generate huge amounts of data (tsach et al., 2007). in order to leverage those data, new maintenance challenge demand is necessary to make it reliable, efficient and optimal to reduce maintenance cost. in this context, a new maintenance concept is foreseen via using artificial intelligence elements such as digital twin, internet of thing, machine learning etc (alexopoulos et al., 2020). taking into account average accepted flight levels at 5000 ft, it is acknowledged that proposed uam flight operation and current air traffic management do not reflect all metropolitan areas in an ideal manner. there are existing cities that are developed around unstable geographic locations with elevations, mountains and water bodies which constrains urban flight operations. future developments and appropriate operation requirements besides regulations of the authorities are able to solve such restrictions. 4. conclusions uam is the latest aerial transportation system of the 21st century in an urban environment ensuring passenger and cargo transportation. thanks to its new design concept with propulsion system, automation, and vertical take-off and landing capabilities, it makes a huge contribution to zero-emission policy, noiseless and safe operation, as well as significantly cost-efficient infrastructure requirements. essential weakness evtol vehicles is low energy density of the battery which is enough for hundreds of kilometers flight routes. in order to ensure long range operation, development of new energy technologies is still needed. safety for conventional aircrafts, designed and operated within current aviation transportation system is provided by existing rules and regulations issued by international aviation authorities. principal aviation organization’s icao, easa, faa and state civil aviation authorities working on amendments, for adaptation of these standards for evtol aircrafts and associated with pilot training, maintenance staff qualification, air traffic management and ground facility requirements. however, additional specific new relevant regulatory documents are considered for evtol functions to meet safety standards. except safety issues that impact the development of urban air mobility is public acceptance of the new air transportation system in urban areas, intensive entry to service which is expected from 2025. formation of the uam infrastructure will be significantly easier then ground transportation and railways, which do not have need of road and track lay downs. high-pitched scale new technologies implemented within evtol transportation system contributes successfully to the growth of this industry and also the activities of the involved companies, service providers gain momentum in this sphere. the study shows the urban air transport advantages particularly the adoption of uam which might be an alternative next generation air transportation system. referring to the collected operational data and design performances of the uam, it has been 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(2019). sky-farmers: applications of unmanned aerial vehicles (uav) in agriculture. autonomous vehicles, 107-128. https://fenix.tecnico.ulisboa.pt/ https://www.icao.int/nacc/documents/meetings/2021/uasrpas/p29-uasrpasw2-panel-ehang.pdf https://www.icao.int/nacc/documents/meetings/2021/uasrpas/p29-uasrpasw2-panel-ehang.pdf https://www.communityairmobility.org/uam101 https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/abs/10.2514/6.2018-3676 62 digital game-based learning model as an educational approach şule kavak ¹ selcuk university education faculty, department of preschool teaching, kvk.sule@gmail.com article history: submission 01 april 2022 revision 30 may 2022 accepted 02 july 2022 available online 31 august 2022 keywords: 21st century, stem, game, technology, digital natives, early childhood. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.311 a b s t r a c t today, the rapid development of technology has also affected the existing learning processes. in addition, this development has made it necessary for children to develop skills by the needs of the 21st century. in this research, an alternative to the question of how we can support and update learning activities suitable for our age is presented. digital game-based learning concepts are explained in the light of the literature and suggestions on how to use them from early childhood are presented. game is the most important supportive activity for development areas in early childhood. it also similarly affects learning processes. learning with play makes the child more active and makes him excited about learning. this increases the motivation to learn. according to the research, when dgbl is used effectively, it has been seen that children support many 21st century skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and cooperative learning. this review demonstrated the importance of combining learning and game of digital technology used as an education model. in addition, practical recommendations are presented for using technology in preschool children. 1. introduction most people believe that games are interesting, effective, and have a place in learning, and this belief is supported by many studies (egemen, yılmaz, akil, 2004; özer, gürkan, ramazanoğlu, 2006; ayan, memiş, 2012; metin, mercan, kavak, 2017). according to the researchers, the play includes the most effective socialization and learning processes common to all cultures. games use it as a teaching strategy. the cognitive benefits of games have been supported by different theories, especially piaget (1962). games, which are frequently used in learning activities, increase cognitive flexibility capacity, embodied learning, and most importantly, make the learning process enjoyable. the developments in the field of technology and the effect of technology on human life have caused changes in many areas. one of these changes is the use of digital games for educational purposes in early childhood. 21st-century children found themselves in technological tools almost as soon as they were born and they built their worlds on these tools. computer, mobile phone, tablet, etc. vehicles have been an indispensable part of their lives since their early days. today, individuals in early childhood interact too much with technological tools have led to the digitalization of the game out of traditional patterns. therefore, digital environments attract their attention and motivate them more to do something in the digital environment. breaking with traditional education and games, generation z is referred to as "digital natives". this generation, who grew up with exposure to computers and the internet and are called digital natives, has different learning characteristics from the x and y generations. digital natives need multiple streams of information, prefer inductive reasoning, want frequent and rapid interactions with users, and have visual literacy skills. all of the mentioned learning styles are features that match well with the “digital game-based learning/dgbl” (van eck, 2006). digital gamebased teaching has carried the concept of the game far beyond the traditional definition of "leisure time activity", and the game; has transformed individuals into action with outcomes that force them to learn, explore, think and research. as mentioned, the process of thinking and processing thinking is completely different for today's children compared to the generation before them. therefore, it is noteworthy that teachers should use digital-based games as teaching materials in the https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:kvk.sule@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.311 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2753-3977 63 classroom to meet the educational needs of the generation called "digital natives" (princeky, 2001b). most recent studies show that dgbl has positive effects on children (van eck, 2006). if we consider education as the state of meeting the needs of the individual, the changing thinking and processing processes of today's children should not be ignored to meet their educational needs. therefore, the importance of breaking out of traditional learning patterns and using the digital game-based teaching model effectively is seen once again. considering all these situations, it is possible to see that dbgl, on the one hand, meets the educational needs of individuals, on the other hand, helps them to enjoy themselves and to include them in their learning processes. keeping in mind that today's children lead a life intertwined with technology from an early age, it is undeniable that digital tools should be used as a teaching model to benefit more effectively from early childhood. the main purpose of this research will be explained conceptually and with examples, of how dgbl can be integrated into classroom environments, especially in early childhood. thus, the effects of digital games, which are seen as entertainment tools, and how they will be associated with learning processes will be presented from a different perspective. 2. digital game-based learning model (dgbl) thanks to the technology that has become available in classrooms today has drastically changed teaching as well as learning. thus digital game-based learning has been a prominent teaching method (juraschka, 2019). dgbl is a teaching method that incorporates educational content or learning principles into video games to engage students. digital game-based learning applications make use of constructivist education theory. based on constructivist education theory, dgbl combines educational content with a computer or video games and can be used in almost all courses and skill levels (coffey, 2009). dgbl is a pattern that utilizes the game as a medium for conveying the learning contents, leveraging the power of computer games to captivate and engage users for the purpose, such as to develop new knowledge and skills. dgbl is also fined as an application that uses the characteristics of video and computer games to create engaging learning experiences for delivering specified learning goals, outcomes, and experiences (zin, jaafar, & yue, 2009). dgbl offers a delicate balance between in-class lessons and educational gameplay. teachers introduce students to new concepts and show them how they work. then students practice these concepts through digital games (juraschka, 2019). in dgbl, digital games are considered as non-traditional innovative and motivation-enhancing educational tools that can create opportunities and achieve new goals in the learning process. in dgbl, digital games are used to promote learning and communicate knowledge. while game-based learning is a concept that has been used for many years, the term dgbl was first used by prensky (2001b), a leading researcher in the field of dgbl, in his book “digital game-based learning”. prensky (2001b) states that digital game-based learning is in the “20th century”, a global technology explosion where the next generation of students in grades k-12 are starting to do all their work with access to technology. he explains that it emerged in the last decades of the 20th century. prensky (2005) argues that dgbl is based on two fundamental propositions: “radical change in learners and creating motivation to learn in new ways”, emphasizing the new generation called digital natives. other proponents of digital game-based learning support this view, arguing that dgbl provides learning opportunities that engage students in interactive teaching and helps prepare them to participate in the global, technological society of the 21st century (coffey, 2009). research indicates that preadolescents play digital games, on average, between four to six hours per day (homer, hayward, frye, & plass, 2012). and it’s thought using similar gameplay in the classroom can increase engagement and overall learning in classes (juraschka, 2019). dgbl is also in line with current research stating that digital games can be used as educational tools because they provide an environment for problem-based learning by combining the child's participation in the game in parallel with game and learning. toprac (2011), researched how to design a motivating educational game for middle school students using digital-game-based learning techniques in a problem-based learning environment. results showed that students believed that their interest in learning science was influenced by their self-efficacy, attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value, cost perceptions, and knowledge. erhel and jamet (2013) examined the effects of two types of instructions on digital game-based learning and the results showed learning is entertainment and deeper and instruction has beneficial feedback. meanwhile, many scholars recognize dgbl which enables the learner to conduct experiments and test hypotheses as a promising platform to foster students’ science knowledge (hussein, ow, cheong, thong & ale ebrahim, 2019). a distinct balance needs to be reached between types of games to create something educational and fun for students (juraschka, 2019). dgbl has a huge learning potential to engage learners in complex learning environments. studies have suggested that not only can dgbl provide opportunities for entertaining learning, but also it is an eclectic learning model that enables to use and embodying of different learning situations (huang & johnson, 2002; pannese & carlesi, 2007; huang, huang & tschopp, 2010). the figure below shows that dgbl should have a good balance between 64 game participation and learning. if the balance is disturbed, the game may become addictive or more educational and less interesting/fun rather than expected educational outcomes (raptopoulou, 2015). figure 1. digital game-based learningtwo-dimensional process. source: prensky, (2005) 3. components of dgbl dgbl includes activities that can range from completing very simple tasks to developing complex problem-solving skills. if the right components are used, learning will become more fun with pedagogical activities that appeal to all ages by using dgbl, while children's participation in learning processes will be supported and their desire and curiosity will increase. to differentiate games that are appropriate for helping students learn in the classroom from those that are used purely for entertainment could be classified games into two categories like video games and serious games. while video games include games designed for pure entertainment; serious games include games designed to teach or help students practice specific skills or content and combine and integrate both teaching and entertainment (pitarch, 2018). also intended for fun, some video games can be shifted to teach different skills and bring them into the realm of serious gaming. on the other hand, serious games can incorporate elements of video games to make them more entertaining and engaging (alvarez & djaouti, 2011). figure 2. how digital game-based learning improves student success: (juraschka (2019) dgbl offers a wider learning environment to learners and teachers by including game components. above all, games should keep learning and participation at a high level. immersive and fun: games need to have a fun-loving side. otherwise, the child may not want to continue the game. rules: every game must have rules and clear guidelines. a guide should be arranged that students must follow when they are involved in the game. feedback: the game interface should be designed to give instant feedback to the learners. multimedia technology: it is very important to use visuals, effects, and sounds that appeal to the senses in the game. challenge: each student has different abilities for each game. the difficulty level of a game should match the skills students have. reward: it is one of the ways to motivate students to keep playing and to overcome the challenges of each game level. for this reason, it is important to give students rewards that will reinforce their participation to achieve the targeted gains (zin, jaafar, yue, 2009). deubel (2006) when teachers choose games; stated that they should pay attention to whether it will cause too much competition, determine the target age level and difficulty level of the game, and not expose them to any discrimination. it is also important that the teacher's role be clear, that the rules and objectives are clear, and that they provide immediate feedback. in addition, it is another important factor that students have an 65 interactive role not only with the game but also with other students. 4. benefits of dgbl when the effects of dgbl on children are examined in the research, it is seen that the benefits of dgbl such as increasing motivation, supporting critical thinking and problem-solving skills, increasing interaction and quick feedback come to the fore. according to deubel (2006), dgbl has the potential to attract students' attention, motivate learning, and provide permanent learning and practical learning experiences by supporting longterm memory. it also draws attention to the function of digital game-based learning in improving vocabulary skills and increasing cognitive speed. in this learning model, the critical thinking skills of children are supported by the feedback received during the game (princeky, 2001a). in addition, dgbl helps children to create their learning processes (anderson et al. 2009). this situation increases children's self-confidence and helps them to come up with more creative ideas. it also removes the monotony of teaching and makes it more enjoyable. the use of technology provides opportunities for children to benefit from deep learning and to encourage self-learning at a level that is capable of further research (garcia & mangaba, 2017). in digital game-based teaching, the child is at the center of teaching. in this process, while the child does not feel any pressure to learn the information, on the other hand, he is exposed to information every second and is open to new learning opportunities (tam & hui, 2011). griffiths (2002) states that these games are effective in supporting children's interest in learning new subjects and their computer skills and that using digital games also has benefits for children with special educational needs. for example, video or digital games have a calming effect on a seven-year-old with autism; drawing attention to research data suggesting that adolescents with attention deficit disorder may experience improvements in "classification, sociability, and organizational skills" while playing educational video games. he also mentions the possible benefits of using video or digital-based games for diabetes and other diseases that require rehabilitation. dgbl differs from traditional learning methods that make the individual passive in the process, as it makes them an active participant in the process. in addition, the fact that students receive instant feedback during digital game-based learning, the speed of asking questions is much higher, and supporting actions such as being in control increases their learning motivation and skills such as self-confidence and self-efficacy (mayo, 2009). compared to traditional instruction, digital game-based learning has shown to be more effective in improving students’ mathematical learning (juraschka, 2019). researches on children at early ages show that digital games support children's problem-solving skills and creativity and increase their collaborative work (brooks and sjöberg, 2020a; brooks and sjöberg, 2020b). kailani, newton, & pedersen (2019) showed in their work that the most prominent elements of digital games are collaboration, interaction, and feedback. in addition, they concluded that digital game-based learning encourages learning motivation and participation by enabling children to have high interaction, and thus positively affects problem-solving skills, as it leads to insistence on finding solutions to the problems addressed in the game through increased motivation. 5. limitations of dgbl while it seems that dgbl has some benefits and may be of interest to children, there are also opponents to this type of learning model and some disadvantages of using video or digitalbased games in the classroom are highlighted. some researchers argue that digital games can be more of a distraction than a typical learning tool, and the purpose of the games may not always be as desired. for this reason, deubel (2006) recommends that when using such an educational tool, teachers should also take into account how the characteristics of the game can affect children cognitively and physiologically. the most notable of the limitations of using digital-based games is the constant updating of video games. it is thought that due to this rapid and continuous change, the targeted achievements may lose their effect, and as a result, it will be difficult for researchers to evaluate the educational effect of some games (griffiths, 2002). teachers should also take into account the technology time available to them in the school setting. some students may not have equal access to such educational tools if there is not enough technology to support a digital game-based learning program. in addition, whether the game contents are aimed at the targeted age group is another important factor (deubel, 2006). in terms of parents, it is seen that there are concerns that digital games may have negative effects on the behavior of young children and cause digital game addiction (brooks & sjöberg, 2020a). some researchers believe that digital games reduce children's creativity and motor skills. teachers and parents can take precautions against these negative situations as follows; games should not contain factors such as violence and discrimination, and gender inequality, and measures should be taken for this. giving the games used in homework outside the classroom and balancing the use of digital games with other teaching activities are the factors that should be considered. in 66 addition, the digital games used must be compatible with the determined learning objectives. 6. how to use dgbl in early childhood education? digital game-based learning has been around longer than you might think. the oregon trail in 1974 is one of the first games in the world of dgbl created for educational purposes which gave children a fun way of learning about what life was like for pioneers (juraschka, 2019). by focusing on creativity elements that should be supported at an early age, digital game-based learning games can increase students' academic success and develop 21st-century skills such as creativity, problem-solving, collaboration, and critical thinking (bowman et al., 2015). the learning process based on digital games keeps children's curiosity about finding new ways of problem-solving by creating visual appeal, which increases children's motivation for learning (hooshyar et al., 2020; lin et. al., 2020). dgbl helps struggle with strengths and weaknesses and lets students practice at their own pace. dgbl platforms offer many tools for educators to take advantage of. just need to be implemented and used effectively for positive results to take hold (juraschka, 2019). in behnamnia, kamsin, ismail, and hayati’s (2020) research, the most effective types of digital games used for children and their contents are stated as follows. • flashcard and alphabet games • games with english language skills • games with animals and nature • games with informative content about the environment and science • games with music content • games with content for stem fields • memory and attention games • matching, sorting, classification, etc. games creative games, role-playing games, strategy games, serious games, etc. studies have shown that such digital games support preschool children's development in some skills, including learning numbers and letters, foreign language skills, painting, collage, and other artistic and creative activities. digital game recommendations for early childhood: wwf together: this application, which presents the stories of interesting animals in the world from a different perspective, allows children to get to know and understand animals closely, and even provides content about nature and environment concepts with games such as reenacting their lives. safe child: in this application, which has educational and entertaining content prepared for children, there are also fun and instructive content as well as intelligence games such as sudoku and chess. mentalup: this application, prepared by child development experts, offers gamified content to improve children's mental and physical skills. there are more than 120 educational intelligence games that include attention, memory, logic, visual and verbal games. pet bingo: this application, which teaches mathematics through play, consists of content that helps preschool children learn mathematical skills and concepts. wii sports: it includes a sports-themed game application that supports the physical development of children as hand-eye, and motor skills by turning games into physical activities, and also provides a basis for family socialization and teamwork. trt kids underwater explorer: it is an educational mobile game that allows children to meet the riches of the underwater world in a fun environment. virus, newton: it is a mobile game that offers authentic realworld contexts and 21st-century skills (kolpfer, 2008). 7. conclusions combining the fun side of the games with the instructional goals brings this learning model to the forefront with the developing technology. most of the studies have focused on the effects of games on learning rather than how to apply dgbl, why, and how it will be effective (van eck, 2006). children of all ages can learn through digital games. in recent years, it has been seen that it is preferable to use such games from kindergarten to 12th grade to increase children's interest in learning (ishak, din & hasran, 2021). according to current research; it is seen that digital games are mostly used to support children's participation in learning processes and to increase their motivation and interest in learning. consequently, practical experience and research are needed to explain why dgbl is interesting and effective, and how games can be integrated into the learning process (when, with whom, and under what conditions) to maximize their learning potential. 67 because of the easy and fast access to technology, today's students are thought to "think and process information in a fundamentally different way than before." teachers who are called “digital immigrants” have to adapt to the language and learning styles of students, who are now “digital natives” surrounded by technology (prensky, 2001b). the claim that digital games will be a promising educational tool and should be used for educational purposes in schools is accepted within the educational technology research community. scientists and educators conclude that games tend to produce higher levels of positive emotional intelligence in students, make the learning experience more engaging, and improve engagement (annetta, 2008). at the same time, despite the enormous potential of dgbl, because of the difficulty in identifying their relevance to the curriculum, potential benefits, and practical integration method, it is still a problem to integrate games into the curriculum of formal education (zin, jaafar, & yue, 2009). innovation in digital games has been proven to help solve students' problems (prensky, 2001a). it is also seen by other studies that problem-solving becomes more creative in students who are encouraged to learn based on digital games (brunnet & portugal, 2016). in addition, according to hamlen (2009), as students play digital-based games, they are reinforced to develop creative solutions in problem-solving processes. in another study, it was found that students who use digital game-based learning applications are more likely to develop different ways of thinking while solving problems (diefenthaler et al., 2017). the results of the research show that there are some limitations in dgbl, as in every teaching method. however, it is also supported by studies that positive gains will be much more when necessary precautions are taken. research (juraschka, 2019) shows since the first instance of dgbl, the teaching method has evolved in both quality and content. now, dgbl learning platforms can easily personalize learning for every student through real-time analytics that pinpoints student strengths and weaknesses. today, while being so far ahead of technological developments, trying to continue the classical learning methods in the learning processes of new generations is like making them float in unfamiliar water. to support the 21st century generation born into technology, to learn more actively and to their needs, it is necessary to update learning ways to the requirements of the age. in this sense, it is inevitable to benefit from contemporary learning methods that keep up with today's technology, such as dgbl, to make learning processes more enjoyable and convenient. digital game-based learning keeps students engaged with educational content and can improve their overall success at school (juraschka, 2019). digital games (video games or computer games) are positively accepted among children and teenagers. so digital games, an interactive technology within the multimedia learning environment could foster the learning process effectively and interestingly especially am g young learners (zin, jaafar, & yue, 2009). finally, based on my research i suggest that more research, especially in the field of preschool, still needs to be done on dgbl to ensure best practices in the classroom. technology and dgbl should be used frequently by teachers in the classroom to help every child succeed in their education. at the same time, playing games to practice what’s taught in class can help students gain confidence with educational content and relieve things like math anxiety. in addition, the effect of dgbl on motivation has been a subject that is frequently emphasized in the literature, especially in secondary education. future research should further focus on motivation to learn with dgbl in early childhood. intrinsic and extrinsic motivation studies on this subject can be studied experimentally. for example; it is observed that the effect of dgbl on learning or motivation in subjects such as science (hussein, ow, cheong, thong & ale ebrahim, 2019), mathematics (juraschka, 2019), foreign language (pitarch, 2018), history (zin, jafaar, yue, 2009). future researchers can also work in other subject areas with an integrated perspective. in particular, studies that take into account gender and age variables can be focused on. references 1. alvarez, j., & djaouti, d. 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(2009). digital game-based learning (dgbl) model and development methodology for teaching history. wseas transactions on computers, 8(2), 322-333. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi= 10.1.1.494.4499&rep=rep1&type=pdf https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.494.4499&rep=rep1&type=pdf https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.494.4499&rep=rep1&type=pdf 93 flood disaster mitigation through citizen lawsuit mulyani zulaeha ¹* lies ariany ² akhmad hendryan dwifama ³ rizka annisa falmelia ⁴ muhammad shofwan ridhani ⁵ ¹ lambung mangkurat university, faculty of law, mulyani.zulaeha@ulm.ac.id *correspondent author. ² lambung mangkurat university, faculty of law, lies.ariany@ulm.ac.id ³ lambung mangkurat university, faculty of law, fama.hendry@gmail.com ⁴ lambung mangkurat university, faculty of law, rizkaannisafalmelia@gmail.com ⁵ lambung mangkurat university, faculty of law, mshofwan.ridhani@gmail.com article history: submission 18 august 2021 revision 03 november 2021 accepted 16 december 2021 available online 31 december 2021 keywords: disaster mitigation, flood, citizen lawsuit. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.276 a b s t r a c t the state is responsible for providing protection and management in accordance with the authority it has so that environmental damage does not occur that causes flooding and is able to anticipate the possibility of flooding again in the future. however, in practice it cannot be denied that state administrators, in this case the central government to local governments, have the possibility of committing a mistake as an act against the law because it does not provide fulfillment of the rights of citizens, so that the community can sue the state for that mistake. citizen lawsuits do not lead to claims for losses, but demands in the form of issuing general policies by the government. the purpose of this study is to find out about the efforts of citizens to obtain protection from the threat of flooding through the citizen lawsuit mechanism and to find out how the potential citizen lawsuit mechanism in resolving floods so that it does not happen again. this study uses a normative juridical approach by using perspective analysis. the results showed that the problem of flooding resulted in citizens not getting their rights to a good and healthy environment. the citizen lawsuit is carried out so that state officials issue a general regulatory policy as a preventive one (disaster mitigation) so that floods do not occur again in the future. 1. introduction indonesia is based on its astronomical location between 6°n-11°s and 95°e-141°e. based on the astronomical location as in the picture above, indonesia is a country that has a tropical climate. based on its geographical location, indonesia is a country that has a high potential for earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions and landslides. the territory of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia is a disaster-prone area. its position which is located on the equator and in the pacific ring of fire area poses a high potential for various types of hydro meteorological-related disasters, such as floods, droughts, extreme weather, extreme ocean waves or tsunamis, coastal abrasion, and forest fires (moerwanto & zulfan, 2020). the position of indonesia's territory, which is on the equator and in the form of an archipelago, also creates a high potential for various types of hydro meteorological disasters, namely floods, flash floods, droughts, extreme weather (hurricanes), abrasion, extreme waves and land and forest fires. the phenomenon of climate change contributes to the increase in hydro meteorological disasters. indonesia is located between two oceans, namely the indian ocean and the pacific ocean, besides that, indonesia is also crossed by a ring of fire, which also causes indonesia to become an area that is very prone to natural disasters, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, volcanoes, floods, landslides, strong winds, etc. based on law number 24 of 2007 concerning disaster management, indonesia has 12 types of high-risk disasters, namely earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, land movements or landslides, floods, flash floods, droughts, extreme https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:mulyani.zulaeha@ulm.ac.id mailto:lies.ariany@ulm.ac.id mailto:fama.hendry@gmail.com mailto:rizkaannisafalmelia@gmail.com mailto:mshofwan.ridhani@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i1.191 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4842-3232 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1864-8759 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9578-6813 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5198-0497 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1998-1745 94 weather or tornadoes, extreme waves and abrasion, forest and land fires, epidemics and disease outbreaks, and technological failures. with the disaster conditions combined with the high vulnerability of the indonesian people, the risk of disaster in indonesia is included in the very high category. one of the most common disasters is flooding. flood is an event that overflows water from the riverbank boundary in a relatively short period or an event that inundates water on the ground surface until it exceeds a certain time limit, which results in losses. in the regions of indonesia, flood disasters occur most frequently and are repeated every year, especially during the rainy season (suripin, 2004). the problem of flooding itself has arisen since humans have lived and have also carried out various activities in the area in the form of a flood (flood plain) of a river. the condition of the land in this area is generally fertile and holds various potentials and conveniences so that it has a high attractiveness for cultivation. in addition to providing benefits to human life, floodplains also contain the potential for harm in connection with the threat of flooding in the form of flooding that can cause damage and disasters. along with the growth rate of development in floodplains, the potential for damage and disasters has also increased from time to time (kumalawati & angriani, 2018). besides being caused by natural factors, namely high rainfall, floods also occur due to human activities. other factors causing flooding are population growth, irregular urban spatial planning, unavailability of urban infrastructure and irregular use of land use resulting in increased flooding problems, especially in urban areas. thus, flood disasters can be influenced by three elements, namely meteorological elements, elements of physical characteristics of watersheds (das) and human elements. indeed, the occurrence of flood disasters if observed is very local in nature, because it could be that one area is flooded and the other area is safe and does not flood. even though it is a local disaster, sometimes floods can also spread and paralyze community activities. therefore, in line with the causes of this flood, the most important thing at this time is to take quick steps to handle and overcome this flood disaster. so that people affected by this flood disaster immediately get help. in addition, to prevent similar incidents from happening in the years to come. moreover, from the legal aspect, there is already a basis for the government and local governments to act in dealing with the flood disaster. for this reason, the government and regional governments need to formulate responsive policies related to flood prevention and mitigation. the public can claim for material and immaterial damages through a lawsuit. however, it should be realized that such a lawsuit would not have a direct impact on policy changes regarding flood anticipation. it will not be as easy as imagined to prove the government's guilt. this is important because indonesia's environment must be protected and managed properly based on the principles of state responsibility, the principle of sustainability, and the principle of justice. in addition, environmental management must be able to provide economic, social and cultural benefits that are carried out based on the principles of prudence, environmental democracy, decentralization, as well as recognition and respect for local wisdom and environmental wisdom. the unitary state of the republic of indonesia is responsible for protecting the entire indonesian nation and the entire homeland of indonesia with the aim of providing protection for life and livelihood, including protection against disasters, in the context of realizing public welfare based on pancasila, as mandated in the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia. the state is responsible for providing protection and management in accordance with the authority it has so that environmental damage does not occur that causes flooding and is able to anticipate the possibility of flooding again in the future. however, in practice it cannot be denied that state administrators, in this case the central government to local governments, there is a possibility of committing a mistake as an act against the law because it does not provide fulfillment of the rights of citizens, thus the state may also be sued for for that mistake, the state was punished for taking certain actions or issuing a policy that was general in nature so that such negligence would no longer occur in the future (kurniawan, 2016), therefore, in this paper, we try to examine the efforts to prevent and manage floods through a citizen lawsuit mechanism. citizen lawsuits do not lead to claims for losses, but demands in the form of issuing general policies by the government. based on the description above, it is interesting to conduct a discussion about the efforts of citizens to obtain protection from the threat of flooding through the citizen lawsuit mechanism and how the potential citizen lawsuit mechanism in resolving floods so that it does not happen again. 95 2. results and discussion 2.1. responsibilities and authorities of the government and local governments in preventing and reducing the impact of disasters through environmental management the fourth paragraph of the preamble to the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia mandates that the government of the republic of indonesia protect the entire nation and the entire homeland of indonesia, promote public welfare, educate the nation's life and participate in carrying out world order based on freedom, eternal peace and social justice. as the implementation of the mandate, national development is carried out which aims to create a just and prosperous society that always pays attention to the right to livelihood and protection for every citizen within the framework of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia. therefore, as a unified country, the goals of this country must also be realized from the central government to the local government level. therefore, as a unitary state of the republic of indonesia which has a wide area and is located on the equator at a cross position between two continents and two oceans with natural conditions that have various advantages, but on the other hand its position is in an area that has geographical, geological, hydrological, and demographics that are prone to disasters with a fairly high frequency, thus requiring systematic, integrated, and coordinated handling. indonesia realizes that disaster issues must be taken seriously. disaster is a very comprehensive and multi-dimensional discussion. responding to disasters whose frequency continues to increase every year, thoughts on disaster management must be understood and implemented by all parties. disasters are everyone's business. periodically, indonesia builds a national disaster management system (disaster management agency). also included in the handling of one of the flood disasters that do not escape threatening indonesia. therefore, this demands responsibility up to the local government level to solve it. the government together with the local government are the servants needed by the community in overcoming floods. for this reason, it is hoped that the direct role of the government and regional government is expected to do concrete things that reduce flooding, such as making reservoirs that can accommodate rainwater while also providing garbage bins so that people do not litter and normalize rivers that this spread. in addition, the community must have awareness to protect the environment. the government and the community can work together to overcome floods and carry out reforestation or tree planting around vacant land. so that an appropriate policy must be taken immediately to overcome it. therefore, moreover, the local government is the person in charge of managing disasters that occur in their area. flood handling and mitigation is the responsibility and authority of the government and local government as stated in chapter iii of article 5 to article 9 of law no. 24 of 2007 concerning disaster management. as for the responsibilities and authorities of the government, there are articles 6 and 7, which read: article 6 the government's responsibilities in the implementation of disaster management include: a) disaster risk reduction and integration of disaster risk reduction with development programs; b) protection of the community from the impact of disasters; c) guaranteeing the fulfillment of the rights of communities and refugees affected by disasters fairly and in accordance with minimum service standards; d) recovery of conditions from the impact of disasters; e) allocation of budget for disaster management within the state budget for adequate revenues and expenditures; f) budget allocation for disaster management in the form of ready-to-use funds; and g) maintenance of authentic and credible archives/documents from disaster threats and impacts. article 7 1. government authorities in the implementation of disaster management include: a) determination of disaster management policies in line with national development policies; b) making development plans that include elements of disaster management policies; c) determination of the status and level of national and regional disasters; d) determination of cooperation policies in disaster management with other countries, agencies, or other international parties; e) formulation of policies regarding the use of technology that has the potential as a source of threat or disaster hazard; 96 f) the formulation of policies to prevent the control and exploitation of natural resources that exceeds the ability of nature to carry out restoration; and g) gcontrolling the collection of money or goods of a national nature. 2. the determination of the status and level of national and regional disasters as referred to in paragraph (1) letter c contains indicators that include: a) number of victims; b) property loss; c) damage to infrastructure and facilities; d) wide coverage of disaster-affected areas; and e) the socio-economic impact. 3. further provisions regarding the determination of the status and level of disaster as referred to in paragraph (2) shall be regulated by a presidential regulation furthermore, the responsibilities and authorities of local governments are regulated in articles 8 and 9 of law no. 24 of 2007 concerning disaster management. as for article 8 which states: local government responsibilities in disaster management include: a) guaranteeing the fulfillment of the rights of the community and refugees affected by the disaster in accordance with the minimum service standards; b) protecting the community from the impact of the disaster; c) disaster risk reduction and integration of disaster risk reduction with development programs; and the allocation of disaster management funds in an adequate regional revenue budget. then article 9 states: the authority of the local government in the implementation of disaster management includes: a) stipulation of disaster management policies in the region in line with regional development policies; b) making development plans that include elements of disaster management policies; c) implementation of cooperation policies in disaster management with other provinces and/or districts/cities; d) regulation of the use of technology that has the potential as a source of threat or disaster hazard in its territory; e) formulating policies to prevent the control and depletion of natural resources that exceed the natural capacity of the territory; and f) controlling the collection and distribution of money or goods in its territory. in law no. 24 of 2007 concerning disaster management further stipulates that every region in an effort to cope with disasters, has a disaster management plan, then this is followed up with further arrangements through government regulation no. 21 of 2008 concerning the implementation of disaster management. in connection with the above, in the context of handling the flood problem, it is necessary to follow up through pp no. 21 of 2008 is related to regulations from the government regarding the implementation of disaster management, the scope of which includes: a) all flood disaster management efforts carried out during pre-disaster, during emergency response, and post-disaster; b) emphasis on preventive measures in pre-disaster actions prior to the occurrence of floods; c) providing easy access for flood disaster management agencies during emergency response; and d) implementation of rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts in post-flood disasters. floods that occur in almost all regions in indonesia should not escape the attention of the government and regional governments, because indonesia is one of the areas prone to disasters such as land and forest fires during the dry season, then like now during the rainy season floods occur. which in midjanuary 2021 to april 2021 floods hit indonesia. in order to prevent and reduce the negative impacts of natural disasters, including floods, the thing that deserves attention is efforts to continue to maintain and manage the environment. because in fact the environment if managed properly will ensure the survival of the current generation to the generations to come. through the preservation of this environmental function, it is hoped that it can support the sustainability of human life and other living things together. while on the other hand it is hoped that the creation of an environmental capacity that is able to absorb substances, energy, and/or other components that enter or be incorporated into it. so that the flood disaster does not keep repeating itself every year, this requires greater efforts to anticipate it, so that losses can be minimized. it is necessary that there are various government efforts that are structural in nature (structural approach), in order to be able to overcome the problem of flooding in indonesia. it 97 must be admitted that flood control has so far been more focused on providing physical flood control buildings to reduce the impact of disasters. in addition, although non-physical policies which generally include community participation in flood management have been made, they have not been implemented properly, even not according to community needs, so their effectiveness is questioned. sectoral, centralized, and top-down policies without involving the community are no longer in line with global developments that demand decentralization, democracy, and stakeholder participation, especially disaster-affected communities (bappenas, 2008). environmental management plays an important role in preventing and reducing the impact of disasters through environmental management. president joko widodo has stated that disaster prevention and prevention is not enough just to build infrastructure physically. because of environmental management, this is no less important to pay attention to (public relations ministry of state secretariat, 2020). a good and healthy environment is a human right and constitutional right for every indonesian citizen, therefore, the state, government and all stakeholders are obliged to protect and manage the environment in the implementation of sustainable development so that the indonesian environment can remain a source and source of protection for the environment. life support for the indonesian people and other living creatures. for this reason, the ability of a harmonious and balanced environment should be preserved, so that any changes made need to be accompanied by efforts to achieve environmental harmony and balance at a new level. preservation of harmonious and balanced environmental capabilities leads to harmony between development and the environment, so that the two cannot be contradicted with each other (bethan, 2008). law no. 23 of 2009 concerning environmental protection and management is the legal umbrella that forms the basis for making policies regarding environmental issues in indonesia. therefore, all further regulations related to the environment both at the level of laws, government regulations and other implementing regulations which are instruments of wisdom (instrumenten van beleid) must be in line with law no. 23 of 2009. humans grow and develop with the environment around them. every human interaction, both among humans and with the environment, will have an impact on the environment, both positive and negative. therefore, a legal rule is designed to regulate the balance of humans and the environment in which they live. environmental law regulates environmental patterns along with all devices and conditions with humans that exist and affect the environment (daud silalahi & lawencon associates). it is clear that the role of the environment is very important for human life and other living things. if seen, this is a manifestation of human rights as stated in the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia that a good and healthy environment is a human right and a constitutional right for every indonesian citizen. how can this right be realized if it is not accompanied by responsibility? therefore, the state, government and all stakeholders are obliged to protect and manage the environment in the implementation of sustainable development so that the indonesian environment can remain a source and life support for the indonesian people and other living creatures. 2.2. citizen lawsuit in flood disaster prevention and management (disaster mitigation) indonesia continues to carry out development for the sake of the people's prosperity, but in carrying out development it must pay attention to aspects of integration with the environment, therefore in development the thing that should be remembered is integration in synchronizing, integrating and giving equal weight to the three main aspects of development, namely the economic aspect, socio-cultural aspects and environmental aspects. the idea behind it is that economic, socio-cultural and environmental development should be viewed as closely related to each other, and therefore the elements of this interrelated whole should not be separated or contradicted one another. basically, what is to be achieved with sustainable development is to shift the emphasis of development from only economic development, to also include socio-cultural and environmental development (keraf, 2005). the inability of the government and local governments to carry out development by combining economic, socio-cultural and environmental aspects will lead to imbalances that ultimately threaten the environment, which can lead to disasters. the process and consequences of natural disasters clearly threaten the safety of society at large. therefore, the prevention, handling, and management of natural disasters requires the presence of the state. in other words, the government together with the provincial and district/city governments must play a direct role in disaster mitigation measures because natural disasters are not an individual matter but involve public safety (heriyati, 2020). it must be realized that human behavior greatly affects nature, therefore humans need to have firm principles in order to be able to protect the environment properly and obey the established regulations, in order to create order and preserve the environment. law number 32 of 2009 concerning environmental protection and management is the legal umbrella in the environmental field 98 in indonesia, therefore law number 32 of 2009 concerning environmental protection and management is the basis for adjustments to existing regulations, and make it as a complete provision in a system. so that the environment can be well maintained, it is also necessary to carry out an effort to protect and manage the environment. therefore, the government and regional governments that have the authority in environmental management must be able to carry out enforcement in the field of environmental law. although the process in enforcing environmental law is much more complicated and complex when compared to other offenses, because environmental law is a functional legal field in which there are elements of administrative law, civil law and criminal law. in order for this environmental law enforcement to be implemented, the government and local governments must make a set of regulations and policies in the context of environmental protection and management so as to avoid various natural disasters, especially floods. through a set of regulations and policies, it would be one of the efforts to support environmental law enforcement. it must also be realized that in the context of law enforcement, it must be able to balance the public interest and also consider the implementation of national and regional development together. this is indeed a difficult task for the government and local governments, therefore it must be carried out wisely and wisely. thus the occurrence of this flood can be prevented in such a way through the regulations and policies made. the natural wealth contained must be able to be managed as well as possible lest the government and local governments make mistakes in their management. for this reason, things that should be emphasized are things that become the basis for making regulations and policies in the field of the environment in order to prevent and cope with the flood disaster that occurs, it is possible to observe the provisions of article 28h paragraph (i), article 33 paragraph (3), (4) and (5) the 1945 constitution, which if we look at it, there are 5 important things that become state legal policies in environmental management and natural resource utilization (kurniawan, 2016): a) environmental management and utilization of natural resources must be placed within the framework of recognizing, protecting and fulfilling the human rights of every citizen to a good and healthy environment. in other words, the human right to a good and healthy environment cannot be sacrificed due to the implementation of development and utilization of natural resources. b) the management of the environment and the use of natural resources are the responsibility of the state, where through the right to control the state, the state makes rules and policies for the use of the environment and natural resources. c) the welfare of the people becomes the philosophical and sociological basis for all activities and activities of environmental management and utilization of natural resources for the welfare of the people. d) environmental management and utilization of natural resources is a means to achieve sustainable development with an environmental perspective, in the sense that the objectives of environmental management and utilization of natural resources include not only people's welfare, but also aspects of environmental sustainability and national economic progress. e) there is a delegation of further regulations regarding environmental management by law. it should be based on 5 important things that become state legal policies in environmental management and utilization of natural resources: above, the government together with local governments can make a plan, arrangement and even realize guarantees for better environmental protection and management. good. therefore, it is hoped that the local government with this set of existing regulations will allow the government to plan, regulate and even realize the guarantee of legal protection to citizens for a good and healthy environment (sharananingtyas, 2016). but the fact is that from january 2021 to april 2021 there were floods that hit various regions in indonesia. apart from the weather factor, environmental and human rights (ham) experts argue that the government's negligence factor is quite large in this flood case and this opens the potential for civil society to file lawsuits for the floods that occurred. the destruction of forests in indonesia due to massive mining and oil palm plantations has caused great losses to the community so that community members can hold local governments accountable. the flood disaster that spread across indonesia, of course, very many people were affected and suffered losses so that the basic rights of the community were not fulfilled by the state, both in the form of rights to the environment, rights to decent housing, rights to work because they could not it is undeniable that many people are affected by their work and lose their jobs, as well as the right to health so that people have the possibility to claim and get compensation for losing their basic rights. therefore, community members can demand accountability from local 99 governments to conduct evaluations as well as review mining permits and oil palm plantations that are rife so that they can overcome this flood disaster and prevent further environmental damage so that it does not get worse. the paradigm shift implied in law number 24 of 2007 concerning disaster management is that disasters are not responded to in the form of an emergency response (reactive in nature), towards disaster mitigation (anticipatory in nature) as part of a risk management pattern. disaster mitigation is a series of efforts to reduce disaster risk, both through physical development, socialization to increase awareness and increase community capacity in dealing with disasters. according to westen (2005), disaster mitigation can be divided into two, namely: 1. structural mitigation that refers to physical development to reduce or avoid the impact of hazards including technical steps, hazard-resistant construction and infrastructure that is able to protect against hazards 2. non structural mitigation namely reducing the impact caused by the threat of harm to the community by referring to policies, awareness, knowledge development, community commitment, methods, including participatory mechanisms, modifying vulnerability, damage, harm and disturbance. one form of disaster mitigation that is relevant to the government's responsibility is non-structural mitigation in the form of policies. the form of disaster mitigation that is manifested in the form of public policy is government activities to solve problems in the community either directly or through institutions, in the case of flooding problems, the purpose of issuing policies is for the welfare of the community through regulations made by the government in the form of nonrecurrence of flood disasters or minimizing the impact of floods. flood disaster for the community. the policy steps that can be taken by the government are in the form of a strategy for implementing spatial planning as an effort to reduce disaster risk, through zoning regulations that are implemented consistently, emphasis on controlling space use systemically through stipulating zoning regulations, licensing, providing incentives and disincentives, and imposing sanctions. besides, it also needs to be supported by strict and consistent law enforcement related to spatial order. the dimension of spatial planning which is one of the government's obligations is the dimension of space utilization and control over the use of space. in addition, the government must also conduct a mapping study of the area based on the level of flood risk, analysis of the level of vulnerability to flood hazards, determination of flood risk zoning, flood hazard maps become the basis for the government to issue policies related to development. mitigation should be a guideline for the government in making development planning. development that is carried out without being based on a disaster mitigation strategy can result in losses and not protect citizens from feeling safe from the threat of danger originating from natural disasters. not protected from getting the right to a good and healthy environment as a citizen's human right. as stated in the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia article 28h paragraph (1), it is stated that "every person has the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity, to live and to have a good and healthy living environment and the right to health services". furthermore, this provision is implemented in article 65 paragraph (1) of law number 32 of 2009 concerning environmental protection and management, which states "everyone has the right to a good and healthy environment as part of human rights", as well as in law no. law number 39 of 1999 concerning human rights, article 3 states "the community has the right to a better and healthier environment". the meaning of this provision is that the state guarantees the right to a good and healthy environment as a constitutional right for every indonesian citizen so that everyone is protected from pollution that can endanger public health. the state administrators of the republic of indonesia are the bearers of the mandate of the preamble of the 1945 constitution, namely to protect, promote, enforce and guarantee the fulfillment of the human rights of every citizen of the republic of indonesia. as emphasized in the body of the 1945 constitution, namely article 28 i paragraph (4) of the 1945 constitution, "the protection, promotion, enforcement and fulfillment of human rights are the responsibility of the state, especially the government". law number 39 of 1999 concerning human rights (ham), article 8, "protection, promotion, enforcement, and fulfillment of human rights are primarily the responsibility of the government". the state is responsible for the fulfillment of these citizens' human rights. country. if the government ignores the fulfillment of these rights then in principle the government has committed an unlawful act. in environmental problems, if the government acts recklessly that causes environmental damage, either in the form of setting regulations that lead to losses suffered by the community, or with its authorities on behalf of the public interest to change the use of the environment and ultimately have an impact on flooding (isrok & birham, 2010). 100 one of the possible steps so that citizens can prove that the government has not carried out their obligations and responsibilities is through a citizen lawsuit as a step to fulfill the rights of citizens by asking the local government to carry out environmental rehabilitation and can request that the local government issue a policy to environmental recovery and anticipation of future damage (satriastanti, 2021). citizens' right to sue for the public interest departs from the awareness to guard the protection of human rights. is a lawsuit mechanism as an embodiment of individual access / individual citizens for the benefit of the entire citizen or the public interest to sue the responsibility of state administrators for negligence in fulfilling the rights of citizens? the negligence was argued as an act against the law in fulfilling the rights of citizens, so that a citizen lawsuit was filed within the scope of the general court in this case a civil case. the elements in the citizen lawsuit as an effort to overcome flooding to get a good and healthy environment, among others: a) every person or every citizen every person essentially does not get an obstacle to be able to file a citizen lawsuit, because everyone has the standing to file a lawsuit without requiring a real and direct loss to him, by proving that he is an indonesian citizen. b) public interest, which is the main basis in a citizen lawsuit. the problem of flooding is a disaster that has brought many consequences in the form of health and even death. c) unlawful acts are in the form of negligence by state officials in dealing with floods, so that the impact is widespread and occurs in a matter of months, so that people do not get a healthy environment. d) petitum in a citizen lawsuit must contain a demand that the government issue a general regulatory policy to overcome. although the citizen lawsuit mechanism has not yet received a juridical basis in the form of indonesian law, this system is better known in the common law legal system such as in the united states, india and australia. meanwhile, in the civil law legal system, it is more popular with the class action lawsuit system and legal standing. however, the three of them through citizen lawsuits, class actions and legal standing have similarities because they both involve the public/public/public interest. in particular, citizen lawsuits are generally lawsuits by a group of people who act in the name of the public interest to sue the state or state institutions that violate the law or fail to implement it, in which the plaintiffs are not allowed to demand material or immaterial compensation in the form of money. . but demands in the form of issuing general policies by the government (zulaeha, 2017). however, the citizen lawsuit mechanism has been accepted in the justice system in indonesia, as a form of step to resolve a problem. the characteristic of a citizen lawsuit is that every citizen can file a lawsuit even though it does not have a causal relationship with the loss caused by the access of individual citizens for the public interest to file a lawsuit in court which is intended to protect citizens as a result of omission by the state against their rights. rights of citizens (nugroho, 2010), so that the government or the state carries out law enforcement that is required of them to recover public losses that have occurred (gumayra, 2006), by issuing a regulatory policy containing efforts to prevent flood disasters from occurring. over time, the lawsuit mechanism through citizen lawsuits has become more and more prominent in indonesia. the presence of a lawsuit through a citizen lawsuit is an implication of the regulation of the human rights chapter in the constitution after the amendment to the 1945 constitution, therefore the state is now required to actively provide guarantees and protections for human rights in indonesia. another implication is that human rights become the constitutional rights of citizens (fatah, 2013). citizens' right to sue for the public interest departs from the awareness to guard the protection of human rights. citizen lawsuit is a lawsuit mechanism as a manifestation of individual access / individual citizens for the benefit of the entire citizen or public interest to sue the responsibility of state administrators for negligence in fulfilling the rights of citizens. the negligence is argued to be an act against the law in fulfilling the rights of citizens, so that a citizen lawsuit is filed within the scope of the general court in this case a civil case (zulaeha, 2017). therefore, it should be noted that in the context of upholding human rights, proper handling of flood victims is a manifestation of the government and local governments in the protection and fulfillment of human rights. the right to a good and healthy environment is a human right also contained in the general elucidation of law number 32 of 2009 concerning environmental protection and management, namely "the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia states that a good and healthy environment is a human rights and constitutional rights for every indonesian citizen. therefore, the state, government and all stakeholders are obliged to protect and manage the environment in the implementation of sustainable development so that the indonesian environment can remain a source and life support for the indonesian people and other living creatures.” 101 3. conclusions citizen lawsuit is the right step to use in order to resolve flood disasters caused by mistakes/negligence of state administrators in providing protection for citizens to get the right to a good and healthy environment as part of human rights. through the citizen lawsuit mechanism, a general regulatory policy will be obtained to prevent the recurrence of flood disasters in the future. the potential for using the citizen lawsuit mechanism as an effort to overcome flooding is a necessity because the demands requested by citizens in their lawsuits are for the government to issue regulations in the form of laws, implementing regulations, or take certain other actions as a preventive effort (disaster mitigation). the citizen law suit mechanism is not yet regulated in indonesia, this mechanism is really needed as a control over government policies that ignore or violate the fulfillment of human rights, especially economic, social and cultural rights. in the development of state life, there are not a few indications of negligence or neglect by government authorities that can harm citizens. the people as the holder of sovereignty should have the space to sue the government in order to achieve justice. several laws and regulations have mandated the protection of the interests of citizens. in this case, it is possible for the constitutional court of the republic to examine, hear and decide on citizen lawsuits using the basis of the law on judicial power. however, the state should revise the constitutional court law by adding the authority of the constitutional court. in addition, a further effort is that it is necessary to carry out the fifth amendment of the 1945 constitution. references 1. bappenas.go.id. 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(2017). mengatasi kabut asap melalui mekanisme citizen lawsuit. jurnal hukum lingkungan 3(1), 87-106. https://doi.org/10.38011/jhli.v3i1.35 https://theconversation.com/bagaimana-warga-bisa-ajukan-gugatan-hukum-terhadap-pemerintah-terkait-banjir-di-kalimantan-selatan-153977 https://ojs.unud.ac.id/index.php/kerthapatrika/article/view/21532/14232 https://ojs.unud.ac.id/index.php/kerthapatrika/article/view/21532/14232 https://doi.org/10.38011/jhli.v3i1.35 17 analysis of factors influencing rural households’ participation in inland fisheries: a case study of greater tzaneen local municipality, limpopo province jenny potsiso mokhaukhau ¹* prof. abenet belete 2 prof. johannes jan hlongwane 3 jabulile zamukuhle manyike 4 ¹ university of limpopo, department of agricultural economics and animal production, potsilemkha@gmail.com *correspondent author. 2 university of limpopo, department of agricultural economics and animal production, abenet.belete@ul.ac.za 3 university of limpopo, department of agricultural economics and animal production, jan.hlongwane@ul.ac.za 4 university of fort hare, department of agricultural economics, jmanyike@ufh.ac.za article history: submission 05 august 2022 revision 14 november 2022 accepted 05 december 2022 available online 31 december 2022 keywords: binary logistic model, inland fisheries, rural households. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.356 a b s t r a c t the study investigated factors that influence the participation of rural households in inland fisheries in the greater tzaneen local municipality of the limpopo province. data was collected from sixty rural households using purposive and simple random sampling techniques. the objectives were to identify and profile the socio-economic characteristics of rural households and, to determine factors that influence the participation of rural households in inland fisheries. descriptive statistics and binary logistic model were employed to achieve these objectives. the findings show that only 42% of rural households participate in inland fisheries. additionally, about 5% of females are reported as participants of inland fisheries in the mopani district municipality. moreover, gender of the household head has a positive influence on participation while, access to credits, type of agricultural activity and source of income had a negative influence. the study recommends that women be motivated to participate in inland fisheries to enhance food security and improve their livelihoods. 1. introduction the importance of inland fisheries in a rural context has been given less attention in many parts of the world. this stems from the unrecognition of the sector as a source of food security and livelihoods. in south africa, various authors such as kotzé (2015) and britz et al. (2015) have pinned the unsuccessfulness of the sector on the lack of policy to govern fishing activities. recently, the south african government released the national freshwater (inland) wild capture fisheries policy which intends to unlock the country's fishery potential (department of forestry, fisheries and environment [dffe], 2021). furthermore, the inland fisheries policy in south africa aims to address historical inequalities of participation in inland fisheries, particularly for the disadvantaged groups due to lack of access rights, lack of resources, poor education, insufficient resources, access to value chains, markets and lack of capacity to participate in fishery management (dffe, 2021). global and south african studies on inland fisheries have indicated that the contribution of inland fisheries to livelihoods has been under-valued despite the numerous reports of people participating in the sector (tapela et al., 2015; funge-smith & bennette, 2019; moreau & garaway, 2021). despite this, authors have identified that households participate in inland fisheries for small-scale and subsistence purposes to generate food and income (britz et al., 2015; tapela et al., 2015). several benefits of participating in fisheries can be drawn from various research. for example, fisheries serve as a preventive measure for food insecurity, it is a diversified livelihood strategy, https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:potsilemkha@gmail.com mailto:abenet.belete@ul.ac.za mailto:jan.hlongwane@ul.ac.za https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.356 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1361-9251 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6216-8587 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6840-5811 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6529-9574 18 a source of employment and generates income (smith et al., 2005; martin et al., 2013). therefore, these benefits aspire households to participate in the sector. moreover, iruo et al. (2018) emphasize that participation in fisheries reduces households' vulnerability to poverty. deng (2020) elaborates that the presence of freshwaters such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, ponds and huge floodplain indirectly signifies the availability of fish which serves as a motivation to participate in fishing activities. congruently, various social and institutional determinants that influence participation in fisheries have also been studied across the globe. these determinants include gender, age, marital status, level of education, household size, access to extension services, access to modern transport (nenna, 2012; endalew et al., 2020). inoni et al. (2017) argued that education increases the likelihood of participating in fish production since an educated fisher might find it easier to use current fishing technologies. similarly, gender is important in determining the roles that men and women perform in inland fisheries (manyungwa-pasani et al., 2017). kuehn et al. (2014) on the other hand analysed factors influencing fishing participation by bass anglers residing in new york's lake ontario region. the study by kuehn et al. (2014) found that personal achievement, level of commitment and interest and; family support significantly influence fishing participation. an earlier study by kisusu et al. (2006) investigated the factors influencing the involvement of local communities in the fishing industry in lake victoria, tanzania. the ability to fish, household size and the number of household dependents were found to have a positive effect on influencing the involvement of local communities participating in fishing. lately, rantlo (2022) employed the binary logistic model to investigate the factors influencing farmers’ participation in fish production in lesotho. several factors were found to influence farmers’ participation in fish production, this includes institutional, technical and social factors. although these important factors have been identified to affect the participation of households in fishing activities, several constraints have also emerged which hinder participation to some extent. for example, hebano (2021) identified overfishing, knowledge and skills of fishers, climate change, poor transportation, lack of fish training and price as some of these constraints. moreover, south african studies on inland fisheries focus on issues like the history of inland fishery policy and the utilization of water resources for inland fisheries (britz, 2015; ellender et al., 2009). other studies investigated the health of different fish species within inland waters (jooste et al., 2014; sara et al., 2018). as a result, studies that focus on the participation of rural households in inland fisheries, particularly in the greater tzaneen local municipality have not been conducted. given this background information this current study sort to analyses the factors influencing rural households' participation in inland fisheries. 1.1. objectives to identify and describe the socio-economic characteristics of rural households. to determine factors that influence the participation of rural households in inland fisheries. 1.2. limitations of the study the study was limited to only a few households that participate in inland fishing activities within the mopani district. therefore, there exists a greater potential for expanding the study to the whole province of limpopo to conclude about the participation status of rural households in inland fishing activities and its benefit to rural livelihoods and food security. 2. methodology 2.1. description of the study area a positive paradigm was adopted in the study so to investigate the factors that influence rural households’ participation in inland fisheries in the greater tzaneen local municipality (gtlm), limpopo province, south africa. this local municipality is situated on the south-western part of the mopani district municipality and is bordered by maruleng (on the south), lepelle-nkumpi local municipality (on the south-west), molemole local municipality (on the west), greater letaba local municipality (on the north), greater giyani local municipality (on the north-east) and ba-phalaborwa local municipality (on the east). covering a land of 3242.6 square kilometres, the gtlm encompasses haenertsburg (in the west), rubbervale (in the east), modjadjiskloof (in the north) and trichardsdal (in the south). tzaneen, nkowankowa, lenyenye, letsitele and haenetzburg are the main towns of the municipality. reports of fishing activities for recreational and small-scale in have been reported by the 2018 mopani district municipality integrated development plan. this municipality is home to dams such as tzaneen dam which primarily provides water for irrigation and domestic use. however, other activities such as angling, boating and canoeing are permitted except for swimming due to the existence of hippopotamus and crocodiles (department of water and sanitation [dws], 2015). various fish species such as trout and bass are found in both dams and rivers in this municipality (greater tzaneen local municipality integrated development plan, 2018/2019). therefore, opportunities for small-scale fishing activities to address food insecurity, poverty 19 and malnutrition in the surrounding rural villages exist (dws, 2015). 2.2. data collection method data were collected from rural households through structured questionnaires. the questionnaire was developed to capture the social, institutional, and economic information of the respondents. sixty (60) households were sampled to participate in the study. thus, this sample included the participating and nonparticipating households. a face-to-face approach was used to gather information from the participants. both purposive and snowball sampling were adopted to identify the participants. these sampling procedures were chosen due to the unknown number of fishing and non-fishing households in the study area. 2.3. data analysis to identify and describe the socio-economic characteristics of the households, the study used descriptive statistics. the binary logistic regression was employed to determine the factors that influence rural households’ participation in inland fisheries. the binary logistic regression works like the linear regression model but with a binomial response expressed as a probability that falls between 0 and 1 (sperandei, 2013). in this study, it is assumed that the household is faced with two decisions regarding participation in inland fisheries. that is, to participate or not participate. with this being the case, these two options take the form of 1 and 0 (such that 1 is participating and 0 is not participating). therefore, the binary logistic model is expressed as: in ( pi 1 − pi ) = β0 + β1x1 + ⋯ βnxn + ei where: p = is the probability that the households participate in inland fisheries 1 − p1 =is the probability that the household does not participate in inland fisheries in =is the natural logarithm β0 =is the intercept β1,…., βn =are the coefficients of the estimated parameters x1, … , xn =are the independent variables ei =is the error term. 3. results and discussion 3.1. descriptive results for demographic and institutional information of households in gtlm. this section presents the demographic and institutional information of participants in the study area. these participants are the rural households of the mdm. as observed in table 1, the age of the head of the household lies between 19 and 82 years with the average age standing at 48 years. the age of the household head is important in determining the household welfare. thus, the minimum age suggests that most household heads still can be active in economic activities. in addition, the minimum household size is 1 with a maximum of 8 members. however, the mean household size of the total sample is 4 members. endalew et al. (2020) attest that a large family size increases the household’s participation in the production of fish due to the demand for food and other expenses. households in the study area might travel a regular distance of 2km to the nearest market. this suggests that the majority of the households reside next to the market as can be seen by the minimum distance (0.10km) travelled. in the same vein, the minimum income is r450.00 per month. the minimum income is lower than the r624.00 poverty line that an individual need to access basic food items in south africa in a month (statistics south africa, 2021). however, the mean income of the household is r2754.33 per month which suggests that some households are above the upperbound poverty line of r1335.00 per month. table 1. descriptive results for age, household size, distance to the market and total household income variables minimum maximum mean standard deviation age of household head (years) 21 82 48 15.727 household size (number) 1 8 4 1.761 distance to market (km) .10 3.50 2 1.106 total household income (south african rand per month) 450 13000 2754.33 2340.395 source: survey results (2021) table 2 presents the descriptive results for categorical variables. as seen from the results in table 2, about 42% of the respondents participate in inland fisheries while the majority are nonparticipants (58%). according to endalew et al. (2020), variables 20 such as distance to the fishing area, access to modern transportation and extension services are some of the factors that hinder households’ participation in fisheries. in this study area inland fisheries are distinguished by gender. for instance, the results show that many of the participants are males (68%) while 32% are females. from these results, only 59% of the males participate in inland fisheries. very few females are engaged in inland fisheries (5%) as seen from the results in the below table. these results agree with current and previous literature that fishing is mostly dominated by males (sonjiwe et al., 2015; sunny et al., 2019). table 2. descriptive results for dummy and categorical variables in percentages variables percentage (%) variables percentages (%) inland fisheries participation marital status participating 42 single 48 not participating 58 married 45 widow/er 7 gender agricultural production female 32 (5 part.) practice agriculture 37 male 68 (59 part.) do not practice agriculture 63 access to credit yes 25 no 75 where: part. refers to participation in inland fisheries source: study results (2021) about 37% of households are involved in agricultural production. surprisingly, the majority of the households (63%) mentioned that they do not engage in agricultural activities. this might be a result of the unavailability of land for agricultural purposes, lack of agricultural funds, absence of motivation for agricultural activities and lack of resources (nxumalo & oladele, 2013; qange & mdoda, 2020). despite this, many of the households (75%) reported having no access to credit while 25% have access. therefore, access to credit not only assists households to acquire food but also to purchase fishing and agricultural inputs (mwangi & kariuki, 2015; abdalla, 2016). 3.2. binary logistic results on factors influencing the participation of rural households in inland fisheries the factors that influence the participation of households in inland fisheries were estimated and the results are shown in table 3. the results for the model fit of the binary logistic regression are also summarized in the below table. as apparent from the results, the -2log likelihood is 43.931 while, cox and snell r square and nagelkerke r square are at 46,6% and 62,8% respectively. the nagelkerke r square results simply mean that the model accounts for 62.8% of the variability in the dependent variable. in addition, the model χ2=37.672, p<0,001. therefore, collectively, these results imply that the model is fit for the study. thus, four variables were found to be significant and are discussed in this section. 21 table 3. binary logistic results for factors influencing the participation of households in inland fisheries variables b std. err. wald sig. constant 12.163 5.807 4.387 .036 age of household head -.033 .038 .756 .385 gender of household head 5.196 1.878 7.658 .006*** number of household members .386 .265 2.119 .146 marital status -.819 .630 1.693 .193 level of education -.698 .599 1.357 .244 access to credit -2.628 1.352 3.776 .052** distance to market .058 .462 .016 .899 agricultural production -.933 .491 3.615 .057* total household income .000 .000 1.410 .235 household head source of income -.182 .101 3.239 .072* model fit results -2 log-likelihood 43.931 cox and snell 46,6% nagelkerke r square 62,8% model chi-square 37.672 model significance .001 note: ***, ** and * indicate significance level at p<0,001; p<0,05; and p<0,01 respectively. source: study results (2021) gender of the household head exerted a strong relationship with participation in inland fisheries as established by the regression estimates in table 3. these results suggest that gender plays an important role in influencing participation in inland fisheries. therefore, the likelihood of the household participating in inland fisheries increases when the household head is a male. for instance, studies have shown that inland fisheries are mostly monopolized by males (manyungwa-pisani et al., 2017). likewise, various authors have also reported that women’s role in fisheries is at times undervalued, uncredited, and underappreciated by society, policymakers, and the fishery sector (harper et al., 2020). hence, there is a lack of clearly defined gender roles and responsibilities within fisheries. despite this, pizzali (2001) and bassey et al. (2015) emphasize that both males and females participate in inland fisheries for various reasons and their contributions are accepted differently by society. upon assessing the outcome of the estimated results, it was observed that access to credit resulted in a negative but significant value. the implication, in this case, is that having access to credit is likely to decrease the participation of households in inland fisheries. this might suggest that access to credits is limited and sourced from family and friends, rather than commercial banks. this then implies that with the limited available credits, households might utilize them for household emergencies such as food and clothes rather than investing in inland fisheries. cliffe & ankirotimi (2015) found that lack of access to credit affects participation in fisheries. regarding agricultural production, the variable had a negative association with participation in inland fisheries. these results, therefore, suggest that households' engagement in agriculture is likely to decrease their participation in inland fisheries. for instance, if households generate more income from agriculture, these households might not participate in inland fisheries. however, agricultural activities might serve as a diversified livelihood and risk management strategy for households participating in inland fisheries (nwabeze, 2016; amevenku et al., 2019). additionally, mamun-ur-rashid & gao (2012) established that participating in both livestock and fisheries improves household welfare. a statistically significant negative association between the source of household income and participation in inland fisheries was found by the regression. these results imply that, depending on the different types of sources of income, if these sources generate enough income to sustain the livelihood of the household, the participation of these households in inland fisheries is likely to decrease. several authors have established that households who are engaged in inland fisheries tend to diversify their sources of income to deal with unforeseen circumstances that might arise from fishing activities such as low fish output and climate change (rahman et al., 2011; parashar et al., 2016; oladimeji, 2018). 22 hence, this study argues that the type of income sources that the household has is likely to influence participation in inland fisheries such that, if the source generates less income, the household might participate in inland fisheries. but, if the source generates more income, the household might not engage in inland fisheries activities. 5. conclusions and recommendation this study aimed to analyze factors influencing rural households’ participation in inland fisheries. the study noted that less than half (42%) of the sampled respondents were engaged in inland fisheries. this, therefore, suggest a low inland fisheries participation among rural households in the study area. gender of household head, access to credits, agricultural production and source of income were noted as drivers of inland fisheries at the household level. the study, therefore, concludes that a combination of institutional and socio-economic factors of rural households can be targeted to promote inland fisheries at the household level. some of these factors are similar to those found by other authors such as nenna, 2012; manyungwa-pasani et al. (2017) & endalew et al. (2020). thus, to promote inland fisheries at the household level, the study recommends that increased access to credits via formal sectors such as banks could potentially encourage households to access enough credits to invest in inland fisheries without worrying about their welfare security. the inverse relationship between agricultural production and sources of income suggests that households not participating in inland fisheries probably consider inland fisheries as optional and not as a key form of livelihood. therefore, it is recommended that information on the potential benefits of inland fisheries and a diversification livelihood strategy be made available to increase farmers' and households’ interest in engaging in inland fisheries. ethics the study was granted an ethical clearance in 2020 by the university of limpopo (trec/38/2020:pg) informed consent all the respondents who participated in the study gave their consent and voluntarily participated in the study. authorship contribution jenny potsiso mokhaukhau-collected, analysed the data and interpreted the results; drafted the paper. abenet beletesupervised the study and approved the article for publication. johaness jan hlongwaneco-supervised the study and reviewed the paper for publication. jabulile zamukuhle manyikereviewed and edited the paper. conflict of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. financial disclosure the study was funded by the national research foundation of south africa. acknowledgements the authors would like to acknowledge all the participants who took their time to answer all the questions to build up this study. references 1. abdalla, a.h. 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restoration of relations between the victim and the perpetrator, a reality or utopia arsim thaçi south east european university faculty of law. at29084@seeu.edu.mk article history: submission 01 november 2021 revision 15january 2022 accepted 17march 2022 available online 30 april 2022 keywords: victim, injured party, perpetrator, reconstruction, restorative justice, mediation, guilty plea, satisfaction, post-criminal phase. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.278 a b s t r a c t restorative justice theory and programs have emerged over the past 35 years as an increasingly influential opportunity worldwide to practice criminal justice, based on the principles of restorative justice that, crime causes harm and justice seeks to repair that harm; people who have been harmed must be able to take part in resolving it. the responsibility of the state is to preserve society to build peace. the fact of committing a certain criminal offense presupposes the mobilization of various legal mechanisms which are undertaken by certain competent bodies which must prove the fact whether we are really dealing with a criminal offense, the victim, its perpetrator and other issues that are directly related within these legal mechanisms, which is the purpose of research or study of the problem. the possibility of reconstructing the relations between the victim and the perpetrator in this paper is treated in the mediation procedure, the procedure on admission of guilt and compensation in damages in post-criminal proceedings according to the hypothesis of what are the possibilities of reconstructing relations between the victim and the perpetrator as current at the national, regional and international level, in a plane with the historical method and the normative method and presents the basic design of the research (study). the hypothesis with the results of the research has been tested that the reconstruction of relations between the victim and the perpetrator in the mediation procedure reaches the highest possible level, as opposed to a decrease in the level of reconstruction of relations between the victim and the perpetrator in the agreement of guilty plea, as well as the decrease in the lower degree of the possibility of reconstruction of relations in the post-criminal phase. finally, the possibility of reconstructing the relations between the victim and the perpetrator is higher in the minor criminal offenses because the damage caused is smaller and presents a real possibility, while in serious criminal offenses such as murder, the reconstruction of relations it is simply utopia. 1. introduction the topic that is elaborated herein has a natural practical and theoretical significance since the correct approach in direction to analysis and their prospective referring to the possibilities of the issue of elaborating the restoration of relation (rebuilding trust), is of the basic importance. the elaboration of this topic can be noticed in different aspects, be it in the historical aspect, the positive aspect, the comparative aspect, the methodology of work, etc., thus by analyzing them, by dividing them in chapters, subchapters, etc., always based on legal solutions, to treat the subject all fundamental elements are taken into consideration. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:at29084@seeu.edu.mk https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.278 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6314-3602 74 the term "restorative justice" was first used by the american psychologist alber eglash in his 1959 article, "creative return: its roots in psychiatry, religion, and law," which was later compared and contrasted in his 1977 article “beyond restitution: creative restitution” with perspectives on retributive justice and rehabilitative justice. restorative justice takes into account both the main victims (directly harmed by the perpetrator) and the secondary victims (the families of the main victims and society at large). the main victims can suffer bodily injuries, financial losses, as well as emotional suffering, which can last a lifetime. perpetrators are encouraged to understand the harmful consequences of their behavior, to admit their guilt, and to take responsibility for correcting it in terms of rebuilding the relationship between the victim and the perpetrator. examples of restorative justice outcomes include returns, public service, and victim-perpetrator reconciliation. in return, the best way for the perpetrators to be held accountable for the damage they have caused is for them to make reparations to the victims. another way of restorative justice is the service in the public interest, as a means of repairing the damage caused to society is the court order that the perpetrator perform a certain number of free working hours as an alternative to serving a prison sentence. victim-perpetrator reconciliation is another important part of restorative justice, through a licensed mediator victim and perpetrator discuss the offense and the damage caused by allowing the perpetrator to correct the error (damage) caused by the offense (heath, 2018). the following topic requires a more serious approach, especially due to the fact the position of the injured party in the proceedings. the following position with all its right content, which the injured party stand against and the rights and liabilities of the defendant towards the injured party, depending on the aforementioned circumstances, the following possibility of rapprochement as well as their right in proceedings, however, consists of an adequate rapprochement, according to my opinion in the existence of relations that depending on the determinant factors can be approximate, coordinated or divided among them. in dealing with the following topic, all the determining factors are interrelated, which define the position of the rapprochement, not between the defendant and the injured party in proceeding. 2. about the participants in the procedure as we well know the criminal procedure necessarily presumes the existence of the participants in the procedure that depending on their position we can divide into:  a compulsory participant;  a casual participant;  an eventual participant. 1.1. a compulsory participant would be the representative of the indictment (the prosecutor); the perpetrator and his barrister, as well as the court that are the essential subjects of the criminal procedure. the fact that the injured party is the person who has suffered some kind of damage or some of his right provided by the material legal provisions was violated for the protection of his rights and interests, the representative of the indictment (prosecutor) as well as his proxy (the lawyer or some other authorized person) deal with it. in these circumstances, the position of the injured party constitutes a basic position of the compulsory participant or of the other participants in the criminal procedure (sahiti & murati, 2013). depending on the type of the criminal offense, respectively the good that is stricken as a result of the actions of the perpetrator in certain circumstances, other participants appear in the procedure as well that can be qualified as casual participants or eventual participants. 1.2. the casual participants come into consideration in the circumstances when the nature of the matter requires additional actions that other persons should undertake whose presence or actions can help in shedding light on the matter, which in the criminal procedure are known as the third persons in the criminal procedure (witnesses, experts, professionals, etc.) (sahiti & murati, 2013). 1.3. in situations when the nature of the criminal matter requires deciding or requires the undertaking of actions by certain persons, in the procedure they are known as eventual participants or procedural assistants (translator, interpreter, record keeper, camera operator, stenographer, etc.) (sahiti & murati, 2013). 3. the injured party, his position 3.1. a general view as we know all legislations in the positive as well the historical aspect and also linking the comparative part, the position of the injured party in the procedure is significant as well. seeing his position as an essential position in the procedure, all the legislations in a specific way dedicate even chapters to the entire position of the injured party in the procedure, to his rights 75 and his other rights after the criminal procedure, i.e. when the procedure is concluded by a final decision. the injured party is qualified this way by all legislations in legal solutions, while the other theoretical aspects go even further by qualifying the injured party as a victim. “the injured party or the victim is a person whose personal or material benefit rights are violated or endangered by the criminal offense” (kpprk, 2012). “the victim – a person who was subjected to domestic violence” (lmdhf, 2010). “victims are persons who, individually or collectively, have suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that are in violation of criminal laws operative within member states, including those laws proscribing criminal abuse of power” (ohchr, 1996). “a person may be considered a victim, under this declaration, regardless of whether the perpetrator is identified, apprehended, prosecuted or convicted and regardless of the familial relationship between the perpetrator and the victim” (ohchr, 1996). “the term "victim" also includes, where appropriate, the immediate family or dependents of the direct victim and persons who have suffered harm in intervening to assist victims in distress or to prevent victimization” (ohchr, 1996). i think that the use of the term “victim” for the injured party in the procedure mainly has to do with the criminal offenses against life and body when the injured party dies. based on legal solutions in these circumstances he would be more denominated an injured party (injuria parts) than for the less grave offenses for which the injured party could be qualified as a victim. the term victim is usually used for more serious criminal offenses when as a result of the actions of the perpetrator the injured party deceases (murders, traffic endangering with consequences, etc.) in these situations, the other persons come forward as injured persons – the relatives of the deceased who by law are called in the capacity of the injured party. for the other offenses, i think that there are no technical possibilities for the injured party to be called a victim except for the legal denomination as an injured party since he/she directly undertakes actions in the procedure, despite the fact that he/she has been injured by some unlawful action. halili (2011) is right when he says: ”the notion victim might not correspond to the notion “the injured party” in the criminal procedure, because there, in the capacity of victims or of the injured parties, only the person when the perpetrator of the criminal offense is identified and the criminal procedure is conducted against is considered an injured party or a victim, while in victimology all the people that were injured by a criminal activity regardless of the fact if the perpetrator of that criminal activity is identified or not are considered victims”. to perceive the possibility of achieving the rights of the injured party in the procedure, the issue of the possibility of restoration of relations between the victim and the perpetrator in the procedure is considered. 4. the possibility of restoration of relations between the parties in proceedings – possibilities, challenges the existence of the criminal offense in the actual case presumes also the undertaking of the procedural actions by the participants in the procedure towards the decision of the criminal issue which constitutes the subject of the criminal procedure which is solved by a meritorious decision of the competent court. the decision about the criminal matter by imposing it as the essential part expect for considering and deciding about it based on the free conviction of the competent court authority, a part of this decision refers to the position of the injured party itself in the procedure in the form of the instruction about the use of his/her rights whatever they might be. the criminal procedure code of the republic of kosovo (kpprk, 2012), amended and supplemented, supports the protection of human rights and the efficiency of the criminal procedure with a multitude of solutions that have strengthened the accusing character of the criminal procedure during all the stages in the procedure. therefore, considering the significance of the alternative procedures in solving the criminal matters this is regulated by cpcrk in force (kpprk, 2013), by the state prosecutor reviewing and using alternative procedures (the mediating procedure, guilty plea agreement, etc.) (sahiti & murati, 2013). to better and clearly perceive the possibility of restoration of relations between the defendant and the injured party in the procedure, we should directly rely on several other determinant factors that have to do with the nature and the type of the 76 committed criminal offense, the nature of the damaged caused to the injured party, etc. within this, we can distinguish three basic stages within which we can determine the possibility of restoration of the relations between them such as restoration of relations in the restorative justice; restoration with the act of admission of guilt by the perpetrator; and the restoration of the relations at the first postcriminal stage through the civil lawsuit. 4.1. restoration of the relations with a special viewpoint on kosovo, albania, and north macedonia 4.1.1. restoration of relations in restorative justice in the republic of kosovo the possibility of restoration of the relations between the injured party and the defendant is mostly emphasized in the so-called restorative justice related to the less grave criminal offenses for which the punishment does not exceed more than three years’ imprisonment. “the restorative justice is unimaginable and inapplicable without the prior consent of the victim and the perpetrator” (halili, 2011) in the above perceived analysis of halili (2011), we can observe that three basic conditions should be met cumulatively so that the restorative justice could be considered: 1. that the certain criminal offense is not punishable with over three years; 2. that the defendant agrees with the factual situation in the case file; 3. that the injured party agrees to mediation. according to sahiti (2017) in the comments on the criminal procedure rightly points out that:” the effectiveness of the reached agreement avoids the clash of the parties in the court, where each party persistently holds to its own position, and the court decision unavoidably satisfies one party and punishes the other thus potentially leaving an open course for a potential conflict.” this practice has been emphasized in the most advanced criminal legislatures almost in the entire world like in usa etc., meanwhile such a thing also is present in our legislation where the criminal procedure code (kpprk, 2012), expressively anticipates the possibility of the decision on the criminal matter by instructing the defendant and the injured party to go a mediation procedure. “mediation implies an out-court agreement procedure for the solution of contests and misunderstandings between the subjects of the law in accordance with the conditions anticipated by this law” (ln, 2018). the procedure of mediation between the victim and the perpetrator is performed not only by out-court practices but also within the system of the criminal law. related to mediation a priori are considered the recommendations of the united nations and the european institutions like:” basic principles of the united nations related to the use of the programs of the restorative justice in criminal matters” and the “recommendations of the committee of ministers of the european council (99)10” related to the mediation in criminal matters (kprk, 2014). about the mediation institution, the supreme court of the republic of kosovo, on 23.04.2014 took a juridical stand emphasizing:” the court has the right to address the matter to mediation after the indictment act was submitted to the court even without the consent of the prosecutor” (gjs, 2014). “the state prosecutor can file a criminal report for a criminal offense punishable by fine or up to three years’ imprisonment for mediation” (kpprk, 2013). by this kind of solution, i.e. of decision regarding the criminal matter, the injured party can more closely enjoy a satisfaction mainly of moral nature, and this is the best way to avoid the consequences created as a result of the criminal offense committed by the perpetrator. the following mediation procedure is conducted by the authorized body. in this case both parties, the defendant and the injured party achieve their aims and when the criminal procedure against the defendant is discharged, while the injured party, as a result of the consolidation of the relations with the defendant, experiences and feels some kind of a satisfaction so that by this act he/she concludes this criminal case by abdication to his/her rights, guaranteed by law. note: there are criminal offenses that by nature are less aggravated, i.e. of the less social gravity but that even though the punishment is not anticipated over three years of imprisonment, the mediation procedure is not permitted as it is the case with the criminal offenses of domestic violence. 4.1.1.1. the consequences of mediation accomplishment at the moment when the parties in procedure enter into the agreement of mediation and when the conditions for this are met, 77 the mediation agreement is formally signed. in this case, each party is aware about the consequences of signing this agreement by also specifying the points in it of filing the motion on compensation of damage and expenses, etc., or the party declares that it doesn’t demand any compensation. the party, may require other conditions of the material character which the defendant can accept (not visiting certain shops, keeping the distance). in the situations when the parties agree between them and by the act of signing the agreement, the agreement is submitted to the judge of the case who by decision approves the agreement concluded between the parties and right after he makes a decision regarding the core issue – the criminal case, in which case the procedure against the defendant is terminated. in the concrete case each party in the procedure by agreeing, by withdrawing from some of the eventual demands, reach the point when each of them wins or loses something, but in essence, the concluded agreement is considered an act of reconciliation of the willpower of both parties, therefore the agreement in questions is considered lawful. in the actual case, the disputed parties have agreed that pursuant to the provisions of cpck this criminal case is terminated by the mediation agreement with the proposal of the disputed parties, in which case both the defendant and the injured party have benefited. the injured party experiences a moral or material satisfaction, while the criminal procedure against the defendant is terminated regarding the criminal offense he was indicted for (aktvendim, 2018). by the act of the court decision the criminal procedure regarding this criminal case due to the fact that a mediation agreement was reached, is considered terminated. 4.1.2. restoration of relations in the restorative justice in the republic of albania “in albania, the term mediation is an out-court activity in which the parties seek the solution of a misunderstanding through a third neutral person (mediator), in order to reach an acceptable solution of the misunderstanding which is not in averse to the law. the mediators do not have the right to order or force the parties to accept the solution of the misunderstanding” (lnzm, 2013). mediation in the criminal area is applied for misunderstandings reviewed by the court based on the charges of the injured party or based on a complaint of the injured party, pursuant to articles 59 and 284 of the criminal procedure code and on every occasion when the law permits it. in case of a misunderstanding in the criminal area, when the criminal procedure has commenced, the court must call the parties for the solution of the misunderstanding by mediation provided in item 3 of this article (lnzm, 2013). “the injured party who is a victim of one of them is called the incriminating injured party because he has the right of filing a private indictment against the committer of the criminal offense and takes part in the trial as a party” (klnzm, 2012). criminal justice exercises the mediation pursuant to article 59 (kpprsh, 2017), the injured party of the criminal offense has the right to file a request to the court and to take part in the trial as a party to confirm the indictment and to seek damage compensation, only in the case of the criminal offenses anticipated in cc as follows:  other intentional harm,  serious injury due to negligence,  non-serious injury due to negligence,  breaking and entering into someone’s house,  insulting,  insulting due to racist or xenophobic motives through the computer system,  libel,  intruding into someone’s privacy,  spreading personal secrets,  denial of support,  taking the child unlawfully,  publication in someone’s own name of the work of another person,  infringing the inviolability of residence. (kprsh, 2014) the cases where mediation can be applied to some types of criminal offenses, when the appeal of the injured party from the criminal offense is a condition for starting criminal prosecution according to the cases defined in article 284 (kpprsh, 2017), are as follows:  non-serious intentional injury,  sexual assault by use of force with mature/adult women,  sexual or homosexual activity by abuse of official position,  sexual or homosexual activity with consanguine persons and persons in the position of trust,  coercion or obstruction of cohabitating,  concluding or dissolving a marriage,  insulting because of duty, 78  defamation because of duty,  defamation towards the president of the republic,  assaulting family members of a person exercising a state duty,  obligation to participate or not to participate in a strike,  malevolence use of phone calls, and  insulting a judge. (kprsh, 2014) in the situations when dealing with criminal offenses pursuant to article 59 of cpc, we deal with criminal offenses of lesser social risks that persecution can be conducted based on the principle of availability of the party. while, in criminal offenses anticipated by article 284 of cpc, the nature of the offenses coincided with a greater social risks then the criminal prosecution can be conducted ex officio and the disputed parties decide themselves if they will enter the mediation procedure for the solution of the misunderstandings. 4.1.3. restoration of relations in the restorative justice in the republic of north macedonia the procedure of mediation in the republic of north macedonia is regulated by articles 491 – 496 of the law on criminal procedure, by being classified in the group of accelerated procedures, as well as by the law on mediation (lmrnm, 2013) by which the procedure of mediation, establishment, and organization, the functioning of mediation and the rights and responsibilities of mediators are regulated. the individual judge competent for the criminal offenses that are prosecuted pursuant to the private prosecution at the hearing session can propose to the parties to agree to submit the criminal case for the mediation procedure (cplrnm, 2012). the defendant, his defense lawyer, the injured party, and his proxy are parties in the mediation procedure, while the condition for mediation is the approval of the defendant and the injured party. the approval can be given in writing, by minutes, jointly or each party separately, to the individual judge, within three days from when submission for mediation was proposed. then the individual judge makes the ruling instructing the parties for the mediation procedure, and the parties in three days chose one or more mediators from the list of mediators and inform the individual judge. the mediation procedure lasts 45 days. the mediator decides about the schedule of the mediation meeting, in agreement with the parties. the mediator communicates separately or together with the parties, but their presence at the mediation is compulsory, and he is obliged to inform the parties about the principles, rules, and procedure costs (cplrnm, 2012). the written statement, information, or ruling, approved by the mediator, the statement of withdrawal of the parties respectively, is submitted to the individual judge who schedules the main trial according to the provisions of the summary procedure (article 495) (sahiti & zejneli, 2017). 4.2. restoration by the act of admission of guilt by the perpetrator the institution of the guilty plea is the situation when the proposal for negotiation of reaching the agreement for the guilty plea is made to the case prosecutor and the act of guilty plea to the case judge from the initial hearing session to the termination of the criminal case. by the act of signing the agreement on a guilty plea with the prosecutor and the act itself of the guilty plea with the trial judge, it is possible to restore the relations between the victim and the defendant, but on a slighter scale of recuperation unlike the procedure related to the aforementioned mediation. according to sahiti and murati (2013): “the guilty plea agreement pursuant to article 233 (cpck, 2013) paragraphs 1 and 3 means negotiating agreement conditions in writing about the guilty plea between the state prosecutor and the defendant, based on which the defendant and the state prosecutor agree about the charges in the indictment, and the defendant agrees to a guilty plea in exchange for the agreement of the state prosecutor to recommend to the court a milder punishment, pursuant to the law or to consider other situations in the interest of the law”. even in this situation, the restoration of relations can be considered as much as the guilty plea by the defendant by which act the defendant repents for the illegal action, he apologizes, he promises that he will not commit the same or a similar offense again so that an impression is created that a moral or material satisfaction is achieved by the injured party, thus a restoration of relations can be achieved on a certain level, depending on other factors in the concrete case. the guilty plea agreement is an institution of the american criminal procedure by which most of the criminal cases are solved: “ the guilty plea is an agreement between the parties based on which on one hand the state prosecutor is forced to mitigate the indictment by making a milder legal qualification of the criminal offense or withdraws from several counts, i.e. he suggests to the court imposition of a milder punishment while on the other hand, the defendant must plead guilty for the criminal offense by withdrawing from the main trial before the 79 court. the withdrawal of the defendant from the main trial leads to a quicker and more efficient resolution of the criminal case. this is the main reason why the countries of continental europe accept this institution with different modalities” (kkpprk, 2014). this restoration of relations can be regulated during all the stages with the statement of the defendant himself who can also be positioned regarding the type and level of satisfaction toward the injured party, while the injured party based on his conviction estimates if the proposed satisfaction is adequate or not with the nature of the offense, its dangerousness, the level of responsibility, etc. given the lawful solutions, this guilty plea in different legislations is eventually considered for some types of criminal offenses (for criminal offenses punishable to 5 years’ imprisonment – republic of north macedonia (lcprnm, 2017) or criminal offenses punishable to 7 years’ imprisonment – republic of albania) (kpprsh, 2017) or all the criminal offenses (usa, kosovo, bosnia, croatia). 4.2.1. the consequences of a guilty plea with instruction on civil procedure in comparison to mediation procedure, the restoration of the relations between the victim and the perpetrator can also be achieved in other forms. one of the forms is when the defendant pleads guilty for the committed offense by feeling sorry and expressing penitence, etc., the injured party can achieve some moral satisfaction for the fact that by pleading guilty, the factual situation, the situations in which the offense was committed as described in the enacting clause of the indictment, by not altering anything, this situation signifies relief to the injured party. the rendered court decision also creates the space for the restoration of relations between them to be performed in another procedure, in situations when the injured party has filed a property claim, and in a civil procedure, he can send the damage compensation whatever it might be. in situations when a guilty plea, repentance, and an apology are achieved, as well as material compensation, then it is directly implied that the injured party has succeeded to recover the consequences caused by the act of committing that criminal offense by the perpetrator. in this court decision, the criminal case was solved by a guilty plea of the defendant in which case the act of pleading guilty comprises an essential situation based on which the court when imposing the punishment has decided to impose a milder punishment. in this case, the act of pleading guilty by her for the injured party in itself represents a satisfaction as the guilty plea, repentance, and promise represent preconditions to create a conviction that the interests of the injured party have been met while the defendant by the imposition of a milder punishment against her has also benefited. (judgment p.nr.1274/19, 2020). in this case recuperation of relations between them comes into consideration as the injured party can eventually reduce or mitigate eventual requests that he/she might have against the defendant in the future. the level of restoration of the relations between the parties in dispute when pleading guilty is of a lesser intensity compared to the mediation procedure in which instance the restoration of the relations was more emphasized. 4.3. restoration of relations in the postcriminal stage by the civil litigation in the circumstances when the decision about the criminal case is concluded by the final decision of the competent court authority, the possibility of the restoration of the relations between the victim – the injured party and the defendant is frailer for the fact that the defendant did not express the willingness to restore this relation before the criminal case is resolved or eventually due to the nature of the criminal case since such a thing is not permissible by law such as rnm and ra. in these circumstances, it may come to some kind of rapprochement between them even after the conclusion of the criminal procedure when the injured party is instructed to realize his rights and interests in another procedure by a civil procedure when in the claim the injured party files his claims regarding the satisfaction be it moral or material in the concrete case. even in these situations when the defendant expresses willingness that he can compensate the injured party notwithstanding the allegations of the injured party, the injured party in a way can gain satisfaction from the amount and type of the damage caused by that offense and i think that at this stage it may come to the restoration of relations in the post-criminal stage between them. for example, by the claim the injured party alleges the type and the amount of compensation while the defendant expresses his desire to compensate over the alleged amount, then the injured party eventually can coordinate activities with the defendant in this type of procedure as well. 80 4.3.1. consequences of restoration of relations at the post-criminal stage by civil litigation in situations when the perpetrator does not plead guilty, the possibility of restoring the relations between the victim and the perpetrator is less accentuated, but in accordance with the material provisions, the injured party has the right to his claims in order to restore the damage caused as a result of the committed criminal offense, to achieve this in another procedure, by a damage compensation claim. regarding the damage compensation claim, the restoration of relations between the parties in dispute can be considered in the situation when the defendant punished by a final decision and by the power of law is constrained to compensate the claimant, the former injured party, to the extent alleged in the claim eventually by an out-court or a court agreement reached between them (cfd, 2022). by the act of execution of this agreement ipso facto the claimant – the injured party is compensated and a new form of mediation is achieved especially in circumstances when an out court or a court agreement has been reached between them. in these circumstances, i believe that in this case as well the relations between the parties in dispute can already be recuperated by another procedure anticipated by criminal provisions directly related to the civil-legal provisions. in this case, the intensity of recuperation of relations is frailer compared to the two first cases, but anyway it is believed that in these circumstances as well these relations can be rearranged between them but with a lower degree of reregulation. 5. conclusions pursuant to the consulted literature, on perceptions from practical examples, and the experience, i have come to the conclusion that the possibility of restoration of relations between the disputed parties may be derived depending on the procedural stages under which this restoration of relations is concretely requested with the intensity and the scale required in the actual case. according to these aforementioned perceptions, considered that the possibility of restoration of intensive relations, i.e. on the highest scale, comes into consideration with the act of mediation procedure, by decreasing in intensity with the act of signing the agreement of guilty plea or the act itself of admitting guilt, by finally decreasing to the lowest intensity by the act of filing the damage compensation claim in the post-criminal procedure. it is an undeniable fact that the restoration of relations between the parties in the procedure comes into consideration in the procedure of direct mediation so that both parties by coordinating the reciprocal activity meet their whatever needs they are but maximally avoiding the consequences caused as a result of the criminal offense committed by the perpetrator in that course so that in the meantime both parties benefit; one by the act of satisfaction whatever it may be (the injured party) while the other one with the act of termination of the criminal procedure (the defendant). in the concrete case, the possibility of restoration of relations in a graph presentation is expressed by the highest possible intensity accomplished between them. in the following circumstances, when we are dealing with the fact of signing the guilty plea agreement before the case prosecutor and the fact of pleading guilty before the trial judge, this possibility of restoring the relations is more complicated. shall be more complicated due to the fact that the injured party can personally achieve a moral satisfaction in the form of an inward satisfaction that he experiences by this act of the guilty plea while the experience of the material satisfaction coincides with another procedure the post-criminal procedure and aggravates the position of the injured party until he obtains the material satisfaction by this type of procedure. in these circumstances, the intensity of the possibility of restoration of the relations between them decreases precisely due to the other procedure that for our circumstances is very complicated and needs time due to a vast number of the civil cases. it is an evident fact that the intensity of the possibility of restoration of the relations at the post-criminal stage is logical to decline to the lowest level of the possibility of coordination of these relations between the parties in dispute. but in the situation when the injured party at this post-criminal stage manages through the claim to realize the property claim then we have a possibility of restoration of these relations but unfortunately based on the graveness this intensity can be considered very low. eventually, the increased level of this intensity under a certain level can be achieved by an eventual out-court or court agreement, whichever desirable. finally, the stage, i.e. the intensity of the rapprochement of the possibility of restoring relations, except in the stages presented, is interlinked with other determinant factors that through the aforementioned stages affect the growth or decrease of these relations in the concrete case. i apologize in advance for any shortfalls that might be eventually observed during the elaboration of this subject. 81 despite all the objective legal possibilities, the possibility of restoring relations would be more emphasized when dealing with less serious criminal offenses and due to the less damage caused so that these relations could exist to be restored which is a real possibility for their restoration. in the situation when we are dealing with grave criminal offenses, resulting with the death of a person, restoration of relations is aggravated so that the material or moral compensation would not have the equivalence of the life of a person so that in this situation, the restoration of relations is simply a utopia. references 1. aktvendim. 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(2013). e drejta e procedurë penale. prishtinë. retrieved march 14, 2022. available at: http://jus.igjk.rks-gov.net/id/eprint/703 35. sahiti & murati. (2013). e drejta e procedurës penale. prishtnië. 36. sahiti & murati. (2013). e drejta e procedurës penale. prishtinë. 37. sahiti & zejneli. (2017). e drejta e procedurës penale të republikës së maqedonisë së veriut. shkup: seeu. http://jus.igjk.rks-gov.net/id/eprint/703 1 financial performance analysis of the municipality of prizren in kosovo for the period 2005-2019 gjeni imami ¹* st. clement of ohrid university of bitola, faculty of economics, gjeni.imami@uklo.edu.mk article history: submission 20 august 2022 revision 10 october2022 accepted 25 november 2022 available online 31 december 2022 keywords: own source revenues, government grant, report, index, planning, allocation, implementation, municipality of prizren, revenues, municipal expenditures. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.359 a b s t r a c t the purpose of this research is to analyze and reflect the financial performance of revenues and expenditures of the municipality of prizren in kosovo from 2005 to 2019. using different types of methods (statistical, confirmatory, qualitative, analytical, quantitative and comparative), the analysis of revenues and expenditures of the municipality of prizren is done for each year separately, where it is presented in detail in tabular forms. each revenue and each expense is calculated separately and the index of the ratios between allocation and planning, realization and planning as well as realization in relation to the allocation is derived. this research shows the growth of own source revenues from 2005 to 2019, while through the relationship between the realization and planning of own source revenues it analyzes whether there was a discrepancy between the realization and planning in these revenues. the result of the realization of the government grant planning for 15 years will also be shown. all these findings are based on data obtained from the official financial reports of the municipality of prizren and financial statements. it has also been done analysis of the correlation between the realization of municipal budget expenditures and the realization of capital investmens. this research tests the four hypotheses presented, which are all accepted after the analysis. 1. introduction this research will analyze how to plan own source revenues, how to implement the instructions delegated by the ministry of economy and finance for the destination of public money in certain categories, as well as the progress of the whole process and realization of revenues. the focus of the analysis is the municipality of prizren, which is the second municipality after pristina as the municipality that absorbs the most revenue in the country thus creating financial self-sustainability. the study will cover fifteen years, from 2005 to 2019, comparing three periods from three different political governments. in a part of the analysis of this study paper, the methodology will be used, which will include a general approach from the perspective regarding the trends of own source revenue planning and their realization. the next part will be the trend analysis between the planning and implementation of the government grant. an analysis of the correlation between the realization of municipal budget expenditures and the realization of capital investments will be made. capital investment realizations for each period will also be analyzed. with statistical methods, through tables, the planning and execution of the budget of the municipality of prizren will be explained in detail. this research will be implemented based on the budget and financial reports of the municipality of prizren, where in addition to financial reports, this paper will be based on financial statements. 2. literature review analyzing financial statements is as important in the private sector as it is in understanding where a company stands financially, so it is important in the public sector. by analyzing financial indicators, we can have a clearer picture about planning and financing and implementation decisions (osmani r., 2016). public finances are among the oldest scientific disciplines of https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:gjeni.imami@uklo.edu.mk https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.359 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9077-9158 2 economic sciences, which deal with their study and public sector expenditures. public finances are audited through three levels: internal audit, external audit and parliament. every budget that is a recipient of public money is obliged to have an auditor to maintain or procure the services of the internal auditor in case there is not one (law no. 02/74 on internal audit, 2008). the role of the internal auditor is that in relation to the laws of the employees of business companies for their own good. managing public finances from openly publicly independently of external auditors. the law on public financial management states that any budget and public enterprise that is open to the public must be subject to an independent audit process (law no. 03/l-048 on public financial management and accountability, 2008). the office of the auditor general is in independent institutions for the economic and financial control of the public and which reports only to the assembly of the republic of kosovo (law no. 03/l-075 on the establishment of the office of the auditor general of kosovo and the audit office of kosovo, 2008). for the sustainability of local self-government in the republic of kosovo, this law aims to establish the legal basis. this law defines the competencies of municipalities and the general principles of municipal finances, such as the organization and functioning of municipal bodies (law no. 03/l-040 on local self government, 2008). within its competencies, the municipal assembly can approve the statute of the municipality, municipal regulations, labor regulations, etc. this law also enables the members of the municipal assembly to have the right to request documents, information about municipal affairs from the chairman of the committee. the law on local self-government was adopted by the assembly of kosovo on february 20, 2008 and is a basic law, which regulates the functioning of local government in the republic of kosovo. the llsg is based on the principle of subsidiarity, defines the legal status, competencies and general principles of financing of municipalities, organization and functioning of municipal bodies, intra-municipal relations and inter-municipal cooperation, cross-border cooperation and relations between municipalities and central government (law no.03/l-040 on local self government, 2008). the municipality is a basic unit of local self-government in the republic of kosovo, consisting of a community of citizens in a certain territory, defined by law, which exercises all the power which is not expressly reserved for central institutions. all municipal bodies ensure that the citizens of the municipality enjoy all rights and freedoms, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, language, religion, political opinion, nationality or social status, regardless of property or any other status in order to they enjoy equal rights and opportunities in municipal services at all levels (official gazette of the republic of kosova, article 4, 2008). the law on public financial management and accountability (law no. 03/l-048 on public financial management and accountability, 2008), as well as the law on amending and supplementing this law regulates the preparation, implementation and supervision of the kosovo budget, municipal budgets and the budgets of other public entities financed from public money (law no. 04/l-194 on amending and supplementing, 2017).this law also defines the responsibilities of the actors involved in these processes at the central and local level. the american authors bowman and kearney present two basic models of local government: local government established for general purposes and local government established for a single purpose (bowman & kearney, 2009). according to these authors, the difference between these two models, as can be understood from the names, consists in the fact that the first has to do with the type of local government that is established for the purpose of exercising many governing functions, such as the collection of taxes, construction of infrastructure, maintenance of parks, etc. while in the second group the authors in question introduce the kind of local government that is established to exercise only a single function such as determining how the budget of that unit of local self-government will be spent. according (berne, 1992) the financial capacity of the municipality is to fulfill its obligations to creditors, employees, taxpayers and to offer them services now and in the future. the authors (chaney et al., 2002) also explain local public finances as the ability to properly provide services and to fulfill current and future obligations. the concept of local government finances as a level of competence of a municipality is defined to provide adequate services to its citizens (wang, dennis, & tu, measuring financial condition: a study of us states.” public budgeting and finance 27, 2007). municipalities are public sector enterprises where government regulations are directly related to their finances. municipalities are independent administrative and economic subjects, with joint responsibilities and actions. however, not all municipalities are the same if economic, demographic and geographical characteristics are taken into account (wang, dennis, & tu, 2007). 3 3. research methodology 3.1. hypotheses h1: the realization of budget projections in the analyzed period has identified partial progress in the area of autonomous revenues (tax and non-tax). h2: the realization of government grants exceeds 85% of budget projections and is mainly related to the cooperation with the ministry of finance in financial and political terms. h3: as a result of the partial realization of own fiscal revenues we have quite asymmetric trends in the realization of operating expenses and capital expenditures. h4: more dynamic collection of revenues from legalization of illegal facilities can stabilize the financial performance of the budget of the municipality of prizren in perspective 3.2. methodology in this study will be used the data from the financial reports of the municipality of prizren from 2005 to 2019 as well as the auditor's reports. the types of scientific methods used in the paper include: • confirmatory method, where through this method the hypotheses will be tested before their measurement. • qualitative method, where the results from case studies will be commented and clarified and their comparison will be made. • the analysis method will be based on the financial reports that will be used by the archives of the municipality of prizren. • quantitative method will be based on numerical data statistically. • comparative method, through which the financial performance of the municipality of prizren will be compared from year to year. 3.3. statistical analysis of the research results table 1. compiled by the author based on the data of the financial reports of the budget incomes of the municipality of prizren incomes planned budget 2005-2007 allocated funds 2005-2007 realized budget (spent) 2005-2007 ind. alo/ plan ind. real/ plan ind. real/al o tot. aver. ind government grant 2005-2007 9,111,746 8,982,493 8,982,493 99 99 100 99 own source incomes 20052007 11,623,220 11,834,280 11,834,281 102 102 100 101 own source incomes carried by 2004, 2005, 2006 3,854,359 3,854,359 3,854,359 100 100 100 100 stimulus fund 1,445,145 1,676,295 1,398,364 116 97 83 99 incomes from general donations 7,825 25,433 21,215 325 271 83 227 total 26,042,295 26,372,860 22,454,991 101 86 85 91 revenues of the municipality of prizren for the period 2005-2007 were budget planning € 26,042,295, where € 26,372,860 were allocated and € 22,454,991 were realized. the allocation index in relation to planning was 101%. the realization index in relation to budget planning was 86%, while the realization index in relation to budget allocation was 85%. the average of the above three indices is 91%. in the period 2005-2007, the budget planning for the government grant to the municipal budget revenues was € 9,111,746, while € 8,982,493 or 99% allocated from the planned amount were allocated and realized. in the period 2005-2007, the budget planning for own source revenues in the municipal budget revenues was € 11,623,220, while € 11,834,280 were allocated and realized or 102% realized from the planned amount. in the period 2005-2007, the budget planning for own source revenues carried forward was € 3,854,359 where its allocation and realization was with 100% index, but this source does not have a real character as a source of budget revenues, because these funds have already been committed to the unfinished business of capital projects. in the period 2005-2007, budget planning for the municipal budget revenue stimulus fund was € 1,445,145, while € 1,676,295 or 116% were allocated from the planned amount. the realization was € 1,398,364, where 97% of the planned budget and 83% of 4 the allocated funds were spent. the average index for this period was 99%. in the period 2005-2007, budget planning for revenues from general donations to municipal budget revenues was € 7,825, while € 25,433 or 325% were allocated from the planned amount. the realization was € 21,215, where 271% of the planned budget and 83% of the allocated funds were spent. the average index for this period was 227%. own source revenues carried forward for the years 2004, 2005 and 2006 amount to € 3,854,359. this source does not have a role as a source of budget revenues, because these funds have been committed to the unfinished work of capital projects of previous years. table 2. compiled by the author based on the data of the financial reports of the budget expenditures of the municipality of prizren 2 0052007 outlay planned budget 2005-2007 allocated funds 2005-2007 realized budget (spent) 2005-2007 ind. alo./plan. ind. real./plan. ind. real./alo total index wages 2,890,373 2,890,373 2,719,619 100 94 94 96 goods and services 2,167,894 2,202,685 2,202,685 102 102 100 101 utility costs 1,816,393 1,816,393 1,712,028 100 94 94 96 subsidies 452,158 453,645 453,645 100 100 100 100 capital investments 15,931,072 15,931,072 15,367,014 100 96 96 98 total 23,257,890 23,294,168 22,454,991 100 97 96 98 municipal budget expenditures for the period 2005-2007, budget planning was € 23,257,890, while funds were allocated in full. the realized budget was € 22,454,991, where 96% of the planned budget was spent and allocated. the total average index was 98%. from the table 2 of municipal budget expenditures, the realization of salaries was € 2,719,619 in relation to the planning which was € 2,890,373 or 94% realized, while the funds were allocated in full. the average index for this category was 96%. the payment of salaries was for the staff of the local administration and the payments for the assembly members. realization and allocation of expenditure planning for goods and services amounts to 102%, respectively € 2,202,685 realized and allocated in relation to € 2,167,894 planned. the category of goods and services includes: fuel for vehicles and aggregates, telephone, fax, post office, internet, cleaning of municipal facilities, hospitality (representation), per diems, travel expenses, office supplies, maintenance of municipal facilities, repair of vehicles and equipment, electricity costs in the municipal building, etc. in municipal expenditures, the implementation index in relation to budget planning and allocation is 94% or € 1,712,028 realized and € 1,816,393 planned and allocated. the category of municipal expenses includes: cleaning, lighting, greenery of the city, student travel expenses, scholarships, etc. the planning of subsidies was € 452,158, while the realization of € 453,645 or 100% of the planned and allocated budget was realized. these subsidies have been used to finance cultural and artistic events, sports, youth activities, gender, travel expenses of students, families of martyrs and orphans, etc. in this period, capital investments have had a relatively good percentage of realization from the budget planning about 96% or € 15,367,014 realized and allocated from € 15,931,072 from the planned budget. the average index for this category is 98%. 5 table 3. compiled by the author based on the data of the financial reports of the budget incomes of the municipality of prizren 2008-2017 incomes planned budget 2008-2017 allocated funds 2008-2017 realized budget (spent) 2008-2017 ind. alo/ plan ind. real/plan ind. real/alo tot. aver. ind transferred government grants 258,963.00 258,963.00 258,963.00 100 100 100 100 own source revenues carried forward 12,228,545.00 12,130,936.00 11,143,332.00 99 91 92 94 revenues from general donations carried forward 751,751 751,751 728,308 100 97 97 98 government grant 260,097,973 259,628,315 253,108,945 100 97 97 98 own source revenues 60,395,040 47,811,120 37,077,629 79 61 78 73 revenues from general donations 3,430,117 3,474,627 2,016,356 101 59 58 73 borrowing financing 98,357 98,357 98,357 100 100 100 100 total 337,260,908 324,154,069 304,431,890 96 90 94 93 the total revenues of the municipality of prizren for the period 2008-2017 had budget planning € 337,260,908 and € 324,154,069 were allocated from the total planned budget, while € 304,431,890 were realized. the allocation index in relation to planning was 96% and the realization index in relation to planning 90%, while the realization index in relation to allocation was 94%. the average of the three indices is 93%. from the table of general revenues of the municipal budget for the period 20082017, government grants carried forward were € 258,963 and were fully realized. own source revenues carried forward for this period were € 12,228,545 and realized were € 11,141,332 with an index of 91%. revenues from total donations carried forward were € 751,751, while € 728,308 were realized from the amount carried forward, with an index of 97%. the government grant for this period has made budget planning in the amount of € 260,097,973, while its allocation has been € 259,628,315 and € 253,108,945 have been realized from the government grant. the index between allocation / planning reaches 100%, the index between realization / planning reaches 97%, while realization / allocation 97%. the total average of government grants indices for the period 2008-2017 is 98%. own source revenues for the period 2008-2017, the planned budget was € 60,385,040, these revenues were allocated in the amount of € 47,811,120, while their realization was € 37,077,629. the allocation / planning index closed with 79%, realization / planning with 61% and realization / allocation with 78%. the average of total indices is 73%. revenues from general donations to the planned budget for the period 2008-2017 were € 3,474,627. € 3,474,627 were allocated from the budget, while € 2,016,356 were realized. the allocation / planning index is 101%, the realization / planning index 59%, while the realization / allocation index is 58%. the average of the total index is 73%. 6 table 4. compiled by the author based on the data of the financial reports of the budget expenditures of the municipality of prizren 20082017 outlay planned budget 2008-2017 allocated funds 2008-2017 realized budget (spent) 2008-2017 ind. alo/plan ind. real./ plan. ind. real./ alo. wages 148,956,848 148,711,274 148,033,850 100 99 100 goods and services 28,052,478 26,377,043 24,061,209 94 86 91 utility costs 8,498,834 7,963,224 7,310,223 94 86 92 subvencionet 4,434,197 4,244,418 3,886,291 96 88 92 capital investments 147,581,079 136,953,481 121,337,819 93 82 89 totali 337,523,436 324,249,440 304,629,392 96 90 94 in the category of municipal expenditures for the period 20082017, the budget planning was € 337,523,436 where € 324,249,440 were allocated, while € 304,629,392 were realized. in the category of salaries in the municipal budget expenditures, the amount of € 148,956,848 is planned and € 148,711,274 are allocated, while € 148,033,850 are realized. the allocation index in relation to planning reaches a maximum of 100%. the maximum index is reached by the ratio of realization to planning and realization to allocation. in the category of goods and services, € 28,052,478 were planned and € 26,377,043 were allocated, while € 24,061,209 were realized. the allocation index in relation to planning was 94%, realization / planning 86%, while realization / allocation 91%. this category has resulted in an average index of 90%. in the category of municipal expenditures in the municipal budget expenditures, € 8,498,834 were planned and € 7,963,224 were allocated, while € 7,310,223 were realized. the allocation index in relation to planning was 94%, the realization ratio to planning was 86%, while the realization ratio to allocation was 92%. this category had an average of 91%. in the category of subsidies to municipal budget expenditures, € 4,434,197 were planned and allocated in the amount of € 4,244,418, while € 3,886,291 were realized. the allocation index in relation to planning was 96%, the realization index in relation to planning was 88%, while the realization index in relation to allocation was 92%. the average of the three indices in this category is 92%. in the category of capital investments in municipal budget expenditures, the planned budget was € 147,581,079 and € 136,953,481 were allocated, while € 121,337,819 were realized or spent. the allocation index in relation to planning was 93%, the realization index in relation to planning was 82%, while the realization index in relation to allocation was 89%. the average of indices in this category is 88%. table 5. compiled by the author based on the data of the financial reports of the budget incomes of the municipality of prizren 2018-2019 incomes planned budget 2018-2019 allocated funds 2018-2019 realized budget (spent) 2018-2019 ind. alok/ plan ind. real/plan ind. real/alok tot. aver. ind government grant 74,536,578.00 74,109,029.00 68,552,396.00 99 92 93 95 own source revenues 16,838,678.00 13,436,458.00 9,890,503.00 80 59 74 71 own source revenues carried forward 5,962,195 5,962,195 5,385,315 100 90 90 94 revenues from general donations 1,490,638 1,490,638 515,750 100 35 35 56 borrowing financing 623,509 587,393 222,173 94 36 38 56 total 99,451,598 95,585,713 84,566,137 96 85 88 90 7 in the period 2018-2019, the budget planning for the government grant to the municipal budget revenues was € 74,536,578, while € 74,109,029 were allocated or 99% allocated from the planned amount. the realization was € 68,552,396 where 92% of the planned budget and 93% of the allocated funds were spent. the average index for this period was 95%. in the period 2018-2019, the budget planning for own source revenues in the municipal budget revenues was € 16,838,678, while € 13,436,458 or 80% of the planned amount were allocated. realizations were € 9,890,503, where 59% of the planned budget and 74% of the allocated amount were spent. the average index for this period was 71%. in the period 2018-2019, the budget planning for own source revenues carried over to the municipal budget revenues was € 5,962,195 and the funds were allocated in full. realizations were € 5,385,315, where 90% of the planned budget and the allocated amount were spent. the average index for this period was 94%. in the period 2018-2019, budget planning for revenues from general donations to municipal budget revenues was € 1,490,638 and funds were allocated in full. realizations were € 515,750, where 35% of the planned budget and the allocated amount were spent. the average index for this period was 56%. in the period 2018-2019, budget planning for financing from borrowing to municipal budget revenues was € 623,509, while € 587,393 or 94% were allocated from the planned amount. realizations were € 222,173, where 36% of the planned budget and 38% of the allocated amount were spent. the average index for this period was 56%. table 6. compiled by the author based on the data of the financial reports of the budget expenditures of the municipality of prizren 20182019 outlay planned budget 2018-2019 allocated funds 2018-2019 realized budget (spent) 2018-2019 ind. real/plan ind. shp./ plan. ind. shp./ alok. tot aver. ind wages 40,356,891 39,876,331 39,481,031 99 98 99 99 goods and services 12,820,260 12,165,857 11,287,775 95 88 93 92 utility costs 2,381,447 1,885,915 1,571,957 79 66 83 76 subsidies 1,251,159 1,251,158 1,241,169 100 99 99 99 capital investments 42,641,842 40,406,453 30,984,206 95 73 77 81 total 99,451,599 95,585,714 84,566,138 96 85 88 90 in the period 2018-2019, the budget planning for wages in municipal budget expenditures was € 40,356,891, while € 39,876,331 or 99% of funds allocated from the planned amount were allocated. realizations were € 39,481,031, where 98% of the planned budget and 99% of the allocated amount were spent. the average index for this period was 99%. goods and services in the period 2018-2019's budget planning in the municipal budget expenditures was € 12,820,260, while € 12,165,857 or 95% of the funds allocated from the planned amount were allocated. realizations were € 11,287,775, where 88% of the planned budget and 93% of the allocated amount were spent. the average index for this period was 92%. municipal expenditures in the period 2018-2019 budget planning in municipal budget expenditures were € 2,381,447, while € 1,885,915 or 79% of funds were allocated from the planned amount. realizations were € 1,571,957, where 66% of the planned budget and 83% of the allocated amount were spent. the average index for this period was 76%. subsidies in the period 2018-2019 budget planning in municipal budget expenditures were € 1,251,159, where funds were allocated in full. realizations were € 1,241,169, where 99% of the planned budget and the allocated amount were spent. the average index for this period was 99%. capital investments in the period 2018-2019's budget planning in municipal budget expenditures were € 42,641,842, while € 40,406,453 were allocated or 95% of funds were allocated from the planned amount. realizations for this period were € 30,984,206, where 73% of the planned budget and 77% of the allocated amount were spent. the average index for this period was 81%. 8 3.4. analysis of the correlation between the realization of municipal budget expenditures and the realization of capital investments the analysis of the correlation for the period 2005-2019 between the realization of municipal budget expenditures and the realization of capital investments has resulted in 0.98207487. the correlation analysis for the period 2005-2007 has resulted in 0.99901736. the period 2008-2017 has resulted in 0.99073733, while the period 2018-2019 has resulted in 1. after these results we can say that the analysis of the correlation between the realization of municipal budget expenditures and the realization of capital investments has a positive linear trend for all periods analyzed and we can say that we have a strong positive correlation. 3.5. analysis of the realization of capital investments as financial performance in the municipality of prizren table 7. compiled by the author based on the data of the financial reports of the budget of the municipality of prizren 2005-2019 year capital investment planning realization of capital investments realization in% 2005 6,949,331 5,976,993 86 2006 5,144,003 4,606,790 90 2007 3,837,738 4,783,231 125 total of the first period 100 2008 6,643,000 6,182,702 93 2009 11,051,803 10,652,420 96 2010 13,597,370 10,771,722 79 2011 15,815,978 14,491,764 92 2012 14,763,269 12,181,769 83 2013 15,472,024 12,746,918 82 2014 16,537,689 11,635,326 70 2015 18,879,026 14,523,467 77 2016 18,557,260 14,167,524 76 2017 16,263,660 13,984,207 86 total of the second period 83 2018 20,779,831 15,341,962 74 2019 21,862,011 15,642,244 72 total of the third period 73 total 85 during the 15-year analysis of capital realizations in the municipality of prizren, the year with the worst performance was 2014 during the government of the second period, where only 70% were realized and ended within the threshold of 75%, where the ministry of government local has determined the municipalities to then award the performance grant if the realization of capital investments is over 75%. two other years that have not exceeded the threshold of 75% are, the year 2018 with 74% and the year 2019 with 72% realized, where these two years have been of the third period. the most successful year of capital investments was 2007 of the first period, where 125% were realized. the accumulation of own source revenues above the planned value has influenced the outcome. 9 during the period 2005-2019, the average realization of capital investments has been 85%. the first period 2005-2007, has shown the most successful performance where capital investments are realized 100%. the second period 2008-2017 is ranked second in terms of performance of capital investments with 83%. the third period 2018-2019 is the weakest period, where only 73% of capital investments have been realized. 5. conclusions and recommendation municipalities in kosovo, in order to have good governance, need to have more space in the use of their finances. the municipality of prizren should make a plan to increase its own source revenues. own source revenue planning to become realistic and achievable for their collection so that there is no discrepancy between the planning and realization of own source revenues. the capacities of human resources should be increased, which will affect the collection of own source revenues. municipal staff dealing with own source revenues should be trained. the municipality of prizren should organize an awareness campaign and do more marketing and raise awareness among citizens about the legalization of illegal facilities. h1: the realization of budget projections in the analyzed period has identified partial progress in the area of autonomous revenues. during the statistical analysis of own source revenues (autonomous) and based on the findings of this research (chapters 6, 7 and 8), we can conclude that the first hypothesis is argued. from 2005 to 2019, on average 71% of the budget projection of autonomous revenues were realized. the weakest realization was in the last period with a percentage of 59% realized in relation to the budget planning for own source revenues, while the highest realization occurred in the first period with a percentage of 103%, realized in relation to the planning of budget projections. h2: the realization of government grants exceeds 85% of budget projections and is mainly related to the cooperation with the ministry of finance in financial and political terms. the average realization of government grants for the period 20052019 is 97% of budget projections. the best realization was during the first period, where government grants were realized 99% of budget projections, while the weakest realization was during the third period with the index 92%. we can conclude that the second hypothesis is argued. h3: as a result of the partial realization of own fiscal revenues we have quite asymmetric trends in the realization of operating expenses and capital expenditures. after concluding in the first hypothesis that own source fiscal revenues have shown a partial result with a percentage of average realization of 71% of budget projections for 15 years, we can conclude that the third hypothesis is not argued, as during the 15year period operating costs on average 91% of budget projections were realized, while capital expenditures with a realization percentage of 87%. the most successful period in the realization of operating and capital expenditures was the first period, with an average of 105% of the realization from the budget projection and 100% for capital expenditures, while the weakest period was the third period with an average of 88% for operating expenses and 73% for capital expenditures. h4: more dynamic collection of revenues from legalization of illegal facilities can stabilize the financial performance of the budget of the municipality of prizren in perspective. revenues from legalization of illegal facilities did not play any role in the financial performance of the budget of the municipality of prizren, because the collection occurred only in 2005 and 2006 and this continued in 2020 and 2021 but this does not include the research period. in 2005 the planning of taxes from the legalization of objects was € 100,000 and € 15,557 or 16% were realized, while in 2006 the planning of taxes from the legalization of objects was € 25,000, while € 8,090 or 32% were realized. we can conclude that the fourth 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(2016). analysis of financial statements, authorized lectures. 13. the parliament of kosovo (2008). law no. 03/l075. the establishment of the office of the auditor general of kosovo. available at: http://old.kuvendikosoves.org/?cid=2,191,270 14. wang x, dennis l and tu ( 2007). measuring financial condition: a study of us states.” public budgeting and finance 27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5850.2007.00872.x 15. wang x, dennis l and tu (2007). measuring financial condition: a study of us states.” public budgeting and finance 27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5850.2007.00872.x https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2530 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2530 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2530 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2530 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2505 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2505 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=2524 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=2524 http://old.kuvendikosoves.org/?cid=2,191,270 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2530 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=2530 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=2524 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=2524 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=8856 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdocumentdetail.aspx?actid=8856 http://old.kuvendikosoves.org/?cid=2,191,270 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5850.2007.00872.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5850.2007.00872.x 30 attitudes toward elderly inmates in correctional facilities gulshan aliyeva baku state university, faculty of social science and psychology, gulshen.kovser@gmail.com article history: submission 08 january 2022 revision 29 february 2022 accepted 04 april 2022 available online 30 april 2022 keywords: interpersonal relationship, elderly inmates, prison environment, correctional officers psychological emotional support program. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.283 a b s t r a c t psychological well-being and mental health of elderly inmates are investigated by the international organizations, committees, and researchers. one of the main factors that influence their quality of life, daily mood, and well-being is interpersonal relationship. numerous empirical data confirm the importance of interpersonal relationship, and attitudes toward aging. a definition of attitude item can be explained as an evaluation of a stimulus as reflected in our cognitive, emotional and behavioral responses to the problem (fiske &taylor, 1991). in the field of geriatric psychology, research has focused on the problem of interpersonal relationship between elderly people and workers in prison environments. prison officers are in interpersonal relationship with inmates and have responsibility for the safety, and security of the prison facility, and also for managing organizational demands (schaufeli & peeters, 2000). some researchers have shown that the health, and wellbeing of prison officers remain poor, and risk of being affected by different mental health problems, as depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (viotti, 2016). a systematic review of research and policy papers, articles that published on interpersonal relationship between elderly inmates and officers in correctional facilities, also effective programs outcomes were conducted. the main symptoms of the problem were measured with a special checklist and questionnaires. the quality of life was measured qol survey that was made based on who (world health organization) qol questionnaire. 200 elderly prisoners have been involved in the research from different prison regimes of azerbaijan correctional facilities between 2019-2020. a systematic approach in psychological work with elderly prisoners, also officers allows for the transition from a symptomatic to a personality-oriented level of psychological impact. psychological emotional support can renew their hope on life, influence positive outcomes of the support program. according to the results of repeated psychological research, the patient's condition was characterized by positive dynamics: the level of psychological distress and the intensity of psychological distress significantly decreased, the general internality of the personality increased, as well as the subjective assessment of personal well-being. it is necessary to focus the attention of specialists on the advisability of using psycho-educational programs in a prison environment, providing information about the aging dynamically. such programs, used at the initial stages of work with patients, contribute to the creation of motivation for personal psychotherapy and significantly increase its effectiveness. “an age-friendly world is possible and will be built by all of us community by community, city by city, and region by region” –who (world health organization) https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:gulshen.kovser@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.283 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9771-1156 31 1. introduction giving and receiving social support is one of the important issues of the individual and community lives. such support is often exchanged within families, learning and working environment, communities, between colleagues and other relationships. researchers and policy-makers think that offenders need help and support from family, relatives, friends, also formal institutions criminal justice agencies, correctional facilities, prison officers, social welfare services. especially elderly inmates are the vulnerable group members who need more care and attention. the international committee red crescent (icrc) explained older prisoners legal, physical and mental state, and highlighted that older population experience multiple chronic physical and mental health conditions and physical disabilities at relatively young prisoners (icrc, 2016). they also have suffered stress, or trauma over their lifetimes, have a previous experience of drug using and addiction, homelessness, and limited access to social welfare programs and education (ron h.aday, 2003). isolation in the prisons and fewer visits can affect their mental health and daily mood. compared to younger prisoners, older inmates have fewer regular visitors and fewer connections and interpersonal relationships (b.a.williams et al., 2010). correctional officers meet this population every day, and they are part of this interpersonal relationship, too. in this situation health and well-being of prison officers remain poor. this fact was examined by armstrong, griffin, and other authors. they mentioned that between 30 to 50 percent of prison officers suffer moderate to high levels of workplace stress (armstrong& griffin, 2004; butler et al., 2019; kinman et al., 2016; lambert & hogan, 2018; steiner & wooldredge, 2015). their mental health problem, as burnout, post-traumatic stress disorder, alcohol use are more than other workers in the general population (boudouka et al.,2013, gould et al.,2013, jaegers et al.,2019, bierie, 2012). furthermore, they experience poor physical health, decreased life and work satisfaction (finney et al. 2013). in this article, the interpersonal relationship problem between officers and elderly inmates was examined via literature analysis and survey results. firstly, the problem was explored based on previous literature materials, then the survey questions were used by inmates and officers. based on statistics and figures those got from survey procedures, conclusion part of the paper was prepared, and concluded by discussing what kind of social-emotional support techniques officers can use to build effective relationships with older inmates. 2. literature review the previous findings mentioned the weak mental and physical health, poor well-being of elderly inmates. house of common justice committee’s v report of session 2013-2014 considered older prisoners. based on that material, and authors examines the following table (table 1) was used: table 1. proportion of prisoners over 60 with most prominent chronic physical health disorders. fazel, et al: 2001 hayes, et al: 2012 disorders 60-64 65-69 cardiovascular 35% 51% 55% musculoskeletal 24% 51% 66% respiratory 15% 27% 36% psychiatric disorders 45% 54% 39% data source: older prisoner, v report of session 2013-2014, house of common justice committee, 2013. older adults experience psychological trauma directly related to their imprisonment. crawley e. mentioned elderly prisoners’ anxious, depressed, or psychologically traumatized emotional state by incarceration (crawley e., sparks a., 2006). lack of social support, family members and relative’s fewer visits and poor communication increase their depressed mood, fatigue, worrying, and uncertainty about the future. indicators of aging attitudes are affective, cognitive, and behavioral components. cullen’s concept of social support (1994) was used in this research. that concept consists of three main dimensions in the social support definition: the community, the social network, and intimate and confiding associations (cullen, 1994). the author differentiated instrumental and expressive support. instrumental support refers to food, money, housing, and services; while expressive support means emotional side of the problem as giving attention, listening, sharing ideas, discussing problems (cullen, colvin, et al., 2002). since cullen (1994) mentioned the importance of social support for criminal justice, some researchers have begun to investigate 32 interpersonal relationships in prisons (youngki w.et al.,2015). meanwhile, this problem relationship between family ties and inmate behavior has long been examined by researchers (bales &mears, 2008; cochran &mears, 2013). visits, receiving calls, and letters by family members and relatives can be differed as an expressive support tool. bales and colleagues (2008) mentioned that lack of interpersonal support, frequent visitation, while incarcerated, can be reason of some future problems, as recidivism upon release. different researches on inmates lend insight to social support problem in prisons. inmates report the need for safety, support, giving attention, empathy, social stimulation, activity, and other issues (youngki w.et al.,2015). they often desire “support and structure” (instrumental support), “emotional feedback” (expressive support) within the correctional facilities, too (youngki w.et al.,2015). cognitive component of attitudes means ideas, beliefs, thoughts, attributes, and perceptions about older adults and the aging process. there is a gap between attitudes, some beliefs are negative when some of them are positive. for example, aging might be explained with growth or maintenance some aspects, also wisdom (handbook of the psychology of aging, 2006). today our world is becoming “age-friendly”. who mentioned the importance of this problem and care to older population? the organization calls the countries, different levels of the governments to join this community. negative attitudes are also reflected in behaviors toward older adults. finding from literature analyzing mentioned stereotypes, also younger adults’ patronizing talk with older individuals. such patronizing talk is characterized by demeaning emotional tone, clarification strategies, controlling or disapproving messages (handbook of the psychology of aging, 2006). behavioral components can be different due to cultural moments. religion and moral values can be determined people’s attitude, care and support. the concept of stereotype threat was invoked by steele and colleagues (2002) that explain the effects of negative stereotypes on performance. authors mentioned that situational cues activate these thoughts, which may negatively impact performance due to some issues, including anxiety, arousal, and decreased effort. owen (1983) in the usa explored prison culture and relationship with 35 prison officers, liebling and colleagues (1999) in england studied this problem with 17 prison officers using semistructured interviews, cianchi in australia explored investigated the same problem in 2009, lemmergard and muhr (2012) focused on emotional labor and professional identity problem of correctional officers in denmark, ibsen (2013) chose an ethnography to get information about informal favors as social control by prison officers in norway, worley (2016) used autoethnography in the two prisons of the usa, ricciardelli, and perry (2016) used semi-structured interviews with 42 officers in canada, halsey and deegan (2017) explored this problem in australia. exploratory research that realized in italy, differentiating factors that negatively affect the psychological well-being of correctional officers (viotti, 2016). the author stressed prison officer’s job stressful, and explained it from different aspects. relationships with prisoners, solving their daily problems, and needs were the part of the officers’ responsibility. work content factors, as daily routine duties, schedule, dangers, role conflicts worsened officers’ job satisfaction (viotti, 2016). so this study brought to light interpersonal relationship problem of italian penitentiary system. author mentioned that on average 10 officers who work in prison have committed suicide per year, according to prati and boldrin (viotti, 2016). the high level of responsibility wasn’t the unique cause of the negative attitude. negative social image by the people influence the officers’ job satisfaction, too. hygiene, health risk, being contacted with detained who are carriers, attack by inmates, lack of motivation, intellectual and personal development, conflict of values, and other issues were elucidated effectively. dodge and colleagues, trounson & pfeifer, davinia r. searched prison officers’ wellbeing, by multiple inter and intrapersonal factors, concerning social factors, describing elements of stressful events (dodge et al., 2012; trounson & pfeifer, 2016; davinia r., 2021). carnevale and colleagues (2018) strongly emphasized that different aspects of the prison environment lead to a lack of job satisfaction (testoni i. et al., 2021). the literature reports that prisoners’ mental health affects the mental health of prison staff. role conflicts, environmental conditions, lack of family and relatives support, stressful events put elderly inmates’ mental health at risk, meanwhile, the officers are faced with these difficulties in their daily lives. 3. method regimes of azerbaijan correctional facilities between 2019-2020. elderly inmates were asked a survey questionnaire and measurement tool to rate their quality of life domains using a 5point likert type scale (from 0-not at all to 5-very much). 33 officers were experienced to rate their social-emotional skills, and stress coping reactions using questionnaires in august 2021. the statistical issues, regression, also a correlation between variables, were analyzed by using spss program versions. each of them was asked their permission to participate in the survey based on ethical codes. using these methods, the main hypothesis and the research questions were investigated: h0: there isn’t any correlation between the social support inmates have and their quality of life h1: the more social support correlates the higher level of inmates’ quality of life. 4. results to examine the quality of life of elderly prisoners and their attitude to this problem began with the elucidation of the definitions. definition of qol (quality of life). individual's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, as defined by who. definition of interpersonal relationship. individual’s interactions with other people: family members, relatives, other inmates, prison workers, etc. in different social situations, in positive and negative aspects. during the research the items that influenced an individual’s perception of the quality of life were gathered as independent variables: age, prison experience, family support (short and long term visits, telephone calls), and prison environment factors, as an officers and inmate’s attitude. age of the prisoners was defined 63,6±4,22 (mean:63,60; std. deviation:4,22; median:63; min.55; max.84; skewness 1,512; kurtosis 5,025). prison experience: the majority of the participants didn’t have any previous prison experience, it was their first arrest, respectively 119 (59,5%) and 81(40,5%). the first question about family members’ connection was “how often do you get family support?”. more than 75% of participants declare getting family and relatives’ support regularly. the next questions were about short and long-term visits and observed with fluctuation. when 58,5% of them state regularly short-term visits, only 10% of the elderly inmates’ family members visited them for a long term (3days). the officers’ and inmates’ attitude and their influence on to interpersonal relationship were determined as independent variables. these figures were described in the following tables (table 2& 3): table 2. family and relatives support get family support regularly 151 75,5% total sometimes 47 23,5% never 2 1,0% 100% short term visits regularly 117 58,5% sometimes 80 40,0% never 3 1,5% 100% long term visits regularly 20 10,0% sometimes 127 63,5% never 53 26,5% 100% table 3. officers and inmate’s attitude consider your age sometimes 125 62,5% total never 75 37,5% 100% officers’ attitude high 120 60,0% normal 78 39,0% 34 low 2 1,0% 100% inmates’ attitude high 129 64,5% normal 71 35,5% low 100% independent variable: qol (quality of life) indicators. quality of life indicators were measured qol questionnaire that was made based on who qol measurement scale. the table 4. presents the answers’ distribution about quality of life. table 4. answer distribution (%) how would you rate your quality of life? valid percent (%) cumulative percent (%) very poor 2,0% 2,0% poor 81,5% 83,5% neither poor nor good 14% 97,5% good 2,5% 100% very good majority of the participant (81,5%) rate their qol poor, only 2,5% of them mentioned their quality of life well, while 14% of them didn’t have any idea about it, they assessed neither good or poor (mean 2,17; median 2; std.deviation 0,482; variance 0.232; min.1; max.4; skewness 1,789; kurtosis 4,346). test of normality (kolmogrov-smirnov) values were 0,473; df=200; p<0,005. one-sample test values (considering test value=4) t= -53,700; df=199; p<0,005; d=t/√n= 3,79. this figure let us continue discussion, because of normal distribution (kolmogrovsmirnov), and d values. 4.1. the effect of increasing age and quality of life considering the age factor, we can divide the participants into 2 groups: >60, <60 years. h0: there isn’t any correlation between aging and quality of life indicators. h1: the increasing age factor has an impact on the quality of life of prisoners. independent t-test for equality of variance and means (f=24,322; df=198, t=-5,808; p<0,005), so we can mention that h0 rejected. the increasing age factor has an impact on elderly inmates’ quality of life indicators. the correlation between two factors was detected by the pearson correlation test (r=-0,359**, p<0,01). there is a negative correlation between these factors, and it is a statistically significant figure. to measure the reason and conclusion between increasing age and qol, had chosen the durbin-watson regression test (r square= 0,129; adjusted r square= 0,125, durbin watson coefficient was 1,128). the r square and adjusted r square were close to each other’s, and the durbin watson coefficient was low than {1,5 2,5} so the regression between them was statistically significant (f=29,3; p<0,005). 4.2. the effect of prison experience and quality of life the participants were divided into two groups, those who had previous prison experience, had been arrested before, and the second group members whose imprisonment was the first time. the quality of life indicators between them wasn’t statistically significant, so h0 (the previous imprisonment has an impact on qol of elderly inmates) wasn’t rejected (t=0,37; df=198; p=0,714). based on anova test results, sum of squares between groups was 0,031; total 46,22; η2 =0,0006 (f=0,135; p=0,714). the figures let us say that having any previous prison experience doesn’t influence elderly inmates’ current comprehension quality of life. 35 4.3. the family support and quality of life the survey items about interpersonal relationships with family members and relatives, let us mention that more than 75%of participants got family members and relatives support, more than 50% of them regularly had short term visits, but only 10% had long term visits with their family. if divide them into 3 groups, and compare their qol indicators, there wasn’t any statistically significant coefficient (χ2= 2,724; df=2; p=0.256). in this situation, h0 wasn’t rejected, so it was failed to reject. also, spearman’s correlation coefficient was (r=-0,116; p=0,10); these figures let us say that there aren’t any correlations between these factors. this coefficient was detected between short-term visits frequency and qol indicators (χ2= 5,509; df=2; p=0.064). also, spearman’s correlation coefficient was negative (r=-0,139; p=0,050); these figures let us say that there are weak correlations between these factors. 4.4. correctional facilities environmental factor and qol the next independent variables that influence elderly prisoners’ qol are correctional facility accommodation, officers, and other prisoners’ attitudes. so the survey items that assess officers’ and administration’s attitudes to them were determined. h0: the correctional environmental factor and personal relationship in the prison doesn’t have an impact on the elderly inmates’ qol h1: the correctional environmental factor and personal relationship in the prison have an impact on the elderly inmates’ qol the statistical figures let us to continue this discussion and determine relationship between these factors (χ2= 13,857; df=1; p=0.000). spearman’s correlation coefficient was positive, and this figure was statistically significant (r=0,264**; p<0,01). the next question (how you rate workers’ attitude) about a relationship in prison and qol of inmates was measured by kruskal wallis test (χ2= 18,167; df=2; p=0.000), and spearman’s correlation coefficient was positive, and this figure was statistically significant (r=0,301**; p<0,01) the other prisoners’ attitudes and its impact on elderly prisoners’ qol was measured by kruskal wallis test (χ2= 3,185; df=1; p=0.074), and spearman’s correlation coefficient was positive, and this figure wasn’t statistically significant (r=0,127; p=0.074). based on this statistical measurement h0 was rejected and h1 (the correctional environmental factor and personal relationship in the prison have an impact on the elderly inmates’ qol) was approved. however, this is appropriate for officers’ approach, this hypothesis wasn’t proved statistically for prisoners’ attitude factor. considering the officers’ impact on the aging population in the prison, the next step of the study was to check the officers’ socialemotional skills. on august 20-21, 2021, a seminar training on "development of social and emotional skills, creation of a supportive environment" was organized with 21 young officers who started their new service in the penitentiary service. at the same seminar, officers conducted a “social-emotional skills self-assessment questionnaire”. the questionnaire consists of 5 sections: selfawareness, self-regulation, social awareness, social management, and responsible decision-making, 5 questions for each section, a total of 25 questions. self-awareness (12,62±3,2; min.0, max.15), self-regulation (12,43±2,7; min.4, max.15), social-awareness (10,76±2,07; min.4, max.15), social management (12,43±3,1; min.2, max.15), and responsible decision-making (12,19±3,5; min.1, max.15) scores fluctuated between 0-15. a strong positive correlation was determined between questionnaire sections, and it was a statistically significant result. self-awareness and self-regulation (r=0,71**; p<0,01); self-awareness and social-awareness (r=0,71**; p<0,01); self-awareness and social management (r=0,81**; p<0,01); self-awareness and responsible decision-making (r=0,69**; p<0,01); self-regulation and social management (r=0,76**; p<0,01); self-regulation and responsible decision-making (r=0,77**; p<0,01); the aging process has an impact on elderly inmates’ qol, although they don’t have any previous prison experience, their qol indicators changed negatively. the relationship and communication have an impact on the aging prison population, however, the interpersonal relationship in the prison influenced their daily mood and quality of life more than personal relationships with family members, and relatives. officers’ attitude and their approach were one of the strong influential factors on elderly offenders. at the same time, officers’ selfawareness, self-regulation, social management, and responsible decision-making skills were interrelated with each other. 36 5. limitation of the study the attendance at the study was voluntary, so some of the officers and the elderly prisoners didn’t want to participate in interviews. this is the first limitation, due to numbers, and there wasn’t other culture’s member. so the results can be valid and reliable only for that population. another limitation is due to variables; during the research limited numbers of variables were chosen and checked the correlation between these factors. based on these data, in the future, the qualitative study could be realized related to the subjective attitude of participants. in addition, we could pay attention to socio-demographic and professional information about participants to hypothesis correlations with the categories that are identified by this research. the next limitation of this work’s due to gender, so only male prisoners were involved, for future female elderly inmates’ need to take into account, too. considering this project as a first local experiment, in the future, the study can be focused to other prisons of regions with more participants, and different point of view. 6. conclusion and recommendation the main purpose of the research intended to illustrate the aging prison population’s psychological well-being, and the role of institutional and family factors in their perception of quality of life. the literature analyzing elderly inmates lends insight to the importance of social support in prisons. inmates report the need for safety, structure, support, emotional feedback, social stimulation, activity, and other issues (youngki w.et al.,2015). some of the authors note that visits, furloughs, receiving calls, and letters by family members and relatives can be kind of expressive support tools. also, the frequent meeting factor is related to the reduction of recidivism after release (bales and colleagues 2008). finding from the literature analysis mentioned prison environment factors as different attitudes, stereotypes, also younger adults’ patronizing talk with older individuals. agingrelated attitudes also influence other important social contexts. so that issue had been differentiated as one of the independent variables and included in the survey. another side of this interpersonal relationship is focused on officers’ attitudes. although the different studies have been realized in other countries about prison officers’ behavior, (owen (1983) liebling and colleagues (1999), lemmergard and muhr (2012), ibsen (2013) ricciardelli and perry (2016) halsey and deegan (2017)) but this research is the first in our country. based on the statistical operation the following significant figures were summarized: there is a negative correlation between increasing age factor and elderly inmates’ subjective assessment of the quality of life indicators (r=-0,359**, p<0,01); older inmates’ (who participate in the research) any previous prison experience doesn’t have an impact on their current comprehension quality of life; there is a weak correlation between regularly visits by family members and their quality of life indicators (r=-0,139*; p=0,050); there is a positive correlation between officers’ attitude and quality of life factors of elderly inmates (r=0,301*; p<0,05); the correctional environmental factor and personal relationship in the prison have an impact on the elderly inmates’ qol (χ2= 13,857; df=1; p=0.000; r=0,264*; p<0,05); the strong positive correlations were determined between social emotional skills self-assessment questionnaire items, self-awareness and self-regulation, social-awareness, social management, responsible decision-making (r=0,71**; p<0,01; r=0,71**; p<0,01; r=0,81**; p<0,01; r=0,69**; p<0,01); also self-regulation and social management, responsible decisionmaking skills of officers (r=0,76**; p<0,01; r=0,77**; p<0,01). recommendation enlightenment about geriatric syndromes (frequent falls, cognitive impairment, dementia, incontinence, sensory impairment, and polypharmacy) should be realized among prisoners and staff personnel. people aging in prisons should receive periodic medical and psychological care to identify new geriatric syndromes as they arise. it was emphasized in the international review of the red cross in 2016. prison staff should be informed about risk factors and warning signs on the risk of self-harm, depression symptoms, and future effects. this can be the main topic of the seminar with officers. psychologists should involve elderly inmates in group therapy to prevent social isolation and make connections with relatives. social isolation can lead to diminished functional capacity or may be exacerbated by it, putting older adults at a risk for subsequent loneliness and other diseases (perissinotto, c. m, et al. 2012). -prisons can be staffed in part by prisoners-volunteers, who may receive extensive training and mentored experience in hospice 37 practices as in other countries (human rights watch, heath c., et al 2011). job satisfaction of the officers need to be learned more detailed and make special program consists of social-emotional skills. the problem has been highlighted in other research, too (carnevale and colleagues (2018)). despite the limitations of the study, it is one of the first steps to our understanding of the aging male prisoners and factors that influence their qol (quality of life). this research gives literature analysis about elderly inmates, their qol, interpersonal relationship with family members and relatives, also with the workers and officers in the correctional facilities. the statistical part of the study testifies dependent and independent variables, correlation and regression between them, also social-emotional skills of officers. for future directions, considering the limitation of the study the other variables need to be measured, and support program details could be explored. conflicts of interest: the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. acknowledgements: i am grateful to associate professor, elmina kazimzadeh (department of gender and applied psychology, baku state university) who motivated, and supported me during these years. i am extremely appreciative of her and my family’s constant personal and academic support. finally, i would like to thank older prisoners, and correctional officers that agreed to take part at the research. references 1. aday, r. h., & krabill, j. j. 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https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.348 a b s t r a c t suicide as a phenomenon is present in almost all societies of the world, including the kosovar society, through which the individual tries to take his own life. according to the law, this offense is not punished because the individual ceases to exist as a legal subject, but if we are dealing with pushing or assisting suicide, then investigations are initiated by the competent authorities. the main purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the opinions of the citizens of the municipality of prizren on the cause, methods and treatments of suicide cases in this municipality. an online questionnaire was used to achieve the required results. the research method used is of quantitative type, through which it is attempted to present numerical data about the issue in question. the results of the research indicate that the main cause of suicides in the municipality of prizren are unstable economic conditions, narcotic substances use and psychological stress. the research determines that one of the main ways to commit suicide is hanging and jumping from high objects. according to the data provided, it is observed that the phenomenon of suicide is of medium frequency, and not all cases of suicide should be subject to autopsy examination. 1. introduction suicide is one of the phenomena that is present in almost all societies of the world, including the kosovar society. suicide is an act through which a person tries to take his own life. this paper aims to approach suicide as a social phenomenon in the municipality of prizren from the perspective of its citizens. it aims to study the citizens’ common thoughts on this issue, with regard to the causes, methods, ways of treating the affected ones, and further investigations on suicide cases. it aims to create a summarized picture of this phenomenon based on the answers of citizens who have little to no knowledge about the official statistics. the paper tries to shed new light and to strengthen even more the previous existing, universal theories regarding the phenomenon of suicide in society. through it, it is attempted to create valuable, authentic and sustainable information. it aims to compare the thoughts of the citizens of prizren to those of other societies in general. it intends to offer a comprehensive overview, as summarized as possible on the independent opinions of the citizens of the municipality of prizren on the cause, methods, treatments and examinations of suicide cases. the subject is tried to be analyzed in the social context, generally connecting it with the legal aspects. this research paper is important for enriching the corpus of findings in the field of legal sciences, by providing a general overview of the citizens' point of view on the phenomenon of suicide. the findings of this work can serve as a reference for the work of future researchers, creating an easily accessible and interpretable research base. the information presented here can be a necessary basis for the work of many researchers beyond the framework of legal sciences, extending its contribution to the field of psychology, sociology and many other academic structures. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:ak29665@seeu.edu.mk https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.348 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6171-3210 49 1.1. hypotheses h1: citizens think that suicide in kosovo is a phenomenon of average frequency, which occurs mainly due to the negative impact of economic circumstances on the mental well-being of the individual and which in most cases is carried out through physical hanging. h2: citizens think that the responsibility for the treatment of survivors of suicide attempts should belong to the state institutions of the republic of kosovo, while for suicide attempts that result in the death of the individual, an autopsy examination is not necessary, except in cases where there is a doubt as to whether the critical event was really a suicide or not. 1.2. methodology in order to reach the necessary data, an online questionnaire was used. the questionnaire consists of six questions with multiple choice alternatives, where some of them were open-ended questionsthe participants were given the opportunity to express their free opinion. the research method used here is of quantitative type, through which it is attempted to present quantitative data in relation to the subject in question. one hundred and seventy-three randomly selected participants from the municipality of prizren took part in the questionnaire. the respondents were not asked to meet any special criteria for participation, except for the criterion for them to be citizens of the municipality of prizren. the collected data have been interpreted in a theoretical and comparative way, with special emphasis on the creation of new and sustainable theoretical facts. 2. suicide as a social phenomenon 2.1. the notion and origin of the phenomenon of suicide regarding the phenomenon of suicide, ander (2017) defines the seriousness of the problem of suicide as a social phenomenon, which determines that suicide is a problem that is connected in a certain way to different social categories. suicide, in fact, is a manifestation of a certain mental state, whether it is a pathological or social state, which ends with the loss of the individual's life by himself. from the legal point of view, the act of suicide is not punishable for the fact that the individual is not considered a legal subject now that his life is over. but in the cases where we are dealing with a drive towards suicide, the investigation by the competent bodies and the further proceedings of the case come into expression here (salihu, 2014). the way how we approach suicide as a social phenomenon is an indicator of social awareness and information about its consequences. among different peoples, there is different consciousness in relation to knowledge and views on the phenomenon of suicide. according to the world health organization (2021), more than seven hundred thousand die due to suicide every year and that suicide is the main cause of death among 15–19-year-olds. according to this organization, about seventy-seven percent of suicides occur in middleand low-income countries but can there be an origin of such a phenomenon as suicide? the first mention of suicide dates back to ancient egypt around 1900 bc. it is poined out that such evidence is kept in the berlin museum and has been translated into german by adolph erman. this translation is literally about a philosophical dialogue between man and his soul, in which the spiritual fatigue of the character and the desire not to live anymore is manifested (oshan, 2018). regarding the later stages of antiquity, according to cooper (1989), in greek and latin antiquity there was no word that refers to today's term "suicide", although in many countries selfdestruction was considered a criminal act. 2.2. types of suicides by manner and cause according to the method: a larger categorization of suicides is that of dividing them into acute or immediate suicides and chronic or slow suicides; directly and indirectly (latifi, 2014). according to the understanding of the concept, acute suicide is called that type of suicide whose effect tends to be immediate. an example of this is jumping from tall buildings. what is meant by the term chronic suicide is that type of suicide, the effect of which tends to be slow, so not immediate. an illustration of this type of suicide can be the consumption of slow-acting poisons. from the general understanding, we can say that direct suicide occurs when the author acts violently directly on himself with the intention of killing himself. an example of the first type of suicide can be the use of a firearm with the intention of the author causing mortal wounds on his body. while its opposite is indirect suicide, during which the author prepares a violent environment with the aim of ending his life, but the effect of which does not directly depend on the author. an example of such suicide could be the case of a man who enlists in the army with the intention of ending his life sooner or later. 50 according to the cause: the division of suicides according to the cause is often related to the causes that influence the appearance of this phenomenon, such as: mental or physiological diseases, financial situations, mental traumas, strained family relationships, etc. (miftari et al, 2010). what can be added here is that from simple observations of such a phenomenon, other causes of suicides can be: prejudice, neglect of parents, influence of narcotics, external pressures, etc. 3. the views of the citizens of the municipality of prizren on the causes of suicide in order for the subject to be treated in the most general sense, avoiding the details viewed from a medical, legal or emotional point of view, a questionnaire has been established which has tried to reveal the views of citizens about the main points related to the phenomenon. of suicides. among the points discussed was that of finding out what the citizens of the municipality of prizren think are the main motivations for carrying out such an act among the individuals of the kosovar society. from the obtained results, we can say that the main cause of suicides in kosovo, always according to the views of the citizens, are the difficult and low economic conditions. such a thing can be completely reasonable considering that according to the statistical data of the world bank, the poverty rate in the republic of kosovo for 2015 was 17.6 percent (the world bank, 2015). the participants listed the use of narcotic substances as the second cause, that leads people to commit suicide. the psychological and emotional stress that the drug user goes through when he cannot have access to the substance of addiction is better known from the medical side. on the other hand, the united states department of health and human services in the data published on the official website states that the abuse of narcotic substances is among the main causes of suicide in america, especially among teenagers (u.s department of health and human services, 2008). the third cause based on the research results turns out to be the psychological pressure and prejudice that members of kosovar society often face. according to them, the prejudices that an individual face, which can come from different sources such as society, the educational environment or even from the family itself, send individuals to stressful situations which then worsen and, if not taken care of, reach the point of losing the will to live. citizens have chosen external influences as the fourth cause, which inspires members of kosovar society to commit suicide. so, suicide can occur as a result of external social stimuli, either through direct verbal stimulation or through indirect stimulation which is mainly related to the frequency of occurrence of the phenomenon in question within a certain social circle. as the fifth because that stimulates a person to commit suicide is neglect of care and with special emphasis the uncontrolled use of social networks, especially for children and teenagers. for adults, such a cause can appear when personal data is distributed on different websites or other digital platforms without the knowledge and approval of the individual, in the form of verbal data, audio sequences or sensitive images. they can also be the prey of organized cyber-attacks which lead to consequences such as threatening or blackmailing the individual. in the case of children, we are dealing with an even more sensitive approach to the factor in question, because in most cases children are unconscious subjects regarding the consequences of exposure on social networks. the neglect of parental control creates an even more favorable environment for cyber attackers who, through continuous psychological pressure, lead the child subject to the infamous act of suicide. the participants of the questionnaire assessed the lack of institutional-state awareness towards the phenomenon of suicides as one of the causes of this occurrence. here the term institutional-state awareness refers to the lack of awareness campaigns in schools, different work environments, other public or private institutions, the lack of psychological counseling engaged by state institutions, the organization of various seminars and trainings with the aim of awareness of the people on the phenomenon of suicides, etc. on the option where the participants were asked to personally mention other causes which they think are stimulating to the act of suicide, the mention of the religious factor stands out. some of them think that the lack of a spiritual connection with a religious figure against whom we are helpless and accountable, is a factor that leads to the increase of suicide cases. they mention fear in the religious context as a tool which, if it were to exist in the emotional and spiritual composition of the one who tries to commit suicide, would prevent the latter from realizing such a life-saving goal, because the spiritual reckoning would be a preventive factor of this act. 4. the views of the citizens of the municipality of prizren on the frequency of suicides based on the statistics of the statistics agency of kosovo for the year 2019, 119 violent deaths were registered in kosovo, among which suicides make up about 39 cases or 24.8%. there is also 51 the fact that in the category of suicides, the 20-40-year-old age group dominates the most (statistics agency of kosovo, 2020). from the questionnaire developed with the citizens of the republic of kosovo, new points of view have been revealed regarding the phenomenon in question. when asked whether or not they experienced such an experience in their family or in their social circle, they gave different answers. more than half of them or about 71 percent have said that they have not experienced such a phenomenon in their families or social circles, while the rest about 28 percent have said that they have experienced such a notorious phenomenon in their families or in their society. this data, presented graphically, looks like the following: table 1. presentation of suicide cases in percentage units of the family or social circle of the respondents suicide in the family or social circle of the respondents: value by percentage: yes 71% no 28% abstention 1% also, they were then asked to give their opinion about how frequent the phenomenon of suicide is in the municipality of prizren. among the alternatives: very frequent, average and not frequent, their answers presented graphically were these: table 2. citizens' views about the frequency of suicides in kosovo presented with numerical values. the prevalence of suicide: numerical value: very frequent 36 moderately frequent 101 not frequent 35 from the above data, we can see that more than half of the respondents think that suicide is not very widespread as a phenomenon and that as a phenomenon it is considered to be of average level. among the voters for the "very frequent" and "not frequent" options, the results were almost equal, with a difference vote in favor of the "very frequent" option. suicide is considered to be a rather widespread phenomenon which may not necessarily be visible only when it happens in the family. such a phenomenon which occurs in the society is considered by the citizens as a collective pain as well. it is interesting that the data from the first graph and the data from the second graph present a small contradiction if seen under the lens of comparative mathematical calculations. since the vast majority of the respondents did not have a case of suicide in their families or societies, the data in the second graph should be much more in favor of the phenomenon's infrequent frequency option. such a thing…such a contradiction can be explained by the fact that the rate of suicides of the municipal setting seems numerically lower for many times compared to the number of suicides of the state setting. 5. the views of citizens of the municipality of prizren on the most frequent forms of suicide from the collection of data using the questionnaire with the alternatives with the possibility of unlimited choice, as well as the question being an open question where at the end the participants can give their opinion, diverse and easily comparable data have been obtained. from the graph of the answers collected through the questionnaire, it is established that the most widespread form or way in which the act of suicide is committed, according to the citizens of prizren, is hanging. in fact, hanging is one of the ten main causes of death worldwide, and only in india is this form of suicide more common. different data report that the use of this method to commit suicide has increased a lot in recent years, especially among adults (ambade et al, 2015). the second form through which citizens think suicide is committed is jumping from tall buildings. nothing has been specified regarding the parameters of the objects from which the suicides are committed, but from a basic understanding we can understand that we are talking about those objects, the height of which is sufficient to cause severe body blows which can end easily with fatality. a group of scientific researchers have analyzed 20 years of observations of the suicide phenomenon in brazil, from 1997 to 2017. of the total number of suicides committed in this country, the method of jumping from a height had a value of only 8.4 percent, which is an indicator that this is one of the less widespread methods in a country with a large population such as brazil (nunes et al., 2019). according to the respondents, the third way or form of committing suicide is ending one's own life with firearms. even in this case, the type of weapon is not specified, but the matter is dealt within the context of any tool that functions as a firearm, the action of which on the victim's body causes severe wounds, in the lower part accompanied by external bleeding. referring to a study done by the harvard school of public health conducted in about fifty american states, it has been discovered that there is a great relationship between gun owners and suicides with guns. as the study points out, in countries where the possession of guns was greater, the number of suicides among them was significantly higher, and vice versa, in countries that possessed fewer registered guns per capita, the number of reported suicides committed through weapons was the lowest (karin, 2008). according to the respondents, the fourth most frequent way is to commit suicide by using doses of medication with the aim of ending life. unlike the cases where the individual consumes 52 medication with the aim of healing or improvement, in the case of suicides the tendency of their consumption is negative, by which the deterioration of the general state of health until the death of the individual is aimed. the effect of their use can be toxic effect, shock effect, coma effect, etc. another way, classified by the respondents as less common, is the use of toxic substances such as detergents, various poisons, toxic food, etc. through the use of these substances, whose primary purpose is domestic, curative, etc., it is intended to cause health complications, which in certain cases end in fatality. and finally, the respondents in the free answer section considered the use of high voltage sources as one of the ways to commit suicide, but which is less widespread in our country. an attempt to better elaborate this lower evaluation of the method in question can be explained by the fact that the use of high voltage sources of electricity is more difficult to be accessed and tends to cause other injuries to other members of the family or society, who are not the target of the suicide. to justify what was said, it should be emphasized that in most cases the suicide or suicide attempter continues to have good judgment in relation to other people whom he does not consider as a driver or source of thoughts to commit suicide. 6. the views of citizens on the treatment of persons with suicidal tendencies in most cases, suicide does not happen suddenly and the perpetrator has time to think about the way of suicide, the means, the scene of the crime, etc. many people who in most cases are family relatives of the victims report strange behavior of the suicidal individual which was not usual for his previous character. to better elaborate what is said, a study mentions the signs displayed by a person who plans to commit suicide are: deep sorrow, sudden calmness, isolation, changes in personality or appearance, dangerous behavior against oneself, experience of fresh traumas and life crises (cleveland clinic, 2021). from the social aspect, two existing types of individuals involved in the suicide phenomenon can be identified: those who will attempt, in the near or distant future, to commit suicide in a planned manner and those who have previously attempted to commit suicide. suicide. people who plan to commit suicide are more predisposed to recover from such a phenomenon compared to those who have already attempted suicide which resulted in failure to achieve the objective. according to the centre for suicide prevention (2016), the individual who has attempted suicide should undergo appropriate treatment because the chances of attempting suicide again are many times greater. 6.1. the primary epilogue the individual is still alive the question of who should deal with the treatment of people who have previously attempted or are predisposed to commit suicide was also answered by the participants of the survey on the views of citizens about the phenomenon of suicide. among several alternatives with the possibility of multiple choices, citizens think that the family structure is the number one responsible for dealing with cases of individuals involved in suicide. they think that such people should be under the care of the family in order to receive treatment as close as possible and all the time. the same ranks the private psychologist as the second most important method through which the treatment of individuals should be done, immediately followed by the public mental services provided by the state institutions of the republic of kosovo. for unexplained reasons, they think that the quality of private mental health services in kosovo is by a very small percentage more advanced compared to the same services offered in the public health system in kosovo. such a change really only has a difference of three votes in favor of the first factor. as the next factor, the citizens have chosen the social factor. according to them, society also has a moral and spiritual responsibility when it comes to caring for individuals affected by the phenomenon of suicide. often, individuals easily discuss their problems with members of society, making it easier to deal with this phenomenon. finally, with a total of four votes difference, the citizens estimate that the individual who has attempted suicide before or will attempt suicide must try to seek treatment for his or her problems before it’s too late. such a thing in the realm of reason would seem abstract, but from the perspective of a kosovar society characterized by traditionalism and a very hermetic general culture, this would be quite logical. what it is tried to be said is that the cultural influence on the civic mentality can create the belief among some participants that people are responsible for their illnesses or mental disorders due to a weak emotional character. among other things, in one of the free-answer questions of the questionnaire, one percent of the citizens has declared that religious preachers are also responsible for the treatment of the individuals in question, by affecting the spiritual and religious aspect of creating the belief that such an act is against the laws of life. 6.2. secondary epilogue the individual ends in death in cases where the person who has committed suicide has achieved the objective his life has ended, circumstances may rise 53 doubts among the legally responsible persons if the case was suicide or murder, based on the evaluation of the elements of the crime scene: the position of the victim, the means of suicide, the place where the suicide was committed, other persons included etc. in these cases, a medical-legal examination may be requested through an autopsy to discover the true cause of death. but would it be useful to carry out such a procedure in all cases of suicide, without evaluating other factors on which doubts may be raised? the respondents gave their evaluation presented graphically as below: table 3. percentage of citizens' opinions about the necessity of the autopsy procedure in cases of suicides autopsy procedure in cases of suicide: value by percentage: against autopsy 5% pro autopsy 94% abstention 1% from the data presented, we can understand that out of one hundred and seventy-three respondents, one hundred and seventy-one of them have given their vote regarding the issue in question, while only two of them or one percent abstained. ninety-nine percent of them have voted, of which one hundred and sixty-three respondents or ninety-four percent were in favor of the medical-legal examination to be done for all cases of suicide without exception. of them, only eight respondents or five percent have declared against the autopsy examination for each case of suicide. 7. conclusions my work through this research has given concrete and clear answers regarding the views of the citizens of the municipality of prizren on the phenomenon of suicides in this municipality. through this research, i managed to create a comprehensive overview of the thoughts and attitudes of kosovar citizens on this phenomenon. my work fully supports the first hypothesis and shows minimal changes in relation to the second hypothesis. from the data found, it results that according to the citizens of the municipality of prizren, the main cause of suicides in our country is the lack of sustainable economic conditions, the use of narcotic substances and psychological stress. other less important causes are family neglect, social influence, use of social networks and religious and political factors. this is in accordance with other researches such as the one from cohut (2020), which emphasizes the cause-and-effect relation between poor economic conditions and suicide attempts. my work has provided information on the opinion of citizens about the main ways in which the citizens of the municipality of prizren commit suicide, where hanging and jumping from high buildings are considered to be the most frequent at the top of the list. not very expressed ways are suicide committed through firearms and overdoses with medications. ways very little expressed based on the given report are poisoning with toxic substances, as well as suicide by electric voltage. the same has been said by biddle et al., (2018) where they emphasize that around seventy percent of suicides in the uk are done through hanging. the data found regarding the opinion of the citizens on the frequency of the occurrence of suicide show that the majority of the respondents have not had cases of suicide in the family or society and that they consider that such an occurrence belongs to the average frequency, which is in complete agreement with the first hypothesis, raised at the beginning of this research. furthermore, the same think that the main responsibilities for the treatment of suicide survivors are the family, private mental health institutions and state medical institutions. also, they consider that every case of suicide should go through an autopsy examination. so, according to what was written above, the last result is in contradiction with the second hypothesis of this paper, which assumes that citizens think that it is not necessary to request such an examination for all cases of suicide, excluding situations with homicidal tendencies. a similar aspect has been said on suicide call back service, where it is stated that every suicide goes under post-mortem examination. society, daily contacts in relation to education or schooling, selftreatment and religious figures are among the least important factors based on the findings of my work. in conclusion, we can say that my work has borne fruit in support of previous theories about early statistics regarding the phenomenon of suicide and that its final result has satisfactorily and effectively fulfilled the goals of this research. 7.1. recommendations as the author of the paper in question, who has tried to cover the most important and exclude the least important points of elaborating on such a broad topic, i would 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https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.332 a b s t r a c t since the birth of the internet, its fast development and the introduction of a new technological era with metaverse recently, transferred many things done by the individuals, to digital world from the real one. all necessities of humans, in this digital world, as shopping to education are done in a 3d virtual setting where payments are done with crypto money instead of real money. even the artwork is now available to buyers in the digital environment. with metaverse, new professions have emerged and various money-making means shifted the economy to different dimensions. metaverse brings conveniences to human lives but there are also some difficulties appearing on the way presented as disadvantages and uncertainties. as a new thing for human life, its positive sides catch more attention. through the augmented reality and virtual reality technologies, real-life objects can be carried into virtual environments where its users experience a real life feeling. in this study, the historical development of the internet and its current version are discussed. the history of the internet, which started with web 1.0 with a non-interactive and static structure, continued with web 2.0 with an interactive and dynamic structure, has developed to the present day as web 3.0 which can be interpreted by computers and machines. moreover, in this study, the positive and negative effects of metaverse that may have on human lives and games in the future is discussed and specified. in addition, financially important blockchain technology that is widely used nowadays is also analyzed. 1. introduction the technological developments in recent years and the importance of these developments in human lives are indisputable. nowadays, most routine work can be completed on the internet by saving considerable time. while the internet is so important in human lives, it is also important to study its history of it by analyzing the processes throughout history. the history of the internet started with web 1.0 and advanced as web 3.0 to the present day. in addition, blockchain technology has emerged as an economically and financially important factor. cryptocurrencies as a part of the blockchain, have started to be valued as much as real money. the content of metaverse, which has become a fancy word recently, aims to transfer our real world to the digital world and it is seen as a technology in an extraordinary and rapid revolution. the facebook company also changed its name to meta; thus, the importance of metaverse is revealed. even present-day technology affects human lives in positive and negative ways; the effect of the metaverse has become a concerning issue for the whole world. this study focuses on the development process of the internet and discusses the concept of metaverse, which has been frequently mentioned recently, its areas of use and its impact on users. it has been demonstrated which paths it has taken from the past to the present and from today to the future. as büyükbaykal & sönmezer (2022) mentioned in their study, metaverse allows users to act as they wish in the virtual environment, and thanks to the avatars they create, they can make friends with other users in the same environment and watch a match or concert with people they have never met. the popularity of the metaverse can only grow with investment in this virtual environment. many famous brands have entered this environment and users can dress their avatars with these brands. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:sertacsalcini@gmail.com mailto:tarikyer@trakya.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.332 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9888-0151 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9888-0151 56 it is a difficult and time-consuming process for both individuals and businesses to keep up with rapidly evolving technology and make it a part of our lives. whichever individuals or businesses can adapt to this process in the fastest way and make it a part of life, will be able to get the best efficiency and have the best advantages. unfortunately, businesses that cannot keep up with this process cannot benefit from the advantages of technological developments, their market share decreases, and their existence comes to an end (söyler & sula averbek, 2022). the emergence of nft technology, one of the economic components of the metaverse, has been a breakthrough in the history of art. it acts as a virtual signature and identifies the current owner and the real producer of the artworks created with nft. the first sale of artworks created with nft was realized in the cryptokitties game based on the ethereum network (yılmaz & ceranoğlu, 2022). 2. historical development of the internet 2.1. web 1.0 web 1.0, which started in 1989, lasted until 2005 as the first web application. web 1.0 was also defined as a network of information links. there was little interaction for users to exchange information and it was impossible to interact with a website. web 1.0 pages were static and content provider only. therefore, users could only search and read the information on it. features: they had read-only content. information was shared at any time and publicly. html (hypertext markup language) language was used and it contained static web pages (choudhury, 2014). in the web 1.0 era, businesses could only share brochures and catalogs related to their products, and users were only allowed to read them and communicate with the businesses (aghaei, nematbakhsh & farsani, 2012). the most important technical characteristics of this era were usenet, e-mail, sgml, ftp, irc, macos and file servers. brian merchant compared the first websites to watching blackand-white silent films. websites of the web 1.0 era were mostly built using html 2.0, html 3.0 and html 4.0 technologies. monitors were 15 inches and approximately 700 to 900 pixels in that era (król, 2020). websites may be found, stored, evaluated, or delivered by software programs designed to transform data into useful information and its users could gather information through web interaction (bruwer & rudman, 2015). web 1.0 refers to more than lots of new and useful technologies and services. it also had a significant impact on learning and teaching. it is anticipated that web 3.0 vision provides a combination of virtual and real environments, and users will be able to interact with real-world people and machines without any problem through virtual ways. an effective learning environment may be created with current best practices in online education thanks to these advantages (rajiv & lal, 2011). 2.2. web 2.0 websites such as orkut, youtube, blogs, google and wikipedia are examples of web 2.0. in addition, social media applications that allow members to upload photos are also examples of web 2.0. berners-lee's definition of web 2.0 is the read-write web (özden, 2022). thanks to web 2.0, instead of being web readers, users have become web literate and started to produce and share information and benefit from features such as feedback and collaboration. it is seen that the learning of students who learn with web 2.0 technological tools becomes more fun and permanent learning is realized (yazıcı, ocak, & bozkurt, 2021). web 2.0, one of today's technologies, is important in terms of having a say in data management as it enables being active and interactive on the internet (kırımlı & demirezen, 2022). when web 1.0 started to fade, it was inevitable to create web 2.0. dynamic websites started to be used instead of static websites thanks to web 2.0. users could produce content share their information and communicate with other users (ersöz, 2020). advanced search engines were created so that users may access the necessary information to be reached easier. the development of the internet has also accelerated with the beginning of the connection of mobile devices to the internet. thus, it was easier to produce content (ersöz, 2020). ibm was defined by a social network analyst as "an informationoriented environment where human interactions create content published, managed, and used through network applications in a service-oriented architecture" (deubel, 2008). the social media brands we use the most today were created during the transition period from web 1.0 to web 2.0 and they developed and grew rapidly in this period. on the other hand, 57 internet brands that could not keep up with the change were obliged to disappear. there are many types of web 2.0 technology and some of the representations are: wikis blogs digital audio file social networks virtual worlds (harris & rea, 2009) 3. web 3.0 shortly after web 2.0 had been created, rumors about the web 3.0 began to circle. the founder of "the web", tim berners-lee also anticipated that web 3.0 will be created and it will be called the "semantic web". while web 2.0 technology allows only people to understand the content, web 3.0 is now a “system that may be understood and interpreted by machines or computers” (kapan & üncel, 2020). the common feature of web 1.0 and web 2.0 was the ability to communicate by connecting itself to a central unit. however, web 3.0 can enable users to connect directly to each other without connecting to a central platform differently from them. this direct connection suits digital money so it can be transferred directly from user to user without being connected to a central unit. thanks to web 3.0, internet users' searches on the web show their preferences and, in this way, preferences can be sorted and customized. in this way, it is possible to improve data management by providing information flow and analyzing data, and thus user satisfaction and collaborations in the social network are developed (ersöz, 2020). in 2006, the term web 3.0 first appeared in an article by zeldman criticizing web 2.0. since 2010, it has been in operation and is an extremely important technological development for network users (yılmaz, 2021). 4. blockchain technology blockchain technology has great financial importance that entered the world agenda through bitcoin. the key feature of bitcoin currency is decentralization. it is not controlled by any institution, state, or person. thus, the trust issues have been eliminated, transfer fees are reduced, the delivery time is minimized and efficiency is increased. as the working principle of bitcoin, an address called “public key” and a password named “private key” is given for each wallet (kıyak, coşkun & budakoğlu, 2019). password security is high and almost impossible to break. being the basis of bitcoin, blockchain technology has been receiving great interest recently (zheng, xie, dai, chen & wang, 2017). blockchain technology is a technology that will have a significant impact on businesses in the coming years. it may provide transformation of the economy and change the way of perception on business processes (kitsantas, vazakidis & chytis, 2019). blockchain systems may be grouped into 2 main categories: access to the blockchain system (permissionless and permitted blockchains) and access to blockchain data (public and private blockchains). permissionless blockchains: all participants may be involved in the transaction verification process. no prior authorization or restrictions are required for users to create blocks. permitted blockchains: only a range of pre-selected and known users may verify/create transaction blocks. public blockchains: in these blockchains, everyone may join the network, read data and send transactions (baiod, light & mahanti, 2021). providing a platform for many potential applications that can also be used in healthcare, blockchain technology has proposed solutions that have the potential to increase the operating efficiency and transparency of healthcare data (angraal, krumholz & schulz, 2017). blockchain development may be described in three phases: blockchain 1.0: refers to cryptocurrencies with applications such as digital payment and money transfer. electronic shopping and money transfer may be made with a small transaction fee compared to traditional methods, thanks to bitcoin, the first cryptocurrency. using pseudonyms in bitcoin accounts provides better security compared to credit cards. while traditional currencies, printing money and financial regulations are controlled by a central bank, bitcoin and other digital currencies use cryptography (tanrıverdi, uysal & üstündağ, 2019). blockchain 2.0: including various financial and economic applications, the blockchain 2.0 phase is also called the digital economy. it is included in the applications such as mortgages, loans, contracts and bonds. smart contracts that have become 58 widespread recently have certain rules and they are used for complex transactions (tanrıverdi, uysal & üstündağ, 2019). blockchain 3.0: including the fields of education, health, art, science, audit and management, blockchain 3.0 is also referred to as the digital society. including concepts such as smart transportation, smart life, smart economy and smart cities is an important and future application of blockchain technology. blockchain 3.0 also includes blockchain technologies such as cybersecurity, banking and digital identity (tanrıverdi, uysal & üstündağ, 2019). 4.1. nft the rare and unique beings on earth are high-value beings. for example, the work of a well-known artist is valuable both materially and spiritually as it is sole and unique. “non-fungible token” with an abbreviation of nft means token or a value in turkish that means an original; in other words, a unique token encoded (encrypted) on the blockchain internet network. from this point of view, the uniqueness of nfts makes them valuable. the feature of non-duplication of nft and unchangeable data is gradually becoming important; artwork copying or transferring to nft is also prevented. the artworks are offered to buyers in the digital market (özrili, 2021). its popularity increased significantly during 2021; the nft market had daily sales of 183.121 usd in 2020, while it increased by approximately an average of 38 million usd in 2021. examples of nfts include the sale of the first tweet by twitter ceo jack dorsey for $2.9 million, or the sale of beeple's digital work of art for $69 million. cryptopunks and decentraland are two other examples of nfts. cryptopunks was created by larva labs in 2017 and its entire collection exceeded us$1 billion in 2021. mana, the local token of decentraland has a metaverse platform where users can buy and sell virtual (pinto-gutiérrez, gaitán, jaramillo & velasquez, 2022). 5. metaverse technology and ecosystem the content of metaverse which is thought to affect human lives to a great extent has become one of the most topics discussed recently. the word metaverse consists of the roots of meta 'beyond' and universe in ancient greek (kuş, 2021). indeed, the word metaverse was first used in the snow crash science fiction novel that was published in 1992. afterward, it has been the subject of many movies and books (demirbağ, 2020). while teleportation was once a fantasy used only in movies, perhaps it does not seem impossible in the new digital world. if metaverse is put into use as planned; it will inevitably bring important changes to human lives. metaverse includes the idea of transportation of commerce, entertainment and other activities in real-life to the three-dimensional virtual world. we will be able to interact and meet with the avatar of a friend we want at any time and place by thanking the avatars we have created in the virtual world of metaverse (kuş, 2021). on metaverse, users can buy, produce, and sell by also allowing new professions to be created by them. new job profiles such as nft designers, stylists, investment consultants, metaverse advertising and marketing consultants and meta journalists appear on the way (türk & darı, 2022). the increase in popularity of metaverse started to increase nowadays (kuş, 2021). metaverse is facing many challenges related to augmented and virtual reality technologies. both virtual and augmented reality technology can affect the emotions, thoughts and behaviors of the users. the high costs of technological equipment constitute an obstacle to mass adoption. risks such as health and safety, physical well-being, morality, psychology, and data privacy are risks related to augmented reality technology (doğan, erol & mendi, 2021). figure 1. metaverse technology and ecosystem source: (lee, braud, zhou, wang, xu, lin, kumar, bermejo & hui, 2021) 6. the importance of the avatar in the metaverse in indian culture, the word avatar is used to denote the temporary characters that gods take on as they roam the earth (kahraman, 2022). socializing in the virtual world of metaverse happens through avatars. activities such as chatting, living it up and learning are carried out through avatars (aytaç, 2022). 59 in the field of fashion and textiles, thanks to various programs, clothing patterns are prepared digitally and are tried on avatars. thanks to these programs, various styles can be created by adding the desired pattern, detail, logo, and color to the clothes. in addition, world-famous brands adidas, gucci, balenciaga and nike have taken their place in the most played video games, virtual platforms and applications around the world by following the ever-developing digital technology innovations (yılmaz & ceranoğlu, 2022). avatars, as an important part of the metaverse, are imaginary entities that represent us in the virtual world. avatars in the virtual world express their social positions thanks to the costumes they wear by attracting luxury clothing companies attract to make high sales. the younger generation believes that the virtual world is as important as the real world and that their identities in the virtual world and the real world are the same (park & kim, 2022). when creating avatars, avatar creators use visual stereotypes to create a story so that others can understand it. the suit and briefcase put on the avatar is an indication that the avatar is the "manager". virtual world users who customize their avatars also use the same principles (pena & merola, 2010). 7. metaverse applications online video conference: the covid-19 pandemic forced company meetings as face-to-face meetings to be held online. however, face-to-face communication is more important since most people can express themselves better by using their body language. apart from this, online communication may cause inefficient cooperation, delay in interaction and receiving false feedback. the situation is different in the metaverse. people can use their body language and facial expressions in face-to-face meetings with their avatars (gadekallu, yenduri & benevides da costa, 2022). digital real estate: it will be possible to build, live, rent, buy and sell properties consisting of land and buildings in the metaverse the digital world. the properties offered to the users on it can be sold through auctions by paying with digital currencies. digital arts: such developments are also seen in the art world with the rapid development of technology and the transfer of many things from real life into digital ones. although artists still use traditional methods while creating their art, some of them prefer to use digital tools, too. artists can use their creativity and imagination by creating new pieces through computer-aided digital support (sağlamtimur, 2010). artists use modeling tools such as maya and zbrush while creating digital artworks, and can create 3d works, too. this digital art catches the attraction of people. these artworks are presented in the virtual gallery placed in the digital world of metaverse to art lovers (gadekallu, yenduri & benevides da costa, 2022). 8. metaverse and facebook facebook has maintained its existence in our lives since 2004 and become one of the most important brands in the world by constantly improving itself every year. applications such as whatsapp, messenger and instagram are added to it. the reason why the name had been changed was explained and announced that the name would be meta in the connect conference video published on 28 october 2021. it was stated that the name of the facebook application will remain the same, but the name of the company including other applications will remain meta. zuckerberg informed in his statement that his priorities would now be metaverse, not facebook (kocabay-şener, 2021). 9. augmented, virtual and mixed reality augmented reality is the processing of computer-aided data with senses such as olfactory, tactile, auditory and visual, and the experience of reality with perceptions by amplification. today, augmented reality can be used more intensively in commerce, visual arts, architecture, industrial design, education, and video games. although the concept of augmented reality is thought of as computer technology, in reality, it is medicine, prostheses, applications and many similar technologies that make up the entire augmented reality universe (ipek, 2020). virtual reality is a technology that gives people the feeling of being in the real environment in their minds and enables them to interact with the objects in the environment and creates them with 3d pictures and animations in the digital setting. it is known as a system where users can emotionally perceive and control the virtual world thanks to special devices worn on the body (kayabaşı, 2005). three basic elements make up virtual reality: control, reality and naturalness. the element of control indicates that the control of the virtual system belongs to the user. the reality element, on the other hand, shows its compliance with the known chemistry and laws and rules of physics. the element of naturalness, on the other hand, shows the proportions of the objects with each other and how convincing everything is (kurbanoğlu, 1996). mixed reality, which emerged after virtual and augmented reality, is an enhanced version of augmented reality. the difference from 60 augmented reality is that virtual objects are positioned like real objects in the real environment (doğan, erol & mendi, 2021). from the first virtual reality device called "sensorama simulator", invented by morton heilig in 1962, it has developed considerably to date and the most equipped example today is the htc vive pro eye (bayrak & yengin, 2020). 10. metaverse the med novels and games the metaverse is not new to human beings. it has been discussed in many books, sciences and tv shows for many years. many popular game worlds contain the metaverse today. these games have built a virtual world within themselves and even created their virtual economy. the online game market is expected to turn into a great economic value in a short time. apart from offering online games, some game worlds also offer online concerts. snow crash: the concept of metaverse was suggested in the snow crash novel written by neal stephenson in 1992 and it achieved to reach the masses with the success of the novel. the metaverse in the novel includes a 65536 km long street that goes around a black planet. the urbanized environment around this road is imagined as the metaverse (özcan, 2021). roblox: roblox game is a game platform where players can communicate, create friendships, make a team and have fun with each other in a 3d game universe. it is an online game considered a 3d blank painting canvas where players have to complete this painting (toker, 2019). minecraft: although minecraft is a game design, it also offers the opportunity for its players to create creations beyond their imagination. the minecraft game provides its users with the opportunity to build 3-dimensional structures that are almost impossible to do in real life (minecraft dünyası, 2014). 11. conclusions the birth of the internet and its great change and development until the present day have revolutionized human lives. it made human lives function easier; formerly inconvenient jobs are now at the tips of fingers since many activities such as business, social life and education have started to be performed online. previously, all of them were performed in 2d formats on the internet, nowadays, thanks to the metaverse, they can be performed in 3d virtual settings. even the metaverses is still a new thing, more can be done on it as planned and then the new era for humans will start. the transfer of real life to digital will make human lives physically easier, but it will still be a topic of debate that may create some psychological issues by forcing its users to anti-social behavior as it suspends people from reality. with the metaverse, users will be able to have an identity in the virtual world as well as their real-world identities through the avatars created by themselves. users will be able to achieve social statuses in the virtual world that they could not imagine in the real world and will wear different clothes they dream of wearing. this technological revolution has led to some changes in the world economy. with technological developments, new professions are arising from the needs of it that will play an important role in the economy. with the covid-19 pandemic around the world, a few restrictions, as a precautionary measure, were imposed on people that stopped their face-to-face communication with each other. during this period, people moved their social life, work, and education to the internet, and as a result, the concept of metaverse started to be expressed more. after a while, with the decrease in the virus worldwide, work, education and social life returned to normal and face-to-face meetings continue to be organized. however, during this process, it was easier and more comfortable for some people to work online; therefore, their interest in metaverse has increased considerably. it is a matter of curiosity whether people will accustom themselves to such a virtual environment that offers positive and negative results. in addition to psychological issues followed by the metaverse, it is also discussed that some physical problems may occur on the way. according to kuş (2021), users may use some virtual reality head-suits to move in the metaverse virtual world, resulting in some actions that can harm themselves in the physical world. this raises the possibility that metaverse could be a physical disadvantage, too. until a few years ago, the advertising industry differed from the current one. brands used to promote their products through television and radio, now they can promote them on the internet and reach their users easily and at lower costs. since people spend most of their time online, it makes more sense to advertise and promote products online. as bilgici and şisman (2022) mentioned in their study, social media advertising will now shift from social media channels such as 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(2017). an overview of blockchain technology: architecture, consensus, and future trends, 2017 ieee 6th international congress on big data. https://doi.org/10.1109/bigdatacongress.2017.85 https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/2284050 https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/2284050 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/2122736 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/2122736 https://doi.org/10.1109/bigdatacongress.2017.85 46 dyslexia typeface: does it affect reading fluency? maja filipovska ¹* goran ajdinski 2 aleksandra karovska ristovska 3 ¹ university ss. cyril and methodius, faculty of philosophy, institute of special education and rehabilitation, m_filipovska@hotmail.com *correspondent author. 2 university ss. cyril and methodius, faculty of philosophy, institute of special education and rehabilitation, goran@fzf.ukim.edu.mk 3 university ss. cyril and methodius, faculty of philosophy, institute of special education and rehabilitation, goran@fzf.ukim.edu.mk article history: submission 18 december 2022 revision 12 february 2023 accepted 12 march 2023 available online 30 april 2023 keywords: dyslexia, dyslexia fonts, oral reading fluency, transparent orthography. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.394 a b s t r a c t there are different approaches used to reduce reading skills deficits. one such approach, which belongs to the group of visual adaptations, is to change the font used in the texts. the main research goal is to assess the level of reading success in people with dyslexia (reading difficulties) by using a specialized cyrillic font dyslexic fzf. the research was conducted on 24 persons with dyslexia from north macedonia and obtained data about oral reading fluency and reading lists of meaningful and meaningless words with the dyslexic fzf font and the font times new roman. the data of the two consecutive readings were compared. results suggest that when using the new dyslexia typeface, dyslexic fzf, participants were able to read more words per minute than with the times new roman font. a statistically significant difference in the results occurs in the errors made while reading. 1. introduction considering that 10% of the world’s population is dyslexic, text presentation has a great impact on reading ability. four decades of dyslexia research suggest that the reading difficulties originate from the alphabetical and phonological coding more than visual, semantic, or syntax deficits (vellutino et al., 2004). anyway, the usage of specially created fonts shows that in some persons with dyslexia, especially those having orthographic dyslexia, the readability of the text is increased, as well as the speed of reading. many approaches have been suggested to reduce reading skills deficits. one such approach is to change the font used in the texts. many sources cite the use of sans serif before serif fonts when reading by people with reading difficulties. however, the reasons for using sans serif fonts are not discussed (bda, 2014; rello & baeza-yates, 2013). the serif refers to the small lines that are projected at the ends of the letters, seen in fonts such as times new roman. sans serif fonts, such as arial, do not have this projection of the endings when writing letters (brenard, chaparro, mills & halcomb, 2003). the readability of a text depends on a number of features of the font in which the text is written. features are always interrelated and generally include character size, space between characters and rows, and font shape (kuster et al., 2018). research shows that larger fonts, with greater spacing and more space between the characters themselves, allow for greater readability (perea et al., 2012). when creating font size, which essentially means the height of the characters, typographers determine the lowest and highest point of the character, while adding a minimum of extra space, enough for the letters not to touch each other (legge & bigelow, 2011; spelbrink, 2012). this additional space allows the letters to be visually separated from each other. according to the stated characteristics in reading in people with dyslexia and manipulation of the basic typographic parameters, there is a possibility to create fonts that will be adapted to the needs of these people. several fonts of this kind have already been created (sylexiad, dyslexie, read regular, and open dyslexic), which basically contain a greater differentiation of the characters than the existing ones. mailto:m_filipovska@hotmail.com mailto:goran@fzf.ukim.edu.mk mailto:goran@fzf.ukim.edu.mk https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.394 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2697-5768 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0527-7677 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8570-8969 47 all the aforementioned fonts for people with dyslexia are made in latin script, which means that in countries that use the cyrillic alphabet, including the republic of north macedonia, existing fonts cannot be used. realizing this fact, the first cyrillic font for people with dyslexia was recently developed by members of the faculty of philosophy in skopje. the font, called dyslexic fzf, based on the latin open dyslexic font, contains the main features that most fonts for people with dyslexia have. it is a sans serif font in which all the letters of the macedonian alphabet, and numerical and punctuation marks are specifically made. the main features of the font are the weighted bottoms of each character, the increased character dimension, and the increased spacing (both between characters and lines). since there is a pronounced ratio between thicker and thinner parts, the font has greater contrast. dyslexic fzf is characterized by certain slopes of the vertical and horizontal baselines of the letters, as well as enlarged openings of the alphabetic signs, such as e, c, and a. it also makes a distinction between alphabetical and numerical characters, with numbers having a larger dimension for easier text separation (karovska ristovska & filipovska, 2018). 2. material and method the main research goal is to assess the level of reading success in people with dyslexia (reading difficulties) by using a specialized cyrillic font dyslexic fzf. the need to conduct such research stems from previous data found in the literature that are contradictory (de leeuw, 2010; wery & diliberto, 2017). however, it should be noted that previous research on the effectiveness of fonts for people with dyslexia has been done exclusively for latin fonts and the functionality of cyrillic fonts has not been investigated. on the other hand, there are differences in the orthography of languages that can also affect the efficiency of a font, and the specific orthography that a child is acquiring has been identified as a central environmental factor influencing reading acquisition and dyslexia (borleffs et al., 2017). research has suggested for transparent orthographies, as the case in the macedonian language, with highly regular grapheme-phoneme correspondences be more easily acquired than complex and opaque orthographies with a high proportion of irregular and inconsistent spellings (aro & wimmer, 2003; seymour, aro, & erskine, 2003). therefore, the results regarding the functionality of dyslexia fonts may be different in countries that use different languages. this research is formulated as research with an applied character that has an evaluation nature. in order to be determined the effectiveness of the dyslexic fzf font, the comparison in reading was made with the widespread used standard serif font times new roman. the basic (null) hypothesis was formulated as the following: • h0 – there are no differences in reading with the times new roman and dyslexic fzf fonts in people with dyslexia. additionally, three supporting hypotheses were set as well: • h1 – the number of reading mistakes made with both fonts will be insignificantly different. • h2 – people with dyslexia can read correctly a larger percent of meaningless and meaningful words when reading with the dyslexic fzf font; • h3 – there is no impact difference of dyslexic fzf font in younger and older participants. the success of reading in people with dyslexia (reading difficulties) with the cyrillic font dyslexic fzf was examined with 2 tests: • oral reading fluency (orf) • test for reading sequences of meaningless words and meaningful words. the research was conducted with each respondent individually. for the orf test, each respondent received two different printed texts, the first one typed in times new roman font and the second in dyslexic fzf. the texts assessed fluency in reading with both fonts. we assessed the fluency by calculating the number of words read correctly in one minute and at the same time measuring the accuracy and reading rate. this assessment was conducted with a text that had a minimum of 200 words and that was at the level of the student's instruction or appropriate for the age of the respondent. for the accuracy part, we noted the errors made during reading. finally, respondents were asked to read two lists of meaningless words (25 words in times new roman font and 25 in dyslexic fzf) and two 25 meaningful word lists in both fonts. such a task was necessary having in mind that the reading process involves decoding visual information to access a series of speech sounds, and word meanings and dyslexic readers have problems with this visual expertise that allows fast identification, recognition, and categorization of letters (fraga gonzalez et al., 2014). being presented with single meaningful words without context, as well as words without meaning at all, can provide information about the ability to correctly recognize and pronounce words with the dyslexic fzf typeface i.e. does the ability change or stays the same when the new typeface is used. 48 the sample included 24 people with dyslexia at different ages (from 8 to 41 years). ten people were female, while 14 respondents were male. the sample was adjusted, i.e., respondents who were tested applied for the study on their own. the consent of all respondents was obtained, while for respondents under the age of 18, consent was obtained from their parents. due to the fact that there is only one sample group that is tested twice for each task, a paired t-test was used to test the hypothesis. 3. results after the conducted testing of the group for oral reading fluency, results presented in table 1, show that the persons with dyslexia were able to read more words in one minute with the dyslexic fzf font (n= 980). the number of correctly read words with times new roman font was 934. the mean difference between the two consecutive readings is just 2.5. it is evident that the difference between the fonts, in this case, is not large and that is why the paired t-test did not confirm that this difference in the results is statistically significant (p = 0.198). table 1. oral reading fluency test – number of words read correctly. font n m p-value times new roman 934 51.89 p = 0.165 dyslexic fzf 980 54.44 besides the words read correctly, during the 1-minute orf test, the mistakes made while reading was also taken into account. while reading the text with times new roman font, examinees made 58 mistakes. unlike that, reading the text typed in dyslexic fzf, examinees made 30 reading errors (see table 2). because of the almost double difference in the results in this section, the paired t-test showed a statistically significant difference (p = 0.001). besides words that were read incorrectly, this also means that examinees reduced the incidence of skipped, completely unread, or substitute words. table 2. oral reading fluency test – number of words read incorrectly. font n m p-value times new roman 58 3.22 p = 0.001 dyslexic fzf 30 1.67 regarding the second testing task, reading lists of meaningless and meaningful words, the results suggest that in both cases examinees were able to read more correct words with the font dyslexic fzf. the conducted paired t-test also confirmed that this difference in the results is statistically significant (table no.3). with the times new roman font respondents read 75% of all words on the meaningless word list correctly, unlike the 83% with the dyslexic fzf. table 3. number of meaningless and meaningful words read correctly. font meaningless words meaningful words n m n m times new roman 338 18.78 372 20.67 dyslexic fzf 372 20.67 406 22.55 p-value p = 0.007 p = 0.009 the number of errors made while reading the list of words is also significant. according to data in table 4, respondents made fewer mistakes with the dyslexic fzf font in reading meaningful and meaningless words. only 17% of the meaningless 25 words were read incorrectly. table 4. number of meaningless and meaningful words read incorrectly. font meaningless words meaningful words n m n m times new roman 122 6.78 78 4.33 dyslexic fzf 76 4.21 44 2.44 p-value p < 0.001 p = 0.009 the most common types of errors made by respondents with dyslexia when reading the list of words and the two texts were substitution (replacing the whole word with another word with a different meaning); omission (omitting letters from the word); addition (adding letters in the initial, medial or final position of the word); repetition (most often repetition of the first syllables of the word); self-correction. in order to see if the font impacts reading fluency differently in younger children and adults, we divided and analyzed the gained results into two groups: participants under the age of 15 and participants over 15 years of age. results suggest (table 5) that the font dyslexic fzf has a greater impact in two areas of the participants aged 15 and above. statistically significant differences in this group were found in the number of errors made 49 with the font dyslexic fzf and the meaningless words read correctly. table 5. age differences group p value orf words read correctly orf words read incorrectly meaningful words read correctly meaningless words read correctly over 15 0.26 0.04 0.26 0.02 under 15 0.38 0.04 0.12 0.89 for the research group aged under 15, results indicate that the difference for the fewer errors made with the dyslexic fzf font is statistically significant. a statistically significant difference for this group is found only in this one area. 4. discussion the main aim of this research was to assess the level of reading success in people with dyslexia (reading difficulties) through the use of a specialized cyrillic font dyslexic fzf. that is why we tested the oral reading fluency in dyslexic readers with two different fonts – times new roman and dyslexic fzf. the above results show us that dyslexic fzf font does improve reading fluency in persons with dyslexia. even though there is no significant difference in the number of words read correctly, fluency is increased by the decrease of mistakes during reading where significant difference does occur. the main ability of fluent readers is that they can read text with accuracy, speed, and proper expression (national institute of child health and human development, 2000). as wolf and katzir-cohen (2001) explain, reading fluency represents the ability to read accurately and at a rate that enables comprehension; and is a foundation of skilled reading (christodoulou et al., 2014). and because fluency is intertwined with reading comprehension (kim & wagner, 2015), readers who make fewer mistakes while reading can understand the text better (álvarez-cañizo, suárez-coalla & cuetos, 2015). due to this fact, the null hypothesis has been rejected because there is a difference in the fluency when reading with the two different fonts, i.e., the reading fluency is increased for dyslexic readers when reading with the dyslexic fzf font. fewer mistakes when reading mean that respondents were able to read more accurately, and accuracy is the essential foundation of reading fluency. to be considered a fluent reader, reading must be accurate, first and foremost (international literacy association, 2018). that dyslexic fzf font improves accuracy is evident by the further research results of reading lists of meaningful and meaningless words. since the paired t-test showed that the number of both meaningless and meaningful words read correctly is significantly increased when reading with the dyslexic fzf font, we can confirm the second sub-hypothesis. when considering the results of reading errors and connecting them with the first sub-hypothesis, it is evident that this hypothesis should be rejected. all respondents made fewer reading mistakes when using the dyslexic fzf font and this proved to be statistically significant. regarding the age differences in the impact of the dyslexic fzf font, the results from this research show a greater impact on reading in the group of participants that are 15 years of age or above. these results might not be as surprising having in mind that younger and older dyslexics differ in their abilities connected to the process of reading. while the younger ones still struggle to gain the necessary reading skills, older dyslexic readers have been exposed to print for many years and can rely on their orthographic processing more successfully (miller-shaul, 2005). experience is one way to explain why adults have a slightly greater benefit than younger participants using the font dyslexic fzf. one older study that can be related to these findings is the study of bruck (1990) which states that adult dyslexic readers are more sensitive to orthographic patterns, and that is why their abilities for word recognition are getting close to those of regular readers. according to the findings, the third sub-hypothesis is rejected as well. there is a difference between the groups regarding age. most of the studies that have been already made and whose main objective is to assess the effectiveness of dyslexia-oriented fonts suggest that there are no significant differences in reading with these kinds of typefaces and others used on regular basis. one such research is the research of rello and baeza-yates (2013) who compared the reading performance of participants with dyslexia while using two fonts that were created for people with dyslexia and ten other fonts. they concluded that reading text in open dyslexic or in open dyslexic italic did not lead to a decrease in reading time compared to the other ten fonts. kuster et al. (2018) confirm similar results for the dyslexie font. the research results show that children with dyslexia did not read text written in dyslexie font faster or more accurately than in arial font. one of the possible reasons why the results differ from the previously mentioned research results is their orientation towards speed and not fluency. 50 one research like the one we conducted, is the research of ramsey (2014). ramsey's research examined the fluency of reading with dyslexie-dys and times new roman font (tnr) in two groups of respondents (readers with reading difficulties and those without reading difficulties). it was concluded that 25% of the respondents had higher scores on fluency when reading the dys font compared to the tnr font reading. this suggests that some people may react differently to different fonts, and although there is no evidence that one font is better than another for all people with reading difficulties, it is possible that certain fonts are better for specific subgroups of people with reading difficulties (for example, people with magnocellular deficits, people with comorbidity adhd and others). bachmann and mengheri (2018) in their study of the use of the easyreading font as a compensatory tool for dyslexia readers have proven the effectiveness of this font. they compared two groups of respondents (with or without reading difficulties a total of 533 fourth graders) and found that the font was effective in both groups of respondents, especially in terms of fluency and accuracy. interesting results were obtained in pijpker’s (2013) master study concerning the effect of the dyslexie font on reading performance in dyslexic and non-dyslexic children. again, reading in dyslexie font did not lead to a decrease in reading time or reading errors compared to reading in arial in none of the groups. but when they divided the dyslexic readers into a group that read relatively well and one that read relatively poorly, they found an effect of the font in the poor dyslexic readers group, that is, they made fewer errors when reading the dyslexie font than when reading in arial. the results of the poor dyslexic readers’ subgroup correspond to the ones we obtained, considering there was only one group of dyslexic readers. however, the dilemma remains, as with all research on the effectiveness of these fonts, whether the success is due to a specific feature of the font or the simultaneous presence of multiple elements (line spacing, letter spacing, and serial disconnection). a good point to this dilemma is the research of marinus et al. (2016) which examined the dyslexie font and arial in low-performing readers. the results showed that with dyslexie, examinees were able to read 7% more words per minute but only in a condition where they had not controlled for spacing. after the fonts were matched for within-word and between-word spacing the effect disappeared. researchers concluded that the effect is due to the greater distance between the letters that characterize the font. another point that might need to be considered when trying to understand the results of this research is the transparency of the macedonian language. the orthographic depth of languages should be another perspective to analyze the effectiveness of dyslexia-oriented typefaces. most of the studies which examine dyslexia fonts use samples of persons using language with oblique transparency. considering the results, we gained in this research; they are in line with the research of bachmann and mengheri (2018) that was already mentioned. besides the thing that their results also confirm an increase in fluency and accuracy, the children included in the research were italians. knowing that the italian language, as well as macedonian, belongs to the group of languages with transparent (shallow) orthography, it might be the case that dyslexia fonts have a greater impact on reading in this group of languages. for this to be confirmed, more research needs to be conducted and data from shallow orthography languages to be obtained. the last thing about the specificity of this research and the results, besides orthography, is the cyrillic alphabet of the language. there is no data to make a comparison of the results of this study with the results of other research made on samples using cyrillic alphabets. having such data would be of great significance in understanding the nature of the results and effectiveness of the font dyslexic fzf and other dyslexia-oriented fonts. 5. conclusions the cyrillic font dyslexic fzf seems to affect oral reading fluency in dyslexic readers by decreasing the number of reading mistakes. anyway, it is not completely clear whether this effect comes from the font itself or some of its features (increased space between characters and lines). even if the reason is the second one, and the space feature between characters and lines can be managed easily in any word typing processor, it is useful to have one complete font where such typographical characteristics are already included. the legibility of a text depends on several features and the use of a computer font only cannot facilitate the reading experience in persons with dyslexia dramatically. but together with other new technology and strategies, can make a slight difference. in the end, the preference of a font is individual, and one cannot fit all. moreover, not all participants in this research showed better results with the new dyslexic fzf font. also, there are different types of dyslexia and not all types could benefit from visual support such as fonts. the greatest impact of dyslexia-oriented fonts would be in orthographic dyslexia. that is why when analyzing research results regarding this issue, the orthography depth of the language, as well as the different kinds of dyslexia, have to be considered. 51 references 1. álvarez-cañizo m, suárez-coalla p and cuetos f (2015) the role of reading fluency in children’s text comprehension. front. psychol, 6, 1810. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01810 2. aro m, wimmer h. 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(2001). reading fluency and its intervention. scientific studies of reading, 5(3), 211–239. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0503_2 https://search-proquest.com.mutex.gmu.edu/docview/1640913346?accountid=14541 https://search-proquest.com.mutex.gmu.edu/docview/1640913346?accountid=14541 https://search-proquest.com.mutex.gmu.edu/docview/1640913346?accountid=14541 https://doi.org/10.1145/2513383.2513447 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00305.x https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-016-0127-1 https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0503_2 77 the online media landscape in the focus of disinformation campaigns in the western balkans: albania, kosova, and north macedonia ma. edlira palloshi disha ¹* assoc. prof. demush bajrami ² assoc. prof. agron rustemi ³ ¹ south east european university, faculty of contemporary social sciences, e.palloshi@seeu.edu.mk *correspondent author. 2 south east european university, faculty of languages, cultures and communication, d.bajrami@seeu.edu.mk 3 south east european university, faculty of contemporary social sciences, a.rustemi@seeu.edu.mk article history: submission 13 september 2021 revision 19 october 2021 accepted 25 november 2021 available online 31 december 2021 keywords: media, political manipulation, democracy, disinformation, western balkans. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.268 a b s t r a c t in the conditions of a technological transformation of the media, professional credibility and reliability in information are fading due to the manipulative role that the media have taken. this paper, among other things, highlights exactly the editorial lines of the media, which do not build them on principles based on professional cause, but rather on the causes of political-media oligarchies. the fake news industry in the world is currently the most profitable product, and this is the most serious threat to democracies, which cannot be properly consolidated without a regulation in the dense "traffic" of online communication. in this industry russia leads with its sputnik, which has created a widespread establishment in the media space of central and eastern europe. preventing of this media "pandemic" is extremely complicated and costly, because this type of information is camouflaged in various forms and the public needs a proper media education to identify and differentiate fake news from true ones. therefore, it is very necessary to create a national strategy of each state, to prevent the spread of this media "pandemic", while the most effective "virus" is the professionalization of the media and its detachment from the influence of political oligarchies. false news is creating its bedrock of influence and this is especially evident in the division of society as a result of political tensions and inter-ethnic discontent. moreover, this paper shows that in such a divided society, the disinformation that circulates incessantly in the public space, sows fear. if a disinformation protection strategy were to be developed, then public confidence would not be in crisis, as it is currently in the western balkans, and the media would return to its primary role: independent and objective information. 1. introduction media environment has changed a lot in the recent years. clickbait and sensationalists content has replaced the professional journalism, chasing for more views and clicks, and is rightly defined as ‘attention economy’ by marwick and lewis (2017). social media has increasingly been a powerful tool for political engagement and expression. political actors have used the benefits of digital media to shape public opinion, control the flow of information online, and initiate particular political activity through political campaigns. political actors have always used rumors and other false information tools, but modern technologies allow them to produce and disseminate disinformation faster and with higher effects. the speed, reach, and low cost of online communication are increasing the consequences of disinformation. the new way of receiving news, reacting or sharing it, has made the media landscape difficult fact-checking sphere. each of the interpreters can be the agent who distributes or recreates, reshapes, or re-contextualizes the news for their network out of the gatekeeping mechanism (derakhshan & wardle, 2017). the https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:e.palloshi@seeu.edu.mk mailto:d.bajrami@seeu.edu.mk mailto:a.rustemi@seeu.edu.mk https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.268 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2097-0349 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4742-4447 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1756-1480 78 consumer habits towards seeking online information has changed also. thus, the effect of disinformation wouldn’t be possible and wouldn’t reach so much attention without the consumers’, namely the audience’s consent and activity. in this sense, the effects of disinformation are strongly linked to the news consumption habit and confirmation bias, as prescribed by wooley and joseff (2020), who argue that the most relevant theories for examining the influence of disinformation are tied to the psychology of information consumption and opinion formation: cognitive bias, such as attitude polarization, confirmation bias, and illusory correlation (woolley & joseff, 2020). the impact of disinformation on democracy, human rights, and the rule of law are the subjects that are constantly studied with particular attention by respective field experts and researchers. disinformation has been used interchangeably with misinformation in some cases. distinguishing these two terms is the bottom ground to analyze the intent of the messenger. derakhshan and wardle (2017) explore the phenomenon of ‘fake news’ within an information disorder framework while identifying three types of disorders: dis-information (information that is false and deliberately created to harm a person, social group, organization or country), miss-information (information that is false, but not created with the intention of causing harm), and mal-information (information that is based on reality, used to inflict harm on a person, organization or country). these three types of information disorders differ from each other in the context of the intended harm. woolley and joseff (2020) define the phenomenon of disinformation as a deliberate use of irrational arguments to undermine a political ideal, ignite social division, or cause political cynicism. having this in mind, we can’t say that any of the countries are resilient to disinformation campaigns, as to some extent, the disinformation is the cause of the psychology of human nature. but some of the countries are more vulnerable than others. why does this happen, and what are the factors leading them to a battleground for arising disinformation campaigns that affect the formation of public opinion?! favourable environment for rising and developing disinformation campaigns as an ultimate threat to the democratic values of that society are countries of post –war conflict, countries of most prominent polarized societies, countries with heritage of ethnic and religious divisions and differences, unregulated or fragile media systems, public low trust in media institutions so as high percentage of online and social media users. humprecht et al. (2020) created a framework of societies who are more resilient to disinformation through measurable indicators for cross-national comparative analysis of the country factors, regrouping them in three main domains: factors of the political environment limiting resilience factors of the media environment limiting resilience factors of the economic environment limiting resilience country clusters were grouped based on their systems such as northern and western european countries with democraticcorporatist media systems and liberal media systems; southern european countries with polarized-pluralist media systems and united states as an exception because of its large advertising market. the cluster of southern european countries is more vulnerable to online disinformation because of high levels of polarization, populist communication, social media use and low level of trust and shared media consumption, so as united states because of low trust, politicized, and fragmented environment (humprecht, esser, & van aelst, 2020). in this regard, south east european countries as post-conflict and post-communist states striving to democratize and join eu, inheriting an interethnic and religious divisions as well as highly polarized and politicized societies with low media and government trust and low level of professional journalism; makes them more vulnerable to disinformation whether by domestic or foreign actors exploiting the unregulated online media system in the region. if such a case, disinformation is more a symptom of a fragile society of social and political division and disorder, rather than a cause as greene et, al. (2021) report assumes for western balkan countries. disinformation than, is an amplifier of an already divided society which initiates political tensions and interethnic resentment, decrease public trust in institutions and media, which in return creates collective quiescence. according to balkan barometer statistics for 2017 until 2020, trust in government doesn’t exceed 50 percent of the population in each of the western balkan countries, which leads to low voter turnout numbers also in each country (greene, asmolov, fagan, fridman, & gjuzelov, 2021). media has an existential role of being watchdog of democracy in one country by its critical attitude to the government and to the negative habits of the society, hence by being the monitor-er of checks and balances of the system, which prevents any government to exercise its power unanimously. when a journalist fails to present the facts to the public for political, economic, or other reasons, or even more presents no fact-based analysis – bias or hides information, misleads the audience and distorts public opinion. by objective, verified and impartial information, media can direct society’s effort to be as democratic as possible. as voltmer (2013) highlights, the prerequisite of the citizens to be able to make intelligent choices for their future is to receive highquality information for the candidates and political parties. 79 ‘the failure of the media to provide the kind of information that fosters informed popular participation poses a serious risk to the viability of democracy’. limited diversity of the media and media dependence reduce voters' ability to become fully informed and increases the possibility that bad politicians will be voted out (voltmer, 2013). based on recent analysis, the situation of freedom of media in western balkan isn’t as likely as it should be, referring to pressures on journalists, obscure media ownership, general politicization of the media and government control over media content (jankulovska, 2020). western balkan countries during their transition to democratization did unify their regulations and laws according to the european standards for media freedom, media pluralism and freedom of speech as prerequisites to accession to eu (biepag, 2017), but they are yet struggling to implement and react on denunciation for violation of these rights and especially this becomes even harder with the transformation to information production and consummation in the online sphere. online disinformation is often the case in western balkan countries, as such manipulative and destructive for shaping public opinion, especially during political activities such as election campaigns. the coronavirus pandemic caused political communication during the election campaigns to shift and take place mostly in the online sphere. when the audience is uncertain of which political decision to take and automatically demanding more information to ease their decision, an online sphere is fraught with fake news, fabricated information, a package of disinformation campaigns that serves to a political or business agenda of a group of interest. online disinformation is a widespread phenomenon that attacks even the best democratic societies. but, societies with fragile democracies or countries in transition, are affected mostly. countries like kosova, albania and north macedonia are also the target of disinformation campaigns during elections, coming from internal and external actors. from the analysis of the two years’ last elections taking place in the western balkan countries, greene et, al. (2021), came to conclusion that not only disinformation campaigns that share untruths or inaccurate information about candidates are the most prominent factors which undermines the integrity of the democratic process of elections, but there are also internal and external factors who equally contribute to the overall compromised process: low levels of participation; a proliferation of new parties; aspects of electoral systems that are more likely to weaken the integrity of the process (for example ‘closed list’ systems in which voters have no opportunity to select candidates); and external support for particular parties (including financial support and overt political endorsements). thus, the interruption of the democratic process in all the sectors in these countries is more domestic in nature then foreign green et, al. (2021), considering here disinformation campaigns infiltrated from abroad also. in this regard, world press freedom index in one country reflects the state in which media operates in that country in the context of media pluralism, media independence, media environment and self-censorship, legislative environment, transparency, infrastructures and abuses. this year, world press freedom index 2021 has ranked north macedonia in the 90th place among 180 other countries ranked by this organization. albania and kosova are not far from this place. albania has been ranked in the 83rd place from the world press freedom index and kosova in the 78th place. 2. kosova kosova has the worst performance for media freedom and transparency in the region, falling in the 78thplace world press freedom index ranking for eight levels comparing to the 2020 year in which kosova was ranked in 70th place. reporters without borders see the media environment in kosova to increased instability due to the coronavirus crisis, assuming journalists and media are exposed to a hostile environment with physical and verbal attacks, cyber-attacks, pressure for selfcensure, and lack of transparency for media ownership. due to the coronavirus crisis, which led to a financial crisis, some newspapers had to stop their print production (reporters without borders, 2021). during 2020 year, the number of 24 journalists who have been target of verbal and physical attacks is increased compared to 2019, according to freedom house (2021) report for kosova, where the system of the country has been rated as transitional or hybrid regime. in addition, cases of party officials using intimidation language and incite physical violence through social media are existent (freedom house, 2021). kosova is an exception from other western balkan countries regarding the origin of disinformation. as a country with a contested status and commitment to international recognition carries a great risk of foreign disinformation campaigns with a geopolitical interest which does not intend to interfere in domestic politics or daily politics, but with a broader sense of the very existence of the state of kosova. these long lasting disinformation campaigns has an intend to delegitimize the state 80 of kosova, to weaken relations with europe and to destabilise its governance. as green et. al (2021) underline three narratives contributing to this context: allegations that kosova is a mafia state, operating under the protection of kosova force (kfor) and thus with the implicit support of western powers; invention and/or exaggeration of threats to the safety and property of ethnic serbs and other minorities living in kosova; insinuations that kosova is incapable of sustainable self-governance without support from serbia (greene, asmolov, fagan, fridman, & gjuzelov, 2021). during kosova parliamentary elections, 14 february, 2021, the national democratic institute (ndi) monitored election campaign in online news portals and social media from january 24 to february 13, 2021. ndi examined a sample of 3693 news articles, 1289 facebook posts and 500 tweets relevant to the monitoring scope, from which 214 news articles and social media posts in albanian language and 50 in serbian language contained inappropriate information or inflammatory language. (national democratic institute, 2021). this report reveals that during election campaign, online portals and social media accounts contributed to divisive language, by creating and producing direct attacks and de-contextualizing politicians’ statements. memes and fabricated stories with photos and videos were distributed in a high scale. moreover, sexism was present to portals and social media, using inflammatory language to attack female candidates about personal life, physical appearance, etc., which ndi report identifies it, as misogyny. bot activities and russia supported media in serbia created false and fabricated narratives about main politicians in kosova, which passed unnoticed or unidentified by the kosovar media as manipulative information brought outside of the border. among other intentional manipulative stories or news, the one that reached the high number of people in facebook, was a story that has been created in kosova parliamentary elections of october 6th 2020 and reactivated and brought again, the false accusations to discredit a female candidate for president, vjosa osmani. the post has reached 57,638 people in facebook for 2021 parliamentary election campaign, as ndi (2021) reports. a public broadcaster (rtk) published an article in their website claiming that russian influence in elections is done through a mutual friend of vjosa osmani and her husband, dana rohrabacher – pro russian congressmen in serbian parliament. the article is still featuring on the rtk website. it is important to mention that the access to internet in kosova is the highest percent in the region with almost 95 percent of the population of which nearly 52 percent use social media daily (datareportal, 2021). 3. albania albania has improved to +1 place comparing the ranking from the 2020 year. again reporters without borders assume that albania has the threat from defamation law, which has pending status in the albanian parliament and which increases the threat to censorship to journalists and media. the defamation law was criticized by media, civil organizations, journalists’ associations, international press freedom groups, european commission, and venice commission for its generalized nature which makes it possible to be used as a weapon against journalists and media who are critical to the government. despite other controversies, the law allows the audio visual regulatory body (ama) to impose sanctions on news websites which would in return incite selfcensorship (reporters without borders, 2021). the online media landscape in albania is characterized with physical and verbal attacks also and the authorities fail to punish the actors. some journalists were arrested during demonstrations, and some media ownerscritical to the government, were accused of organized crime, and drug trafficking. during the pandemic crisis, the government warned the citizens to be “beware of the media” and used as a pretext to sue 5 journalists and media outlets who ‘spread panic’ to the citizens (vurmo, 2021). according to the union of albanian journalists: ‘over 40 percent of reporters had salary cuts and 47 journalists lost their jobs’ (gërguri, 2020) during coronavirus pandemic crisis. the government has a hostile approach to the journalist and media who criticize the government. thus, ‘acromax media’, a german company invoking copyrights infringements, deleted videos that reveal or criticize government actions during election period of the 2020 year. the case was judged by the independent media and journalists as the government’s attempts to restrict the freedom of the press and freedom of speech. the company has allegations that is working with the government (laufer, 2020). nevertheless, albanian media achieved to create a platform for ethical self-regulation, which is an act to be greeted (reporters without borders, 2021). freedom of house (2021) report for albania has categorized the country as transitional with a hybrid regime system considering also the independent media rating which has decreased (from 3.75 to 3.50) comparing 2020 year. disinformation campaigns in albania are more domestic in nature and have political and financial intend rather than geostrategic intend. a strong pro-eu and pro-nato consensus among the albanian population limits the external actors to undermine its relations. according to green et. al (2021) sensationalist reporting to boost – traffic without verifying the information is in the form of commercially oriented disinformation, and the other is produced for political purposes, 81 where the actors are often high political or institutional representatives who disseminate false information to the public through their social media profiles. the facebook analysis of this report reveals that also high-quality media (such as top channel, etc.) in the country are among those who produce and distribute disinformation (greene, asmolov, fagan, fridman, & gjuzelov, 2021). in the campaign of 25th april parliamentary elections in albania, the scandal of the voter database, revealed 90000 citizens’ personal information, contact details and vote preferences which were monitored by ‘patronazhistët’, of the socialist party. the ‘patronage’ are employers in the central and local public administration, so as employees in the institutions that doesn’t allow by law the political activity of the employees, such as republican guard, the armed forces and the state police. the portal lapsi.al who revealed the existence of such a database in the hand of the socialist party, received a demand from spak (special prosecution and special investigation unit for prosecution and investigation of corruption, organized crime and criminal matters) to seizure their offices, equipment and telephones, that was later dismissed by the strasbourg human rights court invoking the european law which gives journalists the right not to reveal the source of information (passarelli, peytier, kostelac, & nizharadze, 2021). in albania, the social media landscape is unregulated in the electoral legislation which creates a battleground for a political campaign to be performed by unknown financial sources. as birn (2021) reveals during the 2021 election campaign in albania, in a facebook page of the untold stories of albania that ran a deep fake for the opposition leader of the democratic party, lulzim basha, the source of finance was unknown and impossible to be revealed. the deep-fake with 203,844 views, on a page with only 1883 followers had spent approximately 300 dollars for the ad. similar to this deep-fake, the page has run 2018 political ads from december to april 24th with millions of viewers financed by ‘dark money’ from an unknown origin (likmeta, 2021). in general, reporting diversity network 2.0, identified the 2021 election campaign as tough among political figures with incidents of hate speech including derogatory, inflammatory, offensive and sexist language. even though the media was attentive to these narratives, they were amplifiers of reporting what has been said several times instead of reporting cautiously by reflecting critically on the hate speech narratives (hysa, 2021). it is important to mention that there are 2.00 million internet users in albania from which 55.6 percent use social media daily (datareportal, 2021). 4. north macedonia north macedonia has improved for +2 places in comparison to the ranking of 2020 world press freedom index. nevertheless, north macedonia has been criticized for its impunity culture continually. threats and insults to media and journalists, such as verbal and cyber harassment continue to pass unpunished. the legal framework for realization of media freedom exists, but that often depends on political will and selectivity in case resolving. the number of attacks to journalists was raised to 12, comparing to registered 4 attacks in 2019. the country is making some attempts to improve the safety of journalists and media workers by drafting a new penal code by the ministry of justice (reporters without borders, 2021). the proposed changes to the law include: same charges for assaulting a journalist or media as assaulting a police officer; decreased charges of defamation for journalists and media outlets and editors; so as introduction of the criminal offence of stalking which includes charges or jail sentences for stalkers who physically and also virtually threaten their victims (marusic, 2021). the media landscape in north macedonia has changed a lot since the 2017 years where the media were in total control and served to the party’s disinformation and propaganda campaigns. the change of political structures in government after the 2017, promised a new pluralist and democratic society. but yet, media landscape is captured by political powers and corruptions. balkan barometer survey (2020) on public opinion has reported 50 percent of the respondents see the media as politically dependent and 70 percent see the media as affected by corruption (balkan barometer, 2020). during the coronavirus pandemic, the government added a financial package to help the journalists overcome the crisis, the action which was not welcomed by the independent media and journalist invoking government control over the freedom of media. in 2019 and 2020 the government enabled a state funding for covering political ads, from which only three biggest political parties benefited. media professionals criticized the changes for possible violation to editorial independence by favoring specific media outlets (bliznakovski, 2021). freedom house (2021) characterizes the state as transitional or with hybrid system but the overall democratic score has improved considering its liberal-democratic principles and commitment to euro-atlantic integration. north macedonia is characterized by its conditional identity with geopolitical interests by its neighboring countries such as greece for contesting the name and bulgaria for contesting its history. the identity of north macedonia has been many times contested and thus its’ eu integration process and nato membership commitment has been harder than was thought. until 2017, the ruling party (vmro-dpmne) has directed a country into a 82 nationalistic and anti – western spirit, which led the country 11 years away from the democratic processes. after 2017, some progress was made, the name changed, north macedonia access to nato (2020) and the pro-european spirit returned. nevertheless, the government attempt to approach eu integration and nato membership was not unanimously supported by citizens, the ideology of nationalistic party is still present. but, these are marginalized ideas that emerge only in certain cases, such as elections. the political battle among the ruling party and the opposition (vmro-dpmp) now is going through the narratives of the protection of the identity of macedonians and the state, and processes that brings closer to eu integration (such as the prespa agreement and resolving contest with bulgaria). north macedonia is also a state with inherited interethnic divisions which led to war in 2001 and ended with the ohrid framework agreement signed in the same year, the respecting and implementing of which is one of the conditions to eu integrations. in regard to these political complexities, disinformation in north macedonia engages and develops around these narratives. considering greene et, al. (2020), recent years’ disinformation campaigns include: • narratives of macedonian identity threats through the referendum for changing the name; • disinformation campaigns mixing anti-bulgarian, anti-greek and anti-albanian sentiment with fears that macedonian youth would become ‘cannon fodder’ for nato wars, and allegations that nato would force the development of 5g technology with harmful effects for health and public safety; • fears of ‘greater albania’ actualized in a flow of events, such as an appointment of talat xhaferi, an ethnic albanian, as parliamentary speaker in early 2017 and the adoption of legislation that enables the use of albanian language as an official language; • ‘weaponization’ of covid-19 for inciting ethnic tensions in north macedonia (such as the case of the fake-news that greece prohibits entering the country municipalities of north macedonia that have most cases of covid-19, alluding to albanianmajority municipalities) geopolitical contests out of the border are often the cause of incitements for confusing and for deception of the local citizens in north macedonia. respectively, the intention to create interethnic tensions, undermine north macedonia processes with neighboring countries, such as greece and bulgaria, defocused north macedonian’s eu integration perspective, and influence electoral processes such as referendum for the name in 2018, parliamentary elections 2020, and possibly population census in 2021. investigative journalists and fact-checker agencies in north macedonia have discovered a large network of disinformation campaigns coming from hungary and slovenia companies, which are linked and financed by the president of hungary victor orban, a friend of ex-premier of north macedonia, nikola gruevski, who under unclear circumstances won asylum in hungary by bypassing giving accountability in front of the legislative institutions and citizens. the disinformation campaigns of this kind include online media outlets who are right wing and media that supported and propagated for gruevski's system (meta.mk, 2019). a recent study of ngo, civilmedia (2020) for media reporting during the north macedonian parliamentary election campaign held on 15th july 2020, daily followed the posts on the media and social networks that generated attention and a large number of reactions, which contained elements of disinformation, inflammatory language, insults to campaign participants and other actors. over 80 cases of orchestrated content sharing containing defamation, disinformation, insults or hate speech, often in combination were revealed in this report. ‘this means that, on each day of the 21-day campaign, there were on average at least 4 attempts to organize and orchestrate the public debate, by publishing and disseminating hate speech or aimed at discrediting certain candidates, or individuals who at all did not participate in the election contest.’ of these over 80 cases of observed orchestrated action to disseminate certain tendentious, violent or untrue content or communication, 14 are related to orchestrated sharing of misinformation. in 28 cases, an orchestrated content sharing incited hate speech, calls for murder or violence against campaigning politicians. in 21 of the cases, the victims of verbal violence are journalists, activists, intellectuals or other entities and organizations, and even citizens who are not public figures, nor participate in the election process, but were the target of attacks due to expressed views and opinions. in 12 cases, the civil monitoring team noticed incited discrimination, mockery or hate speech on ethnic and religious grounds, and racism and xenophobia. in 6 cases, the orchestrated content sharing contained elements of discrimination or hate speech based on gender/ sexuality (saraqini, 2020). there are 1.71 million internet users in north macedonia, from which 57.6% of the total population are social media users (datareportal, 2021). 5. conclusions as countries emerging from communist systems strive for democratization and eu accession through an attempt to unify legislation under the eu conditions and at the same time improve respecting the human rights declaration, they share some similar 83 characteristics. envisaging as weaknesses and strengths, these are the characteristics that we could consider towards prosperity and improvement of the current situation. some of the similar characteristics of the three countries that make them more vulnerable to disinformation campaigns, whether from internal or external influences, are: low level of trust in the media and institutions of the country; non-legal and editorial regulation of online media; low level of investigative journalism; low level of media and digital literacy in schools; insufficient promotion in the local and national level of the fact-checking agencies and existing regulatory mechanisms in the countries; polarized society, divided into two main camps, especially ideologically separated, but with the same personal interests that end in financial gain; distribution of online disinformation campaigns in the three countries without having a barrier to the albanian language (except ethnic macedonians and other ethnicities living in north macedonia). some of the advantages and opportunities that these countries can use to improve the situation are but are not limited to: all countries are oriented or tend towards the european union and nato, which makes them less influenced by the disinformation of the eastern camp. in particular, kosova and albania with 100% civic convictions; existence of joint online portals in the albanian language regional cooperation without having language barriers for disorientation or debunking of disinformation in an organized way; developing countries towards democratization, which enables current governments to include a genuine media education curriculum for new generations; eradicating oligarchic culture and strengthening and investing in media people and media capacities; national strategy for investing in the professional profiling of the new generations to aim more employment opportunities and not to have political party or government as the only employer. thus, partisan polarization would be more realistic and not based on personal interests but on critical thinking; strengthen regulations and promote existent factchecking agencies; extend further and develop the national strategy for fighting disinformation. the democratic environment in a society can be considered clean only when it is not contaminated by the uncontrolled amount of disinformation. although the media are considered observers of democracy in a country, they nevertheless need self-regulatory mechanisms, because it cannot be claimed to be corrective of social and political distortions if they (the media) themselves are not immune to negative influences. this principle applies especially to the media which are highly exposed to online disinformation and as such they instead of exerting their influence on the consolidation of public opinion, on the contrary are becoming destroyers of this consolidation. this is especially noticeable in the unprofessional approach of the media to politics, which are often turning into extensions of political parties or their headquarters during elections. a separate problem is the lack of definition of legal regulations in the work of social media. this is especially noticeable in albania, where the social media landscape is unregulated in the electoral legislation, where as a result preconditions are created for a battlefield for a political campaign to be implemented from unknown sources of funding. the lack of legal regulation of social media is a source of conflict and causes disruption of private relations between people. as a result, an uncontrolled verbal battle has been identified where regulators and the judiciary fail to punish the perpetrators of these disorders. on the other hand, internet access, on a fairly large scale, is not in direct proportion to media education, because the spread of the internet is not always a reflection of the media culture on social networks. references 1. bakir, v., & mcstay, a. 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(2021). monitoring of online news portals and social media, kosova parliamentary elections. prishtina: national democratic institute. 21. passarelli, g., peytier, p., kostelac, k., & nizharadze, e. (2021). international observation mission to albania parliamentary elections 2021. podgorica: enemo european network of election monitoring organizations. 22. reporters without borders. (2021, july 25). world press freddom index, kosova. retrieved from reporters without borders: https://rsf.org/en/kosova 23. reporters without borders. (2021, july 25). world press fredom index, north macedonia. retrieved from reporters without borders: https://rsf.org/en/north-macedonia 24. reporters without borders. (2021, july 24). world press freedom index, albania. retrieved from reporters without borders: https://rsf.org/en/albania 25. saraqini, p. (2020, september 2). analizi: civilmedia. retrieved from civil media mk webs site : https://civilmedia.mk/namesto-so-fokus-naponudata-za-graganite-mediumite-so-refleksija-nahttps://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2021-kosovo https://datareportal.com/slideshare-embed-issues https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2021-north-macedonia https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2021-north-macedonia https://freedomhouse.org/country/kosovo/nations-transit/2021#footnote8_ksmf543 https://freedomhouse.org/country/kosovo/nations-transit/2021#footnote8_ksmf543 https://vertetmates.mk/cipa-media-pesoi-goditje-te-rende-nga-pandemia-mbi-40-gazetare-humben-vendin-e-punes-nderkaq-rreth-30-e-gazetareve-pesuan-ulje-te-pagave/ https://vertetmates.mk/cipa-media-pesoi-goditje-te-rende-nga-pandemia-mbi-40-gazetare-humben-vendin-e-punes-nderkaq-rreth-30-e-gazetareve-pesuan-ulje-te-pagave/ https://vertetmates.mk/cipa-media-pesoi-goditje-te-rende-nga-pandemia-mbi-40-gazetare-humben-vendin-e-punes-nderkaq-rreth-30-e-gazetareve-pesuan-ulje-te-pagave/ https://vertetmates.mk/cipa-media-pesoi-goditje-te-rende-nga-pandemia-mbi-40-gazetare-humben-vendin-e-punes-nderkaq-rreth-30-e-gazetareve-pesuan-ulje-te-pagave/ https://www.reportingdiversity.org/hate-speech-during-the-election-campaign-in-albania/ https://www.reportingdiversity.org/hate-speech-during-the-election-campaign-in-albania/ https://netzpolitik.org/2020/a-german-company-is-responsible-for-the-deletion-of-videos-critical-of-the-albanian-government/ https://netzpolitik.org/2020/a-german-company-is-responsible-for-the-deletion-of-videos-critical-of-the-albanian-government/ https://netzpolitik.org/2020/a-german-company-is-responsible-for-the-deletion-of-videos-critical-of-the-albanian-government/ https://balkaninsight.com/2021/06/01/untold-story-dark-money-israeli-advisers-and-an-albanian-election/ https://balkaninsight.com/2021/06/01/untold-story-dark-money-israeli-advisers-and-an-albanian-election/ https://balkaninsight.com/2021/06/01/untold-story-dark-money-israeli-advisers-and-an-albanian-election/ https://balkaninsight.com/2021/07/28/north-macedonia-to-toughen-penalties-for-attacks-on-journalists/ https://balkaninsight.com/2021/07/28/north-macedonia-to-toughen-penalties-for-attacks-on-journalists/ https://balkaninsight.com/2021/07/28/north-macedonia-to-toughen-penalties-for-attacks-on-journalists/ https://meta.mk/en/hungarian-funding-supports-spread-of-disinformation-between-greece-slovenia-and-north-macedonia/ https://meta.mk/en/hungarian-funding-supports-spread-of-disinformation-between-greece-slovenia-and-north-macedonia/ https://meta.mk/en/hungarian-funding-supports-spread-of-disinformation-between-greece-slovenia-and-north-macedonia/ https://rsf.org/en/north-macedonia https://civilmedia.mk/namesto-so-fokus-na-ponudata-za-graganite-mediumite-so-refleksija-na-kampanite-dominirani-od-tsrna-propaganda-dezinformatsii-kleveti-navredi-i-omraza-1-del/ https://civilmedia.mk/namesto-so-fokus-na-ponudata-za-graganite-mediumite-so-refleksija-na-kampanite-dominirani-od-tsrna-propaganda-dezinformatsii-kleveti-navredi-i-omraza-1-del/ 85 kampanite-dominirani-od-tsrna-propagandadezinformatsii-kleveti-navredi-i-omraza-1-del/ 26. voltmer, k. (2013). the media in transitional democracy. cambridge: john wiley & sons. 27. vurmo, g. (2021, july 31). nations in transit: 2021, albania. retrieved from freedom of house: https://freedomhouse.org/country/albania/nationstransit/2021#footnote24_1cdbo07 28. wardle, c., & derakhshan, h. (2017). information disorder: toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making. strasbourg: council of europe. 29. woolley, s., & joseff, k. (2020). demand for deceit: how the way we think drives disinformation. washington: national endowment for democracy, international forum for democratic studies. https://civilmedia.mk/namesto-so-fokus-na-ponudata-za-graganite-mediumite-so-refleksija-na-kampanite-dominirani-od-tsrna-propaganda-dezinformatsii-kleveti-navredi-i-omraza-1-del/ https://civilmedia.mk/namesto-so-fokus-na-ponudata-za-graganite-mediumite-so-refleksija-na-kampanite-dominirani-od-tsrna-propaganda-dezinformatsii-kleveti-navredi-i-omraza-1-del/ https://freedomhouse.org/country/albania/nations-transit/2021#footnote24_1cdbo07 https://freedomhouse.org/country/albania/nations-transit/2021#footnote24_1cdbo07 30 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 96 technical parts for application e-procurement in the republic of kosovo dr.sc. besnik hajdari university of prizren "ukshin hoti" faculty of computer science besnik.h.hajdari@outlook.com abstract electronic procurement in the republic of kosovo has begun in 2012, had it not been for the accomplishment goals and development and implementation of electronic procurement in the republic of kosovo fully realized. e-procurement is not only the publication of procurement results, but is a reflection of a defined legal process on procurement. the internet are presented records of all claims, also via the internet can be sent to all offers. research: through management system throughout the procurement process electronically will enable the preservation of technical and financial evaluation of bids. thus, the presentation of this process in a transparent manner increases the reliability and efficiency. method: also through the management system of this process, according to the rights defined by law, each party can see the appeal process and remotely via the internet. implementation of e-procurement will enable the removal of barriers that were presented earlier, increasing the confidence of all parties involved. access will be granted to all interested parties by allowing the approaches to the law, while in the case of restrictions should use electronic identification (e-id). result: the categorization of approaches will be for each separately, including contracting authority, contractors, bidders, complainers, the proxies of budgetary units, auditors and other categories defined under applicable laws. security of information in e-procurement will be the maximum. as with any other service access to e-procurement will be provided through the state portal. key words: government electronic procurement, internet, electronic identification (id), management. mailto:besnik.h.hajdari@outlook.com prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 96 1.0 entry government procurement is essential to citizens' trust in government and is a barometer of the quality of public administration, making it the primary focus of empowerment in most governments. public procurement is also a key aspect of public administration, which connects the public finance system with the social and economic achievements, and as such is a major determinant of the quality of municipal services and infrastructure, as well as the effectiveness of government. this feature affects almost all areas of planning, program management and budgeting. oecd has estimated: procurement constitutes 14:48% to 19.96% of gross domestic product; public procurement in one form or another constitutes 70% of government spending. also, oecd (2007) has proved that "public procurement is government activity most vulnerable to loss, fraud and corruption due to its complexity, size of financial flow that creates and close interaction between citizens and the private sector". procurement policy governing public sector interactions with domestic and international markets in ways that directly affect the efficiency and competitiveness of the country. public procurement is a common tool for business development policies and industry, where most regional and bilateral agreements have important provisions aimed at giving local mutual access to government procurement markets. poor management of procurement undoubtedly reduces the developmental aspects and is likely to reduce the foreign direct investment. these effects have already been reported by the international monetary fund (imf) (1998), which identified the consequences at the state level in terms of (i) overspending on capital, (ii) under-spending on maintenance of assets, (iii) the quality infrastructure weak and (iv) reduced government revenues. imf has come to the conclusion that procurement poor governance can result in infrastructure that reduces the development of the state where investment becomes joinvestim. poor quality and low maintenance costs also mean that she existing infrastructure has low economic productivity. for these reasons, the strengthening of government procurement is described as the only option most significant development in many countries. 2.0 technical requirements electronic procurement system should be developed in the internet environment, using open standards and open architecture and facilitate interaction with computer applications at the state, regional and international, with payment systems of orders and procurement processes. such a solution would also eliminate the problem of odd connection with specific retailer operating technologies, computer applications, computer browsers and other technologies. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 97 systems and procurement standards over the past decade have evolouar and matured. the integration between internal systems and external offices for multilateral exchange of information procurement is the main feature. the system through which collected the data, but has no good option multilateral exchange between government entities and their systems of transactions and information management, and many buyers and suppliers, are not appropriate. users of the system should be ready to interact with the flow system, safe and efficient. users can be: government procurement entities and their employees. suppliers and potential suppliers. the community in general. banks. certification agencies (if used) auditors. multilateral development agencies. electronic procurement systems should use protocols for the development of systems and communication are open and common standards in cases where the interaction between platforms, and the interaction or integration with external systems such as communication should support sikron, as well as that asynchronous (exchange of messages) with electronic procurement system and departmental applications. technical issues include aspects, such as information security, interoperability and reliability. rate and availability are also important aspects to ensure that the procurement system can fulfill large volumes of transactions. in addition to providing reliable systems as possible, requires mechanisms for the management of possible system disorders through plans for business continuity and recovery plans after the fall of systems. these issues should be considered regardless of platform or service provider. these aspects also dealing with the conditions and specifications for the key components of e-procurement system, such as content management, access control management, workflow management and integration external system interface. all these aspects should be subject to the risk management plan. commercial principles certificates, authorizations, confidentiality, integrity and mosrefuzimi also addressed within the framework of risk management, along with protection from viruses and other security threats. the following issues are at the center of management systems through the internet: prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 98 accessibility conditions that do not relate to the functions derived from the properties of the system, such as environmental constraints or the application (eg, must be accessible by far, the software should function in different operating systems). application graphic user interface (igp) procurement officers in the department only use such systems when drafting the notice of invitation to tender or in the case of managing their existing offers. depending on the size and type of the department and the frequency of purchases, the use of the system can be infrequent and may be used only several times a year, while suppliers use these systems only when participating in certain bidding, which is can also be very rare. the user interface of the system should be intuitive and operational in all popular web browsers, and technical prerequisites for accessibility should not have major limitations for users. aspects of functionality that was made available to users, should be self-explanatory and cookware should always be available, helping in understanding the steps that must be respected and simultaneously utilizing all the functionalities offered by the system. interoperability of graphical user interface the technology used to implement the igp regarding procurement needs to be selected primarily based on a criterion, which is the level of accessibility. now there are some sophisticated techniques igp's implementation, thus enabling system developers to implement igp's more simple and efficient. however, not all technologies have established standards or may not support the same from web browsers, operating systems, etc. this course is an undesirable effect, which significantly reduces the level of accessibility. therefore, it is recommended that igp electronic procurement shall be based on widely accepted technology. for example, all web browsers support the commonly used standard html 4:01. consequently, igp electronic procurement has built in html 4:01 reduces accessibility considerations compared with other issues that have nothing to do w ith the functions. search tool advanced search tools should be available to all users e-procurement. these instruments should enable all users (including anonymous ones and unregistered) use of instrument search for all available bidding and bidding invitations, as well as identify the oc that may have potential interest to them. research and reports should also have interaction with the technology of mobile phones. in search criteria can be made available a number of data more important in bidding invitations (including name, cpv's codes, key word and country). here one can predict the end users the option to combine these criteria. also can offer the advanced boolean logic operations (and, or and their precedents), which would allow users prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 99 realize more refined searches. the system is able to punish users to define areas used for presenting the results of research and selection parameters used. furthermore, users can be given the opportunity to choose certain bidding invitation from the search results, and to see its details. depending on the details and status of the invitation of the nominees, suppliers can be given appropriate activities that they must perform. the system can use an external search tool to take advantage of the features offered by specific instrument for research, such as support for encoding utf-8 characters, content-based search, search support content stored within some types popular documents (doc, xls, pdf, plain text, etc.). terms lingual / multilingual users can have the option of choosing their preferred language for graphical user interface (igp) of the languages installed on the system, and have the possibility to switch from one language to another. as far as the user interface and the language used, all the best descriptions should be in a format that fits and easy parametrizohet (eg file or table characteristics database), so that it can be translated if in the future the need for exporting user interface to another language. in addition, the fonts used in the application should use all graphic symbols for all the official languages of the state. in principle, the two parts of the localization of e-procurement to be taken into account are: language: the user interface should be able to present the data in any of the languages supported by the system (if offered more than one language) enabling users to set their preferred language. character encoding system: character coding system is a method of encoding text entered in any field. character encoding utf-8 (unicode) characters can be supported with mixed script. database also may need to configure in order to utf-8 function. for example, older versions of mysql did not support unicode-in, but it has been possible configuration of jdbc drivers to use unicode-in the case of processing of texts. most databases and interface components user inputted information today-in unicode support. 4.0 contributions through web contributions may be made available via the internet at any time users to perform activities in the system. assisting in the context, manuals, wizards (wizards), transitions (walkthroughs), and demonstrators online can help many users to understand the functionality of the services offered by the system. supporting documents online, glossaries and questions most often provide quick access and easy to clear definitions for all areas used (which represent, what measure, etc.). guidelines for user may explain in detail the procurement gui, for example prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 100 using screen-shots and textual descriptions. questions most often to answer the questions most frequently submitted by users. a successful process of e-procurement much depends on the accuracy of the data that users have entered into the system. the validity of all data entered by users through forms completed online can be controlled in order to promote self-help. this can be done by the server, as well as that of the client: the server, once verified the validity of the data provided by the user on the server side and the users can be encouraged to approach the same again forming, custom descriptive warning near the field (s), which are completed incorrectly. client side, where the validity of the data provided by the user to be verified by the client, the browser using the logic of work to find and to explain user errors. in internet-based technologies, this kind of application can create interoperability problems, as java script or other languages based encryption from the client will be enabled. electronic procurement systems may also inform users which perform "significant" (which is the creation of the call, the presentation of the offer, etc.) through the use of informative websites / confirmatory and automated notification mechanisms. all aid opportunities through the internet can be made available in all languages who knows the system. 4.1 user safety & administration managing user profile includes management of user profiles that encompasses safe storage of personal data of users, while authorization identifies the different roles that the user can take within the electronic procurement system. authorization levels are defined at the system level and at the level of a specific process based on workflow. all workflow activities should be stored in an audit log. workflow activities will be based on a registry authority as part of the buyer's registry, which stores user permissions for conducting procurement activities authorized. saving the credentials and user profiles in order to encrypt and secure, which could not dekriptohen by administrators database, should be mandatory. electronic procurement system should provide the ability for simultaneous recording single sign-on (sso) so that users register once and have the possibility to access all appropriate services based on authorizations established procurement to the user in the system. electronic prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 101 procurement system should enable access to content and services based on the type and use of content made available through the system based on user roles. electronic procurement system should support industry methods and standards for the registration and verification of users. two options for user registration and verification are as follows: option # 1: identify and password of the user registration of users based on the identification and password is the main approach in most countries, such as uk, australia, canada, usa, singapore and the majority of commercial applications, including the banking sector. this approach is acceptable under the law model for digital signatures uncitral (2006). for the procurement field, the user id and password can be wide and reliable, as can be any other method, including pki. in terms of procurement the only difference is that the access codes is proved that relate to the entity or individual. in case of registration of users through the internet, this verification is usually not at this stage, but can be done in special care phase, which also just happens to be mostly the case of government contracting. however, in some commercially sensitive systems, also made the verification of the identity of the user registration. digital certificates within the pki's have the same vulnerability (theft, etc.), as has the identification and registration of users for electronic procurement. there may be concerns that the certification before bidding entity may submit more bids, which of them will be elected best. however this can be easily managed through a system of registration of well designed, and pci did not prevent this. the process of creating identification, including submission of other information for the purpose of recording reliability and authentication should be implemented through a secure ssl connection. conditions for safe transport and storage, and data integrity is also addressed. opsioni #2: certificates for digital signatures in some countries allowed only verification for electronic procurement through digital certificates and pki. this approach is based on the law of the earlier uncitral model for digital signatures (1996). this approach is applied in some parts of the eu and in most of asia. digital certificates tend to be costly, and their inclusion as a condition for participation in electronic procurement discourages small businesses, and is likely to be more bureaucratic and weak capacities verification compared with those of governments. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 102 in cases where countries wish to implement the first option, but have the burden of old legislation, the entity that manages the electronic procurement system is the entity that issues digital certificates, which can be done via the internet at time of registration. user account management and verification: managing user profile includes management of user profiles, including safe storage of personal data of users, whereas the authorization defines different roles that can be user within an electronic procurement system. user profiles stored in the respective data base that identifies all system users and roles that are related to system users. it is important to maintain reliable information and user profiles so encrypted and secure, which can not be decoded by the administrators of the database. communication of information, interface and storage: use the "server certificates" for purposes advised secure communication over ssl encrypted session between users of electronic procurement (internet browser used by procuring entities and suppliers) and web server for electronic procurement. saving: once the e-procurement deals with sensitive information (eg response to offers, commercial information etc.), encryption of data stored in different modules is essential (database, ldap or o file system) through coding algorithm known. this feature increases the security of the system and protects data even when the authorized person has physical access to the server or hosting servers. security systems applied to electronic procurement should ensure safe custody of documents; offers introduced into the system and should not be accessible for any user to the achievement or fulfillment of certain conditions, as defined for the processing of the bid process, where such content should not be stored or transferred in clear text if at any time within the procurement system or abroad. coding should be done according to the principle of end-user to end user, when received documents on the web server and stored electronic procurement system. electronic procurement system should have antivirus to check all documents / communication incoming from users and should limit communication of any unauthorized content and harmful. no documents / communication (eg e-mail) should not be accepted and stored if not checked for the presence of viruses. 4.2 marking time a mechanism for safe and reliable for the verification of time should be put in place to address the issues, such as whether the offer is submitted prior to the deadline for submission, etc. electronic procurement system must record the exact date and time for all activities undertaken, and it takes time from the source specified for the system. time can be obtained through the use of protocol marking the time and time note authority (aca), which yields a time marked with the date and time of each action unique to electronic prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 103 procurement. note digital time can be used to prove that the electronic document is transmitted to the server procurement at the time indicated. electronic procurement system can continuously synchronized with ara by receiving time signals transmitted. through this mechanism, audit tracking implemented electronic procurement can use precise indication of the time to record all activities performed. immediately after completion of the transfer of documents from the client site, all those documents can take time from the server. documents with electronic signatures can be linked to accurately record time, whether the documents sent to the ara, which seals on documents and legal time. 5.0 reporting, recording and monitoring audit tracking mechanisms should be applied to any electronic procurement and management activities conducted through the system (eg tracing of loading / unloading of supply, various versions, approvals). inspection of audit records can provide information for effective investigation of impermissible interference efforts, for example falsification of bidding documents by authorized users after the deadline for submission. the mechanism for archiving data that applies to electronic procurement should also provide archiving of audit records in order to provide support in the event of a security incident investigations or disputes (thus ensuring mosrefuzim). access to audit data must be limited to counterfeiters / changes / cancellations unauthorized. 5.1 interoperability the importance of technical interoperability of electronic procurement environment means that procurement should have appropriate liaison and open to support interoperability between different operating systems as well as systems and applications that are under development. eprocurement can be accomplished in a manner that enables interoperability with existing legacy systems, which enable the reuse of existing systems and minimizing costs. for treatment of conditions of interoperability, procurement should implement the following strategies: service-oriented architecture (aosh): aosh-has to do with independent building services, which can be combined into meaningful processes highest level of work within the context of an application system, such as procurement e. aosh describes various aspects of the application: details ("particles") and the types of services (fragmentation means the size and degree of functionality in a particular interaction); the way the service building; how to combine the service; method of communication service at the technical level; manner of service interaction semantic level. with aosh application in the design of basic components, implementers procurement system can provide significant improvement to the flexibility of the system, the reuse of business prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 104 components simultaneously. this aspect should be part of the design phase of an electronic procurement system. international open protocols based on xml (soap and xml-rpc), communication protocols based on xml should be used in cases of need for interoperability between platforms. moreover soap and xml-rpc are standard components of almost any environment and make up two protocols that enable remote communication between platforms in standardized and appropriate. integration capabilities depend on the specific development framework which is used, depending on the development framework used, the electronic procurement system should be designed in a way that future interoperability capabilities improved through the adoption of appropriate standards. one of the popular options is the use of j2ee. liaison j2ee architecture (jca) for j2ee framework, for example, can help create safe environment for system interaction. jca defines and enables the standard way to connect j2ee applications with heterogeneous information systems of enterprises (eis). eis consists of systems of enterprise resource planning (erp) systems, databases and applications existing different. furthermore, jca provides a number of mechanisms scalable, secure and transactions to enable connection to the eis, which have significant market përshtatësve quite jca to simplify the integration of enterprise applications. 5.2 risk management and safety risk management and security are more than technical issues. systems and procurement management should be administered within an appropriate framework of governance in order to create security. this process not only requires the existence of security instruments (shields / firewalls, encryption / encryption, lock time / my locks), but also safety management system. in this case apply international standards and methodologies is audit risk, such as those published by the association for audit and control information systems (isaca) which relate to the concepts and approaches of the organization's overall risk management, as coso erm are, arms and iso 31000. the system should be regularly audited under these international standards. in cases where the systems available from any external source (for example cloud service), then raised issues of transparency of controls conditions in the service level agreement (malteser), which are essential for managing risks from external providers and should comply with international standards for risk management. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 105 other issues related to support, reliability and suitability of software and hardware. 5.3 reliability the level of reliability of a system can be assessed in relation to the reliability of its components, enabling reliability requirements expressed at the component / unit, rather than to express the whole system level. perhaps the most critical event during the closing stages of submission of bids for bidders (ebidding phase). in the case of electronic reverse auctions, most of the offers may come during the last minutes. before completing the electronic bidding, the supplier is required to access the system for the submission of bids. however, it usually happens that the vendors to submit their bids near the end of the deadline for submission of bids. in addition, depending on a specific notice, the offer may consist of several files. this can result in data capacity of megabiteve which must be transferred from the it environment of the supplier to electronic procurement, and stored on secure servers and convenient. the combination of these parameters means that the closing of the bidding period for each notice can cause failures due to problems with voluminous capacity. also, e-procurement can be damaged by obstructive events, including internet connection failures, malicious attacks, blackouts, disruption of software / hardware, etc. implementing the system must ensure that their systems can cope with these issues, and the need to prepare plans for the treatment of critical failures in the form of plans for continued work and disaster recovery plans. reliability requirements relating to the quality of the system and are usually defined quantitatively. 6.0 scalability electronic procurement systems should be designed to withstand enormous loads of transactions compared with the initial requirements. the efficiency with which this can be achieved in terms of cost, time, quality, etc. determines the scalability of the system. good scalability of the system can be achieved through effective architecture of the software and / or hardware components needed. 6.1 performance evaluation a system through which can be treated and to respond quickly to any request of the user, not only can accelerate procurement activities, but also can help users better understanding of different functionalities offered by system. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 106 usually may have activity that inevitably may require more time (eg zhbartja of documents). in such cases, system implementers should ensure that users are informed about the status of their claims, thus avoiding the cancellation of the activities of users or uncertainties ee status of their actions. so the performance requirements for electronic procurement depend on the expected number of users and offers. system implementers should plan shkallëshmërinë of software / hardware, and to establish systems through which they can achieve the stated objectives of performance. reaction time for testing the performance of electronic procurement should be measured in a data base which has significant amounts of data through simulation performance in real conditions. in addition, the real use of the system must be simulated including transfers and data zhbartjet support. 6.0 hardware required hardware includes a set of servers, the center for disaster recovery and safe center of data that will have the possibility of delivery reliability, service and risk management, as shown above. these requirements depend in part on existing infrastructure, the need to assess and operating environment. 6.1 data center data center must have a dedicated network, application servers and database, as well as other supporting servers (such as record storage server, domain controllers and server to mark the time). for high availability requirements of the system used to couple servers and configured to support in case of failure. availability of internet connection is highly desirable for continuous availability of electronic procurement system. recovery's required jeopardy (frrr), which should include uninterrupted internet connection and additional supply of electricity. disaster recovery in response to a disaster is declared. this means restoring or recovering an application or entire system. recovering from disasters is becoming a very important aspect of enterprise. as devices, systems and networks become more complex, simply become even prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 107 more things that can be disrupted. as a consequence, recovery plans should be adopted for the continuation of the work. electronic procurement platform can stand on its own or assists in the receiving environment of a data center with existing hardware, software, adequate frequency generation internet connections, process management and additional managerial skills. the system should have plenty of opportunities to provide protection / additional support at all times. creating a support center for electronic procurement would be desirable. 6.2 internet connection frekuncor generation internet should be adequate and accessible 24 hours a day and 7 days a week to provide users access to electronic procurement system. when using the system, there will be demand for the loading and unloading of files scanned great size. in general, businesses and government have good access to internet services. 6.3 safety electronic procurement system and data centers should be designed as a complete solution of network security including verification, authorization, data privacy and security perimeter. physical access information processing it, storage areas, and storage devices as well as supporting infrastructure (communication, energy and environmental issues) should be controlled through prevention, detection and minimizing unauthorized access or unintentional in these area. above is recommended the use of electronic signatures instead of digital signatures. this latter approach would be consistent with the work practice is less complicated and expensive and is common in many other countries. electronic payment arrangements in electronic procurement system may be required electronic payments: i) the payment for the tender documentation ii) tender security. iii) safety performance. iv) the payment of the contractor. v) subscription to value added service of electronic procurement-mobile notifications,network services, additional space for storage of documents, etc. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 1; january-april, 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 108 electronic procurement system should include methods of payment via the internet. in the absence of ports for payment via the internet, can be applied to other possible options to secure payment system. the preferred option is the mechanism automated clearing house / automated clearing. reference arrowsmith, sue “government procurement in wto”: the concept and importance of procurement” school of law university of nottingham. duli, ilaz mr.sc “reformat e prokurimit publik në kosovë – dekada e parë”, bpc – ballkan procurement consultancy; faqe 63; korrik 2011, prishtinë erzen, dr.tina,”legal protection in public procurement procedures”; ljubljana 06. sundstrand, andrea – public procurement “procurement outside the ec-directives” june 1, 2009. document – kosovo: http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/countries/strategy-and -progress-report b.karasin, reparti për prokurim public, drejtoria për tregun e brendshëm, konferenca e tretë e rrjetit për prokurim publik, lublanë, mars, 2005. eu public procurement indicators 2010; brussels, 4 november 2011. hoxha, safet dr.sc “bazat e prokurimit publik” – universiteti “ukshin hoti”, 2016, prizren. users can be:  government procurement entities and their employees.  suppliers and potential suppliers.  the community in general.  banks.  certification agencies (if used)  auditors.  multilateral development agencies. electronic procurement systems should use protocols for the development of systems and communication are open and common standards in cases where the interaction between platforms, and the interaction or integration with external systems such as commu... technical issues include aspects, such as information security, interoperability and reliability. rate and availability are also important aspects to ensure that the procurement system can fulfill large volumes of transactions. in addition to providing reliable systems as possible, requires mechanisms for the management of possible system disorder... these issues should be considered regardless of platform or service provider. these aspects also dealing with the conditions and specifications for the key components of e-procurement system, such as content management, access control management, work... external system interface. all these aspects should be subject to the risk management plan. commercial principles certificates, authorizations, confidentiality, integrity and mosrefuzimi also addressed within the framework of risk management, along wi... the following issues are at the center of management systems through the internet: 4.0 contributions through web contributions may be made available via the internet at any time users to perform activities in the system. assisting in the context, manuals, wizards (wizards), transitions (walkthroughs), and demonstrators online can help many users to understand th... a successful process of e-procurement much depends on the accuracy of the data that users have entered into the system. the validity of all data entered by users through forms completed online can be controlled in order to promote self-help. this can be done by the server, as well as that of the client: the server, once verified the validity of the data provided by the user on the server side and the users can be encouraged to approach the same again forming, custom descriptive warning near the field (s), which are completed incorrectly. client side, where the validity of the data provided by the user to be verified by the client, the browser using the logic of work to find and to explain user errors. in internet-based technologies, this kind of application can create interoperability... electronic procurement systems may also inform users which perform "significant" (which is the creation of the call, the presentation of the offer, etc.) through the use of informative websites / confirmatory and automated notification mechanisms. all... 4.1 user safety & administration managing user profile includes management of user profiles that encompasses safe storage of personal data of users, while authorization identifies the different roles that the user can take within the electronic procurement system. authorization level... electronic procurement system should provide the ability for simultaneous recording single sign-on (sso) so that users register once and have the possibility to access all appropriate services based on authorizations established procurement to the use... electronic procurement system should support industry methods and standards for the registration and verification of users. two options for user registration and verification are as follows: option # 1: identify and password of the user registration of users based on the identification and password is the main approach in most countries, such as uk, australia, canada, usa, singapore and the majority of commercial applications, including the banking sector. this approach is acceptable... there may be concerns that the certification before bidding entity may submit more bids, which of them will be elected best. however this can be easily managed through a system of registration of well designed, and pci did not prevent this. the process of creating identification, including submission of other information for the purpose of recording reliability and authentication should be implemented through a secure ssl connection. conditions for safe transport and storage, and data in... opsioni #2: usually may have activity that inevitably may require more time (eg zhbartja of documents). in such cases, system implementers should ensure that users are informed about the status of their claims, thus avoiding the cancellation of the activities of ... reaction time for testing the performance of electronic procurement should be measured in a data base which has significant amounts of data through simulation performance in real conditions. in addition, the real use of the system must be simulated in... 6.0 hardware required hardware includes a set of servers, the center for disaster recovery and safe center of data that will have the possibility of delivery reliability, service and risk management, as shown above. these requirements depend in part on existing in... 6.1 data center data center must have a dedicated network, application servers and database, as well as other supporting servers (such as record storage server, domain controllers and server to mark the time). for high availability requirements of the system used to ... recovery's required jeopardy (frrr), which should include uninterrupted internet connection and additional supply of electricity. disaster recovery in response to a disaster is declared. this means restoring or recovering an application or entire system. recovering from disasters is becoming a very important aspect of enterprise. as devices, systems and networks become more comp... electronic procurement platform can stand on its own or assists in the receiving environment of a data center with existing hardware, software, adequate frequency generation internet connections, process management and additional managerial skills. the system should have plenty of opportunities to provide protection / additional support at all times. creating a support center for electronic procurement would be desirable. 6.2 internet connection frekuncor generation internet should be adequate and accessible 24 hours a day and 7 days a week to provide users access to electronic procurement system. when using the system, there will be demand for the loading and unloading of files scanned great... reference 93 consolidating democracy in kosovo: the effective functioning of basic institutions dr. sc. nuredin lutfiu ¹* dr. sc. agon halabaku 2 valbona fisheku-halabaku 3 ¹ university of technology and business ”ubt”, faculty of law, nuredin.lutfiu@gmail.com *correspondent author. 2 university of technology and business ”ubt”, faculty of management, economics and business, agonhalabaku@hotmail.com 3 sh.m.m.l. “kongresi i manastirit”, albanafisheku@hotmail.com article history: submission 10 april 2020 revision 04 june 2020 accepted 02 july 2021 available online 31 august 2021 keywords: consolidation of democracy, assembly, president, prime minister, kosovo. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.235 a b s t r a c t a democracy is considered to be consolidated when no major political grouping attempts to overthrow the democratic regime or promote violence in order to seize any part of the territory from the existing state. democracy becomes 'the only game on the town’ even when the state faces economic and political difficulties and challenges, all political groups believe and seek to find a solution within the constitutional order and democratic procedures. namely, before any situation and difficulty in the state, the political forces in the country do not seek to solve problems by undemocratic means. in addition to the main factors mentioned by various authors, in the case of kosovo, a key problem for the consolidation of democracy, consolidation and positioning in the international arena is the process of normalization of relations with serbia and cooperation and effective functioning of the three main constitutional institutions; the assembly, the president and the prime minister of kosovo, as the main pillars of the system policy based on the principle of separation of powers. in principle, their greatest contribution to the consolidation of democracy in kosovo is, the election and exercise of constitutional functions is done in accordance with the principles and norms set by the constitution, enjoys the confidence of the majority of the population in the country, and there are no significant political forces and nor the attitudes of the public trying to replace democracy with authoritarian forms of government. in other words, echoing the metaphorical expression of american scientist juan linz, a consolidated democracy emerges when democracy is the only game in town. 1. introduction after a nine-year period of international administration, kosovo declared its independence in 2008 and since then has held parliamentary and local elections consistently, joining the group of newer third world democracies. these parliamentary and local elections, considered free and fair in accordance with international standards, further strengthened its legitimacy as a democratic state, with the ultimate aim of consolidating democracy. welcoming kosovo’s recent free and fair elections, zahir tanin, special representative of the secretary-general and head of the united nations interim administration mission in kosovo (unmik) stressed the need to form a new government without delay, resume dialogue with serbia, and quell the rise in inflammatory nationalist rhetoric (document s/2017/640). since then, a cycle of parliamentary elections has begun, and so far four elections have been held. the governments that emerged from these elections did not have long lives. they continue to be short-lived to this day. without of any exception, no government https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:nuredin.lutfiu@gmail.com mailto:agonhalabaku@hotmail.com mailto:albanafisheku@hotmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.235 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9232-0823 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1322-345x https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1622-0393 94 has completed its full governing mandate and has not survived early elections. in fact, after kosovo's declaration of independence, there are still many tasks to be fulfilled, conditions to be established, attitudes and habits to be cultivated before the democratic transition phase is completed and its 'maturity' to be assessed as a consolidated democracy. then, what are the characteristics of a consolidated democracy? many democracy scholars list a number of conditions and characteristics that a democracy must contain to be considered consolidated. externally, a democracy can be considered consolidated when no major international entity disputes it in territorial terms or no ethnic grouping within the territory seeks separation from the state. internally, however, among other things, a democratic regime is established within the territory and no major actors within the state, social, economic, political or institutional make any attempt to establish an undemocratic regime. thus, when a strong public opinion is created, even amid major economic problems and deep discontent, it is believed that democratic procedures and institutions are the most appropriate way to govern social and political life, i.e. when support for alternative anti-regime forces is too little present or more or less isolated from pro-democratic forces (linz, stephan, 1996). 2. consolidation of democracy what can certainly be said about democracy is that numerous definitions have been given in order to define it. aristotle had defined democracy as a form of state regulation whose main characteristic is equality, in which everyone participates in power, but in which the rule of law (aristotle, 1978, p. 161). what aristotle's remarks show is that democracy is acceptable to all citizens, since they are elected and can elect their own representatives who govern them, through free and democratic elections held in certain periodic cycles. relying on john adams' definition of democracy, it is rooted in the idea that elected officials should think for the good of the people, feel and reason like him, and often be held accountable for the way they govern (adams, 2015). across countries around the world, democracy is presented in different forms, somewhere it has better representation and a greater expression of freedom, and in other countries it is lacking. moreover, it is the legislation that properly regulates the exercise of democracy, through the separation of powers, the establishment of control and balance in order to promote equitable distribution of power within the political sphere. the global developments, namely the modernization and development of the economy of the third world, which was followed by the growth and development of the middle class and its education; changes in the catholic church in relation to individual rights; the weakening and disintegration of the soviet union, the emergence of the soviet bloc of leading european countries, their determination for democracy, and the influence of the united states and the european union in supporting these democracies were among the major factors influencing the creation of the ‘third wave of democracy’ highlighted by samuel huntington in his book “third wave: democratization at the end of the twentieth century” (huntington, 1991). during this period, many totalitarian regimes in countries around the world have been replaced by democratic systems. while this is a major achievement, problems emerge later in strengthening and stabilizing these new democracies. because maintaining and developing democracy is as difficult a task as it is to set. in all these democratic transitions, the biggest concerns are how to set up, strengthen and stabilize new regimes so as not to backtrack on totalitarian regimes, now that the spread of democracy in other countries has slowed. this has led political scientists and other actors in new democracies to increasingly focus on using the term "consolidation of democracy" (schedler, 1998). in the first phase defined as the transition to democracy we are dealing with the period of establishment of democratic institutions. the main element of this first phase is free elections, where political parties compete for representation in representative institutions after the fall of totalitarian dictatorship. in general terms, this is the stage in which societies embark on the path of transition and create rules that determine how new democratic institutions will function, rules that they then incorporate into their constitutions (kerasimeonov, 2012). in essence, the consolidation of democracy is the process of achieving widespread and profound legitimacy, so all important political actors, at both the elite and mass levels, believe that a democratic regime is appropriate and appropriate for them and society as a whole. as linz and alfred stephan put it, in short, there are three minimum conditions that must be met before we can talk about consolidating democracy: exercising state sovereignty across the state, a functioning state is a condition, 'sine qua non' in modern politics, as free and authoritative elections cannot be held, winners cannot exercise the monopoly of legitimate power and citizens cannot 'protect their rights effectively. 95 democracy cannot be thought of as consolidated until a democratic transition is made. it is an indispensable, but by no means sufficient, condition for the completion of a democratic transition that requires free and contested elections. no regime should be called a democracy unless its rulers govern democratically. if freely elected leaders (no matter the size of their majority) violate the constitution, violate the rights of individuals and minorities, impose legitimate legislative functions, and thus fail to rule within the boundaries of a rule of law, regimes are not a democracy (linz, stephan, 1996). robert dahl describes the basic political institutions of representative government in a modern democratic country, pointing out that it only happens in an ideal society, and rarely in current practice, and goes on to say that the existence of a democracy presupposes that all citizens its increased set of fundamental rights, freedoms and opportunities, including: o the right to vote in the election of officials in a free and fair manner; o the right to run for state office by election; o the right to free expression; o the right to form and participate in independent political organizations, including political parties; o the right to benefit from independent sources of information; o the rights to any other freedom and opportunity that may be necessary for the effective functioning of large-scale political institutions of democracy (dahl, 1997). from this, it can be concluded that elections are the basis of a democratic society through which representative institutions are created, which bear the responsibility to run the state, and with it society, based on the will of the majority of citizens, but this is not all. so it remains that the organization of free and democratic elections and their quality and progress is one of the key points in assessing new and transition democracies. given this, kosovo has held credible and relatively well-run elections, but its institutions remain weak, and rampant corruption has caused deep public mistrust in its government (freedom house, 2020). in most cases, holding free and democratic elections and fulfilling the basic political institutions of governance required by dahl takes place, but in a modern democratic country there are still many tasks to be fulfilled for his democracy to be considered consolidated. in the case of kosovo, in addition to key factors; talks on normalization of kosovo-serbia relations, fulfillment of obligations arising from these talks, regional cooperation and development of internal dialogue are one of the main challenges for the consolidation of democracy and critical to all this is the cooperation and functioning of the three main constitutional institutions; the assembly, the president and the prime minister. in this short study, i will address, among other things, the importance of the functioning of these key constitutional institutions; the assembly, the president and the prime minister, in consolidating democracy. 3. functioning of key constitutional institutions the methodology of studying the functioning of the three main constitutional institutions of the republic of kosovo will be based on the analysis of the constitutional framework, relevant legislation and decisions of the constitutional court, as well as the practice of functioning and cooperation of political parties. if we focus on the analysis of the literature on the transition to democracy during the third wave, we notice that it is focused on internal factors that influence the consolidation of democracy. an important exception is huntington's third wave (1991), in which the author points out that in the consolidation of democracy, external forces can influence decisively. the elections of october 6, 2019 brought out the vetëvendosje movement of albin kurti, the first political entity with 26% of the votes, followed by the democratic league of kosovo ldk with about 25%. after the results were confirmed, the two parties began talks on forming a government, which were by no means easy and lasted a long time. finally, on february 4, 2020, mr. albin kurti was appointed head of government. this government lasted only 50 days. the no-confidence motion was sought by the ldk coalition partner, who was unhappy with the way mr. kurti was approaching talks on normalizing serbiakosovo relations and co-operation agreements with countries in the region. after that, kosovo held extraordinary elections, on february 14, 2021. vetëvendosje movement came out first, but this time with 50.28% of the vote. election of the government of mr. kurti was appointed immediately after the constitution of the assembly of kosovo. following these elections, the election of the president would take place, a post which had remained in office after the resignation of president thaqi, after the lawsuit was filed by the special chambers of the court in the hague. 96 candidate mrs. vjaosa osmani managed to be elected president after difficult talks with the ldk and the assistance provided by the quint ambassadors, who had supported kosovo's independence. the approach of the kosovo governments to the dialogue for the normalization of kosovo-serbia relations seems to have been a measure of their longevity in governance. since the beginning of these talks, no elected government has been able to complete its full governing mandate, plunging the country into ongoing political crises. one of the key factors in the consolidation of democracy in kosovo is the effective functioning of the main state institutions; the assembly (kosovo const. chapt. iv.), president (kosovo const. chapt. v) and the government (kosovo const. chapt. vi), which in the constitution constitutes the main pillars of the political system based on the principle of separation of powers. the constitution of kosovo, as a result of the political circumstances of the time it was adopted, was created in view of its main premises, namely the inclusion of the ahtisaari package and the maintenance of the separation of powers within the borders of the parliamentary republic. amendments to the constitution of kosovo, which are considered necessary to complete certain processes in the country, while in principle possible, they still remain practically impossible at present, experts in constitutional legal affairs and political experts in the country say. the constitution of kosovo, as the highest legal act of the country, turned out to have many gaps, obstacles that were highlighted during the consolidation of the new state and the efficient functioning of state institutions. the provisions of the constitution are characterized by contradictions, inconsistencies, ambiguities, ambiguities of concepts and notions as well as terminological omissions which cause great difficulties in the correct interpretation in the implementation in practice (gap institution, 2011). a small number of changes have been made to the constitution in order to round out certain processes in place. some others, while possible in principle, still remain virtually impossible at present as a result of the adjustments within the constitution itself. in general, these changes relate to the following aspects: the transformation of the kosovo security force, into the kosovo armed forces or changes to the electoral system in the country, but others, remain hostage to the hitherto impossibility of constitutional change. at the same time, kosovo's main institutions are facing a number of challenges in exercising their constitutional functions, causing confidence in them to diminish in kosovo's public opinion and society. assembly of kosovo the main representative institution, since the 2014 elections, has begun to face the decline of confidence it should enjoy. during the year, he faced a six-month blockade that hampered its constitution and the exercise of its basic constitutional functions. it was only after the judgment of the constitutional court that he succeeded in constituting and continuing the exercise of his mandate functions, without being able to complete his full mandate. an almost similar situation arose after the 2019 extraordinary elections, where its organs were created following a procedure questioned by the opposition, with the tendency that the procedure for the election of the top assembly would once again be referred to the constitutional court. members of the assembly of kosovo fail to perform their main function of lawmakers in the name of the common good. their legislative activity is mainly driven by private interests, they are barricaded against group and party interests and there is no concession on the key issues. the ruling coalition has had limited success in pushing ahead with eu reforms and building consensus on key strategic issues for kosovo, but continued political fragmentation and polarization have negatively affected the role of the assembly and affected the effectiveness of the government. frequent absence of parliamentarians from plenary sessions and continued political polarization hampered the legislative activity of the assembly, in particular due to the irresponsible behavior of some parliamentarians involved in the use of tear gas to obstruct the work of the assembly (commission staff working document kosovo, 2018). the exercise of the assembly's political control over the government, in the capacity of the supreme body of representative power, in fact remains one of its most significant weaknesses. this comes as a result of the party's strict discipline over its mps and the executive's determination to impose its will. this is the main reason why one of the main functions of the assembly, which is to exercise its parliamentary control over the government, is not playing its role of a corrective for the executive's actions to the extent necessary and sufficient. the president parliamentary systems, such as that of our country, usually have the functions of the president of the state and the prime minister or the head of government. the duties of the president of the state are usually to represent the country, 97 perform ceremonial duties as an embodiment of state authority, and provide civic leadership as an expression of state identity. under the kosovo constitution, the post of president is largely a ceremonial post (kosovo const. art. v, par. 3), the fact that the president lacks credibility to intervene during political crises and is seen to carry luggage and bias towards the political party, and this seriously weakens institutional controls and balances. pursuant to article 4 paragraph 3, it is emphasized that the role of the president of the republic of kosovo is not endowed with executive powers, i.e. he is a symbolic leader of the state who plays a representative role at home and abroad and does not exercise executive power (kosovo const. art. v. par, 3,4). however, the president of the republic of kosovo may possess and exercise certain discretionary powers that may be associated with certain political interference as an arbitrator or constitutional guarantor, which will be dealt with in this study. moreover, the president of kosovo is a guarantor of the democratic functioning of the institutions of the republic of kosovo, in accordance with the constitution and is a permanent representative of the state. its role can provide additional continuity and stability to the state, enable more inclusive representation, act as a figure of national unity, and can moderate political conflicts. the procedure for the election of the president of the republic of kosovo is regulated by the constitution of kosovo and law no. 03 / l-094 on the president of the republic of kosovo. since the first post-war parliamentary elections (2001) to date, kosovo has had five presidents. their election has been marred by institutional crises and numerous political bargains, and the constitutional court has 'cared' for the termination of both of them, whose judgments remain controversial today (kdi, 2015). the first president of the republic of kosovo was mr. fatmir sejdiu, from the democratic league of kosovo. he was elected to the post after three rounds of voting, with 80 votes in favor, 12 against and 17 abstentions, on february 10, 2006 (kosovo const. art. 91, phar. 1,2,3). he failed to complete his mandate after he stepped down as president on september 27, 2010, following a constitutional court ruling that found sejdiu had committed a serious violation of the constitution by holding the post of president of the democratic league of kosovo and the president of kosovo, though the post of dlk chairman was frozen. following the resignation of mr. sejdiu, from the post of president of kosovo, in order not to cause institutional vacuum, the acting president until the election of another candidate, was appointed mr. jakup krasniqi, who was from the democratic party of kosovo, was in the position of speaker of parliament. on february 21, 2011, the assembly of kosovo elected president, mr. behgjet pacolli from the new kosovo alliance party. this decision of the assembly of the republic of kosovo, at the request of sabri hamiti and some other members of parliament, was overturned by the constitutional court of kosovo in its decision, 'clarification of judgment in case no. ko 29/11 (constitutional court, ko 19/11). on february 21, 2011, the assembly of kosovo elected president, mr. behgjet pacolli from the new kosovo alliance party. this decision of the assembly of the republic of kosovo, at the request of sabri hamiti and several other deputies, was overturned by the constitutional court of kosovo in its decision, 'clarification of judgment in case no. ko 29/11 (constitutional court, ko 29/11). following the constitutional court's decision, on 4 april 2011, mr. behgjet pacolli resigned from the post of president of kosovo. this post was held for the second time by mr. jakup krasniqi, president of the assembly of kosovo. he was first appointed to the post last year, following the resignation of president sejdiu. this court, in its judgment, declared the decision of the kosovo assembly of 21 february 2011 to appoint behgjet pacolli as president unconstitutional and declared it invalid as of march 30. according to her, the 34 deputies of the democratic league of kosovo (dlk) and the alliance for the future of kosovo (afk) were entitled to the submission, because voting in the session did not have the proper quorum (two-thirds of the assembly total) and there was also no opposition to pacolli as prescribed by the procedure for electing the president, which violated the country's constitution (constitutional court, ko 29/11). atifete jahjaga was the joint candidate of dpk, dlk and ank alliance for new kosovo, based on the agreement reached between the leaders of these three political parties, under the mediation of the us ambassador to pristina, christopher dell. on april 7, 2011, with 80 votes in favor, the assembly of kosovo elected former kosovo police deputy director general atifete 98 jahjagan to the post of presidents, while her deputy, ank member of parliament, suzana novobërdaliu, received only 10 votes, 10 more were invalid. hashim thaçi is president of the republic of kosovo, elected on february 26, 2016 in the assembly of kosovo. he was elected president of kosovo, with 71 votes, only after the third round of voting in the assembly, following the failure of the first and second rounds of his election as president. the process of electing mr. thaci for president in the kosovo assembly was followed by dramatic events. in the assembly, the process of voting for the new presidency continued with only 83 mps present after the opposition was expelled from the session after numerous violent tear gas incidents. opposition supporters, meanwhile, began clashes with police, throwing molotov cocktails at them. meanwhile, police responded with tear gas and pressure water (gashi, 2016, 26 february). executive power is exercised by the government, with the prime minister in charge. after 2008, elections were held for the assembly of kosovo, where the democratic party of kosovo emerged as the most voted. after 2008, different types of governments were formed, but none of these governments succeeded in completing their full mandate. thus, during this period, we can speak of an unstable situation with regard to the executive. already in the first phase there were allegations of election fraud, leading to a repeat of elections in a number of constituencies, resulting in the formation of a coalition between the pdk and the akr, as well as a number of smaller parties. the agreement to form a government between the two parties included a powersharing agreement, where the leader of the new kosovo alliance, mr. pacolli would be elected president and thaçi would continue as prime minister (kdi, 2018). after the constitutional court found that the election of mr. pacolli as president was irregular and unconstitutional, due to the lack of necessary quorum in parliament during the voting procedure (ldk and the rest of the opposition boycotted the session during which pacolli was elected), the ruling coalition did not break down, as mr. pacolli was elected deputy prime minister. the discontent over the functioning of the government began as a result of a number of failures on the national front (visa liberalization with the eu) and the start of negotiations on normalizing relations between serbia and kosovo, with eu support. the engagement of prime minister thaçi and pdk in these negotiations led him to become less and less engaged in governing the country together with the coalition. at the same time, allegations of corruption and abuse at high levels of government were increasingly spread by opposition, independent media, international actors and nongovernmental observers, further damaging the seemingly broad base of popular support that pdk enjoyed in 2007 (kdi, 2018). although the exact motives for thaci's decision to disrupt the coalition and call for early elections are not known. at this time, from his behavior and that of the dpk, it was clear that the continuation of the coalition with pacolli and new kosovo alliance party was considered politically harmful (kdi, 2018). the circumstances that led to the creation of the mustafa government in 2017 were the circumstances that arose after the kosovo assembly elections. following the announcement of the final results of the elections held on june 8, 2014, according to the publication of the central election commission, the democratic party of kosovo pdk, together with the smaller parties in the coalition, received 222,181 votes or 31.38% and as such was the winner in this election. opposition parties, the democratic league of kosovo ldk, the self-determination movement lvv, the alliance for the future of kosovo aak and the initiative for kosovo, formed a postelection coalition, then known as the vlan, stating that they had a majority in the assembly and were aiming to win the post of president of parliament and the formation of the government. a coalition that has kept political and social life locked up for more than six months and only after the constitutional court's ruling came to this unblocking. the pdk-ldk coalition was created in 2014, after a long period of institutional blockade and uncertainty created after these elections. the creation of the 'mustafa government' appeared to have come as a result of bargains and negotiations with many unknowns, which led to the emergence of subsequent crises that aggravated kosovo's political life and directly influenced the consolidation of its democracy. in 2016, thaci left the government, where he had served as deputy prime minister and minister of foreign affairs, to become president. 99 in 2016, thaci left the government, where he served as deputy prime minister and minister of foreign affairs, to become president. the pdk president, mr. kadri veseli, who held the post of speaker of the assembly of kosovo, had an important role in his party, but not in the 'mustafa government'. in early 2017, he began a series of conversations with citizens to hear their concerns about the work and direction of government. mr. veseli's tour later resulted in a no-confidence motion against the government in parliament, which passed with the support of all opposition parties as well as dpk mps, leading to the fall of the mustafa government, making it go once again early elections. although the 2017 parliamentary elections brought about a major electoral overthrow, as the vetevendosje movement emerged as the most voted party in the party plan, they failed to influence the creation of a new government. the so-called pan coalition, consisting of pdk, aak and initiative for kosovo, won the elections. only three months after the june 11th elections, this coalition managed to form the new government and kosovo to have its own government. on september 9, this winning pdk-aak-nisma coalition became possible only after the support given by behgjet pacolli's new alliance for kosovo (akr) party, and all minority mps including the serbian list. sixty-one of the 120 members of the assembly voted for ramush haradinaj's cabinet. with a small majority, against a very strong opposition, haradinaj's government could only survive until june 2018. when haradinaj told the media and coalition members the reason for his resignation, he said that he had received the resignation invitation from the special court, in the capacity of a suspect, although there were no reports as to whether an indictment had been filed against haradinaj (fokus, 2019, 19, june). weaknesses in the exercise of government have emerged in all government mandates, from the first, the thaqi government to the last, haradinaj. these governments were unable to overcome the ongoing internal tensions within the coalitions created by the hostility of the parties within it. the internal contradictions and short time of governance made them never fulfill their government program. "moreover, the complexity of political bargaining with office control, the main object of such talks has also led to a rapid increase in the number of parties in government, the number of deputy prime ministers, the number of cabinet ministries, and the number of deputy ministers. with the current government of twenty-one ministers, the small country of two million inhabitants boasts a larger cabinet than germany's" ((fokus, 2019, 19, june). 5. conclusions the challenges that kosovo faces in consolidating democracy are many and varied, including the ongoing process of state-building that requires the engagement of the entire political elite, whether in opposition or in government, for radical reform. harmonious and adequate functioning according to the constitutional provisions of the basic state institutions, adequate choice of policies in a context where democratic norms do not suffer from the opposition of individuals to use the lack of adequate constitutional remedies in the creation of individual authority. despite an advanced degree of democratic stability that has been booming in recent years, it cannot be said that kosovo has met the conditions necessary for the consolidation of democracy. perhaps, what can be said for sure is that kosovo has successfully passed the stage of democratic transition. the performance of these three institutions should focus on removing the difficulties and problems described above, trying to make their competencies work, harmonizing efforts to ensure a strong rooting of democratic governance, in the country's political landscape at all levels. particular attention should be focused on co-operation and harmonization of actions between these democratic institutions, enhancing institutional capacity to adapt with the social forces that lead to the development of the country. as the consolidation of democracy depends on the exercise and empowerment of these institutions, the deepening of institutional cooperation is crucial in making important decisions for the state, in the ultimate control of decision-making by complementing and balancing adherence to international standards and recognized procedures as well as has a greater response to local values and forms of political legitimacy. the arguments presented above, which in many cases are part of the public debate, i believe, are sufficient evidence that basic constitutional institutions are failing to perform their key constitutional functions in the name of the common good. their constitutional activity often transcends the interests of the individual himself and the political groups of origin, despite pressure from local and international public opinion. the progress report presented by the european commission states that the assembly should substantially improve its work as a forum for constructive dialogue and political representation, but also to ensure proper checks and balances. furthermore, the assembly lacks the powers and capacity to effectively oversee the agencies / bodies reporting directly to it. in most governments, as was the case in the latter, in 2017, the political parties created coalition governments with national priority eu integration and other international institutions. but instead of realizing the national priorities presented, it came to the division of spheres of influence between the ruling coalition, which directly affected the weakened position of the prime minister in the capacity of person 100 in charge of the cabinet on the one hand, and the encouragement of corrupt practices within the particular government spheres on the other hand. the end of government in 2019 was characterized by disagreements between the prime minister and the speaker of parliament, who was the leader of the largest party in government, which contributed to the destabilization of the political process in the country which led to the holding of extraordinary elections. references 1. aristoteli. 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https://d4d-ks.org/wp%20content/uploads/2018/05/d4d_elections_11_shq%20web.pdf https://d4d-ks.org/wp%20content/uploads/2018/05/d4d_elections_11_shq%20web.pdf https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=3702 https://gzk.rks-gov.net/actdetail.aspx?actid=3702 https://www.dw.com/sq/kosov%c3%ab-ramush-haradinaj-jep-dor%c3%abheqje-t%c3%ab-parevokueshme/a-49655224 https://www.dw.com/sq/kosov%c3%ab-ramush-haradinaj-jep-dor%c3%abheqje-t%c3%ab-parevokueshme/a-49655224 https://www.dw.com/sq/kosov%c3%ab-ramush-haradinaj-jep-dor%c3%abheqje-t%c3%ab-parevokueshme/a-49655224 73 does graduating from madrasa make it easier to cope with life’s challenges? an exploratory study with madrasa graduates in kosovo muhadin gashi ¹* mehmet şanver 2 ¹ bursa uludag university, department of philosophy and religious studies, muhadin_6@hotmail.com *correspondent author. 2 bursa uludag university, department of philosophy and religious studies, msanver@uludag.edu.tr article history: submission 13 december 2022 revision 10 february 2023 accepted 24 april 2023 available online 30 april 2023 keywords: madrasa graduates, religious coping, life. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.399 a b s t r a c t alauddin madrasa has played an important role in albanian society since its foundation until today. madrasa graduates have a respectable place in society and as such have always been close to the people in the most difficult days. however, despite the contribution that madrasa graduates make to society, no one has been interested in their welfare. in other words: how do they cope with the challenges of life? the aim of this paper is to study the religious coping of madrasa graduates. to achieve this goal, a survey was conducted with 300 madrasa graduates. a construct measuring religious coping was adopted from the literature. data were analysed using spss ver. 27. all mean scores obtained as a result of the research show that the level of religious coping of madrasah graduates is high. this indicates that madrasa graduates generally are coping quite well. the madrasa has prepared them well for the life challenges that graduates face. in light of these findings, the paper discusses the impact of studying in a madrasa and the lessons it teaches its graduates. 1. introduction life is full of financial and spiritual difficulties and difficulties. life, which is full of difficulties, pushes people to struggle to cope with these difficulties. coping is a form of response to life's adversities and challenges, which is reflected in human behavior. the concept of coping can be explained as behavioral and emotional reactions exhibited in order to control the environmental and internal desires and conflicts and to minimize life tension (folkman and lazarus, 1985). the values that people have are an important factor that provides support to people in coping with the difficulties of life. among these values, religion is seen as the most effective factor in coping with difficulties. therefore, the institutions in which religious values are acquired and their effects on individuals are worth examining from this perspective. religion holds significant influence in the lives of numerous individuals (ano and vasconcelles, 2005). religion offers people a variety of ways, such as prayers, rituals, religious/philosophical books, and religious ceremonies, to achieve a variety of goals, such as meaning, comfort, intimacy, self-actualization, psychological well-being, and spiritual fulfillment (tarakeshwar et al., 2003). for muslims, religion forms the core of their identity, irrespective of their level of religious devotion or affiliation with any particular religious organization (hassan, 2007). faith holds great significance in their lives, and even individuals who are not devout practitioners still possess some level of belief and faith. islam is a comprehensive religion that encompasses all aspects of life, including spiritual, social, economic, political, and familial dimensions. it is viewed as a complete way of life that does not compartmentalize religion from other spheres of existence (hamdan, 2007). religion is taught formally in all education levels. in the high school level, the religious islamic school is called madrasa. the word "madrasa" comes from the arabic root "derase" and means "the place where the lectures are held and the building where the student sits and gets lectures" (hızlı, 1987). in its literal usage in mailto:muhadin_6@hotmail.com mailto:msanver@uludag.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.399 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1317-6385 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8710-4459 74 arabic, the term "madrasa" refers to any type of school, whether religious or secular, and can be applied to educational institutions ranging from primary schools to universities (cochrane, 2016). in kosovo, the islamic religious personnel receive their training from two main educational institutions: the alauddin secondary school madrasa, which was established in 1951 and is one of the oldest islamic religious schools in the country, and the faculty of islamic studies, which is a private institution (hamiti et al., 2017). the alauddin madrasa was named after its founder, alauddin bey (kasumi, 1988). alauddin madrasa currently operates as a high school institution providing islamic education in kosovo and has been accorded the status of a general high school. its operations have been overseen by the ministry of education-science and technology of kosovo since the year 2000. the institution adheres to the curricula approved by both the kosovo ministry of education and the presidency of the islamic union of kosovo. the diploma awarded upon completion of studies at the madrasah is considered equivalent to those earned from other high schools (ahmetaj, 2016). regardless of profession or religion, everyone faces difficult times and challenges in life. this paper aims to examine how people who have graduated from the alauddin madrasa deal with life's challenges. specifically, the purpose of this paper is to understand the religious coping of madrasa graduates, as the lessons they take away from the madrasa are used to look at life from a different perspective. in other words, madrasa graduates are expected to have a high level of religious coping. 2. literature review many people cite religion when asked how they handle their most stressful situations (pargament et al., 2000). therefore, it is seen that studies on the role of religion and religious education in coping with the difficulties of life have increased. two assumptions underlie the study of religious coping. first, it is assumed that all people face difficulties and changes that challenge them beyond their own abilities and trigger a dynamic coping process that can be distinguished from both the triggering event and the consequences of coping. second, it posits that the person is a proactive agent in coping, having many alternatives and choices and an a priori orienting system (harrison et al., 2011). studies have shown that those who use positive religious coping techniques have less depression, anxiety and worry (ano and vasconcellos, 2005). religious thought is found to be the most important strategy used to cope with illness (koenig et al., 1992). many individuals turn to religious coping during times of stress and find it to be a valuable source of support. religious communities can provide social support, a sense of purpose and meaning, and a framework for understanding and accepting life events (pargament, 1997). in contrast, a study by hebert et al. (2009) found that negative religious coping, i.e., feeling abandoned by or anger at god, predicts worse mental health and life satisfaction in women with breast cancer. a study on “a study on the interaction between religious coping and hope, life satisfaction and resilience” was conducted by veysel uysal et al. (2017). in the study aiming to examine the relationship and interaction between religious coping and hope, life satisfaction and resilience in adults, it was found that life satisfaction, hope level and resilience had a positive and significant relationship with positive religious coping; it was concluded that there is a negative and significant relationship with negative religious coping. (uysal et all, 2017). another study, "life events and religious coping", was made by sema eryücel (2013) as a doctoral thesis. an analysis of the findings of this study indicates that positive and negative forms of religious coping produced significantly different results. in positive and negative religious coping one’s image of god, one’s perception of an experience as a punishment or as a learning experience, and one’s openness to help from other people or the lack thereof, and the degree to which one was happy with one’s fellows were all found to be determinative factors. these factors were also found to relate to the degree to which one was pleased with one’s life, the effect of life events in positively or negatively affecting the individual, and the increase in or lack of one’s awareness. the perspective from which life events were viewed was found to be of the utmost significance in crisis management, more so than the nature of the life events themselves. negative religious coping was also found to produce insignificant or even negative effects in the resolution process. (eryücel, 2013). neslihan can, on the other hand, made a study called "an evaluation on religious beliefs and values that create resource to coping behavior" in 2019. in the study, as a theoritical research, it was conducted on coping, god, the hereafter, faith in fate, worship and values; and then, the relationship between these beliefs and values and coping behavior was tried to be determined. (can, 2019). also, for an evaluation of research on 'religious coping', the study titled "an evaluation of research on 'religious coping' in turkiye" by süleyman abanoz can be viewed. (abanoz, 2020). 75 3. methodology 3.1. data collection data for this study are collected electronically using the survey method. the questionnaire was prepared in google forms and the link was shared online. first, we have met with the chief imam of kosovo and we have asked him to help us collecting the data. after that, we have met with the directors of the madrasa in prishtina and prizren. finally, we have met with the mufti of prizren. we have shared the link and have asked these officials to share the link among imams, employees working in islamic community of kosovo. we have also shared the link in facebook and asked people who have graduated from the madrasa to complete the questionnaire. we also shared the link with imams and people we knew had graduated from the madrasa via whatsapp and viber. we first have added a screening question to exclude participants who have not finished a madrasa. a total of 300 completed questionnaires were received. table 1 shows the demographic data of the sample. 3.2. measures since the aim of this study was to measure the degree of coping with life challenges, we adopted ayten's (2012) scale. this scale was first developed by pargament, koenig, and perez (2000) and adapted for the turkish context by ayten (2012). the turkish version consists of 9 factors and 33 items. these items are measured on a likert scale ranging from "1" = i am not happy at all to "5" = i am very happy. 3.3. statistical analyses to analyze the data, we used spss ver.27. first, we presented the frequency and percentage distributions for the demographic variables. then, we provided the mean scores for each item to examine the coping level of the madrasa graduates. then, we conducted a reliability and validity analysis to examine whether the scale is reliable and valid. 4. results in this section, we have provided the results from the survey. table 1. demographic data of sample (n=300) variable frequency percentage gender male 214 71.3 female 86 28.7 age 20-30 53 17.7 31-40 124 41.3 41-50 61 20.3 over 50 52 20.7 marital status single 28 9.3 married 272 90.7 education graduated from madrasa 50 16.7 bachelor’s degree 163 54.3 master’s degree 67 22.3 doctorate degree 20 6.7 graduated madrasa alauddin main madrasa in prishtina 144 48.0 alauddin madrasa in prizren 108 36.0 alauddin madrasa in gjilan 48 16.0 graduation year before 1980 14 4.7 1980-1989 47 15.7 1990-1999 37 12.3 2000-2009 119 39.7 2010-2019 77 25.7 after 2020 6 2.0 table 1 summarizes the demographic data of the sample. most of the participants, 71.3%, are male and only 287% are female. most of the participants, 41.3%, are in the age group 31-40 years. 90.7% of the participants are married. 54.3% of the participants have completed undergraduate studies after madrasa. 48% of the participants graduated from the madrasa in prishtina, 36% of them in prizren and 16% in gjilan. of the participants, 39.7% graduated between 2001-2009. 76 table 2 provides the descriptive statistics for the religious cope scale, including the minimum value, maximum value, mean, and standard deviation. as can be seen from the table, the mean scores for each statement are quite high. this means that the madrasa graduates are coping well with life’s challenges. except for the last mean values, all other mean values are above 4. the participants strongly agreed with the statements. therefore, we can say that madrasa graduates have a high level of religious commitment. table 2. descriptive statistics for the religious cope scale min. max. mean std. deviation i repent of my sins. 2 5 4.85 0.382 i ask forgiveness from allah for the bad things i do. 3 5 4.84 0.391 i ask allah for help to remove my anger and rage. 3 5 4.90 0.318 i try not to commit too many sins. 1 5 4.80 0.479 i try to be closer to allah. 4 5 4.94 0.244 i pray to allah not to lead me astray. 4 5 4.94 0.244 i feel that allah is with me at every moment. 4 5 4.95 0.211 i try to worship. 3 5 4.91 0.303 i say that allah knows best what is best for me. 4 5 4.96 0.188 i say that the end of sabr is salvation. 4 5 4.95 0.225 i see what happens to me as a test from allah. 3 5 4.80 0.425 i say, in every evil there is a good. 3 5 4.88 0.339 i think what happens to me will increase my spiritual side more. 3 5 4.65 0.506 i stay away from religious people. (r) 1 5 4.29 0.838 i withdraw from the religious people around me. (r) 1 5 4.43 0.753 i think my fellow believers do not support me. (r) 1 5 4.22 0.850 i pray to allah that things will be put in order. 2 5 4.79 0.449 i struggle with my feelings without asking allah for help. (r) 1 5 4.43 1.213 i pray to allah to solve my problems. 1 5 4.83 0.471 i ask my friends and relatives to pray for me. 1 5 4.63 0.670 i argue with the imams. (r) 2 5 4.16 0.779 i consider my life as part of a great spiritual power. 2 5 4.36 0.625 i give alms. 3 5 4.58 0.558 i am looking for a new way that turns away from what i think is wrong. 1 5 4.37 0.876 i try to create a new life by returning to religion. 1 5 4.39 0.775 may allah not test anyone with what happened to me. 1 5 3.59 1.586 i wonder if allah loves me or not. 1 5 3.63 1.702 i believe that allah has abandoned me. (r) 1 5 4.82 0.562 i am angry with allah because he does not answer my prayers. (r) 1 5 4.89 0.518 i wonder if i committed a sin to deserve what happened. 1 5 3.27 1.274 i believe that allah is punishing me. (r) 1 5 3.40 1.349 i hope that allah will give me another chance after what happened to me. 1 5 3.93 0.987 i pray that allah will give me a new purpose in life. 1 5 3.87 1.032 table 3 shows the results of reliability and factor analysis. out of 33 items, 6 items were removed from the analysis due to their low loadings. eight factors were extracted from 27 items in the factor analysis. the reliability coefficient cronbach's alpha is 0.717, which shows that the scale is reliable. kmo test = 0.816 shows that the data set is very good to proceed with factor analysis. the factor structure differs from ayten (2012). the first factor consists of six items. the first four items are from the return to allah factor of ayten (2012) and the last two items are from the second factor of ayten, fatigue to do good. although most of the items are from the return to allah factor of ayten (2012), these items are specifically about feeling the presence of god in every moment and every situation. therefore, this factor is referred to as piety or taqwa. the second factor consists of three reversed items. these items are grouped under the same factor by ayten (2012). therefore, this factor is referred to as religious invocation. the third factor consists of four items. these items are grouped under different factors from ayten’s (2012) structure. the first item belongs to the factor return to religion. the second item comes from the spiritual dissatisfaction factor. the third item is from the fatigue from doing bad factor and the last item is from the religious pleading factor. in this study, we labeled this factor as religious invocation. 77 table 3. results of reliability and factor analysis component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 i feel that allah is with me at every moment. 0.794 i try to be closer to allah. 0.779 i pray to allah not to lead me astray. 0.763 i try to worship. 0.750 i say that allah knows best what is best for me. 0.685 i say that the end of sabr is salvation. 0.532 i stay away from religious people. (r) 0.859 i withdraw from the religious people around me. (r) 0.842 i think my fellow believers do not support me. (r) 0.759 may allah not test anyone with what happened to me. 0.809 i wonder if allah loves me or not. 0.770 i wonder if i committed a sin to deserve what happened. 0.589 i struggle with my feelings without asking allah for help. (r) 0.534 i consider my life as part of a great spiritual power. 0.714 i give alms. 0.642 i ask my friends and relatives to pray for me. 0.627 i argue with the imams.(r) 0.532 i ask forgiveness from allah for the bad things i do. 0.826 i repent of my sins. 0.799 i ask allah for help to remove my anger and rage. 0.732 i hope that allah will give me another chance after what happened to me. 0.850 i pray that allah will give me a new purpose in life. 0.838 i am angry with allah because he does not answer my prayers. (r) 0.835 i believe that allah has abandoned me. (r) 0.753 i say, in every evil there is a good. 0.761 i see what happens to me as a test from allah. 0.539 i think what happens to me will increase my spiritual side more. 0.508 kmo 0.816 total explained variance 67.889 cronbach’s alpha for 27 items 0.717 the fourth factor consists of four items. these items are grouped the same as in the factor of ayten (2012). this factor is named as religious alignment. the fifth factor consists of three items. these three items are from the first factor of ayten (2012) and are about returning to allah with repentance. therefore, this factor is referred to as return to allah. the sixth factor consists of two items. these items are the same as in ayten’s (2012) factor search for a religious path. the seventh factor consists of two items identical to ayten's (2012) spiritual dissatisfaction factor. therefore, this factor is referred to as spiritual dissatisfaction. the last factor, the eighth factor, consists of three items. these items come from ayten's (2012) second factor and refer to having a good attitude towards life events. therefore, this factor is referred to as humility. 5. conclusions used to capture the coping levels of the graduates, and the findings indicate that the graduates exhibit high levels of religious coping. this finding is important because it highlights the contribution of the madrasa to the lives of the graduates, as it equips them with basic knowledge about religion and life. moreover, research has shown that individuals who use religious coping strategies have less stress and worry in life. the high reliability and good validity of the religious coping scale used in this study provides confidence in the accuracy of the findings. additionally, the factor analysis revealed eight factors, which could be further explored to better understand the specific dimensions of religious coping among madrasa graduates. these findings have important implications for the role of religious education in promoting mental health and well-being among individuals. the alauddin madrasa, as a traditional islamic educational institution, offers an alternative source of support for individuals who are experiencing stress and hardship in life. as such, it is recommended that the madrasa continues to provide quality religious education and support for the community. furthermore, this study provides a basis for further research on the relationship between religious education and coping strategies in other traditional islamic institutions. future studies could explore the role of other factors, such as gender, age, and socioeconomic status, in religious coping among madrasa graduates. such research could contribute to a better understanding of the factors that influence coping strategies among individuals and inform the development of interventions to promote mental health and well-being. references 1. abanoz, s. 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(2013). yaşam olayları ve dinî başa çıkma (life events and religious coping), ankara üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü (yayımlanmamış doktora tezi). ankara. 8. folkman, s & richard, s. l., “if it changes it must be a process: study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination”, journal of personality and social psychology, 48/1 (1985). 9. hamdan, a. (2007). a case study of a muslim client: incorporating religious beliefs and practices. journal of multicultural counseling and development, 35(2), 92-100. 10. hamiti, x. (2017). islam in kosovo: the current state of affairs and the way ahead. euxeinos, 23, 38. 11. harrison, m., koenig, h. g., hays, j. c., emeakwari, a. g., & pargament, k. i. (2001). the epidemiology of religious coping: a review of recent literature. international review of psychiatry, 13(2), 86-93. 12. hassan, r. (2007). on being religious: patterns of religious commitment in muslim societies1. the muslim world, 97(3), 437. 13. hebert, r., zdaniuk, b., schulz, r., scheier, m. (2009). " positive and negative religious coping and well-being in women with breast cancer." journal of palliative medicine 12(6) (2009 june): 537-545. 14. hizli, m. (1987). kuruluşundan osmanlılara kadar medreseler, uludağ üniversitesi i̇lahiyat fakültesi i̇lahiyat dergisi, 2(2), 273-283. 15. kasumi, haki, bashkësite fetare në kosovë, priştinë, 1988. 16. koenig, h.g., cohen, h., blazer, d., pieper, c., meador, k., shelp, f., goli, v., dipasquale, b. (1992). " religious coping and depression among elderly, hospitalized medically ill men." the american journal of psychiatry (1992). 17. pargament, k. i. (1997). the psychology of religion and coping: theory, research, practice. guilford press. 18. pargament, k. i., koenig, h. g., & perez, l. m. (2000). the many methods of religious coping: development and initial validation of the rcope. journal of clinical psychology, 56(4), 519-543. 19. tarakeshwar, n., pargament, k. i., & mahoney, a. (2003). initial development of a measure of religious coping among hindus. journal of community psychology, 31(6), 607-628. 20. uysal, v., kaya göktepe, a., karagöz, s. & i̇lerisoy, m. (2017). “dinî başa çıkma ile umut, hayat memnuniyeti ve psikolojik sağlamlık arasındaki etkileşim üzerine bir araştırma” (a research about the relationships and interactions between religious coping, hope, life satisfaction and psychological resilience), marmara üniversitesi i̇lâhiyat fakültesi dergisi, 52, haziran 2017, 139-160. 83 the migration policy of iran and turkey from past to present and migration governance in the context of migrants kerim karadal, phd. c. ¹* mortaza chaychi̇ semsari̇, phd. c 2 oğuz keskin 3 ¹ uludağ university, institute of social sciences, management and organization, kerimkaradal@gmail.com *correspondent author. 2 istanbul university, political science and public administration, alimortezacaycisemsari@gmail.com 3 haci bayram veli university, political science and public administration, aliyar43@yahoo.com article history: submission 19 november 2020 revision 10 december 2020 accepted 25 january 2021 available online 31 august 2021 keywords: migration, migration management, migration governance, iran, turkey. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.258 a b s t r a c t the phenomenon of migration has been one of the important factors affecting and shaping the lives of countries and societies throughout history. in this respect, the evolution of immigration in its historical process has become a policy that is more carefully followed by countries today. so much so that the phenomenon of immigration has ceased to be based simply on economy around the world and has become a threat to the security of countries with the change of migration trends. in every period of its history, iran and turkey have been a country of immigration for various reasons. migration management and humanitarian fields are discussed in the article. in recent years, the issue of migration has been increasingly on the international agenda and is now seen as a very important issue for all governments; in terms of iran, immigration management has become an issue that needs to be dealt with comprehensively and systematically in recent years for immigrants from countries such as iraq, afghanistan and pakistan, and for turkey, those coming from syria, afghanistan and iraq. as a result of the intensification of migration movements in the world, the two countries have become more sensitive to the issue of migration in order to improve their migration management and make the necessary arrangements. in this study, migration management, migration governance, migration and development, regulation of migration, social integration approaches and models of immigrants are examined under two separate headings. the relationship between the mother country iran and turkey, immigration and identity policies in this area will be read and the consequences of this process on the immigration policies of these countries and its impact on countries will be examined and analyzed. 1. introduction the phenomenon of migration has become one of the important factors affecting the life of societies and states over time and especially in recent times. therefore, the evolution of migration should be well known. the phenomenon of migration, which has become affecting the security of states with its rapid increase in addition to its economic basis, also leads states to cooperation with the power of internationalization. therefore, it is useful to see migration as a tool that affects the order of states rather than displacement. the fact that migration is a multidimensional and complex phenomenon on its own brings up migration management. as well as the internationalization of migration, it requires good implementation of migration management (management) by the states. otherwise, the negative effects of mass migrations carry the risk of causing disruptions in the internal functioning of states and social turmoil. the aim of this study is to focus on the migration management(s) of turkey and iran, two neighboring countries that have ties with the transformation of migration into an international form. in the first part, information about the https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:kerimkaradal@gmail.com mailto:alimortezacaycisemsari@gmail.com mailto:aliyar43@yahoo.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.258 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3891-8429 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6639-8945 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7116-4534 84 conceptual framework of migration will be given. then, in the last part, which will focus on the internal and external migration of turkey and iran, the migration management(s) of the two countries will be mentioned. 2. the conceptual framework of migration the phenomenon of migration manifests itself in different definition ranges. the temporal evolution of these intervals includes a politicized integration from economic conditioning to citizenship bond. while this disclosure about the phenomenon of migration does not have any effect on the economic level for the immigrating states at the beginning, it is possible for the immigrants to integrate into the countries they go to, to form a super-ego etc. points to the necessity of legal changes. in this respect, the evolution of the phenomenon in a full understanding actually leaves countries in a dilemma about which aspect (political, social, physical, religious, cultural, economic and security) they should approach the phenomenon of migration. "guest worker programs" to the phenomenon of migration, which was seen economically in the 1950s (yükseker, 2018) is known to be based on. on the other hand, the mass influx of people coming from colonial countries to the west, after a while, combined with the cultures of the immigrants of the western countries (just as algerian music is accepted in france and rock music is accepted in the world) caused them to meet. castles and miller collect the general migration trends in the world under four headings (2008: 12): first, on the globalization of migration. countries are affected by immigration problems with different social, economic and political backgrounds. the second is the acceleration of migration. international migration movements are increasing in the world. this increase is affected by government policies. the third is the differentiation of migration. labor migration, migration towards refugees or permanent settlements diversify migrations. therefore, it creates an obstacle for political mechanisms in the national and international arena. finally, there is the feminization of migration. an important part of the immigrants, especially since the 60s, is women's mobility in the field of labor, and this situation is increasing with the effect of globalization. those who argue that the internationalization of migration has become a complex and set of problems (miller and castles, 2008; göksel, 2019) there are also those who think that it should be viewed from a positive perspective (akhtar, 2018). according to those who see it as a problem, they argue that the internationalization of migration will cause a different hybridization in the social codes and cultural structures of the countries, and therefore countries will have political difficulties in overcoming this. as a matter of fact, chambers (2014) argues that the masses flowing from underdeveloped countries to developed countries create "occupation areas" in many places from the entertainment concept to the cities of the countries they come from. in this respect, the problem of international migration becomes a situation that requires attention in all political areas of the countries, and it highlights the issue of decision-making mechanisms to take more effective measures on the problem of migration. among these problems, it is seen that more importance is given to security today. turkey's exposure to mass migrations since 2011 and iran's large border geography have caused these two countries to become more sensitive to border security and internal security issues. according to haj hosseini (2006), the fact that migration has become a security problem affects the fragmentation of national unity. on the other hand, due to political instability and successive political tensions, the lack of a comprehensive governance umbrella, the migration problem takes an international form for countries (akhbari and mohammad, 2009). the fact that immigration has become an international national problem shows its effect mostly on nation states. in this direction, today, nation-states are changing their policies in order to eliminate or reduce the threat of migration. on the one hand, globalization and european integration, on the other hand, the decentralization phenomenon pushes nation-states to take legal measures on migration (özer and keskin, 2019). as a matter of fact, akhtar emphasizes that some variables are effective against the immigrants in the receiving states. these; the nature of the existing community, the period and way of migration, historical ties, the size of cultural differences and the physical characteristics of the immigrant (2018: 20-1). in this context, migration emerges as a type of multiculturalism (eagleton, 2011: 78). this feature of migration creates a compelling situation on nation states such as turkey and iran not only in cultural and social terms but also in education and politics. the occurrence of cultural and social problems for those fleeing the syrian war and coming to turkey and the creation of their own living spaces in turkey are important in that they represent a typical example of this. on the other hand, lahsaeizadeh (1989) argues that not only different cultural norms and values of migration are introduced from outside, but also the adaptation process begins when immigrants encounter different social environments, and this is significant in terms of integration. the national and internationalization of migration also enables new integration models, subcultures or different forms of imposition (sexual policies, artistic combinations, strategic migration policies) with the citizens of the destination country and countries. therefore, it is seen that a "political positivism" is needed for countries, since the evolution of the phenomenon is better analyzed and supported by local policies, without placing the phenomenon of migration in a simple framework –limited definitions at the legal level. governments and states are heading 85 towards difficulty in controlling the growing wave of immigration in a globalized time. the mixing of blood ties, the use of immigration as a political power, the fluidity of the global economy and the migration movements that come with it cause cracks in the ethnic structures of the countries and cause problems in security issues. 3. domestic and external migration in iran and turkey the gap created by globalization and decentralization due to decentralization has many positive developments for countries such as achieving a better life, emphasizing individual rights, improvements in health systems, expansion of freedom of travel, increase in population, spatial growth of socialization, as well as the displacement of the increasing population, labor migration due to capital mobility, volatility in taxes, illegal immigration movements, uncertainties in the situation of immigrants who have become settled in the political arena, the construction of new hybrid cultures that have moved from the economic to the political, from the ethnic field to the social sphere, and the challenges that must be confronted, especially for nation states. brings with it. in this respect, the fact that immigration is internal and external has made it necessary for countries to produce policies to reduce tensions in legislation and social areas. iran's integration into the global capitalist system, especially the eco-politics of oil and rural-urban migration has further increased its importance. in this context, the country has been experiencing difficulties in directing internal migration since the 1960s. some of these challenges include improving the situation of immigration-receiving cities, reducing tensions between social movements and ethnic identities, and the recognition of those who are starting to settle in oil and commercial areas and trying to find low-paid jobs with residents. the period between 1966 and 1986 is considered as the change in iran's economic and social structure and the beginning of rapid urban migration. on the other hand, due to the increase in the population and the number of cities, there has been a significant increase in migration from city to city and it has become dominant in favor of immigrants. while the migration to the cities, which increased significantly between this period, tended to be between cities, it turned to intraprovincial migration in the short term (ershad and mina, 2010; mahmoudi and abdullah 2004). over the past few decades in iranian history, the fundamental transformation of the social structure and productive forces has formed the basis of migration. in a short period of time, the trend of social life of several thousand years has undergone serious changes and dramatic changes. these developments have caused significant differences for iran with its unique historical past and new eco-politics. for example, the growth and expansion of capitalist relations coincided with the increasing role of oil in iran's political economy. the adoption of new laws along with the modernization process strengthened the basic basis of migration. this was followed by the introduction of a compulsory military service system, forcing their children to study in primary schools, and the establishment of new government offices and institutions. as a result of the fall of reza shah, the migration of some of the rural population to the cities accelerated. meanwhile, the centralized planning process in the country helped transform cities into points of attraction and population concentration (aslani, 2006; afrough, 1998). after the 1979 islamic revolution, the economic, social and political development process focusing on cities, especially big cities, continues to be an influential factor for migration. in this period, the number of provinces with negative rural population growth rate increased from 11 provinces in 1991 to 25 in 2011, indicating that this inequality exists not only in rural areas but also in wider geographical areas. over the last few decades, the proportion of the country's rural population has declined, with the country's urban population rising from 31.4% in 1956 to 71.3% in 2012, followed by a decline in the country's rural population from 68.6% in 1956 to 2012. it contributed to the decrease to 28.7% (bozan, 2017; iman, 1999; i̇rmelo, 1984). the islamic republic of iran, more than any other country in the region, is faced with the phenomenon of immigrants on a large and continuous basis. in order to cope with this phenomenon, the system puts serious emphasis on border security with the development of the country's border. due to the oil fields in the region, iran receives serious migration from neighboring countries in terms of manpower. illegal immigrants (afghan and iraqis) constitute the majority of these migrations. on the other hand, since iran has an important position in the transition to the west, it constitutes an important pillar of human migration. in this respect, the consequences of immigration on border security in iran are much more important. for this reason, the iranian administration focuses more on the problem of illegal immigrants. illegal migration has various positive and negative effects in iranian cities and political areas in terms of economic, administrative, administrative and sociological aspects. it puts great pressure on regional integrity, welfare and social development, compliance with human rights and international standards, national health and safety, the development of international cooperation, and especially security, and requires enormous costs to control borders. in the last hundred years, population movements in iran have had a significant impact on the increase in migration flows into the country. today, economic, educational and social factors in iran are seen as the main factors that create migration from countries neighboring 86 iran. due to the active role of migration in the redistribution and effect of the population in iran, different social, economic and cultural parameters of different regions of the country include the main components of migration in population studies. according to the results of the 2011 population and housing census, according to the results obtained from spatial dimensions, distribution and spatial preference reasons, alborz, tehran, isfahan and gilan and khuzestan, kermanshah and marat, larsat, marat and lars are the most sought after by immigrants and the most influx of immigrants. it stands out as the iranian cities where it is located (mahmoudi, mushfeq and kazemipour, 2012). according to the results of the 2011 population and housing census, according to the results obtained from spatial dimensions, distribution and spatial preference reasons, alborz, tehran, isfahan and gilan and khuzestan, kermanshah and marat, larsat, marat and lars are the most sought after by immigrants and the most influx of immigrants. it stands out as the iranian cities where it is located (mahmoudi, mushfeq and kazemipour, 2012). according to the 2011 census, a total of three million people immigrating to the country is equivalent to 56% of the intraprovincial migration, this rate is equivalent to 1.8% of the immigrants imported from turkey (especially after the iran-iraq war there was a wave of migration from turkey). (ardhaei, hosseini, 2013). about 50% of the migrations within the country are based on familial migrations. among the causes of internal migration in studies on internal migration; the share of education stands out as the most important factors with 13.2% and 7.6% of access to suitable housing (iran statistics center, 1996). network migration is a form of the gradual spatial displacement of groups of people between two relatively distant geographic regions due to the existence and expansion of relationships between members and families of potential immigrants with relatives. the socioeconomic characteristics of the immigrants are very effective in ensuring the network migration from east azerbaijan to tehran. the weaker the immigrants are compared to their counterparts, the more they tend towards network migration. illiterate people with basic education and in the movement, unemployed, farmer, single, and those with low to moderate financial status are more likely to apply for network migration (khomeini, 2013; haj hosseini, 2006).in the land management plan, which is related to the management and planning of population density and distribution, iran benefits from network migration in preparing the ground for attracting influential people who can play a leading role and directing the network to sparsely populated areas by taking the necessary precautions (ardakani, 1985). the share of immigrants entering tehran is still the highest, but its share declined from 28.4% in 1999 to 19.8% in 2009.the desire to immigrate to tehran declined in 2009. however, immigration to gilan province is increasing. the number of immigrant provinces increased from 15 in 1996 to 16 in 2017 (iran statistics center, 2006; 2011; 2018). in turkey, when we classify the history of migration as internal and external, the basis of internal migration is mostly the break from economic, education, security and agricultural areas. it is understood from the laws enacted that external migrations were based on the same religion, language and blood ties – at least until 2011, this was the case. until the last ten years, turkey has faced more internal migration. in this respect, it would not be wrong to say that the country has not entered into an adequate legal regulation on immigration. demirhan and aslan state that until 2013, it is impossible to talk about the existence of the institutional structures that turkey has fallen upon in the management of migration in the field of migration. in addition, it is stated that until 2013, there was not a healthy migration management process in turkey with scattered and insufficient institutionalization in migration (kara and dönmez kara, 2016). internal migrations vary depending on the country's economic development, social understanding, political thought, and religious structure. in addition, since internal migration occurs in the form of settlements from rural areas around the city, internal migration movements in the country are in the form of agglomeration. the focus of the capital in a certain area, the weakness of political thought, and the inadequate measures of the city administrations on migration are what triggered this fainting. therefore, the internal migration movement in the country contributes to disrupting the balanced growth and unhealthy development in urbanization. this situation causes the socioeconomic developments in the country to progress negatively. knowing and managing the effects of immigration on countries requires knowing the effects of immigration on cultural, economic, political and religious elements. in this respect, when we look at the urbanization of turkey, it is necessary to look for the effects of internal migration in the gaps in the city administrations and the change in the understanding of urbanization. because when we look at the urbanization of turkey, it is seen that the internal migration in the east-west axis that has been continuing since the 1950s has been deprived of a circular expansion as in iran. the weakness of the underground wealth has an important role in this. however, the fact that the migration movement was unidirectional and the lack of capital fluidity brought about the concentration of the labor market in certain places, and thus allowed the emergence of a systematic 87 migration for the immigrants, although not for the management. in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, when the migration became systematic, it is seen that those who migrated to the west established new living areas based on fellow townsmen and carried the culture of the place they came from there. it is striking that those in the political spectrum, which enables these new living spaces to become widespread, approach the issue in the context of vote and power. as a matter of fact, it is known that there are associations and foundations formed by those who migrated to big cities. in this way, it is easier for people coming from a certain region to gather around this association and foundation on the axis of solidarity to transfer their own culture to big cities, and by this means, big cities become more complex and difficult to manage. the wave of liberalization that started in turkey since the 1980s showed its effect in a short time and had an impact on internal migration gaining weight in favor of the city. in 1985, the urbanization rate increased by 53.03%, surpassing the rural population rate for the first time. beginning from this date, the rate of migration to cities has been on a continuous increase. as of 2021, the urbanization rate in turkey has reached 93% (tuik, 2021).if we make a brief summary of the urban-oriented nature of internal migration in turkey, we see that the quality of education is better in the cities, the capital does not go out of the big cities, the flow of work migration to the big cities, the mechanization of rural areas and the terrorist incidents that started especially since the mid-1980s.since the 2000s, due to the fact that foreign capital has preferred certain places due to globalization, internal migration events have continued to occur around the centers of important big cities. the phenomenon of migration in turkey, like iran, contains tensions within itself. although it is seen that the turkish nobility is at the center of these tensions, since 2011, turkey has become a country that receives mass immigration as a result of the war in syria. faced with a migration flow based on turkish nobility from the foundation of the republic to the end of the 1990s, turkey has the provisions included in the settlement law no. 2510 dated 1934.therefore, the country's understanding of external migration was generally based on "blood ties" until 2011. it is possible to examine the external migrations to turkey under three headings. the first is the migrations from the balkans, which started with the first world war, and were formed by the turkish nobility. in the settlement law no. 2510 dated 1934, it is stated in the law that those who will immigrate to turkey are only for turkish nobles. the second is the 1950s, which started when turkey signed the geneva convention and became a member of nato. with this agreement, turkey stated that it would respond to the refugee demands from the member states of the council of europe and limited its migration policies in terms of security. the last one covers the migration movements from the balkans (the share of conflicts is large) that took place in the 1990s (örselli and babahanoğlu, 2016). it is seen that the general weight of the external migrations to turkey is from the countries of the same religion and region. in this context, turkey's first mass exodus of oil was in 2011.starting from these years, the problems in the placement and distribution of immigrants fleeing the war in syria within the country where they came to turkey in the first period also shows the inadequacy of turkey in migration management. it is understood from the studies that the preferences of immigrants coming to turkey to come to the country are economic, religious, proximity to the region they migrated to and security-oriented. in a study conducted in zonguldak in 2016, mostly iraqis, the participants stated security as the reason for leaving their country at a rate of 82.2%. security-related reasons were followed by political reasons with 7.3%, economic reasons with 6%, and religious reasons/sect with a rate of 2.8%. the reason why the participants chose turkey is that turkey is close to the region by 42.5% and living conditions are better at a rate of 26.3%. turkey's election rate for religious reasons is 6.9% (sankir et al., 2016). migration needs to be managed in order to ensure that migration movements function properly and to prevent problems for states and societies. otherwise, it is inevitable that unrest will arise between the irregular arrivals and the societies of the countries they go to. with the world turning into an age of migration (castles and miller, 2008), the question of how to overcome the management crisis is also sought for an answer. 3. migration management in iran and turkey it is important for the states to control the migration movements regularly, to register the arrivals and to direct them through the necessary institutions. because, in which periods and how incoming migration movements were made, the depth of cultural differences, the relations of the immigrants with the residents are related to helping the states, especially nation-states, to overcome the problems that they will fall into. for this reason, there are certain elements for the management of migration (altunok, 2017). first, there is the issue that immigration has become permanent. while the social tensions remained at a minimum level due to the fact that turkey's previous out-migrations mostly had the same language, religion and culture, serious problems arising from the migrations from syria show that turkey's migrations will become permanent. on the other hand, it is important that the migration movements in iran are permanent in 88 terms of afghans and pakistanis. after the occupation of afghanistan by the former soviet union and the start of the civil wars, large numbers of afghan refugees flocked to the islamic republic of iran. khorasan provided aid and accommodation for 300,000 afghans between 1980 and 2001.an organization called the afghan affairs coordination council was established under the khorasan governorate to manage these immigrants. it continues in coordination with the governor's office and the ministry of internal affairs, general directorate of citizen affairs. the second element is that immigration has now become a public phenomenon for states and governments. accordingly, border security in migration is supported by public power. third, it is thought that there is a need for a separate expertise in the public bureaucracy in terms of the language of legislation and international nature of the countries. issues such as the conditions under which immigrations to stable and economically developed or developing countries will be accepted or rejected, and to what extent cultural hybridity will be accepted, are proportional to the bureaucratic functioning of the legislation. fourth, countries now support the idea that immigration should be approached with a focus on internal and external security and that states should establish the necessary security to maintain their existence. the rate of involvement in crime of immigrants coming to the country and attempts to establish a criminal organization due to the formation of a new super-ego are evaluated within this element. the fifth element is the idea that the policies to be produced in the field of migration are directly linked to other fields in facilitating and coordinating migration management by countries. therefore, the control of migration within the central and local administrations requires an effective organization. migration management starts with various practices and legal regulations before immigrants enter a country. then, meeting the basic needs of the newly arrived human communities after migration and ensuring their integration with the existing society are also evaluated within the scope of migration management (kabakuşak, 2014).therefore, migration management describes the process consisting of a national system with stakeholders, including public institutions, which institutionalize the regular and coordinated management of those coming from across the country in accordance with the internal structure of the country (aktel and kaygisiz, 2018). since migration management requires coordinated measures in terms of border control, transparency, asylum legislation and work permits for foreigners, clarification of legal immigration regulations, strengthening and control of borders, implementation of penal policy in combating migrant traffickers and international cooperation is given due attention in iran. it requires national and international cooperation to take certain measures in each of them. comprehensive evaluations are made on migration, especially with the countries of the region. however, it is known that those who enter the country illegally in iran cannot be fully controlled. in addition, factors such as economic, judicial, cultural, educational and political justice increasingly affect the level of interaction in many different areas such as class conflict, occupation in urban areas, education level and practice, freedom of thought and expression, cultural, artistic and sports programs (bozan, 2007). 2017; foreign citizens affairs, 2001). according to georgi (2010), migration management aims to achieve four main goals: maximizing the economic growth potential of migration facilitating the legal migration of tourists, students and legal labor migrants, combating unwanted and illegal migration and controlling forced migration, helping refugees and displaced persons. in order to control regular and irregular migration in iran and to ensure its coordination within the country, the presidency, the ministry of foreign affairs, the ministry of interior and its affiliated foreigners and foreign immigration affairs bureau (bafia works in coordination with the united nations) and the foreign nationals organization commission, provincial foreign citizen organization commission they cooperate with the governorship of khorasan, where afghans live heavily and become permanent, and with the governorships of other cities where immigrants are concentrated, in the management of migration. in this context, some of the duties undertaken by bafia, which was established in 1980, are as follows: to implement the necessary policy and coordination with relevant institutions and organizations to prevent the uncontrolled entry and exit of foreign nationals and immigrants; supervising, controlling and conducting the legal affairs of foreign nationals, including marriage, citizenship, acquisition, dispute resolution, employment; to supervise and follow the works and cultural activities of the political organizations of foreign nationals; issuing or renewing the identity documents and movements of refugees and examining their residence documents, compiling files, registering and creating database and statistics; to organize them in order to prevent social security and legal consequences due to their presence in cities (third development plan law, refugee provisions art. 48);in order to serve the refugees, it cooperates on certain issues such as interacting and cooperating with international organizations to attract international facilities and funds, especially in the united nations high commissioner for refugees, other foreign organizations and non-governmental organizations and international charities (foreigners and foreign immigrants) (bureau, 2021, http://www.tehranatba.ir/). a new agency established in 2018 under bafia is the "national immigration http://www.tehranatba.ir/ 89 organization". the reason for the establishment of this organization has been expressed as focusing on the affairs of foreign nationals, immigrants and refugees, as well as policy making, managing, planning, monitoring, organizing and communicating effectively with international institutions and organizations. while performing the duties and powers of the organization and the duties of the executive organs, the forms of cooperation are determined by law. the organization is organized at the central general directorate level. provincial and district duties are carried out by governorships. the ministry of interior is preparing the draft on the establishment of the said organization together with the mission of the organization together with the administration and employment organization in the country and other institutions related to the affairs of foreign nationals (ansari, 2018). national immigration service; the representative office consists of the regulatory commission, care camps, financial management, socio-political management, administrative affairs office and illegal immigrants management office. the duties of some of these offices are as follows. socio-political management is in the most important position. among the duties of this office; providing legal and social services to iranian citizens and foreign nationals such as marriage registration, citizenship and acquisition; collaborating with international organizations dealing with refugee issues to obtain funding and financial assistance; to follow the needs of immigrants in various fields such as education, technical and vocational, welfare, health and literacy; inspecting cultural centers and organizations of operating afghan parties and aid organizations; to submit performance and reports on the activities of the general directorate of citizenship affairs to the relevant authorities; meeting with the participation of representatives of international institutions and officials of official institutions related to the return of foreign nationals to their countries, organizing seminars and conferences. among the duties of the illegal immigration management office are; carrying out and supervising administrative affairs related to illegal foreign nationals; to follow up on matters related to the return of illegal citizens to their country of origin; to coordinate with the provincial police directorate on arrest plans (illegal immigrants); there is monitoring of employment of foreign nationals. with the increase in migration movements in the international arena, it has brought important effects on the states in the management of migration. these effects include education, language, religion, culture, security, unemployment, and different lifestyles. refugee influxes in turkey, especially in the post-2011 period, necessitated studies on migration and migration management. in this respect, it can be said that a more systematic migration management has been adopted in turkey since 2013. after the general directorate of migration management (general directorate of migration management) was established in 2013 with the law numbered 6458, migration affairs were transferred to this unit and organized by this unit in 81 provinces of turkey. the main duties and powers of the general directorate are listed in article 104 of the relevant law. some of those; developing business and processes to achieve compliance processes; to identify stateless persons in turkey and to carry out business and transactions related to these persons; to establish combat activities against irregular migration and to ensure the necessary coordination by both law enforcement units and relevant public institutions and organizations; to take existing measures by establishing migration managements (örselli and babahanoğlu, 2016). on the other hand, it is necessary to look at the migration policies board, which was established in 2013 with law no. 6458 in migration management within the general directorate of migration management. the board, which includes high-level representatives of the bureaucracy, also includes the director of the general directorate of migration management. this committee is chaired by the minister of interior. the representatives in the board are representatives of the ministries of family and social policies, foreign affairs, interior, culture and tourism, national education, health, the president of turks abroad and related communities, and the director general of migration management. when necessary, representatives of relevant ministries, national-international institutions and organizations and non-governmental organizations may be invited to the meetings of the board. increasing economic and political power and stable structure in recent years have made turkey a center of attraction for regular and irregular migration movements. on the other hand, iran's positive relations with europe in nuclear agreements, oil agreements with china, and investment commitment of 400 billion dollars to enter the country, provided that it spreads over a 25-year period with china, make iran more attractive in terms of immigration. this situation will lead to more cooperation with the countries in the region in dealing with irregular migrations in iran.in addition, iran aims to reduce the internal fragility of migration by making the necessary legislative arrangements on irregular migration. however, iran still has not made any headway on irregular migration. it needs international and regional cooperation in this regard. because iran, like turkey, has problems in harmonizing internal and external migrations. the existence of irregular migrants is still not resolved for both countries. therefore, some of the irregular migrants choose turkey as a transit country, while others work as illegal workers and use it as a destination country. this is also true for iran, and it brings up economic, social, cultural and demographic issues as well as urbanization, public order and security for both countries. some of the features that deniz (2014) identified regarding irregular migration towards turkey are valid for its neighbor iran. first; increasing political conflicts and uncertainties in neighboring countries have 90 increased the desire of the citizens of these countries to go to a safer, oppression-free and better living conditions. secondly, turkey's geographical structure makes the country attractive to transit migrants (deniz, 2014). migration is an issue that generally concerns the central governments of countries. however, it is certain that cities and city governments are among the places most affected by migration. the capacities of cities are being challenged and even overflowed with migrations. in this respect, the environment and nature of cities also cause new and uncertain situations and urban crises between residents and immigrants. turkey, which is on the migration routes due to its geographical structure, is greatly affected by this situation. certain places in the districts of some cities began to be remembered by those who fled the syrian war and came to turkey. those who settle here bring their own living spaces and protect their language, belief and family structures and prevent them from disappearing into the settled people. the "areas of occupation" that chambers refers to are the result of such an event. in turkey, important problems arise in cities where there are syrians, where there are trade and job opportunities, and in border cities (erdoğan, 2018; ertan and ertan, 2017). in iran, some initiatives have been made for immigration, especially in cities.it was aimed to decentralize the cities, especially the big cities that are exposed to more immigration, to prevent the formation of large urban complexes within the city and the capital, and to play an important and effective role in the prevention of rural migration as a result, but due to the indifference of the city administrators, a reverse process was carried out. today, the important cities of iran, such as the city of ilam, face many problems such as suburbanization, haphazard construction in the fabric of the city, lack of stability, inappropriate planning of the municipalities have left the city administrators in a difficult situation and led to the dissatisfaction of the citizens and the instability of the city. it is stated that if a solution to these problems cannot be found, a network of cities affected by the crisis will be encountered in the not too distant future (ebrahimzadeh and fatemi, 2014; irandost and amini, 2011). 5. conclusions migration, by its nature, is a phenomenon that affects not only those who move, but also the lives of residents. this effect seems to be felt more by the states now. it is the effect of increasing mass migration in recent years that provides this visibility. although these mass migrations are the most affected, they do not only affect countries such as iran and turkey, but also regions and the world. therefore, systematic management of migration requires extensive cooperation. the healthy functioning of this cooperation is primarily possible if the states manage migration management well. turkey remained far from a regular migration management until 2013.the reason for this is that turkey has not met with mass migrations – not counting those of turkish descent. i in 1991.migration that started from iraq after the gulf war, from bosnia between 1992-1998, from macedonia in 2001, and finally from syria in 2011, forced turkey to produce a policy on migration management because the numbers of the masses that started to come from syria exceeded millions. with its establishment in 2013, the issue of immigration resulted in a single handicap. due to its geographical and strategic location, iran, like turkey, has remained at the center of mass migration as a country that both receives and sends immigrants. 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(ed. n. k. bilen). istanbul: i̇thaki, pp.242-253. available at https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/issue-fullfile/58765 https://www.amar.org.ir/ https://www.amar.org.ir/ https://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/516102/ https://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/516102/ https://www.academia.edu/10369263 http://acikerisim.lib.comu.edu.tr:8080/ http://www.imam-khomeini.ir/fa/c78_79577 http://www.imam-khomeini.ir/fa/c78_79577 http://www.lib.ir/book/54403871 http://ensani.ir/fa/article/229948 https://www.magiran.com/volume/62838 https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/58288218 https://books.google.com.tr/books?hl=tr&lr=&id=cdp3dwaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pp1&dq=%c3%96zer+m.+a+ve+keskin+o.+(2019) https://books.google.com.tr/books?hl=tr&lr=&id=cdp3dwaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pp1&dq=%c3%96zer+m.+a+ve+keskin+o.+(2019) https://books.google.com.tr/books?hl=tr&lr=&id=cdp3dwaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pp1&dq=%c3%96zer+m.+a+ve+keskin+o.+(2019) https://www.academia.edu/24557474 https://data.tuik.gov.tr/bulten/index?p=adrese-dayali-nufus-kayit-sistemi-sonuclari-2020-37210 https://data.tuik.gov.tr/bulten/index?p=adrese-dayali-nufus-kayit-sistemi-sonuclari-2020-37210 http://www.tehranatba.ir/ https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/issue-full-file/58765 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/issue-full-file/58765 84 positioning african women for the fourth industrial revolution (4ir) era: insights for women students onoriode collins potokri university of johannesburg, department of education leadership and management, cpotokri@uj.ac.za article history: submission 22 november 2021 revision 18 january 2022 accepted 02 march 2022 available online 30 april 2022 keywords: fourth industrial revolution (4ir), women students, 4ir skills, conceptual research methodology, empowerment theory. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.281 a b s t r a c t this conceptual research paper seeks to understand how african women can be empowered for relevance in the fourth industrial revolution (4ir) era. it is fastened on a scoping review which served as data and the empowerment theory that served as the lens – theoretical framework. the insights of the paper for women students infer that stem skills are critical for anyone to be relevant in the 4ir era and women students are underrepresented in that field, however, they should be hopeful if they are studying courses relevant to decision making science and humanities which 4ir era benefits from. further to this, it reveals that learnings about the 4ir instil the consciousness of hope and fear in women about the opportunities the era brings. in conclusion, the paper emphasis that the views of 4ir critics of it promoting or widening inequalities and unemployment in the 4ir should not be taken for granted and for that reason empowering women with education especially the type of education that addresses the future is a necessity. 1. introduction women are the under-researched dimension of the fourth industrial revolution (4ir) debate. this conceptual research paper awakens our thinking about the positioning of women particularly african women for the 4ir era and insights that can be gained for the good of women students especially those in higher education institutions. the rationale and assumptions that warranted this paper are three namely: (1) every industrial revolution stage comes with its unique focus and goals (schwab, 2016). (2) skills required for the 4ir are not necessarily the same with the previous era (reaves, 2019). (3) women risk being left behind in the 4ir era (adams, 2019; mahlatsi, 2020). for many researchers across the world, the ‘new normal’ ideology that is made popular by covid-19 is an eye opener to expectations of the fourth industrial revolution era – an era that many are yet to know much about perhaps accept. the fourth industrial revolution is indeed the ‘new normal’ – without it, the new normal itself is impossible. the new normal which include on-line teaching through zoom, ms teams and other medium, increase in number of people working from home and emergence of different work careers to mention a few are important focus for critical thinking for the sake of improved opportunities for women particularly for african women including those studying in higher education. critics of the fourth industrial revolution argue that the era is likely to worsen global unemployment and inequality (world economic forum, 2018). so, my consideration in this paper would be related to evidence or scholarship that points to positioning african women for the fourth industrial revolution era and then my question would be how can they be equipped for relevance for the 4ir era specifically to avoid them been left behind or deepen inequality? 2. background industrial revolution is described as event(s) that transform human lives and history (dean & spoehr, 2018). every emergence of a new stage of industrial revolution signals the arrival of a new future. currently, we talk of the fourth industrial revolution. meaning that the first, second, and third industrial revolutions have come and gone. but are they really gone? no, because they are still in one form or the other part of the fourth industrial revolution and our lives. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:cpotokri@uj.ac.za https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.281 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0850-1761 85 history have it that industrial revolution started in the late 18th century when science and technology advanced to improved people’s standard of living. advanced science and technology come with numerous benefits for mankind. with it, is the decrease in death rate following improved medical science and facilities. by extension, it paved way for rapid population growth. on the contrary, its demerits include hazardous changes it brought upon the environment. as balliester and elsheikhi (2018) proclaim, these are proponents of change, such as climate change and demographic change, which will affect the number of jobs available and opportunities in the future. some experts in their analysis argue that the first industrial revolution is just the first of four events that have taken the world by storm in a similar way. the transformation of the second industry (second industrial revolution) took place with the advent of conventional lines and the transition from steam to electricity about a century ago. the turning point of the third industry (third industrial revolution) was the advent of personal computers and the internet. anderson (2018) makes clear that the 4ir is basically about the introduction of physical and digital systems, as well as advances in intelligence and machine learning. the 4ir steers at us because global debates around it seems to be heating up like never. this is warranted by its noticeable impact and effects on different aspects of the human live. its presence for instance is predicted to change job landscape and dimension for different sectors. moreso, as schwab (2016), twinomurinzi and ismail (2018) and corfe (2018) put it, the 4ir will free more time for humans to spend with family and for leisure to address workloads and activities that does not afford majority of the workforce time for family. karr, loh and andres (2020) policy brief suggests that 4ir will lead to job loss for many people due to automation. already in the usa, jobs are quickly lost and automated, leaving many people without the opportunity to work in their chosen field (frey & osborne, 2017). in their work, burns and church (2019) identified the mining sector as one of the most vulnerable to 4ir. precisely, they argued that coal mining is no longer a robust industry employing hundreds of thousands of people; instead, self-driving trucks are being programmed to autonomously extract the resource with greater efficiency. 3. problem statement and research question it is well established that 4ir like other stages of industrial revolution can improve life, health, safety, and connection for everyone (see ndung’u & signé 2020). however, according to madgavkar, manyika, krishnan, ellingrud, yee, woetzel, chui, hunt and balakrishnan (2019), women are more likely to perform unskilled tasks that are automated. consequentially, they are likely to be the majority with job losses, that is, without jobs. the worst scenario should be expected for women in africa region or context where biased culture and religion towards them negatively impact on their work lives, job and educational opportunities. equally so, is the situation of women residing in hi-tech places and countries because they are under-represented in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (stem) – academic fields or studies that significantly power the 4ir. munoz-boudet and revenga (2017) whose study was conducted in the usa underpin that there are only 35% of women undergraduates earning a degree in stem. statistical data from their study shows that only one in seven women with a stem degree is working in the field of stem. with these issues or challenges that women are faced with, it becomes imperative to think of how women particularly the african woman who is confronted with multiple challenges can be positioned perhaps equipped to be relevant in the 4ir era. to this end, this paper seeks to answer two questions: (1) how can african women students be empowered for relevance in the 4ir era? (2) what are the insights for women students from the positioning of women for the 4ir era? 4. methodology my world view for this paper is the interpretive paradigm – “a philosophical stance that concentrates on investigating and exploring the social world to gain a better understanding of a phenomena” (gray, 2014). with the paradigm, i was able to unravel the reality of the circumstances within a particular contextual environment (babbie, 2017) and made sense of the 4ir particularly in understanding of how african women/ african women students can be positioned or empowered for relevance in the 4ir era. this paper is inclined on/to conceptual research methodology. consultores (2020) describes conceptual research as a process where research is conducted by reviewing and analysing current information on a given topic. thus, the analysis of an idea does not involve conducting any experimental analysis, and therefore, it is associated with an idea. further to this, it allowed me to explore a new and complex phenomenon – the 4ir with limited available information (see blumberg, cooper & schindler, 2014). conceptual research methodology relies mainly on secondary data. in other word, it is a non-empirical paper. for this reason, and with the use of scoping review, literature centered on the 4ir and skills for 4ir was focused on to generate required reviews that served as data. in short, the data collection approach used was a scoping review. 86 colquhoun, levac, o’brien, straus, tricco, perrier, kastner and moher, (2014) describe a scoping review as a type of knowledge synthesis that addresses an exploratory research question directed at mapping main ideas or concepts, research findings and gaps linked to a specified field or subject area through the systematic search, selection, and synthesis of current state of knowledge. like in some recent studies (e.g., wessels, 2020; fan, tscheng, hamilton, hyland, reding & trbovich, 2019), scoping review is used in this paper to gain a comprehensive understanding of the 4ir which agrees with the assertions of arksey and o’malley (2005) and levac, colquhoun, and o’brien (2010). they argue that scoping review helps in providing an overview of an emerging phenomenon, defining concepts, and addressing broad research question(s). as required of researchers who intend to use scoping reviews, i embarked on a comprehensive and structured review of literature to extract appropriate information, provide reproducible results, and minimize potential harm or bias through improper implementation (see sucharew & macaluso, 2019). 5. theoretical framework in framing my understanding of the phenomenon and to be able to make a concluding remark which, serve as response(s) to research question declared at the onset, i relied on the empowerment theory. the theory describes “the psychological concept of people feeling a sense of control and independence” (kalso, 2019, p. 1). empowerment is necessary to break many dichotomies affecting women: personally, in the family, and in the body; they can also be social, ideological, collective (fetterman & wandersman, 2007). change and power are two concepts or terms that are fundamental to empowerment theory. in other word, amongst several issues that empowerment is concerned with and thus promote, are directing and redirecting change and power for the overall good of person(s), groups and institutions. cattaneo and chapman (2010) note that empowerment is a way of acquiring power. they were assertive that “an increase in power is an increase in one’s influence in social relations at any level of human interaction, from dyadic interactions to the interaction between a person and a system” (cattaneo & chapman, 2010). the main target of empowerment must be women, mostly lowincome adult women, in a climate of justice and social change despair. (segale, 1999). empowered women should be able to stop unwanted activities, change ongoing activities, and create new perspectives and future (stromquist, 1995) and at least they should provide solutions to their problems because only them can set their goals and agenda. (nnaemeka, 2005). given that, this paper concerns itself with women and the 4ir, balkar’s (2015) underpinning of empowerment being an important response to the rapid developments and changes in technology and knowledge is worthy of note. this concurs with moran’s (2015) writing which points to empowerment as something that gives people and professionals ideas of responsibility and therefore help them to make a meaningful contribution to their organisations or at their place of work. 6. literature review 6.1. women and the 4ir women make up over half of the population of the world. approximately, two-thirds of the 175 million illiterate youth are women. sub-saharan africa is one of the two regions in the world with the highest population density and many who are women participate in the labor force (bonnet, vanek, & chen, 2019). statistically, about 40% of women in africa countries, for example ethiopia, malawi, niger, nigeria, tanzania and uganda are usually found in some sorts of agriculture work – unskilled positions in the lower rungs of the economy (christiaense & demery, 2018). the peculiarity and association of african women more to illiteracy and unskilled jobs over the years have been identified as gender injustice and social injustice (chiweshe, 2019). recognizing these facts as we enter the 4ir era are necessary and important for the right steps towards the positioning of women for relevance in the 4ir era. to achieve this, the issues that promote gender inequalities must be addressed. having understood education as a powerful tool required for women in the 4ir era, walker, pearce, boe and lawson (2019) suggest that we need to be proactive in tackling the root causes of gender inequity and to deal with the different barriers that keep females and women out of school. by so doing, the platform, terrain and atmosphere that can inspire them for the world of school and work is made better and for their good especially when one takes into consideration that some fields are traditionally male dominated. according to mascherini, bisello and leston (2016) and balliester and elsheikhi (2018), if the educational barriers facing women are overcome and they make inroad or progress in their numbers in male dominated fields, then we can expect them to reap from the benefits of the future and the 4ir. despite the male dominance of certain fields such as sciences and digitisation – the cores of the 4ir, the support for the presence of women in the labour market in general observed throughout the 20th century shows encouraging numbers and trends (andrade & carvalho-neto, 2015). increase in women involvement in the labour market is propelled by the mechanisms of self-esteem, self-efficacy, purpose, and sense of belongingness which further aid their competitiveness in work environment (spinelli-de-sa, 87 lemos, & cavazotte, 2017). importantly, certain policies and situations in countries have led to their increase in workplace. a good example is the structural adjustment policy and programmers in nigeria in the 1980s. the affirmative policy in south africa is also helpful in increasing the number of women in workplace. in spite, of these increases, women are still underrepresented in almost every sector of the economy except for designated domestic fields that are traditionally regarded or set aside for women. with these scenarios, it is apparent that most women are yet to attain their potentials. according to ndlovu (2019), if women do not achieve their full economic potential, the global economy will worsen, and half of its population will contribute less than half of its productivity. to this end, ndlovu stresses that as africa navigates the shifts that 4ir convey, we will see equal opportunities following digital change, which will as well articulate how we can enhance access to ensure that women and girls are empowered to participate in the coming transformation which is here already. according to hirschi (2018), we are already seeing the emergence of 4ir effects, most notably is job disappearing at workplaces due to automation. this is the case of the banking sector and garment/clothing making industry in south africa. thousands of people, women especially lost their jobs between 2019 and 2020. covid -19 further exacerbated the situation. this should not be surprising as earlier study of international labour organization (2016) conducted in asia predicted that more than 80% of garment, textile and apparel manufacturing jobs in the continent will be lost because ‘sewbots’ are replacing humans in factories. in short, digitization and automation will lead to significant changes in the world of work and the way we operate in the next few decades (brynjolfsson & mcafee, 2014; de stefano, 2016). to be abreast with the change, the need to develop skilled workers to enable them to stay in their jobs and add value to their organizations is recommended (ndlovu, 2019). based on the understanding that women are more involved in low-value tasks that require unskilled labour, implies that they can be easily replaced with automation, thus, making them the vulnerable group to loss of jobs in the 4ir era. in hirschi’s (2018) analysis of frey and osborne (2013) popular report, he notes that many jobs in sales, service, office and administrative support, and production might be automated in the nearer future. so, the fear is not limited to unskilled jobs. solace can be drawn from autor’s (2015) view which alienates jobs from total automation. accordingly, jobs have many tasks, many of which may not be easy to automate. as a result, automation often affects some functions, but not others, and is unlikely to eliminate all functions and jobs (hirschi, 2018). the panic signal about job loss that comes with the 4ir must be put to halt because ever since the first industrial revolution, there has been worries that technological advancement will result to unemployment and underemployment (mokyr, vickers, & ziebarth, 2015). such fears have however failed to materialize because people often elect to underrate the emergence and prospect for new jobs following the creation of new occupations and industries (mokyr et al. 2015). dynamic reaction of labour markets to technological advancement and changing needs and providing workers with diverse expertise which of course determine the economic need for automated operation is important for note (hirschi, 2018). in sum, the 4ir, creates structural changes in the world of work, which leads to increase job polarization (autor & dorn, 2013; goos, manning, & salomons, 2009). as hirsch (2018) notes, “job polarization describes the phenomenon where middle-skilled jobs are hollowed out, whereas lower-skilled service jobs and high-skilled jobs increase disproportionately”. this, accordingly, is due to the fact that many middle-skilled jobs (e.g., office administration, machine operation) consist of cognitive or manual tasks that can easily be automated with recent technology because they follow precise and predictable procedures (hirsch, 2018). in contrast, smallscale services (e.g., personal care, cleaning, security) involve many tasks that are easy for people to perform, but are difficult to automate with current technology. on the other hand, professional services (e.g., professional experts, educators, managers) frequently combine and solve creative and complex social interactions that are also difficult to manage. to avoid the consequences that come with this, increasing skills through lifelong learning and further education becomes inevitable (frey & osborne, 2013). 6.2. skills and the 4ir the previous section suggests that different kinds of skills are required for the 4ir era. understandably so because the era itself is new and the future, therefore, the skills are most likely not to be totally the same as in the past – the 20th century. the question to be asked will then be what are the skills for the 4ir era? in other words, what are the 4ir skills? the 4ir skills are those needed for future workplaces and businesses to be effective and efficiently successful. the works of chaka (2020), cotterill (2015), and butler-adam (2018) describe the 4ir skills as global, imperative, and most important future skills that equip workplaces and people. in chaka chaka’s work title skills, competencies and literacies attributed to 4ir/industry 4.0: scoping review, the competencies 88 and skills ascribed to 4ir are generic soft skills such as creativity and problem solving, communication, and hard skills which include programming skills. aside these identified skills, chaka mentions information literacy as a skill of the 4ir but underrepresented and under-cited (chaka, 2020). 4ir skills can be categorized into four namely: intellectual, social, and coping abilities, and adequate academic and discipline knowledge (cotterill, 2015). accordingly, intellectual skills or abilities include problem solving skills like critical and creative thinking to cope with undefined issues. deloitte’s (2018) study which determined the skills necessary for students to participate and succeed in a 4ir workplace notes that youths must familiarize themselves with the 4ir world. further to this, deloitte discloses that 54% of youth had not heard of 4ir, and 39% testified that their schools did not equip them with 4ir skills. grand-clément’s (2017) study of youth aged between 10 and 18 years, categorized the 4ir skills into “digital navigation skills” and “digital skills”. in a different study, the 4ir skills are categorized into four categories namely “ways of thinking, ways of working, tools for working and skills for living in the world” (schleicher, 2012). naidoo (2021) beautifully used what she called a web or multiple interactions – word cloud to illustrate 4ir skills as below: figure 1. word cloud illustrating 4ir skills source: (naidoo, 2021, p. 11) even with the few writings about the 4ir, the future remains uncertain and for that reason skills which display versatility will be profitable and relevant. therefore, the future workforce needs to create self-monitoring abilities, such as time administration, self-discipline, setting goals, efficient life and work balance, and constant learning abilities (cotterill, 2015). given the fact that 4ir is largely technology inclined, it is thus, logical to think of innovation and creativity as aspects that skills must be linked to. to this end, we must acknowledge that as the world economy progresses towards the extensive implementation of artificial intelligence alternatives, rivalry and demand will increase for a workforce with the scarce abilities necessary to execute, handle, and operate alongside the latest technological enhancements (butler-adam, 2018). in addition to the already mentioned skills, hariharasudan and kot (2018) cited in wessel (2020) postulate that intercultural knowledge, advanced technological literacy, and real-life skills will become more and more important in the future workplace. as eberhard, podio, alonso, radovica, avotina, peiseniece, and solé-pla (2017) note, knowing about new technological developments is not sufficient: using them correctly and meaningfully is crucial. same can be said of the 4ir skills. in view of this, reaves (2019) advocates for skills and methodologies as an integrated program that are still rare to be taught by specialists. in his provided examples, it is more common and proper for design thinking to be taught in a design department; for systems thinking to be taught in biology; for entrepreneurship to reside in the business course list instead of a generic approach where some irrelevant courses are taught in some departments. nonetheless, he encouraged crossdisciplinary learning where some essential skills are taught regardless the specialization. these essential skills according to reaves (2019) are needed by nearly everyone in a society because they are profoundly affected by change, including people employed in any field, as well as those who are un-, under-, or pre-employed (e.g., students). 7. discussion as a reminder, reviewed literature served as data for this paper. evidently, data for this paper indicates that women comprise over half of the total population of the world. it is, therefore, logical to stress that the future which does not take into account the empowerment of women and their optimal participation in terms of what the future require – the 4ir will be catastrophic. in the light of this, everything ranging from policy to practice must be done to empower african women for the new future (4ir) because the highest share of women in the workforce globally is found in africa. previous studies, for example, labour and economic development research institute of zimbabwe. (2017) and dahir (2017) establish that 52.8% of african women make up the labour force. these women accordingly are found more in the informal sector and employment. examples of women in informal employment was given as those in nigeria who are involved in parcel and money transfer businesses in some rural nigerian communities (world bank, 2007; un, 2020). more zimbabwe women according to labour and economic development research institute of zimbabwe. (2017) and matsai 89 (2019) are involved in “low hanging fruit” opportunities, which come with quick returns. accordingly, this has seen more women venturing into buying and selling, and less into manufacturing activities which at times require significant start-up capital; resulting in concentration of women in activities that require less capital investment in the informal sector or economy. in ghana, women constitute about 90% of the labour force in the informal economy (ghana statistical service [gss], 2013). most african women in the informal sector are sole proprietors who started their businesses or trade following their hobbies for example cooking, cleaning, care giving etc (peprah, buor, & forkuor, 2019). women tend to be more focused on informal employment, so supporting them is a keyway to reduce women's poverty and gender inequality. with empowerment, they can do their business and work more effectively and efficiently (cornwall, 2016), which obviously will be in line with 4ir trend(s). the fourth industrial revolution promotes globalisation which invariably reduce rurality and increase urbanisation. so, sticking to the informal setting with the view of doing business with only the locals and few people may not be the ideal thing for women to do otherwise they may be irrelevant to the fourth industrial revolution era. it is clear from the data – reviewed literature and the lens (theoretical framework) used in this paper that empowering women is both profiting to them and the society. with empowerment, african women will be made to believe more in themselves because it makes them see possibilities in different options other than the ones that they are used to. with empowerment, they would be able to do same thing or different things differently and in line with current practices and ways. different ways are spelt out or indicated for women relevancy in the fourth industrial revolution era. these ways mainly include education and recalibrating policies. the kind of education for women that defile traditional disciplines for them should be encouraged for them to be relevant in the era of 4ir. failure to purse and promote this agenda will most likely deepen inequality between men and women because more men in comparison to women are found in formal business and in occupations that are more inclined and aligned to the fourth industrial revolution era. through the right kind of education, upskilling and reskilling which data in this paper underline and identify relevant for 4ir is possible. recalibrating policies (policy change) for the good of women in the 4ir era must address barriers that influence women access to finance or capital because it determines the number of women who can start their own business and as well grow the business (see, labour and economic development research institute of zimbabwe, 2017). accordingly, most women remain in informal businesses with no possibility of growth of the businesses because of inadequate capital. in addition, recalibrated policies must also touch on employment of women because there are cases of women with the relevant qualifications and experience, yet they are not employed. munoz-boudet and revenga (2017) beautifully captured this when they noted that despite some women having degree in stem, they are still not employed in that field. 8. insights for women students the insights for women student as this section reflects, help to answer the question: how can women students be empowered for relevance in the 4ir era? in this paper, empowerment of women is exposed as the main vehicle for positioning women for relevance in the 4ir era. one major insight of this paper for women students is the revelation of their underrepresentation in engineering and technology and the importance of stem for the 4ir. this implies that women students must encourage themselves and be encouraged by others including government and institutions to purse courses and career in stem because it is clear in this paper that stem skills are required to be relevant in the 4ir era. however, i wish to stress that stem courses and skills must not be seen as the only discipline or field of study women students must consider and concentrate on to be relevant. no matter how we try to encourage or motivate women students to enrol and purse career in stem, some will still not enrol due to different reasons. the reasons may include lack of interest in stem, incapacitation or lack of ability following their education background, and the kind of institutions and facilities available in their schools etc. for such category of students, they should be hopeful not fearful of missing out in the 4ir because it is apparent in this paper that emotional intelligence and related/soft skills are as well useful and for that reason women students who purse courses and skills in emotional intelligence, leadership, management, and education to mention a few will also be relevant for the 4ir era because of their relevancy to decision making science and humanities which 4ir era benefits from. this paper underpins policy change as a vital instrument that can be used to involve and motivate women to participate in the 4ir era. before the advent of the 4ir era, women and men are known for gender stereotype jobs. this thus suggest that the first, second and the third industrial revolution eras promoted perhaps did not deal with gender stereotype which invariably created or widen gender inequality. on account of that, policy change would be necessary in the new industrial revolution era – 4ir. by policy change, i mean formulation and implementation of new kinds of 90 policy that support women relevance and participation in the 4ir era. with this, women should be included in such policy formulation and implementation. a good example is the integration of women into politics and the ict revolution by rwanda (nsengimana, 2020). with policy change, courageous culture and spaces would be provided. policy change formulation and implementation must involve women. for women to participate in policy change, they must question policy for it is only through that medium that policy change which this paper portrays as one vehicle for the display of their relevance for the 4ir can be fertile. questioning policy in my view is a good means by which the change of mentality needed by women to be relevant for the 4ir as naidoo and potokri (2021) advocated can be achieved. change of mentality require women to be mentally brave to believe in themselves of capable of doing what men can do at workplaces and in any other kind of enterprise including setting up their own businesses. on the part of men, when women question policy especially the ones that concerns their empowerment and for the eradication of gender and social injustices, they must not be seen or regarded as arrogant. this paper points to adaptive attitude/innovative attitude, upskilling and reskilling, and lifelong learning as important concerns and insights for women students. if women including the ones studying are to be relevant for the 4ir era, they must be prepared to adapt to the changes created by 4ir. adapting to change for humans can be very difficult and problematic for many. however, it is important for unlocking the challenges associated with the 4ir. adaptive attitude can be enhanced through upskilling and reskilling which the right type/kind of education can provide. the right kind of education would be cross-disciplinary learning where some essential skills are taught regardless the specialisation because they are needed by nearly everyone in a society (see reaves, 2019). in instances where women students are studying courses that may not be 4ir aligned, they should consider enrolling for elective courses that are 4ir aligned. before the advent of the 4ir, employment opportunities have been dwindling and favour men in comparison with women. in other words, the rate of unemployment shows a continuous increase in africa. this paper shows that acquisition of 4ir skills can make women relevant and as such pave ways for them to do their own businesses because many of them are found in the informal sector. therefore, women students must be hopeful that with the 4ir skills, they can become job creators not job seekers. in sum, when women students are empowered, the narrative is most likely to change to what women can do for the 4ir rather than what 4ir can do for women which places women at the mercy of the 4ir era. 9. conclusions hopefully, this paper proves useful to readers to accept the 4ir as an era that has so much to offer to women. however, the views of critics of it promoting or widening inequalities and unemployment in an era of unprecedented global wealth should not be taken for granted and for that reason empowering women with education especially the type of education that addresses the future is a necessity. the kind of education for women that will make them relevant is that which fits well in terms of skills development and acquisition for the new era and aligns well with emerging jobs or careers not the traditional ones such as secretaries, retail salespersons, waitresses, receptionists, and subsistent farmers that women are identified with or known for. if this is achieved, inequalities gap and women world crashing can be revived and put on the right trajectories. learnings about the 4ir instil the consciousness of hope and fear in women about the opportunities the era brings. hope from 4ir connotes the opportunities that come with the era. this hope will free more time for humans to spend with family and for leisure to address workloads pressures. fear from 4ir presents change in job landscape and dimension for different sectors which will lead to some new kind of jobs created and some kinds of jobs disappearance, thereby, leading to job losses. evidently, in this paper, widen inequalities and unemployment rate increase for women in 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https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/03/the-fourth-industrial-revolution-could-smash-gender-inequality-or-reinforce-it/ https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/03/the-fourth-industrial-revolution-could-smash-gender-inequality-or-reinforce-it/ 1 representation of information and communication technologies (ict) in education-statistical analysis shpresa suli ¹* amra sabotic 2 gentiana sadiku-selimi 3 ¹ south east european university, business and economic, sh.suli@seeu.edu.mk *correspondent author. 2 south east european university, faculty of contemporary sciences and technologies, amrasabo@gmail.com 3 south east european university, faculty of contemporary sciences and technologies, jonki.gent@gmail.com article history: submission 01 march 2022 revision 12 may 2022 accepted 04 june 2022 available online 31 august 2022 keywords: information, communication, technology, education, students, teachers. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.296 a b s t r a c t research “the presence of information and communication technologies in education” is necessary, given that today the integration of these modern technologies is increasingly prevalent, especially since the pandemic, when online learning became the main or even the only way of learning. there are many other benefits that modern technology provides both in general in life and while learning and acquiring new knowledge, providing the possibility of easier and longer-lasting acquisition of knowledge. the focus of this research is to study the situation in high schools and faculties, on how to integrate information technology into the teaching and learning process, as well as to examine the degree of positive impact. the research was conducted in schools and faculties in istok, peja, prizren and presevo. students and teachers were interviewed about the application of ict in teaching, as well as ways of using it. surveys of both students and teachers were conducted through an online questionnaire, using google forms tools. a survey of professors who teach in high schools and colleges was conducted. the questions were open-ended and close-ended. scientific research methods such as comparative, descriptive, and statistical methods were used for the analysis of theoretical data. while the analysis of data collected through the questionnaire is presented in quantitative and qualitative form. we use the regression model to find the relation between the integration of the internet would and ict of knowledge. in the last part, conclusions and recommendations are given, for professors, students/teachers, as well as for the ministry of education, science and technology. based on the collected, processed and analyzed data, we came to the conclusion that ict is insufficiently used in our schools. 1. introduction education is a key starting point that prepares the younger generations for the future, helps them to navigate and use and evaluate the available information correctly. this process begins at their earliest age, at the first encounters with computers, but certainly continues more seriously in school. then an important task is assigned to teachers who must not only convey information, but also teach students how to turn information into knowledge and how to effectively cope with the current technological environment and teach them how to learn. the competence of teachers for such responsible tasks primarily depends on their education and motivation. the great responsibility entrusted to them depends not only on their readiness, but also to a large extent on the economic and political https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:sh.suli@seeu.edu.mk mailto:amrasabo@gmail.com mailto:jonki.gent@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.296 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3692-3483 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6789-6671 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6561-6493 2 image of the entire state. in order for changes in the educational process to start happening more effectively, it is necessary to change the curriculum, make it more flexible and certainly provide the necessary resources for work. if there is no good financial support, it is not possible to successfully conduct classes with the implementation of information and communication technologies. likewise, if there is not enough educated staff, the necessary conditions are not provided. achievements in educating young people for future work with new information and communication technologies are becoming more and more a measure of a country's progress. therefore, it is important to look at the situation from different angles, from different time periods and economic and political circumstances in order to gain a more complete insight into the current situation and predict the direction in which education is moving in the context of technological communication progress. in our country, a concerning occurrence is a fact that the ict is widely abused by students by using it for hours mostly for interaction on social media and playing video games. these children are missing specific orientation instructions and guidelines for their proper use. besides the family who has the key role in the process of controlling how much time children spent on their computers, the position of the professors is truly important as well since they are able to stimulate the students in using the ict for the right purposes through different guidelines that have on their disposal. spending students’ time abusing computers for social media interaction and playing video games can turn its effective use if teachers integrate ict into the learning process. using the old traditional way of teaching where the professor is in the center and the students are gathering information only on basis of the theoretical part of the material, is also one of the factors that affect students' passiveness and do not encourage them to participate in the educational practice. having this said, this survey contains questions that will enable us to estimate how much and what ways professors use to stimulate their students to use computer technologies and the internet for educational purposes since that is the most suitable way in achieving higher results when it comes to education and acquisition of knowledge. the development of modern ict technologies has made online classes a quite widespread form of the educational process. to increase efficiency and achieve higher results, the usage of information communication technologies is mostly combined with other old traditional teaching methods which have been confirmed to be the most effective system globally. this kind of work enables acquiring of individual knowledge and on the other site enables continuous monitoring and evaluation of the learning process of the students and more realistic assessment. regarding the structure of the paper, the first part of the paper provides an introduction that defines the problem and the subject of research. then, the next part of the paper contains a presentation and analysis of research results, as well as interpretation of collected data. then, the conclusions and recommendations made on the basis of the results of the conducted research are given. 2. literature review regarding the structure of this paper, the first part provides an introduction that defines the problem and the subject of this research. the second part provides an overview of the concept of information and communication technology, as well as their representation in the educational system including the economic impact and importance. the third part of this paper contains a presentation and analysis of the results as well as an interpretation of the acquired data. furthermore, this paper includes conclusions and recommendations according to the results of the conducted research. “information technology (it) is a technology that uses a computer to obtain process, store, protect and transmit information”. the it term is associated with communication technologies since today in modern society is barely impossible to work on a computer if it is not connected to the internet, so basically, we are talking about information and communication technology (ict), (ilic 2020). students learning from the images of science and technology not only receive knowledge, but also learn about the process of thinking, as well as thinking about what they can do well think about any others you can do (jonassen, peck, & wilson, 2000). not just that, but ict have a lot of other contributions. one of many is a better accessibility to learning materials, and the wider access of students to education. according to (young, 2002), education iseasy access to learning. with the help of ict, students can now browse through e-books, sample examination papers, previous year papers etc. and can also have an easy access to resource persons, mentors, experts, researchers, professionals, and peers-all over the world. this flexibility has heightened the availability of just-in-time learning and provided learning opportunities for many more learners who previously were constrained by other commitments. next, the world bank estimated that more than 4 billion people of the global population (7.4 billion people) do not have access to the internet. besides that, it is estimated that only 1.1 billion 3 people have access to high-speed internet. in the united states and other countries, this difference in internet access has created a digital gap. the world bank, many government offices, and ngos advocate programs and policies aimed to create a bridge in the existing digital gap by providing greater access to ict among individuals and populations struggling to afford it, (pratt, 2019). according to the research conducted by the consultancy company idc, the value of the global informational technology in 2020 has reached 5.2 billion dollars. the united states now is the biggest technology market in the world, representing 32% of the total amount of approximately 1.7 trillion dollars by 2020 (brown, 2020). if universities want their students and lecturers to use institutional 136 m. flavin technologies, they would be well advised to design technologies in line with these criteria but also to allow a practice to determine a purpose quite distinct from designers’ intentions (m. thomas; j. palfrey; m. war schauer 2017). based on ict, learning and teaching no longer depend exclusively on printed materials. multiple resources are abundant on the internet, and knowledge can be acquired through video clips, audio sounds, visual presentations, and so on. current research has indicated that ict assists in transforming a teaching environment into a learner-centered one (castro sánchez and aleman 2011). since learners are actively involved in the learning processes in ict classrooms, they are authorized by the teacher to make decisions, plans, and so forth (lu, hou, and huang 2010). the problem of integrating ict in education can be because there is still lack of it equipment in schools. this is global problem, and this situation is not here or in region. based on (chapelle, 2011) lack of adequate ict equipment and internet access is one of the key problems that schools specifically in rural areas are facing now. for example, results of a research show that in kenya, some schools have computer but this could be limited to one computer in the office only. even in schools with computers, the student-computer ration is high. in addition, the report continues revealed that the schools with ict infrastructure are supported by parents’ initiative or community power. not just ict have a benefits in education but according to (plomp, pelgrumand law, 2007), people have to access knowledge via ict to keep pace with the latest developments. and also as (lim and chai, 2004) are saying., ict can be used to remove communication barriers such as that of space and time. the paper also presents the need for education of teachers in the field of ict and its implementation in teaching. according to (hrbak, 2012), teachers, as the main tools in schools, have a very important role in transmitting knowledge to new generations. the greater their information and computer skills, the easier it is for them to integrate ict into teaching and motivate students. therefore, it is desirable and important to educate them in a timely manner about new programs and ways of working so that they can use information and communication aids in teaching. this primarily refers to the computer, which is the main tool of teachers in the implementation of information and communication technologies. 3. research methodology 3.1. subject of the research one of the first assignments that were implemented was research and analysis of the teaching methods through the integration of ict. we started this phase by reviewing the existing criteria, studies, and research on the integration of ict in the teaching process. we have managed to achieve this through studying the available literature and other sources related to this topic. the research was conducted in high schools and universities in different areas in istok, peja, prizren, and presevo. two surveys adapted to the professors and students were used as research instruments. the survey was conducted online, using the google forms tools. after the acquisition of all the necessary data, the same was processed using the excel program and as such will be analyzed and presented. the conducted research in the schools is qualitative and quantitative research because it is a special way of collecting, organizing, and analyzing data. the purpose of this research was to collect comprehensive, systematic, and detailed information for each case of interest for the study. the subject of this research is the theoretical and empirical research of the defined research problem. the theoretical part of the research includes the definition of ict, and its methodological aspects. 3.2. purpose of the research the main purpose of this research has led the idea towards realization. the purpose of our research is to determine the level of presence of ict (information and communication technology) in education as well as the ability of the professors and the students to keep up with the new trends. today’s students are surrounded by new technologies on a daily basis, and they use them mostly for entertainment. 3.3. hypothesis after examining the problems from several sources of available literature, we are setting a hypothesis that is going to be the subject of research to confirm or refute. 4 h0: “high schools and universities are not sufficiently equipped with computers and modern information technology to improve the learning effect either a scientific or technological development is monitored to a sufficient extent as a specific social necessity”. in general, the professors are not satisfied with the schools’ equipment when it comes to computers and other modern technologies such as interactive whiteboards, tv devices… therefore the professors themselves consider they are not trained enough effectively to use those devices in the educational practice. in addition to all those hardware devices schools should have their own electronic portals for students to have access to the educative materials as well as notices and information. h1: “there are significant variations in the use of ict depending on the work experience of the professors “. using the internet and the computers in the active teaching class not only for the preparation of materials but is also of huge importance since it facilitates and accelerates the acquisition of knowledge by students. it is strongly important for schools to enable visual access to material for students because pictures and graphs are much easier to remember and in addition, they are much more attractive and will help to attain and hold the attention of the students during class. h2: “there are significant variations in the use of ict during classes depending on the level of knowledge of modern technologies by professors”. older professors certainly have less knowledge and experience in using modern technology, and they think the old traditional way of teaching is quite sufficient, based on their experience. it is a bigger challenge for those professors to adopt new teaching methods, but these professors are mostly interested in training organized by the ministry of education, science, and technology. h3: “most students use information technology mostly for entertainment and less for educational purposes”. the research was conducted in a form of theoretical and empirical research. the theoretical part is based on the acquired data from scientific literature as well as previously conducted research on the same or similar topics. the theoretical part has been completed by using research methods such as methods of analysis and synthesis from the already existing literature, description method, abstraction method and concretization. the variables used in this research are mainly categorical, nominal and ordinal as well as discrete and continuous quantitative variables. for the processing of the data, it is used spss (statistical package for social science) which includes using techniques such as descriptive statistics, regression and correlation analysis, pivot tables. the research was conducted through a questionnaire, which is the most convenient tool for acquiring and processing data as well as running analysis and generating conclusions. we have managed to design qualitative and quantitative research using a questionnaire. questioners are designed for teachers and students. the questions are mostly closed-ended, with a few open-ended questions. 3.4. sample in order to get more comprehensive information concerning the topic of the research and get more accurate insights about the actual state in the research are included high school students, university students and their professors. sample size: the student sample consisted of 100 people, 56 high students, and 34 university students. the sample of the professors is defined as 36. 3.5. data analysis data collection is the first step in every research. after finishing this step, the next phase is referring to data processing and data analysis. in the interest of obtaining the results of the research, we used statistical and descriptive methods. the statistical method that was used to get the results are presented through various graphs and tables. the descriptive method was used to identify different topics and to present the results of this research. in other words, this method was used to describe the data. at the end of this research, we have composed a logical conclusion, according to which hypotheses are proved or refuted (assumptions made), which is followed by giving recommendations regarding activities and action steps that need to be taken concerning the inclusion of the information technology in the learning and teaching process, which on the other side will contribute toward the improvement of quality of education. the processing of the collected data was made using the spss. 4. analysis of the research results in this research, participation took 36 high school and university professors. of those 65,4% were female and 34,6% were male. 5 graph 1. gender structure of professors source: personal calculations of the author the age of the professors who took participation in this research is categorized into the following groups: about 50% of the professors are in the range of 25-30 years old, 30,8% are in the range of 31-36 years old, which is almost half less, 15,4% of the professors are 43 years, and 3,8% are professors in the range of 3742 years old. graph 2. age of professors source: personal calculations of the author most of the professors are young aged with less than 5 years of working experience 54% of them, which certainly has an impact on the fact that have higher knowledge in modern technologies, can use them more and as a result of it, they integrate the technologies more in the teaching process. graph 3. work experience of professors source: personal calculations of the author the next question refers to the time professors spent using the internet, taking into account that a quite long part of the time professors spent on the internet while preparing classes and other educational activities. having this said, 38,5% of the professors spend less than 2 hours online, 50% of them spend 3 to 6 hours online and about 11,5% of them spend more than 6 hours online. graph 4. time professors spend using the internet source: personal calculations of the author we can make the conclusions according to the chart presented above that over 60% of the professors spend more than two hours a day using modern information technologies. it is certain that they spend at least a part of that time preparing teaching materials and literature for the classes. modern literature technologies are mostly used to navigate through different literature sources and enable communication with the students using e-mail (62%), to prepare presentations and other modern teaching methods and to a lesser extent for performing quizzes and tests. graph 5. use of modern information technologies source: personal calculations of the author although more than 60% of the professors that took participation in the research use the internet more than 2 hours per day, also there are professors that do not use computers and modern information technologies during the lectures (4%), but they adhere to the old traditional way of teaching and other educational activities. in numbers this would be 8% rarely, 23% sometimes, 19% often and 27% always. this means that around 57% of the surveyed professors integrate ict in teaching classes to a large extent almost every day. 34.6% 65.4% male female 0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 25 30 31 36 37 42 43+ 50.0% 30.8% 3.8% 15.4% 54% 23% 8% 15% 1 5 6 10 38.5% 23.1% 26.9% 11.5% 0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 1 2 h 3 4 h 5 6 h more than 6 h 54% 54% 62% 62% 50% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 6 graph 6. level of integration of information technologies in teaching classes source: personal calculations of the author on the question of what kind of modern technology equipment professors use they answered that they mostly use the internet (69,2%), projectors (69,2%), laptops (65,4%) while schools and universities are less equipped with interactive whiteboards and tvs. graph 7. equipment used in teaching classes source: personal calculations of the author question: how many computers do you have at school? for one educational institution, it is crucially important to be equipped with computers and other computer equipment. from the following chart, we can make a conclusion that the equipment of high schools and universities is not at an enviable level and that in the future we should certainly pay more attention to this issue. more schools have less than 25 computers and only two have over 100 computers. graph 8. number of computers in schools source: personal calculations of the author table 1. descriptive statistics number of computers in schools number of computers in schools number of computers in schools mean 29,04 standard error 6,10 median 17,5 mode 15 standard deviation 31,11 sample variance 967,56 kurtosis 3,48 skewness 1,78 range 127 minimum 1 maximum 128 sum 755 count 26 from the above existing table that presents descriptive statistics of the total number of computers in high schools and universities, we can note that the maximum number of computers in high schools is 128 and the minimum is only 1 computer. the standard deviation is 31,11, which demonstrates high variation in schools’ equipment and the average number of school equipment is 29 computers per institution. the total number of computers in 26 schools and universities which were part of this research is 755 computers. the equipment of schools and universities with computers and other information technology is rated as mediocre by professors. graph 9. level of equipped high schools and universities with computers equipment source: personal calculations of the author for sure there are several reasons for insufficient usage of the internet and other modern information technologies. most of the professors consider that the main reason is a lack of training among professors. what can be considered as an encouraging statistic is that a really small percent of the professors believe that books and traditional ways of teaching are sufficient in achieving good results. 4% 8% 23% 19% 27% never rarely somethimes often always 0 5 46 69 92 115 138 n u m b e r o f sc h o o ls number of computers 7 graph 10. weaknesses and limitations of the inclusion of computers in classes source: personal calculations of the author as we can see in the previous chart, the professors consider they are not enough trained and competent to use modern information technologies and that is one of the main core limitation factors and weaknesses. the good thing is that even 88% of the surveyed professors are willing to dedicate themselves and participate in training if the ministry of education would provide them, having in mind that the ministry of education has been implementing this practice for years so far. “the integration of ict into kosovo’s education system is in progress. in this context, mest in cooperation with donors worked on human resources development by providing training in ecdl (european computer driving lesson). in this training participation took around 10.700 professors (salihu, 2012). graph 11. willingness for participation in ict training source: personal calculations of the author it is important to mention that professors are really trying to motivate students to use computers by giving them homework and preparation of seminar papers for which they need to make research and use computers and the internet as well. the survey showed that 65% of the professors motivate the students to do their homework this way and 35% of them believe this is not necessary or not feasible given the nature of the subject they teach. graph 12. motivating students to complete their homework using computers source: personal calculations of the author we were also interested in the professor’s opinion on what they think students do on the internet and why young people spend so much time online. professors believe students use the internet for education to the lowest extent 19%, but much more for communication through social networks 35%, as well as for getting informed about general topics from different fields 35%. graph 13. what for are used the information technologies the most by students source: personal calculations of the author professors believe that the integration of modern information technology with traditional teaching methods has a positive impact on reaching higher results and contributes towards bigger achievement by students. graph 14. the positive effect of computer uses in classes source: personal calculations of the author considering the covid-19 pandemics has caused disruption in the world, both in life and education, professors in our country and in the world, in general, were forced to switch to online classes. some professor has adapted easily and has done it much better than others while expressing their satisfaction with the realization 8 of online classes, having in mind that not all schools have provided adequate support both to professors and students. graph 15. satisfaction level with online teaching source: personal calculations of the author in the end, it is very important how professors evaluate their knowledge of modern information technologies. actually, 85% of the professors consider they have good or excellent information technology knowledge and 16% are not satisfied with their current competencies. graph 16. the expertise of modern technology source: personal calculations of the author using regression analysis, we have determined a connection between integration of ict in classes and knowledge of ict, meaning integration depends on how competent the professors are and how much they are familiar with the technological trends. table 2. regression statistics ict integration regression statistics multiple r 0,191337 r square 0,03661 adjusted r square -0,003531 standard error 1,078217 observations 26 table 2.1. continue of table 2 coefficients standard error t stat p-value lower 95% upper 95% lower 95.0% upper 95.0% intercept 3,3970588 0,7041267 4,8244991 0,0000649 1,9438127 4,8503050 1,9438127 4,8503050 integration of ict in education 0,1701681 0,1781864 0,9550004 0,3490985 0,1975905 0,5379267 0,1975905 0,5379267 the following graph is the simple linear regression, where we can graphically observe the connection and the dependence of the ict integration in education, depending on ict knowledge and expertise of professors – integration of the internet. graph 17. the integration of ict in education depends on the ict knowledge source: personal calculations of the author 9 if the integration of ict would i0 then the ict knowledge would be 3,3971, and if the integration of the internet would increase by 1, then ict of knowledge would increase by 0,1702. also, the value of p<0,05 indicates that has statistical significance. table 3. correlation, work experience ict knowledge working experience ict knowledge working experience 1 ict knowledge -0,2 1 from the table above, which represents the correlation between working experience and ict knowledge, we can notice there is a negative correlation of -0,2. this means that as more professors have longer work experience, the less ict knowledge they have. consequently, to it, we can make a conclusion that the older professors mostly use the traditional old methods of teaching and follow the technological trends less as well as computers and the internet. table 4. ict integration based on school equipment % of integration level of integration equipment in schools never rarely sometimes often always grand total low 0,00% 0,00% 8,00% 0,00% 4,00% 12,00% medium 4,00% 12,00% 16,00% 16,00% 20,00% 68,00% high 0,00% 0,00% 4,00% 0,00% 16,00% 20,00% grand total 4,00% 12,00% 28,00% 16,00% 40,00% 100,00% the table above is a pivot table showing the relation between the level of integration of information technology on classes and school equipment according to the opinion of the professors. actually, from this table, we can notice that although the schools’ equipment is assessed as high, it doesn’t mean that the computers are used at their maximum level indicating that the capacities are not fully used. from the same table, we can notice that computers are mostly used in the category of medium-equipped schools 68% which means that the level of school’s equipment is important, given the fact that in this category of poorly equipped schools integration is only 12%, but not a crucial factor. in addition to the fact that the school should be fully equipped it is more than necessary to have personnel who have proper competencies, and it is ready to actively use this equipment in an adequate way. 4.1. data acquired by surveying students the purpose of this research is to prepare and analyze the results acquired by surveying high school students and university students. the survey was conducted online. the questionnaire contained 15 questions. in this research, participation took 100 high school students and university students. regarding the gender structure of the participants, 70% are female and 30% are male. graph 18. gender structure of students source: personal calculations of the author regarding the age of the participants most of the participants are at age of 16 to 20 years’ old which is 66% and from 21-25 years’ old which is 24%. graph 19. age of the students source: personal calculations of the author 10 of the total number of participants, 72% are high school students and 28% are university students. graph 20. level of education source: personal calculations of the author from the graph, we see that 76% spend more than 3 hours per day and 24% less than 2 hours. graph 21. time spent online source: personal calculations of the author although students spent a lot of time online, a very small part of that time they dedicate it to studying and using computer and computer applications for education. students spent much more time on social media and watching movies, while a little less time listening to music and playing video games. here are how students replied to the question: “most of your time you spent on the internet for: table 5. what is the internet mostly used for? using the table above, we can conclude that students do not spend much time on the internet and using modern internet technologies for studying but to socialize and relax. in the following chart, we can notice that mostly used application is instagram (82%), then youtube (72%), google (70%), in fourth place is google classroom (52%) used in online teaching, then facebook (44%), then powerpoint (26%) and word (30%) which are considered as very useful tools in writing seminar papers, homework and preparation of presentations and in last place is wikipedia (22%). graph 22. the most frequently used applications source: personal calculations of the author it is extremely important that almost 90% of the students have internet access in school, but we can’t forget and neglect that 10% who do not have this opportunity, so the focus must be on this issue, and we must work on providing internet access to all schools in all areas regardless they are in the cities or in rural areas. graph 23. internet access source: personal calculations of the author it is highly important what is the opinion of students about the school’s equipment, meaning are they satisfied. from the chart below we can conclude that students are quite satisfied with how educational institutions are equipped with electronic devices, only 20% of the students think that school equipment is low, 46% think that equipment is medium and 34% think the schools are highly equipped with modern devices which indicate their satisfaction. internet is used mostly for playing video games listening to music watching movies social networks studying never 34% 10% 12% 4% 10% rarely 28% 24% 18% 10% 18% sometimes 32% 34% 52% 36% 38% always 6% 32% 18% 50% 34% 11 graph 24. level of satisfaction of the students concerning the school equipment source: personal calculations of the author with the following question, we have examined the students' satisfaction and opinion on whether professors motivate them enough to use computers, either by their example in classes, by taking them to computer laboratories, or by giving them homework and preparation of seminar papers that must be done online and by using electronic devices. actually, this is the case with 72% of the surveyed students but that is not the case with the other 28% of the students which is an extremely high percentage. graph 25. the motivation provided by professors source: personal calculations of the author students express what they can use in school, can clearly tell us that they have the most access to the internet (76%), computers (52%), projectors for different kinds of presentations (48%), slightly fewer websites (34%), and interactive whiteboards (12%). graph 26. available resources in schools source: personal calculations of the author the world trends in the field of information communication technology in terms of usage of presentations, e-books, various quizzes, and online classes themselves are summarized that 56% use online classes, 52% presentations, 46% quizzes, and to a lesser extent 40% digital e-books. table 6. teaching classes following the ict trends alignment of classes with ict trends using presentations e-books educative quizzes online classes not at all 18% 28% 22% 16% not enough 30% 32% 32% 28% to a high extend 32% 22% 22% 32% totally 20% 18% 24% 24% online classes have been present in the world for some time. since the pandemic started, this practice started to implement in our country to an extremely large extent. students and professors as well managed this new situation differently and the level of satisfaction on how the online classes were organized primary from the ministry of education and after the schools and universities themself was not the same. in the next graph, we can see that students are quite satisfied with how online classes are organized. this result is supported by the fact that most of the students choose this kind of class compared with the traditional way of teaching which requires physical presence in classrooms. 12 graph 27. how well do students manage with online classes? source: personal calculations of the author based on the following question, in your opinion, how does the use of ict affect education? students express their opinion, on whether and to what extent the use of ict has a positive impact on teaching-learning activities and consequently on students' success. table 7. the effect of ict on education the effect of ict on education getting information from professors faster and more efficiently sharing educational and entertaining texts developin g teamwork increasing students' interest in the subject higher access to educative materials i don’t agree 16% 14% 18% 12% 14% generally, i don’t agree 20% 18% 18% 24% 18% i am not sure 20% 30% 24% 22% 20% generally, i agree 24% 8% 22% 20% 22% i totally agree 20% 30% 18% 22% 26% all of the surveyed students have some experience when it comes to technology, so none of them stated that they have poor knowledge, meaning 100% of the students believe they have average, good, or even excellent knowledge in this area. graph 28. knowledge in modern technologies by students source: personal calculations of the author 5. conclusions to face the fundamental changes that became challenges for the educational communities, especially with the integration of the ict, it is more than necessary to create policies and strategies with long-term educational goals and new educational achievements. ict is not only a tool for introducing existing content through a new environment, but it is also a tool for introducing new learning patterns. however, during the research and based on the analysis of the presented results, we came to those results. according to the results, we found out that some educational institutions do have computers and others do not, but it is not only important the existence of the computers but also the training for proper use provided for professors and students as well. professors were trained only through the ecdl program, organized by the ministry of education, science, and technology. according to the results, this program was successfully implemented. many students have computer skills, but there is an obvious difference between ict skills and usage of ict for educational purposes. the lack of guidance for the professors on the integration of ict in classes is evident. students are missing more specific information and instructions on how to use ict for educational purposes. most students use computers for playing video games and interacting, but extensive usage can even create an addiction in children. also, professors motivate students to make internet research for school’s needs as well for the preparation of their homework, but to an insufficient level. 13 however, in kosovo, this kind of lecturing is not so common and not developed enough, but due to the coronavirus has started to be implemented much more frequently. the main purpose of this research was to identify the advantages and disadvantages, and problems that arise from this type of lecturing in high schools and universities in kosovo, so we can give recommendations to eliminate these disadvantages and improve the efficiency of this type of education. according to it, we have defined one main hypothesis and three auxiliary hypotheses which are based on the results of the research and analysis of the attained results (confirmed or refuted), which will be individually explained below. h1: “there are significant differences in the usage of the ict depending on the professor’s work experience” from the correlation analysis between the working experience and ict knowledge, we have noticed a negative correlation, which means the more working experience professors have, the less modern information technologies knowledge they have. this means that the above hypothesis is confirmed. h2: “there are significant differences in the use of ict in classes depending on the level of professor’s information technology knowledge”. based on graph 17 where the regression analysis is presented, we can see there is a correlation between how educated professors in terms of ict are and how much they integrate computers and the internet into teaching activities. according to it, the above hypothesis can be confirmed. h3:” most students use information communication technology mostly for entertainment and less for educational purposes”. according to the results obtained after the realization of this research, this hypothesis was confirmed. considering the answers to the question “how much time do you spend on the internet daily” we can make a conclusion that today the internet occupies a prestigious place in life generally and basically and we spent a quite large part of our time online. however, the answers to the question “why do you spend most of your time on the internet” indicate that high students and university students generally use the internet for entertainment, mostly for social networks, and to a lesser extent for learning and educational activities. in addition, in the research, there was also a question related to the most frequently used applications, where the results showed that social network applications are used the most, such as the internet 82%, youtube 72%, facebook 44%, and to the lesser extent applications used in the educational practice such as google classroom 52%, word 26%, powerpoint 30%. h0: “high schools and universities are not enough equipped to contribute towards the improvement of the students’ educational results and these institutions are not paying enough attention to scientific and technological development as a specific social need”. taking into account the answers to the question “in your opinion evaluate how much the implementation of the ict effects the learning process” we can conclude that the students believe that ict generally has a very positive impact on the learning process and allows easier and faster access to educative materials, provides easier communication with the professors, enables and facilities collaborative work between themselves, develop team spirit and enables learning in a fun and non-traditional way. however the results of the previous auxiliary hypothesis as well as the results of the research in which professors consider the school’s equipment is “mediocre”, the results that show there are schools with only one computer, many of the professors said that they do not integrate modern technologies enough in the educational practice and the fact that students spent a lot of time online using social network applications and to a lesser extent learning and educative applications and tools, we can wrap up that all the benefits of the information communication technologies are underused. according to these results, the basic hypothesis has been confirmed. some of the recommendations we can give to increase the quality of education through the integration of the ict are the following: professors need to implement a variety of modern educative strategies and methods, applying diverse visual teaching methods and using different hardware and software tools that we have at our disposal today. professors should pay more attention to students who have misbehavior issues, which might be a consequence of the improper usage of computer devices and the internet mostly for playing video games than for learning and useful research, so they can notify the parents concerning their child educational progress. professors should guide students and present them the benefits of the usage of ict in terms of providing them with the necessary information on different topics which are part of the teaching program through using a different kind of sources such as books, newspapers, magazines, educative videos, websites, etc., comparing the usefulness and the reliability of different media and information collected from diverse sources and to inspire the students to do the same in preparation of their seminar papers or homework. 14 professors should encourage their students to prepare their assignments in forms such as text boxes, headlines, subheadings, illustrations, tables, graphs, and many more tools by giving them assignments to prepare the seminar paper using these tools in high schools not only universities, because this is the only way they will independently or with an assist by the professors acquire information and communication skill, which is the 21-century skill. professors need to locate and apply appropriate online tools for students’ assessment, creating interesting online quizzes and competitions when the main objective will be encouraging students to gain new knowledge and get data for different subjects of interest. it is recommended for students to communicate as much as possible about school-related issues via e-mail and other forms. to educate as many students as possible in the field of information and communication technologies and in that way to prepare students for their future careers, regardless of the field of activity they choose, given that computers and the internet are present in every field or life segment. students should have insight about the information provided in the e-books, but also about the information available on the internet and have a critical opinion towards all information regardless of the source. the key recommendation of the ministry of education is that besides the required additional investments in equipment in both urban and rural schools it is necessary to organize and deliver training concerning information technology usage for professors so they can effectively use all the available devices and adequately integrate them into the educative activities in order to make the classes more attractive and acceptable as much as possible for the students. when we talk about the integration of ict, we do not only mean about equipping classrooms with computers and their usage only for the needs of the computer science subject but also about the modernization of the educative programs in general for all the subjects and their adaptation in the order they can become more efficient and 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(2017). ict u obrazovanju. (2021,15 decembar) iz sveučilište u zagrebu. retweeted from: https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/272311 13. trucano, m. (2005). knowledge maps: icts in education. (2021,17 december). retweeted from: https://www.infodev.org/articles/teachers-teachingand-icts https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/272311 https://www.infodev.org/articles/teachers-teaching-and-icts https://www.infodev.org/articles/teachers-teaching-and-icts 14 examination of consumer purchase decisions via neuromarketing methods: a social psychology approach dr. nihan tomris küçün ¹* prof. dr. emel gönenç güler 2 ¹ eskisehir osmangazi university cognitivebehavioral application and research center. ntkucun@ogu.edu.tr *correspondent author. 2 trakya university faculty of applied sciences, emelgguler@trakya.edu.tr article history: submission 2 april 2021 revision 10 june 2021 accepted 15 august 2021 available online 31 august 2021 keywords: customer behavior, eye-tracking, social psychology, online shopping behavior. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.245 a b s t r a c t the aim of the study is to determine the size and strength of consumers' attitudes towards brands and to observe the effect of marketing efforts on attitudes with the support of biometric data. through this main purpose 406 people participated in the study to create a brand set, and 60 people participated in the experiment phase. the shopping processes were monitored via eye tracker, and the patterns based on groups were obtained. it has been found out that sales promotion tools and social impact are the influential factors in the purchasing process, which is positioned as the main proposal of the study. according to the comparison made between parents and individuals not having any children, it has been discovered that the gender factor is not influential in the purchasing process while the brand related experience of parents is very effective in the process. 1. introduction according to "digital in 2020 report", there are approximately 4.53 billion internet users, corresponding to 59% of the world's population (wearesocial, 2020). these results show that with the transformative impact of technology, social media trends and the advantages of the online marketplace, online shopping is growing rapidly. and that seems to be ongoing for the next years. over 75% of internet users report was made online purchases at least monthly (clementstatista, 2019). this explains the rapidly growing size of the e-commerce market, its increasing appeal to all consumer profiles, and the importance of taking a closer look at the digitized shopping experience. with increased access to the internet and diversified online applications, e-commerce can deliver products and services to consumers in nearly all segments. one of the most promising areas is infant products. the needs that parents seek over a period of time, changing and diversifying over time, lose their validity to the next baby as the child grows. consequently, the search for consumers is restarting. although there is a set of attitudes towards brands stemming from their previous experiences or existing reference framework, studies show that 70% of parents conducted an online research before buying baby care products (grand view research, 2020). the need for research, which is not so common across all product groups, stems from consumers' care and sensitivity to the topic. daniels (2009) therefore states that marketers should take initiatives to direct consumers to their particular brands. surely, parents' satisfaction degree with the products they use and their trust in brands (srivastava et al., 2015) serve as important shortcuts in their search for the information about a product. however, for consumers who do not yet have a product-oriented experience, the decision-making process can be shaped by many internal and external factors, from promotion components to trends, from the social impact of emotional content. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:ntkucun@ogu.edu.tr mailto:emelgguler@trakya.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.245 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5548-6093 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3214-0206 15 in this study, the resistance of the current attitude toward brands is studied through brand experience, promotional activities and social impact. in experimental design customized at the individual level, attention levels of the participants are considered as a scale to determine the weight of the factors in the decisionmaking process via eye-tracking method. in the first part of the study, online purchasing behaviour, sales development efforts, eye tracking as a neuromarketing instrument and the concept of social impact are detailed. in the next section, information is given about the experimental design, consisting of the preparation and implementation stages, and finally, the findings are discussed in detail in the last section of the manuscript. the contributions of the research to literature are as follows: according to consumer profiles, the experiment set has been customized for each participant and evaluated on the basis of the group he/ she was included. thus, the power of manipulation was increased and a unique search design was created. the importance of social impact in online shopping has been studied for a long time under the ewom title. this study approaches the subject from a different perspective, revealing that the power of social impact has decreased considerably in the face of brand experience. in general, it is observed that studies of baby care products approach from a mother's point of view, as one of the potential caregivers (pradeepa & pandurangan, 2016). the results of our research indicate that there is no behavioral change related to gender among parents. the contribution of the research for practitioners is as follows: the product review and the purchase decision were reviewed on an individual basis and behavioral patterns of this period were also determined. thus, it can be predicted how attention can be created and directed if the data obtained and target audiences overlap. our study shows that the experience for the brand has completely changed the whole shopping process. the considerably shorter shopping time and the extremely low level of attention to stimuli promise new clues about the ways to reach customers in this group. 2. literature review 2.1. online shopping and sales promotion efforts sales promotions; is the whole of the activities conducted to increase the sales power of the company and its intermediaries. sales promotion activities, which are usually planned in the short term, are not meant to change or create a long-term attitude. the focus is to encourage consumers to buy many different types of products or services in the planned period. due to the increasing competition in the market and the increasingly homogeneous production capabilities of businesses, it is becoming more and more difficult for consumers to make a choice between products and services or to distinguish between brands. meanwhile, research shows that consumers are gradually losing brand loyalty, as in many other issues (casteran, et al.,2019). in addition, researchers believe that approximately 80% of customer purchasing decisions occur in a store environment (gorji and siami, 2020). for this reason, efforts to stimulate and encourage consumers at the point of sale are becoming increasingly important every day. rising interest in online shopping sites has increased competition as well. digital sales channels also take advantage of the power of the brands they sell and their sales promotion efforts to survive in this highly competitive environment. however, sales promotion activities cover a substantial proportion of the marketing budget. for this reason, in order to follow an effective strategy, marketers should examine consumer behavior more closely, understand implicit triggers and make regulations that can address them (yahya et al., 2019). this can be possible by understanding both the current attitudes of consumers towards brands and their behavioral patterns during shopping. 2.2. brand attitude the concept of "attitude", one of the most fundamental elements of behavioural science, is defined as the tendency to shape a pattern of behavior towards any stimulus (eagly ve chaiken, 1993). the concept of attitude is one of the most studied subjects in the field of social psychology, which attaches great importance for the purposes of understanding, predicting and guiding human behavior (petty et al.,1997). one of the generally accepted issues about attitudes is that they have affective, cognitive and behavioral dimensions (petty et al., 1997; bagozzi ve burnkrant, 1979; rosenberg ve hovland, 1960). these dimensions are attitudinal dimensions that ensure succession and cause psychological stress if they are not compatible (festinger, 1962). however, not all attitudes may have these three dimensions at the same time, or all dimensions of an attitude may not have the same strength (krosnick and smith, 1994). krosnick and smith (1994) mention ten dimensions (extremity, intensity, certainty, importance, knowledge, accessibility, direct experience, evaluate-cognitive consistency, 16 latitude of rejection and noncommitment and interest in attituderelevant information) in their study. knowing which dimensions of attitudes are strong is essential in developing strategies for persuasion for attitudinal change. for this reason, marketers need to take into account the power of their target audience's attitudes and the resistance to change created by this power in their communication strategies that aim to change or reinforce an attitude. 2.3. online social impact in addition to the attitudes that shape the behavior of consumers at the individual level, their social interactions with the society they live in can also cause immediate and powerful changes (amblee and bui, 2011). one of the most distinguishing characteristics of human beings is being social. according to durkheim (2014), human beings, who are thought to live in communities in order to survive, have found and even diversified ways to communicate with their own species thanks to this need. the relationship of the individual with the society he/ she lives in is accepted as a two-way communication method. the flow from society to individual has a great impact on individual behavior. social impact, which is the basic dynamics of social psychology is defined by aronson et al. (2012) as "the effect of what other people say, actions or just their presence has on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes or behaviors". the concept of social impact that social psychology tries to make sense of; it is fed by many human motivations such as compliance, social acceptance, social cognition (the need to be right), social communication, and selfesteem. in this study, the social impact type, which is examined under the title of ewom (electronic word of mouth) and has an important determinant in online purchasing behavior, was investigated and evaluated in line with the "perceived information effect" factor. the information effect, at the heart of which is the need to be sure of people's own feelings and thoughts; is an effect that comes into play when the uncertainty is at a high level or when people act indecisive due to social conflict. according to hogg and vaughan (2009), the effect of knowledge will cause real cognitive change because it is not an effect that one fears, hesitates or adapts to others in order not to be seen in the society, but because it is an effect that is valuable and internalized because it is voluntary. since sales development efforts are aimed at changing attitudes in this way, the determinant of the social impact on online consumer behavior becomes even more important. 2.4. neuromarketing the consumer concept, which is the focal point of today's marketing approach, is beyond the definition of bennett et al. (2010) “homo economicus” definition (an individual who has full knowledge, can think of the future and act accordingly, can form rational and unbiased ideas and act rationally in the face of product presentations). the new consumer is a profile that performs emotional and cognitive processes, shapes behaviours accordingly, and frequently makes decisions that cannot be considered rational. this change in the rational consumer pre acceptance directly affects the marketing field in a number of ways. indeed, the comprehension, interpretation and prediction of consumer behaviour require knowledge of the consumer at an almost individual level, given the cognitive processes underlying the behaviour. this difference between the actual results of marketing strategies and the desired effect on the consumer; gives the impression that we should examine consumer behavior in the light of the cognitive and physiological processes of the human brain more closely. neuromarketing, that first applications date back to the 1960s (solnais et al., 2013), but as a term, which was introduced to the field in 2002 by ale smidts (2002), promises great hope of achieving the stated goals. it is believed that this approach enables the researcher to collect data independently of the self-report of the individual and can provide significant benefits in enlightening consumer behaviour. neurophysiological methods utilized under the title of neuromarketing; are used for detecting many cognitive processes such as emotion recognition, cognitive load, attention, arousal, learning, and memory. one of the most widely used methods in the area of neuromarketing is eye-tracking systems. eye-tracking systems are used to investigate the phenomena such as; attention (mañas viniegra et al., 2020), the cognitive load (wang et al., 2014), engagement and avoidance (bercea, 2012), and emotional arousal (lim et al., 2020). these devices have gained an important place in the field of neuromarketing, with their more affordable costs compared to other devices, and the ability to measure and interpret simultaneously. 3. current study the purpose of the study is to identify the strengths of attitudes and to be able to observe the influence of sales promotion factors and social impact on current attitudes. the objective is to look closely at the factors that influence consumer decision-making processes. attention levels towards stimuli were analyzed via an eye-tracking system, one of the neuromarketing methods, in order to reflect the experience during the shopping, to investigate different patterns belonging to the groups, and to make an evaluation free from the statements of the participants. research; consists of pre-study, pre-test and experimental stages. preliminary work is called "preparation" as it is about the creation of sets of brands to be used in the experiment, and "application" as the pre-test and experiment are the processes applied together. since more than one method of research is used in the preparation 17 and application steps, the steps will be detailed one by one in that direction. 3.1. pre study the eye-tracking method can provide more effective results in designs with higher emotional valence (maughan et al., 2006). for this reason, baby care products, which can be perceived as a "positive image" for the participants in widespread, were determined as the area for the brand set. in order for the participants to have an attitude towards the brand, the brands to be used in the research must be known by all the participants who will be involved in the experimental phase, that is, the cognitive dimension of their attitudes must be present. for this reason, a preliminary study was carried out in order to select the brands with the highest awareness in the categories to be specified and to create a brand set in this direction. the questionnaire, entitled "baby products brand awareness study" and containing only one statement, was developed and distributed in the digital environment. the study, with 406 participants, identified a total of 18 brands across 6 product categories (table 1). table 1. product categories and brands in order to test the differences between the dimensions of current attitudes (cognitive, emotional and behavioral), the sample was selected to include two different groups. the first group consists of individuals who have children at the age of 10 years at most (due to the decrease in strength of attitudes over time) and the second group consists of individuals who do not have children. within the scope of the research, it is the assumption of the research that the effect of sales promotion efforts for the first group and the information effect and social impact of the second group will be more important and the attention levels of the individuals will improve in this direction. 3.2. design of the online shopping website in order to give the participants a sense of reality, the contents of the online shopping sites were examined and the identified structures were included in the website created for the study. using www.wix.com, a free personal or commercial website creation platform, a suitable design for baby products was selected from ready-made templates. as can be seen in figure 1, a special logo study was made for the site to increase credibility, social media accounts were opened, a review mode was added products, and product categories and contents (figure 2) were prepared. no time constraints or budgets were defined in present study. considering credit cards and similar alternatives, it is not possible to talk of strict limits for each purchasing process in everyday life. for this reason, such a determinant was not used in the study to avoid impeding emotional and impulse purchases by consumers. in addition, since it was foreseen that the budgets that would be perceived at low or high levels would direct the participant to the price without examining the product, no guidance was given to the participants in this respect. 18 figure 1. happy baby main page figure 2. happy baby product page and payment page 4. method sales promotion tools in the study include gifts and discounts. at this stage, the critical issue for research is the distribution of individual products to different products in order to measure the effectiveness of the indicated stimuli on the purchasing decision. for example; in the pre-test phase, the stimuli were distributed in the opposite direction for the participant who listed his favorite diaper brands as prima (1), huggies (2), molfix (3), sales improvement tools or user comments were randomly selected from pools of positive and negative comments to encourage them to buy molfix. figure 3. representation of target stimuli and hiding other alternatives adobe photoshop package program was used in the editing of all selected images at 1920x 1080 resolution. all product visuals were rearranged to not contain a message that would have any effect other than the stimuli determined within the scope of the study. examples of the arrangements made to neutralize the images are given in image 4. afterwards, sales promotion elements (gifts and discounts) were positioned on the images (figure 5). 19 figure 4. editing process figure 5. sales promotion stimuli distribution example for another stimulus, social impact, real consumer reviews of brands have been compiled from national complaint sites. in order to contribute to the realism of the process, the spelling mistakes made in the user comments were used without correction. 20 table 2. social impact stimuli examples finally, the products were associated with their product categories and the areas of interest (aoi) was determined. the order of the products was randomly created by the system in each experiment so that the order of viewing the products would not be affected by the participant's familiarity with the brand's logo. 4.1. pre-test according to krosnick (1993), the resistance of the attitude to change will be the higher the dimensions that constitute the strength of the attitude. based on these data, the strength of the emotional dimension of the attitude in the study; was evaluated in terms of "extremity" and "direct experience". in this context, a pre-test was applied to each of the participants before the experiment. the pre-test consists of two statements to measure the specified power dimensions. first, it is the issue of the extent of the extremity that is asked to participants using an ordinal scale. the brands were presented with their logos and participants were asked to rank the most preferred brands amongst the least liked. the second statement is about the other power dimension, experience. the same brands were given again with their logos and the participants were asked to mark the products they have purchased or used before. the stimuli used in the experiment were positioned specifically for the participant in accordance with the pre-test results, and it was investigated whether the stimuli given and attitude could be changed. 4.2. experiment phase the answers given by the participant to the pretest were quickly resolved by the researchers. it was updated with the products on the website and the stimuli to be used for each participant. the distribution of the stimuli was carried out in accordance with the matrix shown in table 3. in the table; the most liked brand by the participant was indicated as "1" and the least liked brand as "3". fields marked with neutral indicate situations where no stimulus was used. the fields marked with positive indicate the use of a positive stimulus (gift, discount or positive user comment), while the fields defined as negative indicate negative user comments. in order to assess the effects of stimuli in the process separately, a positive stimulus was preferred in some products, and two positive stimuli were preferred other products. again for the same purpose; two kinds of stimuli were used together for diapers and formula. while there were gifts in the number 1 and 2 brands of the diapers, there were no gifts in the number 3, which was the least favorite brand of the participant. however, the only positive comment was for number 3. within this category, it was aimed to compare the impact of the sales promotion tool with the social impact. in the last category (infant formula), there were gifts for all brands, but only in number 3 (the least preferred), positive user comments were given. this positioning was designed to monitor the attention paid to positive user comments and determine their impact on the decision. based on the explained matrix, it was ensured that the combined and distinct effects of the stimuli used were observed. 21 table 3. stimulus distribution matrix after the products and stimuli on the website were updated, the participant was taken to the room where the experiment conducted. in order to minimize environmental impact, the room temperature was kept constant and no noise was allowed to distract the participant. since the device used in the experiment was a wired eye tracker, the participants were positioned at a distance of 45 cm from the computer screen, by asking them to avoid body movements as much as possible. in order to prevent the eye tracker from being affected by ambient light, ground lighting was preferred in the room where the experiment was conducted. the eye tracking device used in the experiment was the 150 hz gazepoint gp3 hd eye tracker system. before starting the experiment, a calibration process was carried out for each participant and in this way, the performance of the device was kept under control. before the experiment started, the participants were asked to buy a product from each category, and no other guidance was given regarding the process. for each participant, the experiment ended as soon as he received the final product. the data collected with the eye tracker were analyzed in different analysis types using the device software. eye movements of all participants; focus times, gaze maps, gaze sequences and saccades were collected to be analyzed. the viewing times and sequences of the determined research areas (aoi) were again taken by the software of the device and classified on an individual basis for statistical analysis. eye movements of the participants in groups (with and without children) and gender level were analyzed with heat maps. 5. findings 5.1. pre-test results and characteristics of the sample the pre-test was applied to all participants to take part in the experience. in the study, in which a total of 60 people participated, those who had children were named as the "first group" and those who did not have children as the "second group". the average age of 30 people in the first group is 35. the youngest of the participants in this group is 24 years old and the oldest is 45 years old. this group consists of 17 women and 13 men. in the second group, the youngest participant is 18 years old and the oldest participant is 45 years old. the average age of this group is 25. this group consists of 14 women and 16 men. participants whose demographic characteristics were specified were asked to rank the brands in the experimental set according to the ones they liked most, within the scope of the pre-test conducted before the experiment. the data obtained as a result of the frequency analysis performed are given in table 4. unlike the second group, the participants in the first group were also asked about their experiences with brands. the results of these expressions are also given in table 4. 22 table 4. brand valuation and brand experience frequencies it is seen that the participants' experiences with brands are largely compatible with the emotional dimension of their attitudes towards the brand. all pre-test data, whose frequencies were given at the level of groups, were also created on a participant basis in order to analyze whether a change occurred at the end of the experiment. 5.2. experiment results 5.2.1. experiment time since the biometric data used in neuromarketing studies are highly specialized data and do not have standard ranges, the data do not conform to the normal distribution in most studies. mckillup (2012) reports that the kolmogorov-smirnov test is appropriate if the sample size is greater than 35 for the analysis of normality assumption. the data of 60 participants were subjected to the kolmogorov-smirnov test in this direction. as a result of the analysis; experiment times (p = 0.023) were not found to be normally distributed. group 1 and group 2 participants had a mean completion time of 3 minutes 46 seconds. the shortest time for the experiment is 1 minute 28 seconds and the longest time is 9 minutes 18 seconds. the mann-whitney u test was applied to the duration of the experiment in order to determine whether the viewing periods differ by group and gender. when the time to complete the experiment is examined at the gender level; it was determined that women completed the study in an average of 3,144 minutes and men completed an average of 3,816 minutes. the results differed statistically significantly between the two groups (u = 285,500; p = 0.015; p <0.05). the time to complete the experiment significantly differed between the two groups with and without children (u = 195,500; p = 0,000; p <0.05). the average time to complete the experiment for the no. 1 group consisting of parents is 2,888 minutes, while the average time to complete the experiment for the no. 2 group consisting of the participants without children is 4,050 minutes. 5.2.2. products products are positioned on the homepage so that they can be viewed under the 6 categories they belong to. clicking on a product opens the product pages where more detailed information is available. figure 6. aoi samples positioned on the product page 23 the area represented by 1 is the area where the images of all the products used in the experiment are displayed. product images consist of product package photos. gifts, used as a sales promotion incentive, were also made available to participants in this area. finally, 711 data were gathered from this aoi. based on the descriptive statistics, the shortest viewing time for the images was determined to be 0.01 seconds and the longest time was 23.360 seconds. as a result of the kolmogorov-smirnov analysis applied to the data set, it was seen that the data were not normally distributed (p = 0.000; p <0.05) and the non-parametric alternative of the student t test, mann-whitney u was preferred to determine whether there was a difference between the visual viewing times at the level of the groups. 348 of the 711 data in the series came from group no.1 and 363 from group no.2. the average viewing time for the visuals of the no.1 group was 1,955 seconds (standard deviation: 1.776), while the average viewing time of the no.2 group was found to be 3,820 seconds (standard deviation: 3,973). it was observed that there was a statistically significant difference between the groups (u = 47123,500; p = 0,000; p <0.05). while the average view of the product images by women was 3,259 seconds (standard deviation: 3,651), it was 2,614 seconds for men (standard deviation: 2,813). no significant difference was found between the time to view visuals at gender level (u = 58215,000; p = 0.103; p> 0.05). the kruskal wallis test was applied to determine whether the time to view the visuals changed at the product level, and a statistically significant result was found between the categories (p = 0.000; p <0.05). considering the arithmetic average of the viewing time; it is seen that the longest viewed image belongs to the category of infant formula with an average of 4,765 seconds. 5.2.3. introduction text the area is shown with 2 in figure 6 is the area where the promotional information of the products used in the experiment was located. introductory texts were written by the producer company. it also provides information on how to use the product. an example of promotional texts prepared on a product basis is given in table 5. table 5. introduction text there is promotional text in all categories except the diapers category. at the end of the experiment, 566 data were detected in the aoi located in this area. the shortest viewing time for promotional texts is 0 seconds and the longest is 17,850 seconds. as a result of kolmogorov-smirnov analysis, it was seen that the data did not meet the normal distribution conditions (p = 0.000; p <0.05). for this reason, mann-whitney u, the non-parametric alternative of the student t test, was preferred to determine whether there was a difference between the viewing times of the introduction texts at the group level. 283 of the 565 data in the series came from group no. 1 and 282 from group no. 2. while the average viewing time of no 1 group's introduction texts was 1,016 seconds (standard deviation: 1,320), it was determined that the average viewing time of no 2 group's promotional texts was 2,734 seconds (standard deviation: 3,677). it was observed that there was a statistically significant difference between the groups (u = 27290,000; p = 0,000; p <0.05). while the average view of women on product promotion texts was 1.851 seconds (standard deviation: 2.851), it was determined that men were 1.893 seconds (standard deviation: 2.926). there was no significant difference between the times of looking at introduction texts at gender level (u = 38790.500; p = 0.593; p> 0.05). the kruskal wallis test was applied to analyze whether the duration of viewing promotional texts changed at the level of product categories, and a statistically significant result was found between the categories (p = 0.000; p <0.05). considering the arithmetic mean of the durations at the category level; it was seen that the introduction text that has been viewed for the longest time belongs to the category of infant formula with an average of 4,725 seconds. 5.2.4. price the field indicated with 3 is the area where the prices of all products used in the experiment were indicated. price discounts, which were used as sales promotion stimuli, were offered to participants in this area, as well as on the home page. an example of the price representation is given in figure 7. 24 figure 7. discount example at the end of the experiment, 710 data were detected in the aoi located in this area. as a result of the descriptive statistics, the shortest viewing time for the price was 0 seconds, and the longest was 16,600 seconds. as a result of kolmogorov-smirnov analysis, it was seen that the data did not meet the normal distribution conditions (p = 0.000; p <0.05). for this reason, the mann-whitney u test, which is a non-parametric alternative to the student t test, was applied to determine whether there was a difference between the time to view prices at the level of groups. 347 of the 710 data in the series came from group no. 1 and 363 from group no. 2. while the average time of looking at the price of group no. 1 was 1,071 seconds (standard deviation: 1,279), it was determined that group no. 2 had an average viewing time of 2,311 seconds (standard deviation: 3,228). it was observed that there was no statistically significant difference between the groups (u = 55463,000; p = 0.006; p> 0.05). while the average time for women to view prices was 1,914 seconds (standard deviation: 2,952), it was determined as 1,525 seconds (standard deviation: 2,133) for men. there was no significant difference between the time to view price at gender level (u = 62422.00; p = 0.987; p> 0.05). the kruskal wallis test was applied to analyze whether the time to view prices changed at the level of product categories, and a statistically significant result was found between categories (p = 0.000; p <0.05). according to the results; the product with the longest focus time on price was in the baby food category with an average of 3,662 seconds. 5.2.5. product information the area indicated by 4 is the area in which information on all products used in the experiment was provided. in this area; the origin and content information are provided objectively and there is no statement to direct the consumer to purchase. figure 8 provides an example of product information. product information exists for all categories except toys. figure 8. product information text example at the end of the experiment, 611 data were detected in the aoi located in this area. the shortest time to view product information is 0 seconds, and the longest is 14,210 seconds. as a result of kolmogorov-smirnov analysis, it was seen that the data did not meet the normal distribution conditions (p = 0.000; p <0.05). for this reason, the mann-whitney u test, which is a non-parametric alternative to the student's t test, was applied to determine whether there was a difference between the time to view product information at the level of groups. 291 of 611 data in the series came from group no. 1 and 320 from group no. 2. while the 25 average viewing time of the product information of the no.1 group was 1,352 seconds (standard deviation: 1,750), it was determined that the average time to view the product information of the no. 2 group was 2,494 seconds (standard deviation: 2,636). a statistically significant difference was found between the groups (u = 31203,500; p = 0.000; p <0.05). while the average time for women to view product information was 2.175 seconds (standard deviation: 2.746), it was determined as 1.763 seconds (standard deviation: 1.889) for men. no significant difference was found between the time to view product information at gender level (u = 46222,000; p = 0.986; p> 0.05). to analyze whether the time to view product information changes at the level of product categories, the kruskal wallis test was applied and a statistically significant result was found between the categories (p = 0.000; p <0.05). according to the arithmetic averages of product information viewing times at the level of product categories; the longest focus belongs to the infant formula information text with an average of 2,732 seconds. 5.2.6. social impact the area indicated with 5 is the area (image 6) where user comments about the products used in the experiment are given. in this area, negative comments to the brand that the participant stated that he liked in the pre-test and positive comments to the others were positioned in order to create social impact. user comments were used in all categories except toys and baby bath products. at the end of the experiment, 525 data were collected in the aoi located in this area. as a result of the descriptive statistics, the shortest focus time for the comments was 1.08 seconds and the longest was 14,520 seconds. as a result of kolmogorov-smirnov analysis, it was seen that the data did not meet the normal distribution conditions (p = 0.000; p <0.05). for this reason, the non-parametric alternative of the student's t test, the mann-whitney u test, was applied to determine whether there was a difference between the times of viewing user comments at the group level. 240 of the 525 data in the series came from group no. 1 and 285 from group no. 2. the average viewing time for the comments of the no.1 group was 1.619 seconds (standard deviation: 2.210), while the average viewing time of the no.2 group to the comments was found to be 3.428 (standard deviation: 3.215). a statistically significant difference was found between the groups (u = 20462,000; p = 0,000; p <0.05). it was determined that the average time that women viewed comments was 2,661 seconds (standard deviation: 3,129), while men were 2,549 seconds (standard deviation: 2,772). no significant difference was found between the duration of viewing comments at gender level (u = 34036.00; p = 0.923; p> 0.05). the kruskal wallis test was applied to analyze whether the duration of viewing comments changed at the level of product categories and it was found that there was a statistically significant difference between the categories (p = 0.000; p <0.05). considering the arithmetic averages of focus times at the level of product categories; the longest-viewed comments belong to the category of infant formula with an average of 3,320 seconds. 5.2.7. brand choice the brands listed by the participants in the pre-test were compared with the brands they purchased at the end of the experiment, and in case of a change, which stimulus was used was examined on an individual basis. as a result of the analysis, as indicated in table 6, the group number 1 (consisting of parents) changed their brand preference at the purchasing stage for a total of 67 products, while the group number 2 (consisting of individuals without children) preferred different brands for a total of 140 products. the biggest change in brand preference for the no.1 group was for the ball pools offered in the toys category. group number 2 changed their brand preferences for feeding bottles, which were offered in the category of baby feeding products at the purchasing stage. aimed at encouraging change in products where the no.1 group changed their brand preference; there were 25 positive comments, 14 gifts, 18 price discounts. 26 table 6. the changes in the brand preference of the first group and the stimulus types in the preferences of group number 2; there were 82 positive comments, 23 gifts, 16 price discounts. however, not all changes in brand preference were directly related to stimuli. in the choice of 10 brands in the first group and 19 brands in the second group, the participants neither preferred the brand they stated in the pretest nor the brand promoted by stimuli. such purchases awere defined as "random changes" in table 6 and 7. table 7. the changes in the brand preference of the first group and the stimulus types 5. conclusions and general discussion when the results are considered in general, it is seen that the group of the participants is more determinant than gender. the no.1 group, selected from individuals whose children are at most 10 years old, completed the purchasing process much faster than the group without children due to their experience and habits regarding the products. as well, their attention to stimuli was less than that of the other group. having an existing brand in their mind minimized the need to search for product information in the purchasing process and made it easier for them to choose. while the attention of the no.1 group to the user comments aimed to create a social impact was extremely low, the no.2 group examined the comments for the longest time after the product image. the cognitive dimension of their attitudes about products and brands is limited to awareness towards the brand, and the group number 2 needed to examine the product in detail and to obtain information from user comments. in the research conducted by young in 2004, it was reported that only 10-25% of the mothers who participated in the study read the label containing the information on the back of the product. moreover, not all participants viewed the product packages for more than 5 seconds. the findings of the mentioned research have been substantially confirmed within the scope of this study. although the number of participants reading the product information is higher than the rate stated by young, the average time of viewing visuals in which the product package of the no.1 group is presented did not exceed 3 seconds. it was found that most participants in group 1 chose the product they would purchase directly without looking at the three products in the same category. the group, which is thought to perform routine purchasing behavior, did not even need to open the competitive products pages and do a detailed review. for the reasons outlined, sales promotion tools and social impact incentives are not as effective in this group as in the other. in the study of chae and lee in 2012 it has been determined that the place where consumers look the longest is not the most conspicuous point, but the point that provides information and helps to make the current choice. in this direction, viewing time makes it possible to 27 determine the stimulus that has the greatest impact on the purchasing decision. in line with the relevant literature, the participants in group no. 2 generally tended to examine all products in a category. the attention level of the group to aois is higher than the no.1 group in the whole experiment. this shows that they are seeking comprehensive knowledge to prefer products and brands that they do not have direct experience with. it is observed that the group is also more open to the effect of sales promotion tools than the no.2 group. as a result, in the two groups where the same experimental design was applied, while the no.1 group changed their preferences in 67 brands, this number reached 140 in the no.2 group. in the no.1 group, the toys with the highest decision change were applied to the price discount. in the group number 2, the highest change occurred in the feeding bottles presented in the category of baby feeding products, where positive and negative user comments were positioned. in this direction, it can be thought that the price sensitivity of the no.1 group is higher, while the no.2 group is more open to social impact in decision-making processes. rayner's (2008) study shows that when consumers were asked whether they like an advertisement, they mostly looked at visuals, and when asked whether they were considering purchasing the product, they mostly looked at written texts. the relevance of group 2 for user comments may also be associated with the findings of the study. within the scope of the experiment, it is seen that infant formula is the category in which attention is most concentrated in both groups. all dois in this category received greater attention than those in other categories. it is thought that this is due to the fact that it is a product to be consumed directly by the baby, and thus the participants show a greater sensitivity. when the behavioral patterns of both groups are examined, it is seen that the shopping process has reached the targeted realism. after the majority of participants selected the products, they rechecked the shopping cart and proceeded to the payment page. in summary, the existence of the dimensions of the attitude towards the product, including cognitive, emotional and behavioral, directly affects the buying processes. the stronger the attitudinal components, the weaker the impact of the stimuli prepared for change. for this reason, the no.1 group completed its decision-making processes in a much shorter time and remained more loyal to the brands reported in the pre-test compared to the other group. however, the no.2 group went through a decision-making process that is more open to both sales promotion tools and social impact, since the components that make up their attitude towards the brand do not have sufficient power. although personalized experiment design contributes to the original aspect of the study, heat maps were not seen as a suitable analysis method, as it allowed the participants to complete the experiment at different times and without guidance. if a standard experimental design is created in the next study, it may be possible to create heat maps as well as quantitative data on eye movements obtained in this study. 5.1. limitations & future research another constraint regarding the sample is related to the demographic characteristics of the participants. in addition to the care given to the equal distribution of the individuals in the sample at the level of gender, the age of the child was also used as a criterion in individuals with children. while determining the participants that make up the parent group, care has been taken to ensure that their children are at most 10 years old. the reason for this restriction is, they are invited to have recent experience with the products in question and keep their attitude up to date. another constraint is the internet usage and online shopping experience that apply to all participants. all of the sample reported that they actively use the internet and have purchased products or services online at least once in the last month. in accordance with the operating principles of the eye tracker, pupil motions are followed by an infrared ray. during the pilot study, it was determined that the use of some optical devices such as lenses or prescription glasses negatively affected the results and made the calibration of the device difficult. because of this, participants were selected from those who had no visual field disturbance. there are no interventional items in the study. in addition, all participants were informed about the purpose of the study, the technique and equipment to be used before the study, and their consent for participation was signed with an informed consent form. the data obtained contain important clues for real life applications. however, another critical issue that may be considered in future studies should be the persistence of attitude changes triggered by social impact and sales promotion tools. since the strength of the components that make up the attitude is inversely proportional to the permanence of the attitude change, sales promotion tools that are intended to have an effect in the short term may not provide a long-term and permanent change. similarly, the social impact may not be as efficient in the product groups with which the person already has experience. in this regard, it is believed that the study of relevant stimuli in different participant profiles and product groups will contribute to the literature. references 1. amblee, n., & bui, t. 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(2002). kijken in het brein: over de mogelijkheden van neuromarketing, isbn 90-5892036-4 25. solnais, c., andreu-perez, j., sánchez-fernández, j., & andréu-abela, j. (2013). the contribution of neuroscience to consumer research: a conceptual framework and empirical review. journal of economic psychology, 36, 68-81. available at https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/bitstream/10044/1/23278 /4/solnais%20et%20al%202013.pdf 26. wang, q., yang, s., liu, m., cao, z., & ma, q. (2014). an eye-tracking study of website complexity from cognitive load perspective. decision support systems, 62, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2014.02.007 27. yahya, s. f. h., hashim, n. a., bahsri, n., & dahari, n. a. (2019). the effect of sales promotion strategy on online fashion shopping behavior among employee of sahawan sdn bhd. global business and management research: an international journal, 11(2), 1-13. available at http://www.gbmrjournal.com/pdf/vol.%2011%20no. %202/v11n2_2019.pdf 28. young, s. 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https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/baby-personal-care-market https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/baby-personal-care-market https://www.statista.com/statistics/1031962/global-social-commerce-activities-age/ https://www.statista.com/statistics/1031962/global-social-commerce-activities-age/ https://wearesocial.com/digital-2020 http://www.wix.com/ 65 the effect of covid-19 on healthcare doctors in turkey: the case of istanbul chapa(çapa) hospital mortaza chaychi̇ semsari̇, phd. c. ¹* kerim karadal, phd. c. 2 ¹ istanbul university, political science and public administration, alimortezacaycisemsari@gmail.com *correspondent author. 2 uludağ university, institute of social sciences, management and organization, kerimkaradal@gmail.com article history: submission 28 february 2021 revision 12 may 2021 accepted 16 august 2021 available online 31 august 2021 keywords: covid-19, istanbul chapa hospital, social state, neoliberal policies, doctors, global health. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.256 a b s t r a c t after 1945, states began to be more effective on the economy. this situation showed itself under the name of welfare state or social state. however, neo-liberal policies were seen as a solution to the economic problems that started to be experienced from the beginning of the 1980s, and the social state or welfare state practices began to decline. depending on the expansion of neo-liberal policies, states have withdrawn from many service areas in accordance with the free market understanding. one of these withdrawals is health services. health services have been transformed into free market conditions through privatization, and the health service that citizens benefit from has been transformed into paid. on the other hand, in line with neo-liberal policies, principles such as performance, contract and productivity have been introduced to healthcare workers. healthcare workers and especially doctors are at the forefront of the fight against covid-19, which started in wuhan, china and spread to the world. in order to eradicate the epidemic, doctors had to face the worsening working conditions (suspension of the rights to resign and ask for retirement, excessive patient care, etc.) while racing against time to save the patients. this situation brings with it many problems in working life for the doctors who are fighting the epidemic in turkey as well as in the world. in this study, the effect of the covid-19 epidemic in turkey on the pandemic service of istanbul university istanbul medical faculty chapa hospital in the process leading to the liquidation of the social state was investigated. 1. introduction with the second half of the 20th century, it is seen that the intervention of states on the global economy has increased. states with economic interventions; focused on developing policies to increase the living standards of citizens with welfare state and social state practices. in this context, states develop a control mechanism in the market with welfare state and social state practices. one of the most important of these applications is the services provided by the state on the health system. in the mid-1970s, both economic and political developments in the countries that faced the oil crisis due to the opec embargo in the world, and with the addition of the economic depression, neoliberal policies emerged with the practices they developed to get rid of the increasing costs. in this context, the criticism towards the state has increased and the future of the social state has begun to be discussed. in this direction, the first criticism of the welfare state came from the neoliberal understanding and it was underlined that the state should return to its old function, namely "night watchman", and that the economic field should be left to the market completely (ataay, 2016). it is the financial https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:alimortezacaycisemsari@gmail.com mailto:kerimkaradal@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.256 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6639-8945 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3891-8429 66 problems seen in health as well as in other services that affect the restructuring of countries, especially in the field of health, which started in the late 1980s (günaydın, 2011). the beginning of the 1990s and the 2000s, together with the phenomenon of globalization, revealed the understanding that states can no longer do any other task than to control the market (koçak, 2009; kayan, 2015). the liquidation process of the social state, which started with neo-liberal policies, gained momentum with globalization. today, health care in the world is shaped according to the market economy. the covid-19 epidemic, which started in wuhan, china in 2019, has brought about discussions in the global arena on the provision of health services. with the covid-19 epidemic, questions arise such as whether there is any loss of rights for health workers and what kind of problems it causes on health care providers. in this context, within the scope of the study, the effect of the covid-19 epidemic in turkey on the pandemic service of istanbul university istanbul medical faculty chapa hospital in the process leading to the liquidation of the social state in a globalized world was investigated. 2. the effect of neo-liberalism on health system in a globalized world the 1970s were the years when the social state phenomenon was criticized. with the establishment of thatcher government in england in 1979, the criticisms of the american president reagan towards the welfare state have been an important support for neoliberalism, and since the beginning of the 1980s, international organizations such as the world bank (wb) in developed countries and then in developing countries. it has also accelerated a global debate with its support. on the other hand, the long-term financial problems that started in the mid-1970s were also an important development for neoliberalism (yaşar & uğurluoğlu, 2010). united states of america (usa) and in developed european countries such as the uk, “the reduction of budgetary shares has led to a general crisis in public health systems” (güzelsarı, 2012). important steps have been taken to release the area created by this crisis to the free market. international monetary fund (imf), with the support of international institutions such as the wb and the world trade organization (wto), the privatization, governance, etc. of public spaces belonging to the state. it was thought to be created according to free market conditions with methods, and accordingly, the health service undertaken by the state was directly affected. in this context, the neoliberal policies implemented in the economy were realized with the health reforms that started in the 1980s and implemented in the 1990s (erol & özdemir, 2019). these health reforms, which were also realized with the effect of globalization, were implemented under the name of health policy with the support of institutions such as the imf and (wb) in developing countries such as turkey after a certain period of time. wb and imf are the main actors in everything from the budget of the services provided by the health institutions depending on the health reforms (erol & özdemir, 2019) became like that. globalization, one of the dimensions of neoliberalism (savran, 1998), in its narrowest sense, it refers to the process of worldwide diffusion of capitalist policies (çoban, 2015). one of the places where these policies are most effective today is the field of health. globalization paves the way for countries to be involved in health policies through privatization, which is one of the dynamics of the free market. thanks to privatization, which expresses the fulfillment of the operating and usage powers of the state by the free market, the state leaves the socio-economic field to the private sector and turns into a regulatory state for the operation and maintenance of capitalist production relations (yaşar & uğurluoğlu, 2010). in this respect, privatization refers to the private sector's entry into the field of health services as financial resources and services (belek & soyer, 1998). the most important application area today is the public-private partnership (public-private partnership) model. accordingly, according to the content of the project undertaken by the private sector, financial, infrastructure, repair and so on. is involved in one or more places (uysal, 2019). employment of personnel as civil servants in hospitals realized with public private partnership and the evaluation of these personnel within the scope of this study were taken into consideration. however, since the situation that arises here will bring more costs for those who will benefit from health services (bed fee, examination fee, etc.) as a result, citizens' access to health services may also become problematic. for example, in the usa, the average life expectancy between the top 1% of the income distribution and the bottom 1% of the income distribution differs by 15 years for 40-year-old men and 10 years for women (undp, 2019). according to the world health organization (who), “differences in life expectancy between men and women in low-income countries are due to causes that can be treated through access to primary health care. in addition, most of the factors affecting access to health services are outside the traditional mandate of health ministry’s/state. it is emphasized that while the population in low-income countries generally has less access to basic health services, it is negatively affected by health expenditures even in high-income countries. (who, 2019). according to the world bank, it has been stated that there are problems in middle-income countries in accessing health services in various countries. on the other hand, the continuous increase in individual health expenditures increased 67 from 9.4% to 12.7% between 2000 and 2015 – showing the contrast between health expenditure and access to health (db, 2019). in addition, it is stated that 10% of families' incomes went to health expenditures in 2015, and the percentage of the population that became impoverished due to out-of-pocket health expenditures increased from 1.8% in 2000 to 2.5% in 2015(db, 2019). 3. transformatıon of the social state and the marketing of the health system the social state is the state that affects every aspect of social life with public means and makes this effect felt everywhere (güler, 2006). the social state envisages the poor people in the society to have a more humane life and to join the society by eliminating their poverty (bulut, 2003). however, towards the end of the 1970s, with the victory of the new right, which accepted the neoliberal understanding economically, there was a change in the welfare state thought (gönç, 2017). in the 1980s, deregulation and privatization policies, known as the abolition of the state's decision-making authority in the economy, and welfare state practices were replaced by neoliberal policies (yaşar & uğurluoğlu, 2010). after 1980, with the effect of globalization, the process of liquidation of the welfare state accelerated. in line with neo-liberal policies, practices towards shrinking the state in the field of health services have begun to be experienced (doğan, 2017). with the shrinking of the state in the field of economy, imbalances have been experienced in many areas from income to health. according to 2018 world inequality report data, the share of wealth of the top 1% in the usa, which was 22% in 1980, increased to 39% in 2014, while the income shares of the bottom 50% increased to 20% in 1980. decreased to 13% in 2016. on the other hand, it is seen that those who make up the richest 1% of the world have received twice as much growth since 1980 than the 50% that make up the bottom segment (world inequality report, 2018). with the abolition of the welfare state since the 1980s, neoliberal policies between continents also differ. accordingly, while 1% of the population in western europe received 12% of the national income in 2016, this rate was 20% in the usa. in 1980, 1% of the population in western europe received 10% of the national income, while this rate was 11% in the usa. (world inequality report, 2018). both public and private health expenditures are increasing around the world. 77% of health expenditures, which are over $7.7 trillion, belong to developed countries. the average per capita health expenditure in the world is 1,061 dollars per year. in developing countries, the personal health expenditure of individuals is more than half a trillion dollars. in many countries, health services are provided through the private health sector, apart from the high fees allocated to health expenditures among the expenditures made by the states and the services they provide. except for capitalist countries with free market conditions, health services in lowand middle-income countries are generally provided through private health institutions and aid organizations. apart from this, with the factors brought by the development of technology in the last 40 years, significant improvements have been experienced in the field of health in the world and the quality of life of people has increased on a global scale. from 2000 to 2016, total life expectancy increased by 5.5 years, reaching the highest rate of the last 60 years, reaching 72.6 years. however, this positive picture is not always stable. every year, individuals in developing countries pay more than half a trillion dollars for health, 930 million people allocate 10% of their household budget to health in 2015 alone, and increases in public or individual spending on health are not enough to provide financial protection. (https://insamer.com, e.t. 05.01.2021; world health statistics, 2020; who, 2019a; www.worldbank. org, https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/health/overview#4. 03.01.2021). in the wb and who 2019 joint report, it is stated that individual health expenditures between 2000 and 2015 contributed to the increase in global poverty, and it is predicted that 984 million people around the world will continue to pay for health by 2030. (wb and who joint report, 2019). in this regard, both state and individual budgets allocated to health expenditures increase inequality and poverty worldwide. despite the technological advances in the globalization process, state and individual-based expenditures in health expenditures are increasing. this situation shows the position of the individual and the state in the health system in line with the implemented neoliberal policies. however, it is necessary to examine the situation in terms of the other dimension of the work, namely health workers. 4. the effect of neo-liberalism on healthcare professionals in a globalized world today, the role of the state in the field of health is reduced to the status of "observer" and the benefit of those who do not have financial income from the health sector is eliminated with health reforms. in this way, it is ensured that individuals are integrated into the free market by waiving the idea of benefiting from the health service provided to them by the state through reforms. thanks to the “reforms” that transform the health services offered by the states into health services based on the neoliberal free market understanding, the health services provided are privatized (gönç, 2017). in other words, states try to save money by reducing health expenditures, but on the other hand, the segment in which health services are provided has also narrowed. 68 who recognizes the need for health reform (2008), summarized in four points? these; universal inclusiveness of health systems towards (i) health equity, (ii) social justice (iii) ending exclusion; service delivery to make health care more social around people's needs and expectations; (iv) public policy making to integrate public health actions with primary health care and pursue sound public policies across sectors, and finally the inclusive, participatory, deliberative leadership required by leadership reform. the starting point of these reforms is to reduce inequalities and facilitate access to health. in addition, it is a reconsideration of health in terms of health workers. however, the reforms increase inequality even more and have negative aspects on health workers. in this context, as a result of the implemented neoliberal policies, the business logic in hospitals is developing. due to the increase in the number of patients, the number of health workers remains insufficient. more workload is put on healthcare professionals and the patient-physician relationship may deteriorate due to the intensity. secondly, states are making changes in the understanding of civil servants within the framework of health reforms, and it is aimed to provide services to health workers according to the contract procedure. in this respect, the way for subcontracting in health is also paved. third, with the performance system application, doctors are paid according to the number of patients they see and the unit they work in. with this understanding, a number-based mechanical system is created for healthcare professionals (especially doctors), away from humane working conditions. especially with the covid-19 epidemic that started in the world in 2019, healthcare professionals are expected to show superhuman performance. 5. the transformation of the health system in turkey due to globalization: transition to market economy through neoliberalism policies and health reforms the 1980s are important in the transition to neoliberal policies in turkey. one of the most important indicators in the transition is the decisions taken on january 24, 1980. these decisions highlight the free market economy. the active role of the state in providing health services has been reduced and financial resources have been cut and the state has moved away from its primary duty in the field of health, as in many areas, and left its place to the free market(pala, 2007). the most concrete expression of this is in the 1982 constitution. accordingly, the health services that the state is obliged to fulfill have been rearranged in accordance with neoliberal policies. in this context, the state has undertaken the role of controlling health institutions by cooperating with the private sector(1982 anayasası, md.56). another important development of the 1980s was the regulation of health services according to the free market understanding with the health services basic law no. 3359 in 1987(yaşar & uğurluoğlu, 2010). according to the 3rd article of the relevant law, health services are opened to commercialization by determining the prices related to the services provided in state-owned health institutions and businesses by the ministry of health (erol & özdemir, 2019). with the article added to the same law, health services are made to be bought and sold with the employment of contracted personnel(turancı ve bulut, 2016; 3359, geçici md.1). the health reform, which started in the 1980s with neoliberal policies, was replaced by a new understanding in the early 2000s with the "health transformation program (session description protocol)" announced in 2003. accordingly, the ministry was brought to the level of planning and supervision, health institutions were transformed into health enterprises in the understanding of administrative and financial autonomy, and it was aimed to make health services effective and efficient(sağlık bakanlığı, 2003). with the gathering of health services under one roof with general health insurance (general health insurance), the transition from health centers to family medicine -in 2010, the transition to family medicine was completed in turkeya market-based service approach was adopted in the operating logic of public hospitals(erol & özdemir, 2019; pala, 2007; bakar, 2014). with the general health insurance, the necessary financing of the state is provided.all citizens are covered by the general health insurance and are required to pay their compulsory health insurance shares.citizens who do not pay their insurance shares, on the other hand, are cut off from health services, but can receive this service for a fee(balta, 2013; pala, 2007). while the monthly amount required to be paid by the citizens who want to benefit from the uhi, which has been made compulsory since january 2012, was 88.29 tl, this amount has been increased to 107.32 tl as of january 2021(http://www.sgk.gov.tr, e.t. 28.01.2021). with the green card law dated 18.06.1992 and numbered 3816, the treatment expenses of the citizens who cannot afford to pay are covered by the state by issuing a green card( http://www.mutki.gov.tr/yesil-kart-islemleri). in turkey, the number of green card holders given to those who are unable to receive health care due to lack of financial means to benefit from health services has exceeded 8 million(https://t24.com.tr/haber/yesil-kart-li-vatandas-sayisi-8milyon-628-bine-ulasti,). when the literature is examined, it can be seen that researchers cannot agree on the service logic in the field of health in turkey. some researchers argue that the market logic is established in turkey, especially in the health sector(örneğin; aksoy, 2007, koç ve vurgun, 2012, özseven vd., 2014). however, it is seen that some researchers argue that http://www.sgk.gov.tr/ 69 the mechanisms prescribed by the market logic do not work in the health sector (for example, meydan et al. 2020). according to the health expenditure statistics 2019 report published by the turkish statistical institute (tüi̇k) on november 19, 2020, the total health expenditure in 2019 increased by approximately 22% compared to the previous year and reached approximately 201 billion dollars, which resulted in an approximately 23% increase in government health expenditures and it has been shared that the private sector consists of a combination of approximately 19% increase in health expenditure. in addition to this data provided by the turkish statistical institute, it has been estimated that the general government health expenditure amount for 2019 was approximately 157 billion dollars and the private sector's health expenditure was 44 billion dollars (https://data.tuik.gov.tr/bulten/index?p=saglik-harcamalariistatistikleri-2019). the next publication date of these statistics is stated by the turkish statistical institute as december 2021. due to the covid-19 pandemic, which was more successful than other countries in the beginning, but felt the effects in 2020, a higher rate of increase is expected in health expenditures in 2020. the change in health expenditures in turkey between 2010 and 2019 is shown in figure 1 below. figure 1. health expenditures, 2010-2019 (total, general government and private sector) (bilion tl) source: health expenditure statistics, 2019 (https://data.tuik.gov. tr/bulten/index?p=saglikspending-statistics-2019). with the decree-law dated 3 november 2011 and numbered 663 (decree law), a change and transformation was made in the structure of the ministry of health and its affiliated organizations. with this decree, the transition from management to governance was ensured by the establishment of the turkish medicines and medical devices agency with a special budget, and the public hospitals institution of turkey and the public health institution of turkey, which were based on decentralization instead of centralization, and certain staff to be employed on a contract basis (balta, 2013; erol & özdemir, 2018). with this change in 2011, instead of performing public health services directly, businessbased management was initiated through the public hospitals association. in this context, each union has been accepted as a performance-based system with its own contracted personnel. while the share of health in the general budget decreased as neoliberal policies became operational in health, the share of other resources was increased with interventions such as general health insurance, and the period of paid treatment in the public began, thus creating a performance-based structure (663 khk md. 29/2; aktel et.al., 2013; pala, 2016). as of 2014, the contribution fees previously received only from drugs, it has started to be popularized in many areas such as medical examination, additional fee per drug, early examination, private hospital (bakar, 2014). 6. legal rıghts of physıcıans in turkey a physician is a person who works for human health, does his/her job within the framework of the legal rights granted to him by the state, and intervenes medically on behalf of the society and human health due to his duty. from this point of view, we can say that the profession of medicine has a priority in protecting human and public health. healthcare professionals, physicians, fight the epidemic in the forefront of their work and put their own health in the second place against patients. the legal rights of physicians in turkey are enshrined in the constitution, the law on the practice of medical sciences, the law on the turkish medical association, the regulation on medical deontology, the regulation on treatment services, and the law no. 657 on civil servants.however, today, when we look at the content of these laws, deficiencies in the legal rights of physicians are obvious (yalçın, 2011). with a regulation made in 1998, the rights of patients against physicians were expanded and the number of lawsuits filed against physicians increased significantly (tanrıverdi vd., 2014). https://data.tuik.gov.tr/bulten/index?p=saglik-harcamalari-istatistikleri-2019 https://data.tuik.gov.tr/bulten/index?p=saglik-harcamalari-istatistikleri-2019 70 today, this tendency to violence has become controversial again with the epidemic. if we briefly touch on the rights of physicians in the law; the right to refuse the patient and not to leave the patient unless another colleague arrives (tıbbi deontoloji tüzüğü md.18 ve 19), “the right not to touch one's bodily integrity” (constitution art. 17) and the turkish medical association's "turkish medical association .it was updated in the 58th grand congress of the ethical declarations workshop and was rearranged in 2018 depending on the years, and in november 2019, the turkish medical association extraordinary. on the other hand, in the declaration of the rights of the physician (turkish medical association) adopted in the grand congress, there is the right to benefit from and demand many rights such as using leave, ensuring occupational safety, minimizing occupational risks, ensuring the safety of life and property from the state, and demanding personal rights (ttb, 2019). 7. effects of covid-19 on physıcıans the covid-19 epidemic, which started towards the end of 2019 and still continues in the world, has caused and is causing significant problems in turkey as well as in the world. apart from human losses, the epidemic brought many health problems such as runny nose, back pain, breathing difficulties, taste and smell. from march 11, 2020, when the first case was seen in turkey, until january 29, 2021, when this article was written, the total number of cases in turkey was 2,464,030, the number of deaths was 25,736 and the number of patients was 1740(http://www.covid19.saglik.gov.tr, e.t 29.01.2021). 30 thousand health workers were affected by the epidemic, 302 of them died.117 of those who lost their lives were physicians(https://www.yenicaggazetesi.com.tr/korona 29.12.2020). the epidemic has significant effects on healthcare workers. one of these effects is the difficulties experienced in coping with stress in one of every 6 health workers during the epidemic(bozkurt vd., 2020). in turkey, health workers are faced with problems such as not resigning by the state, not retiring, leave cancellations or unfair and uncertain work(saatçi, 2020). violence and communication with patients' relatives are among the other effects.in the later stages of the epidemic, images of patients or their relatives that reach the level of violence against healthcare professionals, especially physicians working in the emergency, emerge.this situation for physicians trying to do their duty brings the issue of life safety to the forefront for physicians. another dimension of the epidemic for physicians is that covid is not considered as an occupational disease by the state. in addition, in case of death due to the epidemic, physicians who died cannot receive compensation because it is not considered an occupational disease.therefore, physicians may fall into victim status due to both being under high risk and the possibility of losing their rights in terms of personnel.the loss of colleagues, communication problems with patients, the complete cessation of their social life, the decrease in their contact with their families, the fact that they spend most of the day at work due to overwork, the inadequacy of improvements in additional wages, the direct reflection of every measure taken by the state on their working life can prevent physicians from working in a healthy environment. and may cause them to not be able to fully manage the crisis. 8. istanbul chapa(çapa) hospital intervıew with physicians fightong covid-19 istanbul chapa hospital, which has an important place in the fight against the epidemic, was chosen as the application area in the study. the first doctor's death due to covid, internal medicine doctor prof. dr. cemil taşçıoğlu, being the hospital where he took place and being one of the most important hospitals in turkey, has been effective in the selection of this hospital. qualitative research method was used in the study. in turkey, legal and administrative data on the rights of healthcare personnel have been examined. then, the data obtained from the doctors providing health services in istanbul çapa hospital were transferred as they were in the study, without touching the essence. ratios and percentages were made according to the mathematical percentage method. at chapa hospital, physicians from two departments were interviewed; (i) chest portion; 4 foreign nationals and 12 locals in this section, (ii) internal medicine section: 10 foreign nationals and 58 people are considered local in this section. first-hand data were collected through one-on-one interviews with 11 physicians who were in charge of these physicians, and the random method was applied. a total of 6 previously prepared questions were asked to them, and the question of whether to answer the questions was left to the participants. of the 11 participants who participated in the interview, 6 were female and 5 were male. 4 of the participants are foreign nationals. the average duration of the interviews with the participants is 40 minutes. in the study, separate interviews were conducted with the participants in order not to be influenced by each other. the 6 questions asked to the participants (f) in the study are as follows: 1do you think covid-19 has affected your working life? 2do you think that the hygiene conditions are sufficient in the fight against covid-19 in your institution? 3do you think the legal rights in your working life are sufficient? http://www.covid19.saglik.gov.tr/ 71 4do you have problems in communication with covid-19 patients? 5according to you, are the methods of coping with covid-19 effective? 6are you satisfied with your personal rights in the hospital where you work? in the interviews, all of the participants stated that the covid-19 epidemic affected their working life to the first question. in addition, all of the participants to this question stated that working hours and life risks have increased, working styles have changed, returning to the shift system, long shifts, etc. k1 said that the epidemic affected their working life, losing their colleagues, seeing patients of the same type, and the fact that the epidemic became wearisome over time affected him and his colleagues psychologically, and added that, unlike k4 and k8, the stress environment increased in the hospital. to the second question, six of the participants said that the hygiene conditions were "adequate", and five of them (k1, k5, k7, k10 and k11) said they were partially sufficient. the common point of the participants who said that this question was both sufficient and partially sufficient is that they said that there was no shortage of masks, equipment and cleaning materials. however, k1 is the only woman to say that the building they work in is old and that there is no negative pressure room. to the third question, 9 of the participants said that legal rights were insufficient, k6 said that they had no complete idea about this, and p8 said that there was no negativity other than the material issue. k9, who finds their legal rights insufficient, stated that they can get an additional fee for up to 7 shifts if they keep watch, they cannot get additional pay for 7 shifts, they are considered on duty after the shift and they work up to 35-36 hours. k10, on the other hand, said that there are still inadequacies in the punishment of violence to the doctor, apart from the material issue. k3 states that on legal rights, covid is not considered an occupational disease and there is no legal regulation for it, improvements in the balance of payments are not considered sufficient, wages are low compared to the risk taken, k1 states that there are bureaucratic difficulties. k2 states that covid is not considered an occupational disease. participants gave different answers to the fourth question. k1, k7, k8, k9 and k11 stated that there were more problems in communicating with patients at the beginning of the epidemic, but their communication problems with the patient decreased due to the prolongation of the epidemic.k4 and k10 stated that communication problem was experienced and continued. k10 stated that the reason for this was different expectations. the rest of the participants stated that they did not experience communication problems.of these, k5 stated that there were no problems with those who were hospitalized due to covid, but they could not agree because the attitudes of the patients who came to the were not normal. to the fifth question, 4 of the participants indicated that the methods were insufficient and that the effects of the k10 and k11 methods could not be known, as a justification for a new epidemic type and being unique from the previous ones.k6 and k8 said that the methods were effective, k3 and k6 said that the methods could be more effective, and k9 said that the methods were sufficient at first.among those who say that the method is insufficient, k5 thinks that the methods are loosened at some points.k8, who argued that the methods were effective, said that the number of people who applied to the hospital at first was around 1200, but thanks to the methods, this number has decreased to 150 in recent years. for the sixth question, only p8 thinks that their personal rights are sufficient and they are foreign nationals. k10, who is a foreign national, says that they do not have much information about personal rights. all of the remaining participants said that they were not satisfied with their personal rights and that their personal rights were weak. the most interesting answer to this question was given by k5. according to him, he thinks that health workers are unfairly treated by the media about being overpaid, and that they do not receive a monetary and moral reward. k3 does not think that every written right is provided. k4 expressed his opinion that adequate laws on personal rights should be enacted and cooperation with professional organizations should be established. 9. conclusions the covid-19 pandemic causes the number of healthcare workers who died due to covid-19 to increase day by day in the world. working in unhealthy conditions, being exposed to violence by patients or their relatives, working with inadequate and unhealthy tools, increase in working hours, and finally, in some countries, such as turkey, due to their professional rights and personal rights (not being able to resign, not being able to retire, not considering covid as an occupational disease). etc.) problems are reflected negatively on health workers. in general, according to the findings obtained in the research; there is a consensus on some points such as covid-19 is not considered an occupational disease and no legal action has been taken on this issue, the issue of wages should be reconsidered, working under stress and intensively is not efficient, wages received with working conditions are incompatible, the risk is higher than other epidemics. have been found to provide. out of consensus, some 72 participants, like k5, think that the media exaggerate the issue of wages for healthcare workers. they stated that they experienced fear and anxiety at the beginning of the epidemic. they considered the non-compliance of the measures taken by people as the reason for the odor and anxiety they 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https://www.ttb.org.tr/makale_goster.php?guid=484cccb8-9041-11ea-9b7d-6d38d16eb233 https://www.yenicaggazetesi.com.tr/korona-virusten-turkiyede-olen-saglikci-sayisina-i̇nanamayacaksiniz-rakamlar-korku-sa-324955h.htm https://www.yenicaggazetesi.com.tr/korona-virusten-turkiyede-olen-saglikci-sayisina-i̇nanamayacaksiniz-rakamlar-korku-sa-324955h.htm https://www.yenicaggazetesi.com.tr/korona-virusten-turkiyede-olen-saglikci-sayisina-i̇nanamayacaksiniz-rakamlar-korku-sa-324955h.htm https://www.yenicaggazetesi.com.tr/korona-virusten-turkiyede-olen-saglikci-sayisina-i̇nanamayacaksiniz-rakamlar-korku-sa-324955h.htm https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/health/overview#4 https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/health/overview#4 prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 1 penetration strategies of turkish corporations in kosovo’s market luan vardari university of prizren "ukshin hoti", republic of kosovo e-mail: luan.vardari@uni-prizren.com dena arapi faculty of law university of prishtina, republic of kosovo denaarapi@hotmail.com afërdita qekaj thaqi faculty of economics akademia për sigurim publik republic of kosovo aferdita06@gmail.com abstract rapid developments and increasing competition in recent years have prevented companies from producing and selling only in domestic markets, but also causing their foreign resources and investments to be directed to foreign markets. in this case, once businesses decide to join a particular market, they have to decide which is the best way to penetrate there. turkish multinational corporations, which have been spreading all over the world with their investments, have conquered world markets with their exports, initiatives and acquisitions, they have entered in foreign markets in various forms and have a significant share in world trade volume with their successful investments. from this point of view, this study examines the strategies by which turkish multinationals enter foreign markets especially in kosovo and the impact that those companies have had in the development of the kosovo economy and the strategies by which turkish multinationals enter foreign markets. key words: penetration strategies, developing countries jel code: l1, l12, r11 mailto:bekim_@hotmail.com prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 2 1. the development of the kosovo economy in 1989, kosovo continued its economic life as an autonomous region under the federal republic of yugoslavia with a planned economy, and after the disintegration of yugoslavia (1992), kosovo's economy passed through several stages. with kosovo being seperated from serbia after 1999, it has developed into a fast-growing economy. the outward opening of kosovo was actually after the end of the war (1999). especially after the declaration of independence and starting to gain some recognitions foreign investments started to increase even more. a rapid increase in the number of businessmen visiting kosovo after this period is striking (koro, 2009). according to a report published by the kosovo central bank in 2013, the foreign investments in the republic of kosovo has reached 258.5 million euros, mainly from countries such as turkey, switzerland, germany, albania, usa, austria, italy, slovenia and england (invest, 2015). trade and economic relations between turkey and kosovo are on the rise. turkey's exports, which amounted to $ 120 million in 2007, reached $ 277 million in 2009. on the other hand, turkey imported $ 10 million last year from kosovo. turkey is buying rubber and raw leather from kosovo. textiles and food products constitute a significant part of exports to this country. after the indipendence of the republic of kosovo, 586 turkish companies were established in kosovo by 2013 (ekinci, 2013). however, kosovo ranks 75th in the "doing business 2014" report (mfa, 2013), which is a world bank-prepared measure of the investment climate in 189 countries, although kosovo is a rich country in terms of underground resources. 2. how companies enter into international markets globalization has created a dizzying competition among businesses. the place of national markets has taken international markets and competition. for this reason, enterprises invest only in the national market, investing in other countries so that they can offer their products or services to different markets or take advantage of other countries. there are many different ways of entering foreign markets such as export (export), contracted entry forms, investments. business administrators should choose the most appropriate method according to the requirements of the market to be entered into the market and according to their wishes and resources. when the international market entry scheme is decided, it must be known that each prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 3 form contains control, loyalty, interest and risk at different levels and that it is the most appropriate one. from a detailed point of view, there are a number of factors that are considered to be influential in the selection of the pgd. the effects of these factors, which are unique to the country where the company is affiliated, the country they are considering to enter, and the company itself, are examined with different approaches (kartal and sofyalıoğlu, 2009). types of entry into international markets; export, contractual entry and investment. 2.1. export the first choice for businesses to enter international markets is export. though low livelihood and low cost can be considered as distinct advantages, businesses are turning to alternate entry methods when they reach a certain market experience. by definition export; it sells the goods produced by one country to another country or countries (engin, 2005). pazaar entry is possible in two main ways: direct (direct) export and indirect (indirect) export. direct export; enterprises that reach a certain size should direct their direct exports in order to get rid of the disadvantages provided by domestic vehicle exporting companies. in this case, even if the required investment and the risk to bear increases, the profit to be provided to the export will increase to that extent (aydıntan, 2003). indirect export; the format can be done by independent agents on the international scene. the least investment required is for oucomplementary companyurcing because the business does not need to set up a special marketing unit or network. the mediators contain little risk as they give information about the exported region and the company does not have to make an additional investment. (kotler and armstrong, 2010). 2.2. contractual penetration methods as contract-based penetration strategies; license agreements, franchising, contract manufacturing, turnkey projects, management contract and assembly operations are announced. license agreements; licensing is the issuance or authorization of production and / or sale of a local producer abroad by an enterprise that wants to enter the international market with the shortest expression (karafakioğlu, 2000: 203). in other words, a license agreement is a legal prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 4 contract to transfer the use of certain rights held by an operator to another business for a fixed period of time. container based production (fason); another way to enter a new market is to make an agreement with a foreign company about product production or provision of services. the disadvantage of this method is the lack of control and the lack of profitable yields from the production process. the advantages are low risk, short time to apply, possibility to integrate jobs more easily by purchasing a production facility in the future (kotler and armstrong, 2010). franchise agreements; in these agreements, the parent company (franchisor) licenses the trademark and business forms to a foreign company (franchisee). it is often used in the service sector (kotler and armstrong, 2010). management contracted production; contract manufacturing, which is defined as the production of a product by a local manufacturer that an operator wishes to enter into the market, is suitable if it can find a local business that can produce the product at the desired quality and quantity. r&d, marketing, distribution, sales and service activities are facilitated because the responsibility of the production activities of the contracted production enterprise is given to the local operation (engin, 2005). 2.3. market penetration through investments unlike other forms of entry by investment and market entry, in some cases businesses enter into international markets by establishing production sites in foreign countries, purchasing existing production facilities or establishing partnerships. this method; direct investment, joint ownership ventures, and mergers and acquisitions. direct investment; the establishment of a direct production facility in a foreign country is called direct investment. one of the biggest advantages is that it allows the company to stay in that country for a long time and this time is limited in licensing and exporting. direct investment can also be considered as an in-country investment, but the exchange rate differs in terms of political and cultural risk containment. in spite of this excessive risk, revenues or low costs that can offset this risk play a significant role in the company's preferences (engin, 2005). joint ventures; a joint venture or venture is a partnership agreement between a multinational corporation and a local company in the fields of production, finance, marketing and management of operations. joint investments enable the multinational company to take advantage of local prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 5 financial resources while reducing the financial burden. in addition to this, there are also advantages such as the decrease of the foreign supervision on the company, the development of the local joint company, the increase of the role of the local economy operator (aydıntan, 2003). 3. analysis and results spss 23.0 program was used for data analysis. correlation testing and vif testing were conducted in the research to ensure that multicolinarity problems would not occur with the data. on the other hand, logistic regression is one of the most commonly used methods in social sciences to investigate two independent (dichotomic) variables (peng & so, 2002). within the scope of the research, we have considered 3 groups in the direction of the answers given in the questionnaire and i have created 3 models in order to test complementary company, joint venture and "other" groups in binary categories. according to this, in the first model, complementary company and joint venture are compared. in the second model, the "other" group was compared with complementary company, and finally in the third model, the "other" group was compared with mv. hypotheses: h1: when the risk level of the country is high, less sourced input is preferred. h2: if a positive attitude towards foreign direct investment is shown in the invested country, companies prefer more funding entry forms. h3: if the economic expectation is high in the country to be invested, more sourced forms of entry are preferred. h4: in the market where there is a lot of competition, companies prefer entry forms that require few resources. h5: managerial perceptions of cultural distance are effective in choosing methods that involve fewer resources in the form of entry. 3.1. frequency distributions frequency distributions provide us the opportunity to learn more about companies.in the table of introduction strategies, we selected 5 out of 25 companies in our sample (20%), 14 from zero investment (54%) and 6 from partnership (24%). prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 6 table 1. introduction shape frequency percent current percent cumulative percent percent valid buying 5 20.0 20.0 20.0 zero investment 14 56.0 56.0 76.0 partnership 6 24.0 24.0 100.0 total 25 100.0 100.0 in table 1, 11 are joint venture (og) (40%), 9 are complementary company (complementary companyş) (34.5%) and 5 are "other" (25.5%). this is because more companies in the joint venture (jv) group prefer this method. table 2. investments in the kosovo market frequency percent current percent cumulative percent percent valid join venture 11 40.0 40.0 65.5 complementary company 9 34.5 34.5 34.5 other 5 25.5 25.5 100.0 total 25 100.0 100.0 when we look at the main activities in kosovo in table 3, we see that 48% of companies define only service and 32% define production + service + marketing as their main activity. table 3. main activities in kosovo frequenc y percent current percent cumulative percent valid production 1 4.0 4.0 4.0 production + service 4 16.0 16.0 20.0 production + service + marketing 8 32.0 32.0 52.0 service 12 48.0 48.0 100.0 total 25 100.0 100.0 prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 7 when we look at the sectors in operation, we see that 24% of the companies are operating in banking and other sectors and 12% in textile-apparel-leather, metal-iron-steel and automotive-transportation-similar sectors sectors. we can define these sectors as sectors that are most attractive for turkish companies. table 4. main sector in kosovo frequency percent current percent cumulative percent percent valid automotive, transportation and similar sectors 3 12.0 12.0 12.0 eating / drinking manufacturer 3 12.0 12.0 24.0 chemicals 1 4.0 4.0 28.0 textile, clothing, leather 1 4.0 4.0 32.0 metal, iron and steel 3 12.0 12.0 44.0 construction 2 8.0 8.0 52.0 banking 6 24.0 24.0 76.0 other 6 24.0 24.0 100.0 total 25 100.0 100.0 3.2. the impact of country riskin's pazara introduction strategy table 5. impact of country riskin model 1 model 2 model 3 pearson chisquare significan ce pearson shi-square significance pearson chi-square significance political instability risk 13.636 .009 14.855 .005 6.689 .010 prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 8 economic instability risk 7.930 0.094 9.980 .041 5.064 0.24 increasing taxes risk 4.258 .119 6.118 0.47 .000 1.000 block trading risk 6.597 .037 6.940 0.31 5.893 0.15 notes: significance levels * p <0.1, ** p <0.05, *** p <0.001; model 1: jv (1) vs. cc (0); model 2: jv (1) vs. other (0); model 3: cc (1) vs. other (0). before modeling, correlation analysis and regression analysis were performed. despite the high values in the correlation analysis, the regression collinearity statistics (vif) value is below 10, meaning that there is no problem of multiple linear correlation. it was observed that the significance levels of the chi square values of 2 of the 3 models we modeled for this hypothesis and of model 1 and 2 were between p <0.05 and p <0.1. h1: according to the analysis, the political risk independent variable should be accepted in model 1. those who perceive a high level of political risk prefer less intrusive forms of entry. 3.3. impact of direct attachment against foreign investment table 6. attitudes towards foreign direct investment model 1 model 2 model 3 pearson chisquare significance pearson shi-square significance pearson chi-square significance investment incentives 6.210 .184 8.811 .066 .000 1.000 state attitude 4.258 .372 6.118 .190 .000 1.000 people's attitude 4.258 .372 6.118 .190 .000 1.000 prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 9 existence of natural resources 4.637 .327 6.987 0.137 1.459 0.227 notes: significance levels * p <0.1, ** p <0.05, *** p <0.001; model 1: jv (1) vs. cc (0); model 2: jv (1) vs. other (0); model 3: cc (1) vs. other (0). before investing in the bazaar, investment incentives, the attitude of the state, the attitude of the people and the impact of the natural resources investment decision were investigated. these four variables have been given similar responses, and for model 2, p <0.1 is significant, and companies that see these variables more often may be tempted to make complementary company . in the other 2 models, the significance levels of the variables are low. h2: companies that care more about direct foreign investment tend to prefer entry forms that require fewer resources. 3.4. the influence of economic expectations on paza entry shape effect table 7. effects of market economic prospects model 1 model 2 model 3 pearson chisquare significance pearson shisquare significance pearson chi-square significance market growth expectation 6.210 .045 8.811 .012 .000 1.000 being open to new markets 4.092 0.129 6.424 .040 2.977 0.84 cheap input expectation 6.210 .045 8.811 .012 .000 1.000 notes: significance levels * p <0.1, ** p <0.05, *** p <0.001; model 1: og (1) vs. tmso (0); model 2: og (1) vs. other (0); model 3: cc (1) vs. other (0). prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 10 it has been researched how expectations of the economic growth expectation of the market, openness to new markets and influenced the entry form of cheap input market. these four variables have been given similar responses, and for model 2, p <0.1 and p <0.05 significance levels, and companies that see these variables more often may be referred to as prone to tascs. even though it is close to the level of significance in model 1, it does not fully meet the expectations. in model 3, the significance levels of the variables are low. h3: in model 2, a significant link was found between economic expectation and entry form, and our hypothesis was accepted. 3.5. effects of competition market entry form table 8. competition entry effectiveness model 1 model 2 model 3 pearson chisquare significance pearson shi-square significance pearson chi-square significance competition ratio 7.873 .098 10.408 .034 6.492 .011 sector growth rate 7.720 0.021 11.061 .004 6.896 .009 likelihood of increasing competition 14.479 .025 15.987 .014 2.600 .107 notes: significance levels * p <0.1, ** p <0.05, *** p <0.001; model 1: og (1) vs. tmso (0); model 2: og (1) vs. other (0); model 3: cc (1) vs. other (0). in terms of competition rate, the growth rate of the sector and the probability of increasing competition are the highest correlation and regression ratios, so these variables are used in the models. when we look at the growth variable, it is seen that the level of significance in all models is sufficient. according to these results, it is seen that the growth rate in the sector has a great influence on the selection of the entrance type. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 11 h4: in markets where competition is intense, there is a tendency to choose high-sourced forms of entry, and findings are found to support the hypothesis. 3.6. impact on market access method of cultural difference tablo 8. cultural differences model 1 model 2 model 3 pearson chisquare significance pearson shi-square significance pearson chi-square significance religious life forms 8.796 .066 9.559 .040 .258 .612 language 8.854 .065 10.190 .037 .000 1.000 notes: significance levels * p <0.1, ** p <0.05, *** p <0.001; model 1: og (1) vs. tmso (0); model 2: og (1) vs. other (0); model 3: cc (1) vs. other (0). the results of the regression and correlation analyzes obtained are 2 variables; religion and language have come to the forefront. religious lifestyles and linguistic variables are significant at p <0.1 significance level in model 1. those who perceive religion as much as religion, prefer complementary company to og. again, in this model, those who perceive language differences as being too much prefer og to tss. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 12 h5: there is no very supportive data for those who perceive cultural diversity to be more prevalent than those who prefer low entry patterns. 4. conclusion variables were examined one by one in order to measure how these variables used in the survey generally used in developed country examples react to the case of developing countries. evidence has been obtained that the researchers prefer a lower entry pattern for those who perceive the country's risk as high in kosovo. findings are found at the low level that the stakeholders of the foreign invested country are influenced by the positive attitudes towards this investment in the choice of entry forms which require more resources. there is a meaningful link between the economic expectation and the way of entering the studies that the fact that there are a lot of economic expectations in the market causes them to choose the forms which are more sourced when choosing the introduction type. evidence has been found in my research that the level of competition is linked to the type of entry. accordingly, in sectors with more competition, companies prefer low entry forms because companies tend to buy themselves by sharing their risks. demirbağ et al. (2009) on the interlocal distance variant in the cultural distance heading we used in our research have found modest evidence that the increase in this distance will lead to the preference of more introductory forms. evidence has been obtained that in the first model there is evidence of an increase in cultural distances and a preference for entry forms that require less resources, while in the first model an increase in distance between languages is preferred. it is thought that one of the main reasons why the findings are different is that we can differentiate the culture variable on which the research is based. as a result, we found findings that support our hypotheses that are usually present in our study. in particular, support for hypotheses in which risk perception and economic expectations are measured takes place at higher levels. when we look at the research we have done and the results we have gained, we can see that some of the variables actually affect the entrance way considerably when entering the pazaar. finally, it is important to increase the number of companies surveyed in future research on this region in order to increase the reliability of the data. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 13 references: acar, f. (2013). türkiye ekonomisine genel bakış (2001 2013), çsgb çalışma dünyası dergisi, cilt: 1, sayı: 2, 15-32. aydıntan, b. (2003). dışa açılma yolunda stratejik ortaklıklar ve türk şirketleri açısından önemi, gazi üniversitesi, i̇.i̇.b.f. dergisi, 2/2003, 135-152. cengiz, e., gegez, a. ercan, arslan, f. müge, pirtini, s., tığlı m., (2003). uluslararası pazarlara giriş stratejileri, i̇stanbul: der yayınları. cengiz, e., gegez, a. ercan, arslan, f. müge, pirtini, s., tığlı m., (2003). uluslararası pazarlara giriş stratejileri, i̇stanbul: der yayınları. demirbag, m., tatoglu, e., & glaister, k. w. (2009). equity-based entry modes of emerging country multinationals: lessons from turkey. journal of world business, 445–462. ekinci, i̇. (2013). kosova'nın altyapısını türk şirketleri kuruyor, 07 nisan 2015 tarihinde http://www.dunya.com/guncel/kosovanin-altyapisini-turk-sirketleri-kuruyor-178394h.htm adresinden erişildi. engin, e. (2005). i̇şletmelerin uluslararasi rekabet stratejileri ve uygulamali bir araştirma, trakya üniversitesi, (yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). invest, (2015). kosova ticaret ve endüstri bakanlığı, 06 nisan 2015 tarihinde http://www.invest-ks.org/sq/lajme/investimet-e-huaja-ne-kosove-shenojne-ngritje-82 adresinden erişildi. karafakioğlu, m. (2000). uluslararası pazarlama yönetimi, i̇stanbul: beta yayıncılık. kartal, b. ve sofyalıoğlu, ç. (2009). kültürel uzaklığın dış pazara giriş yöntemi üzerindeki etkisinin türkiye’deki yabancı yatırımlar açısından i̇ncelenmesi, celal bayar üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler, 2009 cilt: 7 sayı: 2, 111-126. koro, l. (2009). kosova'da öncelikli yatırım i̇mkânları, 05 nisan 2015 tarihinde http://www.tasam.org/tr-tr/icerik/3794/kosovada_oncelikli_yatirim_imkanlari adresinden erişildi. kotler, p. ve armstrong, g. (2010). principles of marketing, upper saddle river, nj: pearson. ktto (kosova türk ticaret odası), kosova ekonomisi, 08 nisan 2015 tarihinde http://www.ktto.org/site/assets/files/1042/ekonomi-tur.pdf adresinden erişildi. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 14 mfa, (2013). kosova'nın ekonomisi, 06 nisan 2015 tarihinde http://www.mfa.gov.tr/kosovaekonomisi.tr.mfa adresinden erişildi. morfikirler, (2015). i̇ş yapılacak 7 yakın ülke, 07 nisan 2015 tarihinde http://morfikirler.com/yazi/is-yapilacak-7-yakin-ulke adresinden erişildi. peng, c. y., & so, t. s. (2002). correction to "logistic regression analysis and reporting: a primer". understanding statistics. 137. 1. the development of the kosovo economy 2. how companies enter into international markets 2.1. export 2.3. market penetration through investments 3. analysis and results 3.1. frequency distributions 3.2. the impact of country riskin's pazara introduction strategy 3.3. impact of direct attachment against foreign investment 3.4. the influence of economic expectations on paza entry shape effect 3.5. effects of competition market entry form 4. conclusion references: acar, f. (2013). türkiye ekonomisine genel bakış (2001 2013), çsgb çalışma dünyası dergisi, cilt: 1, sayı: 2, 15-32. aydıntan, b. (2003). dışa açılma yolunda stratejik ortaklıklar ve türk şirketleri açısından önemi, gazi üniversitesi, i̇.i̇.b.f. dergisi, 2/2003, 135-152. cengiz, e., gegez, a. ercan, arslan, f. müge, pirtini, s., tığlı m., (2003). uluslararası pazarlara giriş stratejileri, i̇stanbul: der yayınları. cengiz, e., gegez, a. ercan, arslan, f. müge, pirtini, s., tığlı m., (2003). uluslararası pazarlara giriş stratejileri, i̇stanbul: der yayınları. demirbag, m., tatoglu, e., & glaister, k. w. (2009). equity-based entry modes of emerging country multinationals: lessons from turkey. journal of world business, 445–462. ekinci, i̇. (2013). kosova'nın altyapısını türk şirketleri kuruyor, 07 nisan 2015 tarihinde http://www.dunya.com/guncel/kosovanin-altyapisini-turk-sirketleri-kuruyor-178394h.htm adresinden erişildi. engin, e. (2005). i̇şletmelerin uluslararasi rekabet stratejileri ve uygulamali bir araştirma, trakya üniversitesi, (yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). invest, (2015). kosova ticaret ve endüstri bakanlığı, 06 nisan 2015 tarihinde http://www.invest-ks.org/sq/lajme/investimet-e-huaja-ne-kosove-shenojne-ngritje-82 adresinden erişildi. karafakioğlu, m. (2000). uluslararası pazarlama yönetimi, i̇stanbul: beta yayıncılık. kartal, b. ve sofyalıoğlu, ç. (2009). kültürel uzaklığın dış pazara giriş yöntemi üzerindeki etkisinin türkiye’deki yabancı yatırımlar açısından i̇ncelenmesi, celal bayar üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler, 2009 cilt: 7 sayı: 2, 111-126. koro, l. (2009). kosova'da öncelikli yatırım i̇mkânları, 05 nisan 2015 tarihinde http://www.tasam.org/tr-tr/icerik/3794/kosovada_oncelikli_yatirim_imkanlari adresinden erişildi. kotler, p. ve armstrong, g. (2010). principles of marketing, upper saddle river, nj: pearson. ktto (kosova türk ticaret odası), kosova ekonomisi, 08 nisan 2015 tarihinde http://www.kt-to.org/site/assets/files/1042/ekonomi-tur.pdf adresinden erişildi. mfa, (2013). kosova'nın ekonomisi, 06 nisan 2015 tarihinde http://www.mfa.gov.tr/kosova-ekonomisi.tr.mfa adresinden erişildi. morfikirler, (2015). i̇ş yapılacak 7 yakın ülke, 07 nisan 2015 tarihinde http://morfikirler.com/yazi/is-yapilacak-7-yakin-ulke adresinden erişildi. peng, c. y., & so, t. s. (2002). correction to "logistic regression analysis and reporting: a primer". u... 33 family supportive supervisor behavior and thriving at work: the mediating role of psychological wellbeing waliu mulero adegbite ¹* oluwatoyin gbenga bawalla 2 ¹ university of johannesburg, department of industrial psychology and people management, adegbitewaliu@gmail.com 2 olabisi onabanjo university, faculty of social science, bawalla.oluwatoyin@oouagoiwoye.edu.ng *correspondent author. article history: submission 21 july 2022 revision 02 january 2023 accepted 14 march 2023 available online 30 april 2023 keywords: family supportive supervisor behaviour, thriving at work, psychology well-being. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.351 a b s t r a c t the study investigates the impact of encouraging supervisor behavior on enjoying success at work. further, it examines the mediating role of psychological well-being on the relationship between family support supervisor behaviour and thriving among nurses in a tertiary health institution in nigeria. one hundred and fifty nurses participated in the study. the hypothesized model was used to test descriptive and structural equation modelling. findings failed to support hypothesis one as no direct relationship exists between family support supervisor behaviour and thriving at work. the results supported hypotheses two and three, indicating a positive and significant relationship between family supportive supervisor behaviour, thriving and psychological well-being. furthermore, psychological well-being successfully mediates the relationship between family support supervisor behaviour and thriving at work; thus, hypothesis four was supported. familysupport supervisor behaviour policies and programmes may not be sufficient to promote thriving at work as other intervening factors could enhance its effectiveness. 1. introduction the recent labour market shifts triggered by the fourth industrial revolution (4ir) technologies and the global pandemic have further exacerbated and heightened the debate and policy issues related to family support supervisor behaviour within organization (pan, 2018; rofcanin, heras & bakker, 2017).the increasing expectation of workers in terms of formal support from organizations for optimal performance has been brought to the fore by social scientists to establish the causality between family and work-related issues (wadsworth et al., 2019). however, researchers have continuously argued that while necessary, such measures may not be enough to reduce growing workplace expectations, family conflict, and the need for more flexibility in the workplace (asghar et al., 2018; russo et al.). currently, the debate is ongoing concerning the role of family support supervisor behaviour and its attendant consequences on workers' psychological well-being and other organizational outcomes. family supportive supervisor behaviour (fssb) is envisioned as supervisory behaviors that affirm family function by supporting feelings, instrumental, role forming, and innovative work-family management support could be described as family supportive supervisor behavior (fssb) (crain et al., 2014; hammer et al., 2013; rofcanin et al., 2017). according to crain et al. (2014) and bawalla (2020) emotional support entails supervisors listening to and showing concern for employees' work-family demands while adhering to the organization's policies and programs. encouragement is the process through which managers respond to a worker's daily needs, including those related to their job and family (straub, 2018). a supervisor's role-modeling support behavior is to combine family and work -related issues by simulating behaviors on the job, whereas innovative work-family management is encouraged when the supervisor takes steps to reorganize work to improve employee impressiveness on and off the job (li, shaffer, & bagger, 2015; russo et al., 2018). experts in the family-work field have disputed that supportive surroundings enhance resources such as time, pliability, and mailto:adegbitewaliu@gmail.com mailto:bawalla.oluwatoyin@oouagoiwoye.edu.ng https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.351 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0139-7041 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7881-8791 34 psychological resources such as self-acceptance. hammer et al. (2013) argued that an individual feels encouraged by management in leveling work and family, having lesser work requirement affecting family time or rate, with pessimistic career outcome in relation to family choices. employees are not penalized for devoting time to family in a family-supportive culture because general managerial support for family-related needs is provided (lizano et al., 2014; pan, 2018). as a behaviour that shows support for employees' family roles to reduce the psychological burden and enhance work-life balance, studies have confirmed the adverse effects of lack of family support policy on individuals and organization, including well-being and thriving at work (asghar et al., 2018; okonkwo et al., 2019). the word thriving has been clarified as a psychological condition in which people feel energized and progress in their careers (hammer et al., 2013; li et al., 2015; porath et al., 2012). as a result, it can enhance several crucial outcomes for people, including career advancement and overall health, while also gaining advantages for the company through increased effectiveness and decreased health care costs (russo et al., 2018). like several other studies on the family-work domain, we argued that family-supportive supervisor behaviour could serve as a mechanism to enhance employee vitality, learning, and career development (thriving). furthermore, when employees enjoy the support of the management and supervisors towards family roles, it is expected that their state of mind and psychological wellbeing will receive a boost. workers' experience of fssb has been exhibited to be critical in deciding working adults' life quality, welfare, and involving both social and psychological factors (li et al., 2015). as emphasized in the workplace and organisational literature, work–family-specific supervisor support in improving workers' well-being and job satisfaction has been documented. according to russo et al., (2018) and hammer et al. (2013) study, they deduced and distinguished supervisor support for family plays a significant role in balancing family life and an employee's career. accordingly, a feeling of no support from one's supervisor connotes a lack of care. an employee who receives less or no support from supervisor and management on family-life issues may experience work-family quarrel and are more promising to have an increased turnover intention (asghar et al., 2018). ekici, cerit, and mert (2017) stated that a low level of support could result in less job satisfaction, an intense sense of vitality, and career development (thriving). the theoretical exposition of adeloye et al. (2017) maintained that flexible tasks improve work-family activities, increasing productivity, job satisfaction, and work-life balance. drawing on the work-family border (wfbt), this study investigates the effect of fssb on thriving at work using a sample from a tertiary health institution in nigeria. more so, what role does psychological well-being play in boosting the relationship between fssb and thriving among the sampled workers? generally, the health profession is one of the most tasking and time-consuming occupations globally. the nature of the job requires working based on shift and rotation, resulting in spending less quality time attending to family-related issues (adeloye et al., 2017). we expect workers who perceive higher levels of fssb from their employers and supervisors to have more resources and control over balancing work and family obligations. therefore, positive job and health outcomes thrive through psychological well-being (russo et al., 2018). in this study, our model (see figure 1) demonstrated how family support supervisor behaviour, through psychological well-being, would result in increased thriving at work. the study aims to test this research model on nurses working in the health sector in nigeria. figure 1. proposed model on the fssb and thriving at work note: h1: famiily support supervisor behaviour directly affects thriving at work. h2: family support supervisor’s behaviour directly affects psychological well-being. 35 h3: psychological well-being has a positive direct relationship with thriving at work. h4: fssb indirectly affects thriving at work through psychological well-being. 2. literature review and theoretical exposition 2.1.1. supervisor support supervisor support shows interest to motivate employees, gives necessary resources, give a form to and favourable environment, response mechanism procedure, opportunities for career advancement and progression, information, and assisting employees in coping with work-related stress (pandey, schulz& camp, 2018). because of the supervisor's locus of power and ranking in workplace, supervisor support is more important to employees than other sources of support (sguera et al., 2018). supervisor support is critical for early profession accomplishment by elevating workers' self-awareness and individual target environment, according to holland, cooper, and sheehan (2017). 2.1.2. family support family support is a crucial resource that relates feelings, care, love, and affection; it is a vital form of social support, especially on family-related issues by the organization (verma, bhal & vrat, 2018) and (oladejo & bawalla, 2019). happiness and optimism aid an employee in transferring resources from the family to the work domain more efficiently. this purpose serves as an alien stimulator since it depicts good counsel and affection resources to the organization; it invariably assists employees to achieve their job aims. scholars like (pluut et al., 2018) detailed that family support encourages workers, especially employees from collectivistic societies, to work harder. it is noteworthy that family support is non-work-related social support, but it stimulates the employee's commitment to work in the organization. as a result, it can enhance several crucial outcomes for people, including career advancement and overall health, while also gaining advantages for the company through increased effectiveness and decreased health care costs (yildirim & aycan, 2008). additionally, those who are able to get appropriate assistance from family or friends give themselves more time and energy to accomplish their objectives (norizan, intan & prakash,2020). 2.1.3. family support supervisor behaviour (fssb) family support supervisors' behaviour is the desired attitude to balance employees' work and family roles. fssb is social support, a personal judgemental supportive behavior displayed by employers and supervisors towards family members (russo et al., 2018). according to jia (2016), family-supportive supervisor behaviour is a multidisciplinary super ordinate pattern comprising four dimensions: (i) emotional support, (ii) instrumental support, (iii) role modeling, and (iv) creative work-family conflict management. emotional support depicts leaders' concern for the subordinate family needs and the perception of whether the supervisor cares and provides adequate support when needed. the emotional support signifies no or less communication gap between supervisor and employees. in this context, the supervisor is aware of the subordinate family and how much the subordinate is committed to their personal life. (muhammad et al., 2018). the instrumental support reflects the functional aspects of a favorable working environment and flexible scheme in which employees feel free to manage their work-family conflict. this form of support also includes the daily resources needed by employees at every step of life to assist the employees in successfully managing work-family roles. on the other hand, the modeling role behavior depicts organizational policy related to work and family requirements to model good behaviours in the workplace. the role modeling sets out strategies and behaviours that specify the preferred work-life outcomes. the last of the four is innovative work-family management; this depicts the managerial initiated actions in restructuring work on how an employee facilitates effectiveness concerning their job. the goal is to ensure that organizational goals are met without interfering with employees' work-life balance. it's worth noting that fssb can assist an employee in striking a balance between work and family obligations. the goal is to ensure that organizational goals are met without interfering with employees' work-life balance. it's worth noting that fssb can assist an employee in striking a balance between work and family obligations. 2.1.4. psychological well-being the quality of life of employees at work is referred to as psychological well-being. the quality of life is a comprehensive index of tangible, intellectual, and social well-being, contentment, and fulfillment that includes aspects of life such as health, marriage, family, work, finances, access to education, ego, innovation, and faith in others (direnzo, 2010). psychological well-being is a mixture of satisfied feelings and an effectively satisfied customer capability. it is defined as an individual's psychological operating overall effectiveness (rahim, 2017). adegbite, bawalla and adedeji (2020) avers that psychological contentment and well-being works along with 36 pessimistic emotions, which may alternate the individual's ability to perform efficiently in one's everyday life. norizan et al. (2020) further clarify and explain that the thought of pleasant emotions includes positive emotions in terms of contentment, happiness, and emotions like engagement, confidence, interest, and affection. all these amounts to developing a person's potential related to the psychological perspective. 2.2. thriving at work thriving at work is an optimistic psychological condition in which people feel alive and learn new things (porath et al.,2012). thriving at work means being progressive in place of work. thriving is about being invigorate, being an enthusiast, feeling good and valued at the place of work. thriving also entails being productive, learning and learning new things, one's capability or willingness to learn and grow, and using opportunities. thriving at work is of great importance, and it has some outcomes that are germane for workers to succeed in the organization. thus, thriving is associated within individual and organizational outcomes. these outcomes are in three phases: self-development, health, and performance. in self-development, thriving is seen as a powerful tool because it helps employees develop positively and aid workers in discharging their duties. it makes workers have a sense of adding value in the short-term or long-term for the adjustment of employees to work (spreitzeret al., 2005). it should be noted that thriving at work serves adaptive importance that aids employees to direct its course and change their work to bring about good development muraina and bawalla, 2019). the second factor is health; individuals or employees who are progressing (thriving) are more likely to be in good health. individuals who have a strong feeling of wellbeing are less likely to experience anxiety or depressed, and they are also more likely to be psychologically fit (keyes, 2002). employees with loftier equal of thriving (measured in terms of intensity and intricacy) have more than mental and physical health, according to christianson et al. (2005), even when dealing with the effects of depression, anxiety, panicking, and other chronic illnesses conditions. it is noteworthy to mention that a feeling of acquiring knowledge can cause a positive physical health. the third is performance, and it is of the view that thriving has consequences for both individuals and organizational performance. we do not know much about the performance outcomes of thriving, but we can make some educated guesses. because resilience and self-growth have been linked to excellent individual work performance (in terms of work effort and days lost to illness) and decreased health care consumption, the health effects discussed above may have important consequences for businesses. 2.3. work-family border theory the work-family border theory dwells on the premise of work and family domains. the approach focuses on the outcome of interest, overall contentment, and good role at home and works with a lowest degree of role conflict (clark, 2000). according to clark (2000), the theory substantiates how workers manage and, at the same time, engage themselves in both work and family spheres bearing in mind that a balance of attainment must be fulfilled. the central theme of this model is the opinion that work and family have divergent views in terms of constituting different domains or spheres that invariably influence each other. undoubtedly, these contrast each other in terms of purposes and cultures. work and home are two different views of ideology; there are differences in vision and mission, what constitutes exemplary behaviour, and, more importantly, how to accomplish the tasks. in this study, it is essential to know the relationship between family support in terms of feelings of love, care, and affection one gets from one's family and the supervisor support that focuses on motivating employees, providing necessary resources, and creating a structured favourable environment. in essence, the family supports supervisor behaviour is the employees' desire to balance work and responsibility. however, there is a emotional connection between family support supervisor behaviour and psychological well-being. it is presumed that when individuals are loved within the family, they will positively thrive in the workplace due to psychological well-being. this will enhance workers' quality of life in terms of physical, mental, and social being of gladness and contentment in the discharge of duty. the thriving at work aspect in the workplace relates to the positive psychological state and the progress made so far by employees in the workplace. this is often seen as a driving force or perhaps motivating factor for one toward the actualization of organizational goals. 3. methodology 3.1. study design, sample, and procedures this analytical study examines the connection between family support supervisor behavior and flourishing. it was created as cross-sectional research. nurses working in a tertiary health institution in nigeria constituted the study population. a nonprobability convenient sampling technique was used to gather the nurses who were given a free will to agree to participate in the survey. data collection lasted for nine months (november 2020 to july 2021). using the construct with the highest number of indicators to determine the minimum sample size (kline, 2015), we arrived at one hundred and twenty (120) cases as the minimum sample size for this research. kline (2015) suggested that items from the construct with the highest indicators should have at least 37 ten cases; thus, the fssb variable with twelve (12) indicators was used as the criteria for sample determination (12 x 10) given the minimum sample size of 120. inferentially, this means that the minimal sample size for this study is 10 times the number of inner or outer model linkages that can point at any latent variable in the model. based on the quantity of valid responses, it was found that the study's 150-sample size (n150) fell within the range of the ideal sample size. 3.2. variable and measurement information was gathered through a questionnaire; participants were briefed about the study's objectives and assured of the confidentiality of identity and information. a combination of fssb scales developed in previous studies (clark, 2000; hammer et al., 2013) was used to develop a one-dimensional instrument for this study. generally, from the previous scale, fssb has been categorized into four dimensions: (i) role modeling, (ii) emotional support, (iii) instrumental support, and (iv) creative work-family management. there are three items from clark (2000), fourteen in hammer et al. (2013), and eleven items on the thompson et al. (1999) scale. these scales were validated with internal consistency greater than 0.70. from the measurement model (see figure 2), two items with low factor loadings weredeleted; thus, ten items were retained in the new fssb scale with outer loading greater than 0.70. the instruments were drawn based on a 5-point likert scale with options ranging from 1 for "strongly disagree" to 5 for "strongly agree." thriving connotes how employees grow as manifested in both learning and vitality (spreitzer et al., 2005). the scale developed by porath et al. (2012) and adapted by similar studies (e.g., kocak, 2016; sahin et al., 2021) was used to measure thriving at work. with vitality and learning being the two sub-dimensions of the scale, each dimension contained five items in the original scale, comprised of questions such as "i feel alive and vital" and "i find myself learning often." accordingly, porath et al. (2012) reported internal consistency of above 0.70 for the overall scale, while the reliability score reported for the scale by sahin et al. (2021) using cronbach's alpha was above 0.90.a composite reliability score above 0.70 was also reported by kocak (2016) for the same scale. the instruments were drawn on a 6-point likert scale with options ranging from 1 for "never" to 6 for "always." this study adapted the scale developed by diener et al. (2010) for psychological well-being. the one-dimensional scale with eight items was structured using a 5-pointlikert scale ranging from 1 "strongly agree" to 5 "strongly disagree." according to diener et al. (2010), the scale had a reliability score of 0.87 with the statement, "i lead a purposeful and meaningful life." a similar study conducted by sahin et al. (2021) reported good internal consistency of 0.86 for the scale. 3.3. data analysis this study made use of the partial least square (pls) technique to analyze the data and conceptual model using smartpls software. this approach was used because of its vast application and acceptability in management-related fields (hair et al., 2012; kura, shamsudin & chauhan, 2015). we adopted this method since this research intended to predict the dependent variable; thus, path analytical modeling was appropriate (hair et al., 2016; hair, ringle & sarstedt, 2012).the partial least square method accommodates the latent variables to be modeled reflectively or formatively with a lower restriction for sample size (terzi et al., 2014).spss 27 program was used for descriptive data statistics and exploratory factor analysis (efa). as ringle et al. (2015) recommended, we constructed a two-stage hierarchical model reflectively to assess the measurement and structural models. smartpls 3.3 was used to confirm the outer loading of items (confirmatory factor analysis) and the hypothesized model. cronbach alpha, composite reliability, and average variance extractor (ave) were used to test the instrument's reliability, while fornel-lacker, cross-loading, and htmt tests were used for construct validity. a direct and indirect effect analysis was conducted through bootstrapping method by selecting 5000 sample sizes at a 0.05 level of significance (preacher &hayes, 2008). 3.4. measurement model in the structural equation modeling technique, it is essential to understand the relative importance of indicators vis-à-vis their constructs to establish the model's fitness (kura, shamsudin & chauhan, 2015). the measurement model provides global fit indices to confirm that the latent variables (indicators) qualify to test the proposed hypotheses. in this study, all variables are measured reflectively, and fit indices such as ave, composite reliability, cronbach's alpha were used to test the model's fitness. in the re-specified reflective hypothesized model (see figure 2), new fssb and pwb scales emerged after the efa and cfa. eight items were deleted from the fssb and one from the pwb scales due to loading below 0.70. the re-specified model, therefore, contained four items (fssb), seven items (pwb), and eight items (tvw). 38 figure 2. model outer loading note: fssb= family support supervisor behaviour; pwb=psychological well-being; tvw=thrivingat work 3.4.1. construct reliability the instrument's reliability (internal consistency) was determined through the measurement model. a confirmatory factor analysis showing individual factor loading (outer loading) indicates that all items are above the recommended benchmark of 0.70 (see table 2). in addition to the above, the composite reliability (cr) and cronbach alpha (ca) scores for all scales were above the 0.70 thresholds as recommended (sarstedt, ringle & hair, 2017). the average variance extracted (ave) of the constructs was also satisfactory (>0.5), as shown in table 2. based on the above, individual item outer loading, cr, ca, and ave scores are satisfactory, therefore confirming the constructs' appropriateness to test the hypothesized model. table 2. instruments’ reliability constructs item code loading ca cr ave family support supervisor behaviour fssb1 fssb2 fssb3 fssb4 0.777 0.714 0.832 0.748 0.782 0.852 0.592 psychological well-being pwb1 pwb3 pwb4 pwb5 pwb6 pwb7 pwb8 0.814 0.785 0.873 0.863 0.876 0.849 0.808 0.93 0.943 0.704 thriving at work tvw1 tvw2 tvw3 tvw4 tvw5 tvw6 tvw7 tvw8 0.856 0.872 0.878 0.713 0.765 0.786 0.732 0.763 0.918 0.933 0.636 note: fssb= family support supervisor behaviour; pwb=psychological well-being; tvw=thriving at work 39 3.4.2. convergent and discriminant validity to ensure that constructs and variables uniquely measured the hypothesized model and are divergent from one another, we deployed techniques: (i) factor loading, (ii) heterotrait-monotrait (htmt) ratio, and (iii) fornel-lacker criterion to establish the validity of the constructs. this is to ensure that more than one variable did not perform the same function (discriminant validity) and ensures the construct converges to measure the hypothesized model. for factor loading, sarstedt et al. (2017) stated that constructs are valid when there is no cross-loading or transpose loading of items (see table 3). table 3. factor loading indicators loading 1 loading 2 loading 3 fssb1 0.777 0.173 0.013 fssb2 0.714 0.123 0.044 fssb3 0.832 0.281 0.155 fssb4 0.748 0.223 -0.001 pwb1 0.28 0.814 0.427 pwb3 0.326 0.785 0.389 pwb4 0.207 0.873 0.432 pwb5 0.116 0.863 0.438 pwb6 0.306 0.876 0.524 pwb7 0.192 0.849 0.57 pwb8 0.2 0.808 0.477 tvw1 0.018 0.477 0.856 tvw2 0.11 0.534 0.872 tvw3 0.149 0.508 0.878 tvw4 0.116 0.424 0.713 tvw5 0.2 0.347 0.765 tvw6 0.066 0.352 0.786 tvw7 0.037 0.424 0.732 tvw8 -0.137 0.461 0.763 note: fssb= family support supervisor behaviour; pwb=psychological well-being; tvw=thriving at work for heterotrait-monotrait ratio, according to hensler, ringle, and sarsdest (2015), the inter correlation between the construct should be less than 0.90. from table 4, the htmt scores are below 0.90, suggesting no discriminant validity among the constructs. table 4. heterotrait-monotrait (htmt) ratio construct fssb pwb tvw fssb pwb 0.297 tvw 0.171 0.592 note: fssb= family support supervisor behaviour; pwb=psychological well-being; tvw=thriving at work the rule of thumb of fornell-lacker as a determinant of construct validity states that the square root value of ave of the constructs must be greater than the correlation value of the latent variables (fornell & lacker, 1981). as shown in table 5, all ave values are above the threshold of 0.50, and the square roots are greater than the correlation among the variables. table 5. fornel-lacker criterion construct fssb pwb tvw fssb 0.769 pwb 0.28 0.839 tvw 0.088 0.561 0.798 note: fssb= family support supervisor behaviour; pwb=psychological well-being; tvw=thriving at work 4. results this study deployed two sets of statistical analyses. spss 27 program was used to analyze the demographics of the respondents and used for exploratory factor analysis. secondly, the measurement and structural model was tested using the partial 40 least square (pls) method. the sample's descriptive statistics show that the average age of the participants was 32.44 + 7.22. the sample data show that 29.5% of the 150 participants were bachelor's degrees, and over 70% held a general nursing certificate. more than 80% of the participants were women, 88% were married, 32 of the 150 (21.3%) had a managerial role. the majority (72%) reported they worked in shifts, and 50% worked on weekends. 4.2. assessment of structural model in assessing the fitness of the structural model as recommended in the literature, it is essential to check for co-linearity to ascertain whether the latent constructs are causally related and genuinely distinct from one another (kock, 2015; podskoff, mackenzie & podasakoff, 2003). the model was tested for common bias using a common method variance (cmv) test utilizing the variance inflation factor (vif). according to kock (2015) and hair et al. (2011), the value of vif should be less than or equal to3.30 to be adjudged bias-free. in this study, the result of the standard bias test based on the vif value show a vif value of less than 3.30; thus, we concluded that the sample data for this study is free from the common bias issue. moreso, in this study, the coefficient of determination (r2) was based on chin (1998), categorized into 0.60 and above (substantial effect), 0.33 (moderate effect), and 0.19 and below as weak effect. we further checked for the predictive relevance (q2) of the model. the value of the q2 is greater than zero; thus, the model has predictive relevance. 4.1.2. structural model (hypotheses testing) four hypotheses were proposed in this study (h1 – h4). standards bootstrapping technique (5000 bootstrap sample) was used with our 150-sample observation to test the significance of the path coefficients. figure 4 shows the complete sem estimate. figure 4. path coefficients the first and second hypotheses (h1and2) state that family support supervisor behaviour (fssb) directly affects thriving at work and psychological well-being. hypothesis three (h3) further states that psychological well-being directly and significantly affects thriving at work. the result from the sem analysis did not support the first hypothesis (h1); thus, there is no direct relationship between fssb and thriving at work (β= 0.075, t= 0.968, p > 0.05). however, the result supports hypothesis two (β= 0.280, t= 2.872, p<0.05). the result for the h2, therefore, indicates that family support supervisor behaviour has a positive and significant relationship with psychological well-being. for the third hypothesis, the result from the sem analysis supports h3(β= 0.582, t= 6.361, p<0.05), thus, psychological well-being shows a positive and direct relationship with thriving at work. table 6. summary of hypotheses assessment hypotheses paths β t p-value decision h1 fssb → tvw -0.073 0.968 0.345 not supported h2 fssb → pwb 0.280 2.872 0.004 supported h3 pwb → tvw 0.582 6.361 0.000 supported h4 fssb → pwb → tvw 0.163 2.201 0.020 supported 41 one of the purposes of this study was to examine the mediating effect (indirect relationship) of psychological well-being (pwb) between the relationship of family support supervisor behaviour (fssb) and thriving at work (tvw). the bootstrapping sem analysis shows that psychological well-being positively and significantly mediates the relationship between fssb and thriving at work (β= 0.163, t= 2.201, p<0.05), hence, hypothesis four was accepted. 4.2. discussion of findings investigating family support supervisor behaviour, and its implication on psychological well-being and thriving at work among health workers in nigeria is a gap in the literature; thus, it was explored in this study. family support supervisor behaviour (fssb) is a way of reinforcing the psychological well-being of employees, as indicated in many studies; it has been documented to have a favorable impact on employees (sahin et al., 2021; mo et al., 2020). this study hypothesized and examined the perceived family-support supervisor behaviour policy and programmes on nurses' thriving at work (tvw) and psychological well-being (pwb). the connection between flourishing at work and psychological health was also put to the test. similarly, nurses' perception of fssb on thriving through the mediating role of psychological well-being was also examined. first, our results did not support hypothesis one as there was a negative and insignificant relationship between family support supervisor behaviour and thriving among the sampled nurses. although previous studies (i.e., sahin et al., 2021) reported a significant relationship between fssb and tvw, our findings proved otherwise. for instance, diener et al. (2010) concluded that a friendly environment that allows employees to balance family roles with duties at work would reduce work-family role conflict and improve workers' health and well-being, including learning and vitality (thriving). the above findings indicate that nurses perceived fssb as low, which could be due to many factors. this study was conducted when the covid-19 pandemic is very turbulent for many organizations, especially the health sector. during the pandemic, health workers, especially nurses, experienced high work-family conflict compared with workers in other sectors. therefore, supervisor support may have been reduced during the pandemic due to nurses being at the frontline to save lives and contain the spread of the virus. supporting this assertion, mo et al. (2020) and sun et al. (2020) reiterate that nurses are at the base of the struggle in the middle of the pandemic as demand for hospital care increases with a dramatic change in the social and economic life of the health workers. the interference of covid-19 pandemic dynamics may be responsible for the outcome of the result on the direct relationship between fssb and thriving at work. therefore, it is suggested that a repeated study should be conducted with the sample when the world is finally healed of covid-19. the impact of family-supportive supervisor behavior on the psychological health of the nurses was another important study finding. according to hypothesis 2, which is supported by our data, there is a direct, positive, and significant link between family-supportive supervisor behavior and psychological well. the nurses reported good psychological well-being despite the devastating covid-19 pandemic, which led to an increase in work demands and longer shifts. the fssb and psychological health are significantly positively correlated. ordinarily, one would expect that health workers, especially nurses, will rate their psychological well-being low due to perceived conflict between work and family roles. in nigeria and other parts of the world, health workers were celebrated due to their critical role in curtailing the pandemic. this, presumably, would have dignified the health profession, which could have enhanced their mental and psychological functioning; thus, nurses see themselves as the hero(ine) of the world. our result contrasts with gander et al. (2020) and james et al. (2020); they reported that increased working hours and high volume of work demand often resulted in fatigue for nurses. when the results of hypothesis three was evaluated, findings from the study uphold and support the prediction of the hypothesis. specifically, according to the sem analysis, there is a direct positive relationship between psychological well-being and thriving at work. recall that the nurses reported positive psychological well-being in hypothesis two; therefore, it is not surprising to see the multiplier effect of the nurses' state of mind on other outcomes such as thriving at work. the period this study was conducted played a significant role in the results. during the pandemic, the nurses and other health workers pride themselves on their role in containing the pandemic. there are also new knowledge and information arising from the novel nature of the virus, a situation that boosts their vitality and learning experience (thriving). therefore, it was concluded that the pandemic paved the way for the nurses to thrive by learning and being pride as hero by the local and international organization, including governments of various countries. the study not only assessed the direct link between family support supervisor behavior (fssb) and flourishing at work (tvw), but also proposed that fssb may have a moderating effect on thriving by promoting psychological wellbeing. the finding revealed the importance of psychological well-being in promoting the nurses' learning, happiness, and vitality in the sampled organization. the result showed significant improvement when psychological well-being was introduced into 42 the model; thus, hypothesis four (fssb indirectly effect on thriving through psychological well-being) was supported. specifically, psychological well-being positively and significantly mediates the relationship between family-support supervisor behaviour, and work performance. by implication, and within the context of this study, the chances are that a low fssb, when combined with a positive state of mind, can create pathways for employees to thrive. although nurses experienced a greater degree of work-family conflict during the pandemic because of excessive work demand, however, their positive state of mind resulting from the dignified role played and new knowledge acquired during the pandemic must have enhanced their vitality and happiness (thriving). with its theoretical implication, the present study being one of the first examining family support supervisor behaviour and thriving at work, especially among nurses in nigeria, offers implications for nurses and policymakers in the health sector. a high level of thriving is vital to nurses maintaining excellent patient care. policymakers, including human resource managers in the health sector, need to design management practices that will reduce work-family role conflict to enhance thriving at work. it is important to reiterate that other parameters can influence the effectiveness of fssb on thriving; such variable as revealed in this study includes psychological well-being. 5. conclusions a structural equation model analysis on family support supervisor behaviour and thriving at work was carried out among nurses in the health sector in nigeria. the findings highlight no direct relationship between family support supervisor behaviour and thriving at work. although the mediating effect of psychological well-being introduced into the model was significant, thus, a significant relationship between fssb and thriving through the mediating role of psychological well-being was achieved. the study does affirm the importance of psychological well-being towards learning and vitality (thriving), as there was a direct, positive, and significant relationship between psychological wellbeing and thriving at working. finally, the study concludes that family-support supervisor behaviour programmes and policies may not be sufficient to promote thriving at work as other intervening factors such as psychological well-being could enhance its effectiveness. references 1. adeloye, d., david, r. a., olaogun, a. a., auta, a., adesokan, a., gadanya, m., opele, j. k., owagbemi, o., & iseolorunkanmi, a. 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(2008). nurses' work demands and work-family conflict: a questionnaire survey. international journal of nursing studies, 45(9), 1366-1378. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2019.1691594 1 the relationship between exchange rate volatility and stock index return: evidence from turkey akile kiliç ¹* veysel kula 2 letife özdemir 3 ¹ afyon kocatepe university, institute of social sciences, akileoyur95@icloud.com 2 afyon kocatepe university, faculty of economics and administrative sciences, kula@aku.edu.tr 3 afyon kocatepe university, faculty of economics and administrative sciences, letifeozdemir@aku.edu.tr, *correspondent author. article history: submission 25 november 2022 revision 13 january 2023 accepted 09 march 2023 available online 30 april 2023 keywords: exchange rate volatility, stock returns, granger causality test, turkey. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.384 a b s t r a c t exchange rate fluctuations do not affect only the companies and individuals that engage in foreign currency-based transactions. as economic exposure features, even entities with no foreign currency assets and obligations are affected from the movements in exchange rates. exchange rates, in fact, are closely related with several macroeconomic variables including stock prices and returns. investigations into the relationship between exchange rate fluctuations and stock returns are widely observed among financial participants and academic circles. this study aims at exploring the link between exchange rate volatility and stock returns by investigating the us dollar/turkish lira (usd/try) exchange rate volatility and borsa istanbul 100 index (bist-100) returns. in the study, 406 days of data for the period 11.03.2020-28.10.2021 were included in the analysis. augmented dickey-fuller (adf) unit root test was used to analyze the stationarity of the variables. as a result of the test, it is seen that the series are stationary at the i(0) level. after performing the stationarity test, arma (2,2) from linear stationary stochastic models and egarch (2,2) from general autoregressive conditional variable variance models were estimated to model exchange rate volatility. then, granger causality test was used to see if there is a relationship between exchange rate volatility and stock returns. the findings put forward the existence of bidirectional causality relationship between the variables. as the time span of the data period overlaps with the pandemic period, it appears that causality relationship obtained by the study is like the ones that held in the studies in the pre-pandemic period. 1. introduction decision making entities have been exposed to increased volatility in the exchange rates since the end of the bretton woods system in 1973 when countries started to adopt the floating exchange rate system. economic exposure posits that even the persons and companies with no foreign currency assets and liabilities are affected from fluctuations in exchange rates. on the other hand, market stock prices and returns are important in that they are major inputs in measuring the wealth maximization of shareholders, which is the main target of companies. in this context, as savaş & can (2011) puts forward, especially the interactions between exchange rate volatility and stock index returns attract the attention of investors, savers, financial participants and governments. the current study aimed to examine the relationship between the us dollar/turkish lira (usd/try) exchange rate volatility and the borsa istanbul 100 (bist-100) index return using daily data for the period from 11.03.2020 to 28.10.2021. there are studies in the literature to explain the relationship between the exchange rates and the stock returns. while a few of these studies did not find a relationship between the variables, the results of the majority of them confirm the existence of a type of relationship. in addition to studies showing that there is a oneway causality relationship from exchange rates to stock markets mailto:akileoyur95@icloud.com mailto:kula@aku.edu.tr mailto:letifeozdemir@aku.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.384 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5340-926x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1385-4596 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8636-2277 2 (for example, abdalla and murinde, 1997; wu, 2000; kumar, 2019), there are also studies that find a one-way causality relationship from stock markets to exchange rates (for example, ajayi & mougoue, 1996; granger et al., 2000; hatami & irandoust 2002). on the other hand, some study findings reveal bidirectional causality (for example, dornbush & fisher, 1980; oskooee & sohrabian, 1992; muhammad & rasheed, 2004). however, some studies such as franck & young (1972) and chow et al. (1997) concluded that there is no causal relationship between the exchange rates and the stock markets. resultantly, it appears that there is no fixed pattern about the relationship between the exchange rates and the stock markets, though most of the studies features a type of causality effect. this situation has been an important motivation in the present study, which has led to the examination of the relationship between exchange rate volatility and stock index return. moreover, the starting date of the data period, 11.03.2020, is the date when the first case of the covid-19 outbreak in turkey was announced by the ministry of health of turkey ((https://covid19.saglik.gov.tr/tr-66494/pandemi.html). the study, therefore, will have the capacity to reflect whether causality relationships observed in pre-pandemic period holds during the pandemic period. stock and currency markets are exposed to the influence of several variables. the next section of the study will firstly provide a literature review on the factors with the influence on foreign exchange rates and stock returns in general, which is followed by the review of the studies focusing on the interaction between foreign exchange rate and stock returns. in the study, the causality effect between exchange rate volatility and stock index return in turkey was examined by using daily data on us dollar/turkish lira (usd/try) exchange rate and bist 100 index for the time period of 11.03.2020-28.10.2021. 2. literature review exchange rates play important role in the economic systems. as exchange rate and exchange rate volatility, especially in developing countries like turkey, affect many macroeconomic variables (like export-import, foreign trade, current account deficit, inflation, interest rate, economic growth, money supply, oil price, purchasing power parity, stock prices, etc.), several macroeconomic variables are known to affect exchange rate and exchange rate volatility, too (kartal et al., 2018). in fact, there are studies in the literature focusing on the relationship between foreign exchange rate and variables such as international trade prices and volume (cooper, 1969: hooper & kohlhangen, 1976, gümüş ,2002; şahin & durmuş, 2019), foreign trade balance (arize, 1994), interest rates (dekle et al., 2002; wilson & sheefeni, 2014: karaca. 2005), inflation rates (berüment & yücel, 2008: yenice & yenisu, 2019; tandoğan, 2020), domestic investments (koç & değer, 2010) and export volume (kasman & kasman, 2005; saatçioğlu & karaca, 2010; dursun & çelikkaya, 2022). similarly, literature review reveals studies which explore the link between stock prices and various factors including, inflation rates (bodie, 1976; jaffee & mandelker, 1976; fama, 1981; ely & robinson, 1997; al-khazali, 2003; geetha, et al ., 2011; mukherjee & naka, 1995; maysami & koh, 2000), interest rates (fama & schwert, 1977; moosa, 1998; omağ, 2009; sayılgan & süslü, 2011), economic growth (eyüboğlu, 2018; sayılgan & süslü, 2011), money supply (fama, 1981; omağ, 2009)), real eonomic activity (fama, 1981; kaul, 1987), industrial production index (mukherjee & naka, 1995; nishat & shaheen, 2004; humpe & mcmillian, 2007; akel & gazel, 2014), oil prices (gay, 2008; chen et al ., 1986; kaul & seyhun, 1990; kuwornu & owusu-nantwi, 2011), gold prices (temelli & şahin, 2019; güngör & polat, 2020) and covid-19 pandemic (ölmez & ekinci, 2020; ersin et al., 2022) when the literature review is narrowed down to the causality effect between exchange rates and stock prices, studies mostly reveal either one-way or two-way relationship. one way relationship is found in some studies (for example, abdalla & murinde, 1997; nydahl, 1999; wu, 2000; kumar, 2019; solnik, 1987; smith, 1992; dimitrova, 2005; okorie et al., 2018; kim, 2003; adjasi et al. 2008; delgado et al . 2018; elmas & esen, 2011; savaş & can, 2011; ceylan & şahin, 2015; kendirli & çankaya, 2016; aydın, 2017; yamak et al., 2018; durmuş et al ., 2019; açık et al, 2020; kayral, 2020). some other studies, however, unearthed two-way causality effect between stock prices and foreign exchange rates (for example, oskooee & sohrabian, 1992; qiao, 1996; granger et al. 2000; muhammad & rasheed 2004; aliyu, 2009; nurmakhanova, 2019). when it comes to the causality effect between foreign exchange volatility and stock returns, which is the subject of this paper, there are studies in the literature both in international and turkish context. only a limited number of studies do not reveal any causality effect between exchange rate volatility and stock prices. chkili & nguyen (2014), for example, tested the relationship between the two variables by using the stock prices data of brics countries (brazil, russia, india, china, south africa) and exchange rate volatility for the period 1997-2013. as a result of the study, they did not find any relationship between exchange rate volatility and stock market retunes. similarly, in their study examining the link between exchange rate volatility and stock market returns using data from 2006-2016, dahir et al., (2018) 3 found no effect between exchange rate volatility and stock returns for china. on the other hand, there are studies confirming one way relationship between those two variables. as a frequently cited study in the literature on the subject, koutoulas & kryzanowski (1996) investigated the relationship between canadian stock market and exchange rate volatility using data from the period 1962-1988. as a result of the analysis, they concluded that the stock market is affected by exchange rate volatility. using the data for the period 1990-1998, bodart & reding (2001) investigated whether exchange rate volatility had a significant effect on industrial sector stocks. they found that exchange rate volatility had a significant effect on expected stock returns. mlambo et al. (2013), using the garch model on monthly data for the period 2000-2010, examined the effects of exchange rate volatility on the johannesburg stock exchange. as a result, they found out that there was, though weak, a relationship between exchange rate volatility and the stock market. perera (2016) researched the effect of euro exchange rate volatility on equity price index (aspi) returns for the colombo stock exchange (cse) using six-year daily data from 2010 to 2015. resultantly, it was determined that euro exchange rate volatility had a positive and significant effect on aspi return volatility. bagh et al., (2017), investigating the effect of exchange rate (usd) volatility on the pakistani stock market by using 2003-2015 data, found that there was a positive and significant relationship between pakistan exchange rate volatility and the stock market. in their research on the relationship between stock performance of us companies and us dollar volatility using data from 19731990, bartov & bodnar (1994) found that the volatility in the usa dollar negatively affected the stock returns of the companies. kho & stultz (2000) analysed the effects of exchange rate volatility on the banking sector stock prices and determined that the exchange rate volatility effect in indonesia and the philippines on the stock price indices was negative. kanas (2000) investigated the volatility effect between the stock market and the foreign exchange market for six industrialized economies (usa, uk, japan, germany, france and canada). according to the results, a unidirectional relationship was found from stock returns to exchange rate volatility in all countries except germany. in his study, apte (2001) searched for the volatility effect between stock and foreign exchange markets using the data for the 1991-2000 period for the indian economy. as a result of his study, he confirmed a unidirectional relationship from the foreign exchange market to the stock market. chue and cook (2008) analyzed the effects of exchange rate volatility on stock price indices in emerging markets and found that most of the emerging markets were negatively affected by exchange rate volatility between 1999 and 2002. in the study of adjasi et al. (2008) on the relationship between the stock market the exchange rate volatility in ghana stock market, a negative relationship between exchange rate volatility and stock returns was specified. sichoongwe (2016) obtained a similar result, in his analysis of the effect of exchange rate volatility on the zambian stock market using the data for the period 2000-2015. as a result, he determined that there was a negative relationship between exchange rate volatility and stock market return. there are also studies that find a bidirectional relationship between exchange rate volatility and the stock prices. for example, murinde & poshakwale (2004), who investigated the relationship between the stock market and exchange rate volatility in european markets using the data of the 1994-2003 period found that there was a bidirectional interaction for poland and the czech republic in the pre-euro period. yang & doong (2004) examined the volatility relationship between stock and foreign exchange markets for g-7 countries. as the result of their study, they determined that there is a bidirectional relationship between exchange rate volatility and the stock market. wu (2005), who studied the volatility relationship between stock and foreign exchange markets by conducting research on the economies of japan, south korea, indonesia, philippines, singapore, thailand and taiwan, confirmed a bidirectional relationship between stock returns and exchange rate volatility. dahir et al. (2018) examined the link between exchange rate volatility and stock market returns using data for 2006-2016 period and found that there was a bidirectional causality relationship between the variables for south africa as well. similar to the ones in the international context, studies in turkey on the subject rather display the existence of causality effect between the variables. özçiçek (1997), as one of those studies, investigated the relationship between stock index returns volatility and exchange rate (usd/try) volatility, by conducting granger causality test for the data for the 1994-2001 period. as a result, it was determined that there was a bidirectional relationship between stock index returns volatility and exchange rate (usd/tl) volatility. examining the relationship between exchange rate volatility and stock market indices, aydemir & demirhan (2009) found a bidirectional causality relationship between the variables as a finding of their study. i̇şcan (2011) worked on the data for the period 2001-2009 using the johansen cointegration test and the granger causality test. according to the results of the analysis, it was concluded that there was a one-way causality relationship from stock prices to exchange rate volatility. şahin & sekmen (2013) investigated the relationship between exchange rate (usd) volatility and stock market return by applying engle-granger cointegration test to the data covering 4 1986-2012 period. according to the research findings, it was concluded that the volatility in the exchange rate had a significant effect on the returns of the companies operating in the ise. using the data of 42 companies operating in the trade and manufacturing sectors traded in the ise 100 index for 2006 to 2014, boyacıoğlu & çürük (2016) investigated the effect of exchange rate volatility on stock returns. they observed that exchange rate volatility had a positive effect on stock returns. in summary, the literature research shows that majority of the studies examining the relationship between exchange rate price volatility and stock prices have put forward the existence of causality effect between the variables. therefore, in the current study, the causality effect is expected to hold between the exchange rate volatility and the stock index market. in this direction, the null and alternative hypothesis of the study are stated as follows: h0: there is no causality effect between exchange rate volatility and stock index return. h1: there is a significant causality effect between exchange rate volatility and stock index return. the following part of the study will present the analysis conducted to test the hypothesis. 3. analysis and the research findings this study aims at investigating the relationship between exchange rate volatility and stock index return in turkey by using the data for the time period between 11.03.2020 to 28.10.2021. in the study, the data period was originally planned to extend till the end of 2021. however, in the last two months of 2021, sudden and exceptionally large fluctuations were observed in the value of the dollar exchange rate (for example, usd crossed for the first time the threshold of 10tl on 15th november, appreciated to 16,41tl in december before coming back to 13,50tl on 20th december). this atypical fluctuations in that time period hid four previous structural breaks detected by cusum graphs. therefore, data period used in the analysis was narrowed by excluding those two months. the starting date of the period, 11.03.2020 is purposefully selected as this date represents the starting date of covid-19 pandemic. hence, the study results will present the causality effect pattern between the variables during the pandemic period. this is important as contagious diseases can spread over the entire geographical area over time and significantly affect the international economy and financial markets. recently, the covid-19 outbreak has also affected the economy and financial markets around the world. since countries have implemented mandatory quarantine policies for precautionary purposes, economic activities have been significantly restricted. after the world health organization announced the global epidemic, deteriorations began to occur in the financial markets (zhang, et al., 2020). in the study using daily data, the us dollar/turkish lira (usd/try) rate and the bist-100 index are selected as the exchange rate and the stock market index, respectively. the data pertaining to the exchange rate are the sales price in turkish lira per usd while the data about the stock price is the closing price of borsa istanbul 100 (bist-100) index (xu 100). the data used in the study were obtained from www.investing.com.tr and electronic data distribution system (evds) of the central bank of the republic of turkey (cbrt). eviews 9 package program was used in the analysis of the data. in the study, firstly, the return series of two variables was formed. the return series is calculated by means of the following formula: 𝑟𝑡=ln 𝑋𝑡 𝑋𝑡−1 in the formula, r_t, represents the exchange rate (stock) return on day t, , x_t represents the closing price of exchange rate (return) on day t, x_(t-1) represents the closing price of exchange rate (return) on day t-1. the descriptive statistical properties of the exchange rate (usd/try) return and stock return bist 100 index (xu 100) series are shown in table 1. 5 table 1. the descriptive statistical properties of the series exchange rate (usd/try) bist 100 (xu 100) number of observations 406 406 mean 0.001056 0.001011 standard deviation 0.009621 0.014923 skewness 0.697509 -1.743236 kurtosis 16.28215 13.06709 jarque-bera 3017.284 1920.072 j.b. probability 0,000000 0,000000 as reported in table.1, the logarithmic mean of the return on the exchange rate (usd/try) is 0.001056 while the logarithmic mean of the return on the bist-100 index (xu 100) is 0.001011. jarque-bera (1987) test was used to determine whether the series of exchange rate (udsd/try) return, and stock index return feature normal distribution. since the jarque-bera test coefficients of the exchange rate series are significant, the series do not show normal distribution. as the first step in the analysis, the test is made to see whether the series were stationary or not. after the stationarity test analysis, linear stochastic models (arma) and general autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity (garch) models were estimated to model exchange rate volatility. finally, granger causality test was conducted to examine the causality relationship between exchange rate (udsd/try) volatility and stock index return. in order to reach accurate and reliable results when performing time series analysis, it is necessary to make the data stationary by using appropriate unit root tests on the data. this is important as working with non-stationary series could result in spurious regression problem, which will not reflect the real relationship (gujarati, 2004). the most widely used augmented dickeyfuller (adf) unit root test is used in this study. augmented dickey fuller (adf) unit root test results are shown in table 2. table 2. augmented dickey-fuller unit root test results variable level/first difference adf test statistics intercept trend and intercept usd/try level -19.07379 (0)*** -19.04996 (0)*** xu100 level -21.71950 (0)*** -21.71935 (0)*** mackinnon critical values 1% level -3.980880 -3.446281 5% level -3.420958 -2.868457 10% level -3.133210 -2.570520 ***%1 level, the maximum lag length is calculated according to the schwarz information criteria (sic) and is shown in parentheses. for both usd/try and xu 100 series, as tablo.2 shows, the null hypothesis of unit root is rejected since the test statistics are smaller than the mackinnon critical values at 1%, 5% and 10% significance levels. therefore, it was concluded that both data sets are stationary at the level and the degree of stationarity is i(0). since the exchange rate return series (usd/try) is stationary at level, attempt is made to estimate the appropriate volatility model. for this purpose, based on the evaluation of coefficient of determination (r²), akaike information criterion (aic), schwartz bayesian information criterion (sbic), maximum likelihood ratio (logl), and f-statistics, the most suitable model for the exchange rate data is determined as arma (0,0). then, archlm test was applied at different lag lengths by using the residual series obtained from the arma (0,0) model. arch-lm test statistics and r2 values of errors at different lags confirmed at 1% significance level the existence of arch effect in the time series. as the next step, then, the volatility of the exchange rate series is estimated. a dummy variable was created to represent the structural breaks detected by cusum graphs. then, arch, garch and egarch models were evaluated by including the dummy 6 variable. out of the several arch, garch and egarch models estimated, the garch (2,1) model was determined as the most appropriate model in the modelling of exchange rate volatility. garch (2,1) model estimation statistics is reported in table 3. table.3. garch (2,1) model estimation results parameter coefficient α0 1.27e-05*** α1 0.114786*** α2 0.160196** β1 0.534028** dummy 0.000526*** α + β 0,80901 q2(5) 2.7100 arch lm(5) 0.529645 q2(10) 13.819 arch lm(10) 1.614125 q2(15) 0.245 arch lm(15) 1.425752 aic -6.780543 logl 1381.450 sbic -6.731204 theil coefficient 1,000000 *** %1 level, ** %5 level for the garch(2,1) model, the α and β parameters were found to be positive and statistically significant at 1% level. the sum of the α and β coefficients is less than one, indicating that volatility is predictable, and the effect of shocks is temporary. there is long memory in volatility as the sum of the garch parameters is 0,809. structural breaks, in fact, are causing volatility to increase more than expected. after the model estimation, the q2 statistics for different lags were checked in order to test the validity of the predicted model. the q2 statistics related to the model were found to be statistically insignificant for all lags. this confirms that there is no autocorrelation problem in the established model. finally, arch-lm test was applied in order to determine whether the presence of arch effect in the predicted model disappeared. the statistically insignificant arch-lm test results for different lags pointed out that the arch effect disappeared. prior to conducting analysis to see whether there is any causality between foreign exchange volatility and stock returns, a stationarity test is performed for foreign exchange rate volatility series, results of which are reported in table 4. table 4. augmented dickey-fuller unit root test results for usa/try volatility series variable level/first difference adf test statistics intercept trend and intercept usd/try volatility series level -6.440202*** -6.435775*** ***%1 level the maximum lag length is calculated according to the schwarz information criteria (sic), exchange rate volatility mackinnon critical values; -3,446402 at the 1% level -2,868511 at the 5% level -2,570549 at the 10% level. the test statistics lower, as shown in table 4, than mackinnon critical values at 1%, 5% and 10% significance levels confirm the stationarity of usd/try volatility series at the level. given that both the exchange rate volatility and the stock return series are stationarity at the level, granger causality test can be applied to the time series data. causality analysis reveals whether the future estimated values of a variable in a time series are affected by its past periods or by the past periods of other time series variable with which it is related. if, for example, the lagged values of the x variable have a 7 significant effect on the y variable, then the x variable is called the granger cause of y variable. on the other hand, both variables might be granger cause of each other, or there might be no granger causality between two variables (granger, 1988). granger causality relationship is expressed with the following model (granger, 1969): 𝑌𝑡 = ∑𝜆𝑖𝑌𝑡−𝑖 𝑚 𝑖=1 + ∑𝑏𝑖𝑋𝑡−𝑖 𝑚 𝑖=1 + 𝑢1𝑓 𝑥𝑡 = ∑𝜎𝑖𝑋𝑡−𝑖 𝑚 𝑖=1 + ∑𝜃𝑖𝑌𝑡−𝑖 𝑚 𝑖=1 + 𝑢2𝑓 in the equation, λ_i,b_i,σ_i, θ_i parameters show the lag coefficients, while u_1 f,〖 u〗_2f are for the uncorrelated white processes. m value represents the common lag degree for all variables. in the formula of granger (1969), x is related both to its own past values and to the past values of y whereas y is related to its own past values and the past values of x. as the first step in the analysis, the most reasonable lag length (k) of the var model must be determined. in the current study, the lag length of the var model which was calculated according to the schwarz information criteria (sic) was found to be 4. the model used in the granger causality analysis is as follows: 𝑈𝑆𝐷/𝑇𝑅𝑌𝑡 = ∑𝜆𝑖𝑈𝑆𝐷/𝑇𝑅𝑌𝑡−𝑖 𝑚 𝑖=1 + ∑𝑏𝑖𝑋𝐵𝐼𝑆𝑇100𝑡−𝑖 𝑚 𝑖=1 + 𝑢1𝑓 𝐵𝐼𝑆𝑇100𝑡 = ∑𝜎𝑖𝐵𝐼𝑆𝑇100𝑡−𝑖 𝑚 𝑖=1 + ∑𝜃𝑖𝑌𝑈𝑆𝐷/𝑇𝑅𝑌𝑡−𝑖 𝑚 𝑖=1 + 𝑢2𝑓 the results of the granger causality test is reported in table 5. table 5. granger causality test results h0 lag length f statistics probability bist-100 is not the granger cause of usd/try volatility bist100→usd/try 2 4.76585*** 0,0090 usd/try volatility is not the granger cause of. bist-100 usd/try→ bist100 2 4.93859*** 0,0076 ***%1 significance level as seen in table 5, the probability value less than 0.01 shows that there is a causal relationship from stock return (bist100) to exchange rate (usd/try) volatility, and the null hypothesis (h0) hypothesis is rejected. in other words, granger causality relationship was found at 1% significance level from stock return (bist100) to exchange rate (usd/try) volatility. similarly, significant granger causality relationship was found, at 1% significance level, from exchange rate (usd/try) volatility to stock returns (bist100). overall, the analysis results reveal that there is a bidirectional causality relationship between exchange rate volatility and stock index return. 5. conclusions increasing globalization has led to acceleration in international trade relations and capital investments, rendering the management of foreign exchange risk more prominent. economic exposure puts forward that even the decision-making entities with no assets or liabilities are affected from currency fluctuations. both transaction and economic exposure increase as foreign exchange volatility goes up. therefore, decision makers need to take into consideration foreign exchange volatility to make informed decisions. on the other hand, the goal of business entities is accepted as the wealth maximization of shareholders, which is achieved by maximizing the stock price of companies. stocks are evaluated as an investment alternative to foreign currency investments and return on stocks appear to be linked to the movements in foreign exchange rates. the study aimed at exploring the causality effect between foreign exchange volatility and stock returns within turkish context for the period from 11.03.2020 to 28.10.2021. as the starting day of the period, 11.03.2020, is announced by the ministry of health of turkey as the date when covid-19 pandemic started to show its effect, the time period selected for the study overlaps with the pandemic period. hence, the research findings could shed light to the nature of the causality effect between the variables during the pandemic period. in the study using daily data, the usd/try is the selected foreign exchange rate while bist 100 index return is used to represent stock returns. the causality relationship between the exchange rate volatility and the stock index return was examined using the granger causality test. according to the granger causality test results, a bidirectional causality relationship was determined between exchange rate (usd/try) volatility and stock index returns 8 (bist100). this result is consistent with several international studies that found bidirectional causality in the literature (for example, murinde and poshakwale, 2004; yang & doong, 2004; wu, 2005; dahir et al., 2018). the research findings are also in line with some studies in turkey (for example, özçiçek, 1997; aydemir & demirhan, 2009). however, bidirectional causality effect finding is in contrast to the findings by studies that found either no relationship between the two variables (for example chkili & nguyen, 2014), or one-way relationship (for example, kanaş, 2000; apte, 2001; bagh et al., 2017; bartov & bodnar, 1994; kho & stultz, 2000; chue & cook, 2008; i̇şcan, 2011; yamak et al., 2018). the reason for the differences in the findings might be due to the periods analysed, the data analysis model selected, as kaplan & yapraklı (2014) stated, or the sectors selected, as kostak (2021) emphasized. future studies could consider comparing pandemic and postpandemic relationships. moreover, the relationship between exchange rate volatility and stock returns can be reconsidered at different time periods characterizing such as, economic crisis, political problems and important political events. acknowledgements this article is produced from a dissertation on the subject prepared by akile kilic in part consideration for the degree of master of science in international trade and finance at afyon kocatepe university." references 1. abdalla, i. s. a., & murinde v. 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(2020). financial markets under the global pandemic of covid-19. financial research letters, 30, 1-6, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2020.101528. https://ijbe.fcu.edu.tw/assets/ijbe/past_issue/no.03-2/pdf/vol_3-2-4.pdf https://ijbe.fcu.edu.tw/assets/ijbe/past_issue/no.03-2/pdf/vol_3-2-4.pdf https://doi.org/10.16953/deusosbil.467312 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2020.101528 89 a comparative study on the use of progressive forms in the albanian english translation of the novel ‘the doll’ by ismail kadare anisa beadini ¹* arta toci 2 ¹ south east european university, faculty of languages, cultures and communication, ab27123@seeu.edu.mk *correspondent author. 2 south east european university, faculty of languages, cultures and communication, a.toci@seeu.edu.mk article history: submission 13 november 2022 revision 15 january 2023 accepted 25 february 2023 available online 30 april 2023 keywords: translation, progressive tense, tense shift, meaning, form. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.375 a b s t r a c t translation is a process that incorporates two languages and two cultures, it is considered as an act of conveying a message from one society to another. languages contain different expressions, literary aspects for which translation enables them to be delivered to other cultures. the focus of this research is on the progressive or continuous tenses of albanian and english language. the progressive tenses of both languages show an ongoing action at an unspecific time in the present, past or in the future. to conduct this research and to analyze and contrast the progressive tenses, we have used the novel “kukulla” – “the doll” by ismail kadare. the novel has an intriguing, specific topic which is not commonly used in literary texts. besides its topic, the cultural aspects that ismail kadare has masterly incorporated in the novel make it a distinct and important novel to analyze. the aim of this research is to clarify the aspect of progressive tenses of albanian language and english language. it aims to identify and analyze whether the tense shift from albanian language to english language changes the meaning and the form of the source text. 1. introduction “translation is an act through which the content of a text is transferred from the source language into the target language” (foster, 1958, p.1). to translate, one needs to have a source text and an aim to convert the same work into another language. the process of translation can be considered as a bridge between cultures or literature of different places. (venuti 2017, p.8) claims: “translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. rewritings can introduce new concepts, new genres, new devices, and the history of translation is also the history of literary innovation, of the shaping power of one culture upon another”. the beneficial aspect of the process of translation is that by rewriting a literary text the translator produces new ideas and brings innovation in the literature and the culture of another place. according to benjamin (1921): no translation would be possible if in its ultimate essence it strove for likeness to the original. . .. for just as the tenor and significance of the great works of literature undergo a complete transformation over the centuries, the mother tongue of the translator is transformed as well. while a poet's words endure in his own language, even the greatest translation is destined to become part of the growth of its own language and eventually to be absorbed by its renewal. translation is so far removed from being the sterile equation of two dead languages that of all literary forms it is the one charged with the special mission of watching over the maturing process of the original language and the birth pangs of its own. (as cited in grossman, 2010, p.14) it is important to mention that this research’s main goal is to analyze the aspects of translation of the novel ‘kukulla’ by ismail kadare. morgan (2006), claimed that “ismail kadare, as a great albanian writer, is a ‘modern homer’ who has been nominated several times for the nobel prize in literature” (p.7). the novel mailto:ab27123@seeu.edu.mk mailto:a.toci@seeu.edu.mk https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.375 https://orcid.org/0009-0006-1381-4195 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9172-6613 90 ‘the doll’ is a mesmerizing novel that ismail kadare dedicated to his mother. in general, people are used to read stories about the impact that mothers have in the life of their children, but in this novel, we are face to face with the figure of a mother who doesn’t have any impact in the life of her son. this is one of the main reasons why he calls his mother ‘the doll’. english language progressive or continuous tense of the verbs according to celce-murcia, larsen-freeman, & williams, (1983) “the present progressive form (sometimes called the continuous) combines a form of the be verb (am, is, are), depending on the person and number of the subject, with the present participle, an –ing form”. the progressive tense is used when the speaker wants to be more specific for an action that is happening. the progressive tense – “koha e pakryer” of the albanian language the progressive tense in the albanian language is used to indicate actions, which were still happening at a certain point in the past. in the progressive tense when the verb is used for an action which is happening at a specific period the particle “po” or “duke” is added before the verb: unë po hap, i am opening, (agalliu, 2002). dueher, (2011) pointed out that “albanian language presents an original pattern, which provides its own solution to problems dealt with differently by other language systems” (p.274). the albanian language is an indo-european language, but it has a quite different morphological system when it comes to verbs, and it is different from other languages of the same branch. in the albanian language and in the english language as well the auxiliary verb “to be” and the suffix “–ing” are elements that show the time when the action happens. the vital element of human nature is communication, the exchange of information between each other helps people to understand and cooperate in their daily life. in general, all languages share the basic structure of creating a sentence such as the importance of a verb for the receiver to understand the message delivered. “according to catford, (1965), a central task of translation theory is that of defining the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.” (as cited in schanchez, 2009, p.18). a challenging point for the translators is the semantic aspect, polysemy, which means that one word in english, has a lot of other meanings. the basic message of a written text can be delivered with a very simple translation process, but translation has a more important role. according to newmark, (1991), “the creative element in translation is circumscribed. it hovers when the translation procedures fail when translation is ‘impossible’ (p.7). creativity in translated work comes in when the translator must find the equivalence of a specific word that might not have equivalence in the target language, it mostly happens when metaphors, jargon or poetry are translated. the poetic text lends itself to multiple readings at the highest degree. the fact that the poetic text is difficult to translate is a symptom of what would seem to be its linearity, but this, however, is only apparent: a single signifier may lead into different interpretive trajectories. for this reason, it is often difficult to find a corresponding signifier in another language with the same capacity for shifting. (ponzio, 2007) the translation of poems is considered as one of the most difficult texts to translate as they always express different emotions and can be perceived differently by the readers. the translation of a literary text can be analyzed, changed and modified to the extent that it can even be considered better than the text in the source language. “according to robinson, (1998), dynamic development of national literatures required not only translation reforms, but also changes in the readers cultural expectation and era’s aesthetic concepts” (as cited in saule & aisulu, 2014). while the translator must ensure that the translated text provides a cross-language communication, they must take into consideration the changes in society and the new norms and expectations that readers have when they read a literary text from another language. 2. the research method this research aims to: • clarify the uncertainties of the forms between the continuous or progressive tenses of both languages. • define the similarities and differences of progressive tenses in both languages. • analyze and compare continuous tenses by their functions, forms and usage from the albanian language into the english language. the data collected from this research will serve to clarify the form of progressive tenses in both languages and will demonstrate if there happens to be a tense shift while translating. the research will offer an analysis of the forms of the progressive tenses, and it will examine the way these tenses are translated from albanian language into english. the objective is to find out to what extent these tenses consist of similarities and differences between each other, are these tenses equivalent to each other, and how do these two interfere in the context. in the end, the claims that were made 91 with the hypotheses will be supported by the results of the research. the data used in this research is collected from the novel “kukulla” – “the doll” by ismail kadre and its english translation. the data was analyzed and compared with the aim of finding similarities and differences of the progressive forms of the albanian language and the english language. the analysis of the progressive tenses will give answer to the following questions: 1. is the form of progressive tenses in the albanian language the same as the form of progressive or continuous tenses in the english language? 2. does the change of tenses interfere within the meaning of the sentences translated from albanian to english? 3. how do the forms of progressive tenses change from albanian language to english? 3. results 3.1. albanian continuous tense translated into the past simple tense of the english language albanian version: e kisha marrë vesh prej kohësh se pas ҫdo riparimi, qëllonte që shtëpia pillte një apo dy dhoma të tjera, ose kundërta, gëlltiste pa të keq po aq. english version: i had long understood that every repair project spawned one or two more rooms – or the reverse, swallowed a couple. • in the albanian version the verb “pillte” and “gëlltiste” are in the active form of the verb, indicative mood, third person singular. it shows an action that has been repeated over time in the past. • in the english version the verbs “spawned” and “swallowed” are in the past simple tense and show finished action in the past. 3.2. albanian continuous tenses translated by using the past form of modal verbs of the english language albanian version: mund të këndoje gjithë ditën nënë e dashur, nëna ime, më e mira në botë, sa erë e mire që të vjen, e trululu e tralala, e prap të mos ishe i kënaqur. english version: you might sing all day about your beloved mother, the finest in the world, how sweet her fragrance, tra la la’, but still this wasn’t enough. • in the albanian version the verb “të këndoje” is used in the active form of the verb, subjunctive mood, second person singular, and the next verb “të mos ishe” is in the subjunctive mood, active form of the verb, second person plural, and the particle “mos” is used to create the negative form. the verbs show actions that have continued for a specific, but unknown period in the past. • in the english version to adapt the meaning the translator has used the past form of the modal verb “may” that is “might” and the main verb is used in its present simple form, the next verb is used in its past simple form. the verb might be used to express possibility, and the next verb speaks about an action that has occurred in the past. 3.3. albanian continuous tenses translated by using gerund forms and infinitive forms of the english language albanian version: një skenë e njohur, e përsëritur shpeshherë në banesën tonë, kur vajzat tona loznin kukullash me nënën më kaloi nëpër mend. english version: a familiar scene passed through my mind: our daughters playing doll with my mother. • in the albanian language the author has used the verb “loznin” in the active form of the verb, indicative mood, third person plural, the root of the verb is “loz”. it describes an action which was happening at a specific period in the past and it doesn’t indicate when it ended. • in the english version the translator has used the gerund form of the verb “play” which has become “playing” and it is used to talk about an action that has happened in the past. 3.4. albanian continuous tenses translated into the passive form of the english language albanian version: në prill të vitit 1994, im vëlla na lajmëroi nga tirana se nëna ishte duke dhënë shpirt. english version: in april 1994, my brother called from tirana to tell me my mother was not expected to last. • in the albanian version the author has used the verb “jam” in the past, the particle “duke” and the verb “jap” in the past tense. the author has used the progressive tense to talk about an action that was happening during a specific time in the past and doesn’t tell the time when the action ended. 92 • in the english version the translator has used the verb “to be” in the past in its negative form and the verb “expect” in the past simple, the whole tense is in the passive form of the past simple tense. in the english version this tense is used to talk about an action that happened in the past and since the passive form of the verb is used the emphasis is put on the action that was happening. 3.5. albanian continuous tenses translated into present simple tense of the english language albanian version: dy ditët e bujtjes duhej të kishin kaluar shpejt dhe kukulla, e shoqëruar ashtu si gjatë ardhjes nga vitua, cigania e lagjes, ishte nisur të kthehej. english version: the two days of her visit passed quickly, and the doll set off just as she had arrived, escorted by vito, a neighborhood gypsy. • in the albanian version the verb “të kthehej” is used in the passive form of the verb, subjunctive mood, third person singular, and by the context it is understood that it speaks about an action that has happened during a short period of time in the past. • in the english version the verb “set off” is used in the present simple tense. 3.6. albanian continuous tenses translated into past continuous tense of the english language albanian version: kjo binte në sy sidomos kur niseshim bashkërisht për te babazoti. english version: this was especially striking when we set off together to visit her father. • in the albanian version the verb “binte” is in the active form of the verb, indicative mood, third person singular, as for the phrase “binte në sy” in albanian language is used when someone wants to tell that something is obvious. the next verb “niseshim” is used in the passive form of the verb, indicative mood, first person plural. it shows an action that has been repeated in different times in the past. • in the english version the verb “was striking” is used in the past progressive form of the verb and speaks about an action happening during the time when another action occurred in the past, the verb that indicates the next action is the verb “set off” which is in the past tense. 3.7. albanian continuous tenses translated into past perfect tense of the english language albanian version: ndërkaq kishte ca kohë që gjyshja nuk zbriste dot përshkak të dhimbjes së gjunjëve, kështu që ishte e vështirë të dalloje kur ishte me mëri, e kur jo. english version: for some time, my grandmother had refused to come downstairs, supposedly because of the pain in her knees, although it was hard to tell when this was in fact out of spite and when it was not. • in the albanian version the verb “nuk zbriste” is used in the active form of the verb, indicative mood, third person singular, and the particle “nuk” is used to form the negative, the next verb is “të dalloje” which is in the active form of the verb, subjunctive mood, second person singular. it shows an action that has been continuing for a period. • in the english version the verb “had refused to come” is in the past perfect tense, the next verb is “was hard to tell”, it is in the past simple tense. it shows an action completed in the past. 3.8. english language continuous tenses form in the source text english version: as if i were hearing something i already knew. albanian version: thua se të gjitha ato që po dëgjoja i dija ndërkaq. in the english version the verb “were hearing” is in the past continuous tense, created with the past simple form of the verb “to be” – “was/were” and the main verb gets the “–ing” suffix. it shows an action that was happening at the time of speaking in the past. in the albanian version the verb “dëgjoja” is in the active form of the verb, indicative mood, first person singular, the particle “po” is used and this is the albanian language equivalence of creating the progressive tense in the english version. 5. conclusions this research has given answers to the following questions: • is the form of progressive tenses in the albanian language the same as the form of progressive or continuous tenses in the english language? • does the change of tenses interfere within the meaning of the sentences translated from albanian to english? 93 • how do the forms of progressive tenses change from albanian language to english? referring to the first question related to the form of progressive tenses, the analysis of the tenses in both languages has shown that generally the progressive forms of albanian language and the progressive forms of english language show an action happening during the time of speaking, they don’t indicate when the action started nor do show when it ended. the albanian progressive tenses are mainly focused in the past since they are part of the past tenses of albanian language, whereas the english tenses expand in all times present, past and future. it is important to explain that the form of albanian progressive tenses differs from the form of english language progressive tenses. it shouldn’t go without mentioning that there exists the equivalence of the english progressive tenses in the albanian language, and this incorporates not only the form, but the time of speaking as well. the differences and similarities of the forms in both languages will be elaborated in the answer of the third question. when it comes to the matter of finding out whether the meaning of the sentence changes it is important to mention that even though the tense changes from progressive tense of albanian language into the past simple tense of english language, passive voice, or there were cases when modal verbs were used in the translated text, the meaning doesn’t change, and the reader understands the author’s message. discussing the way how the forms of progressive tenses change, it is important to mention that mainly these tenses have different forms in albanian and in english language. the progressive tenses of albanian language take different suffixes in different moods, example, in the indicative mood, verbs take these suffixes in singular: -ja, -je, -nte, and in plural verbs end with these suffixes: -nim, -nit, -nin. it is important to mention that these suffixes change according to the mood that the verb is being conjugated in the albanian language. albanian progressive tenses also have another form which is created by the particle “duke” and “po”, these two particles help to create the right and equivalent form of the english language progressive tenses. so, in albanian language there are cases when the continuous tense is used with the suffixes, but sometimes the continuous tense with the particles is used, too. the english continuous or progressive tenses are created with the help of the auxiliary verb “to be” that determines the time of the action and the “–ing” suffix that the verb gets in the end. the conclusion about forms can be made by adding that there is the similar way of using the continuous tense in both languages albanian and english, but in the albanian language there is also the possibility to use the continuous tense by adding suffixes at the end. so far, from the comparison of the continuous tenses of both languages we can conclude that the first hypothesis of this research, that is as follows: “there is a difference between the form of the progressive or continuous tenses in albanian language and the progressive or continuous tenses in the english language.”, is true, there is a difference in the form of progressive tenses of albanian language and english language, but it is worth mentioning that in the albanian language there exists the right equivalent form of the english language progressive tenses which can be used and has the same meaning, use and function as in the english language as well. by the analysis of the progressive tenses, it was concluded that there occurs tense switching during the process of translation, however this does not interfere with the meaning of the sentences when translated from the source language to the target language. according to this we can mention that the second hypothesis of this research that is: “the change of the form of the tenses does not interfere the meaning of the sentences translated from albanian to english, is true. lastly, the third hypothesis of this research, “if in the source text the author uses the progressive tense, then the translated text will use the past simple tense followed with an adjective or with the gerund form of the verb and in some cases will change to past simple tense.”, by the analysis and comparison conducted in this research, it has been proven to be right. the results have shown that there occurs not only the tense switch from continuous to past tense, but there are cases when the modal verbs, gerund and infinitive forms, passive voice and rarely the present tense form of the verbs were used when translated from albanian language into english language. all these grammatical aspects were used by the translator with the aim to adapt the meaning and to convey the message of the author to the reader, which is a proof that translation requires adaptability, effort, and creativity to create a proper translated work. the analysis of the tenses in both languages has brought these main conclusions: • the progressive forms of albanian language and the progressive forms of english language show an action happening during the time of speaking, they don’t indicate when the action started nor do show when it ended. • even though there are tense shifts from progressive tense of albanian language into different grammar tenses of english language, the meaning doesn’t change. • albanian progressive tenses take suffixes in the end, but this tense is also formed by the particles “po” and “duke” which is the same as in english language with the verb “to be” and the “-ing” ending. • the albanian progressive tenses are mainly focused in the past since they are part of the past tenses of albanian 94 language, whereas the english tenses expand in all times present, past and future. acknowledgement this article uses data and information from the master thesis “a comparative study on the use of progressive forms in the albanian english translation of the novel ‘the doll’ by ismail kadare” which was conducted by anisa beadini, ma and supervised by her mentor, prof. dr. arta toçi. references 1. agalliu, a. & angoni, e. & demiraj, sh. & dhrimo, a. & hysa, e. & lafe, e. & likaj, e. 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(2015). description of the verbal system of albanian language in the" grammar of the albanian language"(1882) of konstandin kristoforidhi. academic journal of interdisciplinary studies, 4(3 s1), 421. 9. morgan, p. (2006). ismail kadare modern homer or albanian dissident? world literature today, 80(5), 7-11. https://doi.org/10.2307/40159180 10. newmark, p. (1988). a textbook of translation. hoboken, nj. prentice hall 11. ponzio, a. (2007). translation and the literary text. ttr: traduction, terminologie rédaction, 20(2), 89119. 12. sánchez, m. t. (2009). the problems of literary translation: a study of the theory and practice of translation from english into spanish (vol. 18). peter lang. 13. sanders, a. (1994). the short oxford history of english literature. new york. oxford university press inc. 14. saule, b., & aisulu, n. (2014). problems of translation theory and practice: original and translated text equivalence. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 136, 119-123. 15. venuti, l. (2017). the translator's invisibility: a history of translation. routledge, retrieved from: http://library.navoiyuni.uz/files/the%20translator's%20invisibility.pdf https://doi.org/10.2307/40159180 http://library.navoiy-uni.uz/files/the%20translator's%20invisibility.pdf http://library.navoiy-uni.uz/files/the%20translator's%20invisibility.pdf 52 the influences of public relations and crisis management in the business sector: a case study in the republic of north macedonia liljana siljanovska south east european university, faculty of languages, cultures and communication, l.siljanovska@seeu.edu.mk article history: submission 11 april 2022 revision 30 june 2022 accepted 17 august 2022 available online 31 august 2022 keywords: crisis, management, public relations, business, reputation. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.344 a b s t r a c t the subject of this research is the preparedness of companies in terms of crisis management under the conditions of various endogenous and exogenous factors, such as economic growth, new technologies, the internet, media, social media, as well as unfair competition. that being said, the purpose of this research is setting up the tactics of communication which should be developed good communication of the message to the members of the target group. medium and large companies operating in the republic of north macedonia are taken as an example for this research. these are companies in the field of water production, telecommunications, design and printing of material, work with social networks, as well as providing services. in addition, the two largest pr agencies in macedonia were included in the research as well, which significantly contributes to its validity results. as a candidate country for membership in the european union, in the macedonian business sector it is necessary to raise awareness of the existence of a team in companies that will contribute to their readiness for future crisis situations, coordination and work efficiency. it is to be anticipated for the obtained results of this research to significantly promote and advance the country’s serious intention of such ambitious international tendencies. 1. introduction crucial to the work of a company in the business sector is precisely the direction of activities in crisis management. economic growth, new technologies, the internet, media, social media, unfair competition, all this contributes to the fact that every company should be obliged to focus on forming a team that will anticipate all potential situations that would adversely affect the current operation. that being said, this paper will attempt to thoroughly research the problems and provide detailed and specific answers to the questions of management during crisis and, more importantly, whether it represents a risk to the company or a challenge faced by public relations. the research, i.e. the particular interviews were conducted on 10 respondents working in macedonian companies or companies with foreign capital, as well as two pr and one marketing manager working in the largest public relations agencies in the republic of north macedonia. the research, as expected, includes managers from the marketing sector or managers from the public relations sector, depending on which company has the public relations sector. several pr agencies were also interviewed, which further advanced the obtained results and the overall progress of the conducted research. 2. public relations as a reputation and building the image of the company public relations are often defined as the management responsible for an organization's reputation. in the pr industry it is known that they deal with the implementation of a good reputation in the eyes of the public as well as advising on how to maintain it, given that the most powerful tool available to a company is exactly that. strong and sustainable reputations are built over time working in accordance with social rules, but also with legal regulations and achievements, more than its competition. reputation is the complete opposite of personality, it is a value that further ensures happiness, success and satisfaction, it can be manipulated, based on truth, in any case that image that is established over time, with a commitment that can be shaken by of various spreads of https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:l.siljanovska@seeu.edu.mk https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.344 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5074-2860 53 misinformation. it comes as a result of the work and behavior of the individual or the overall operation of an organization or according to a particular story related to the founding of an organization, event, dramatic happening. in other words, reputation is a constant dynamic process that evaluates, and should be worked on to survive. that's why it's so important to be careful and evaluate public opinion about a company's reputation. because individuals generally have a different view of an organization, they often know how to make mistakes or be prejudiced. the reputation of an organization can be endangered even by only one individual, employee or superior in it. there are cases where the image and reputation is impeccable, and from within there are problems with the organization and mistrust among employees. trust, credibility, honesty, authenticity, all this contributes to a good reputation. trust is essential when it comes to communication, and when it is broken, it is a big challenge for pr professionals as well as the management that presides over during a crisis because the trust of the media is significantly low. then one cannot guess what the effect is and what the relationship between the media and public trust is. german public relations literature of the 1950s equated trust with transparency, an approach consistent with the rational approach to public relations first developed by ferguson (1984). transparency means that work can be maintained through the process, decisions and communication with the organization, which are in a relative state and sometimes variable which is a prerequisite for trust and commitment. reputation depends on trust and transparency based on image and identity. 3. communication during a crisis according to maurice trevor and goldsworth simon (2012), a crisis is an event, an attack, or a particular perception of an event that seriously damages a reputation, and if you do not deal with it effectively it will harm the entire organization, brand, or individual career. they further argue that there are two types of crises. the first is called a real crisis. in this crisis, a person is injured or killed. a certain product has failed and at best is not suitable for consumers, while at worst it is harmful to them. the second type of crisis is a reputation crisis. in this case, something happens, or is supposed to have happened, that reduces trust, respect, and general sympathy for the organization. according to fraser seitel (2010) the crisis is a situation that has reached a critical point, a phase in which dramatic and extraordinary intervention is made to avoid or repair, to prevent even greater damage. according to him, the way an organization will deal with the current crisis situation that result will follow in the next few years. it is essential that these emergencies are managed intelligently, expertly handling the online media, other media, employees and society as a whole. however, if a detailed breakdown of the crisis is made, five stages can be recorded: 1. detection – begins with the detection of warning signs, of course, if they are noticeable. the organization must be careful about them, because their timely detection can prevent the crisis. 2. prevention / preparation – activities that take place according to the outbreak of the crisis and try to prevent it, i.e. people, groups and / or the organization prepare for appropriate measures. 3. overcoming – limiting the duration or spread of the crisis itself. 4. strengthening – the community or organization is trying to get back to the normal course of work, to leave the crisis behind and to return to a normal course as soon as possible 5. learning – one can learn from the crisis by analyzing, determining the damage and evaluating the work of the organization during the crisis to prevent or mitigate possible similar crises according to what has been said so far, it is a known fact that the crisis is a period of great danger and difficulty. certain events in certain cases, and to a great surprise, get out of control. according to maurice trevor and goldsworth simon (2012) there are 6 stages in crisis planning: scenario preparation written answers for newspapers identifying your audience forming a crisis team staff training printing a crisis manual the best way to prepare a scenario for a possible crisis is to form a team of people who represent each part of the company and only then, together with them, to predict what kind of crisis could occur in each area. 54 table 1. plan during the crisis 1.existence of a crisis management plan and its updating at least once a year. 2.existence of a named crisis team that is adequately trained in crisis management. 3.conduct exercises at least once a year to test the plan and the crisis management team. 4.pre-draft selection of crisis management messages, including website content and crisis report proposal: the legal service should review and approve those messages in advance. it is clear that there are many more potential areas of risk, depending on the nature of the company itself. in some cases, identifying the risk will immediately lead to its elimination or mitigation. therefore, it is necessary to create written responses to each potential scenario that will be identified and adopted. 4. qualitative analysis of the research when asked for an opinion on the term crisis, and what it represents, the pr professionals involved in this research, stated that it is an unforeseen situation related to negative publicity, or generally negative reactions in a particular group. respondents believe that it threatens to escalate in intensity, interferes with normal operation, adversely affects the health and well-being of employees, endangers the image of the organization and how it damages the financial results of the company. according to their answers, this is a situation that requires instant focus and attention. they define it in their own words as a period where things go downhill, and are influenced by a number of factors that do not depend on just one decision. further on the question whether the crisis and the negative publicity pose a risk to the company in the long run, some of them stated that they are absolutely a risk. according to the public relations officer of a branded macedonian company, the brand "after a long period of negative media exposure with strong intensity affects the perceptions of users, partners and employees so that the crisis and negative publicity pose a risk, but negative publicity is much scarier, especially in the food industry, because it most often alludes to unhygienic conditions in production, pollution, illegal ingredients, etc. the best way to solve it is with a management plan and proper distribution of funds." a small part of the interviewees think that depending on what kind of company it is, sometimes the negative publicity can be forgotten for a short period of time. there are also answers from some who think that the crisis is almost always a risk for the company and its poor management can bring bad consequences for the company and derail it. on the other hand, as far as the negative publicity is concerned, depending on the decisions made after it and the readiness of the appropriate reaction of the company, it can bring positive benefits in the long run. they believe that depending on the type of crisis, the way the company is managed can also receive positive publicity. any negative publicity in times of crisis is a current situation and should not affect the long-term operation of the company. if it is a crisis, it means that it will end, and it will not go into a permanent state. regarding the importance of negative publicity and how it affects the business sector in the republic of north macedonia, it was unanimously established that as everywhere in the republic of north macedonia, negative publicity harms the affected companies. reputation and image can build for years, and necessary is just a situation, crisis, mistake... everything to collapse, disappear overnight. the consequences are if not permanent, at least long-term. the interviewees believe that the negative publicity can be resolved with organized activities and precisely developed communication plans for a longer period, as well as with organized activities depending on the type of publicity and the opportunities that are available. in that critical phase, dramatic and extraordinary intervention is needed to repair the damage, and then to carry out an urgent response procedure in an orderly manner. in addition to the position, there is an explanation, directions on how to face a crisis or how that company would face a crisis. first, a public announcement should be made that the problem is being addressed, or that the problem has been resolved, the products are checked several times by all relevant institutions, and with the positive results of the completed analyzes to prove that the problem no longer exists and that product is good to use. the final step is to rebrand the product and reduce the price. a small number of respondents believe that in the face of unfair competition, communication through the media or the public is an undesirable solution and is applied only in exceptional cases, as a last resort. on the question of whether negative publicity can be useful in attracting public interest, most unanimously agreed that it can not be useful because it generates a negative reputation, which negatively affects the performance of companies. there are a small number who believe that there is a positive effect in certain situations when it is created, designed or controlled by the person / company, but even with a slight deviation the situation can get out of control. on the topic of how much the development of technology contributes to the development of the organization itself, ie whether the internet is an advantage or a risk of maintaining good publicity, many agreed that it is definitely an advantage. 55 the internet and the availability of information can be of great help to the pr itself in dealing with crisis situations, as it can accurately direct the information to the one who needs to hear it / see it. because you can reach your target audience more easily in a faster and more efficient way. in a world where the internet is the one that dictates the pace of the trend, of course the presence there is of great importance for good publicity. in any case, the same percentage of respondents share the opinion that there is always a risk because the internet, primarily social media, gives users the power to express their opinion that is publicly available. that is why companies have the role of interlocutor in the new conditions, and not just a speaker in traditional media. today social media are crucial for the company itself, with the mere presence on any social network instills security in consumers. there are some who think that it is good to follow the opinion of social networks, but this medium should be understood only as an information space. during the crisis, it is announced and not discussed. there is no room for communication without memory or exchange of opinions without ego-emphasis, at least not in the macedonian virtual world. when asked which plan or strategy the pr is working on in order to achieve a good relationship with the public, there are opinions that it must first enter and get acquainted with the thinking psychology of the macedonian consumer. knowing the audience you are addressing, the right approach and adjusting the way you communicate. there are also answers that the public always comes first, that the pr is the one who places the information that the public wants to hear. regarding the detailed strategy to be developed, the interviewees are unanimous that every serious company must have a three-year or five-year public relations strategy that stems from the corporate business strategy. hence the key messages, ie the content of the communication in the long and medium term. based on the medium-term and long-term strategy, an annual plan is prepared which contains term activities with specific messages and means of communication with defined budgets and other necessary resources. all this is prepared in constant communication and coordination with other functional areas in the company. when asked what their opinion is about the media and whether they think they are manipulators in the society we live in, some of them said that they can be easily used to create a public opinion. they think that they are largely because they try to impose their opinion and be a role model for the wider masses. some of them think that regardless of whether due to the internet and its various channels, the media have lost some of their influence, but still the fact remains that gaining publicity through them is huge. in the race for positive publicity of companies, by establishing good relations with the media, the objectivity of journalists is neglected, given the prejudices and previously formed ideas, so pure reporting objectivity is impossible to achieve. complete neutrality and almost complete restraint and impartiality are required. but lately, we are witnessing the "purchase" of positive publicity and the bribery of journalists. according to the interviewees, the biggest challenge is to obtain accurate, precise and unambiguous information from all relevant parties involved in provoking and resolving the crisis situation. the relevance of the information is key to creating an appropriate pr plan that will answer questions and offer solutions. it is important to note that the pr does not solve the crisis, but only informs the public about the causes, consequences, solutions. the general opinion is that everyone who deals professionally with the pr, has training and guidance for dealing with crisis situations. there must be a communication plan in case of a crisis and it is important to implement it. macedonian companies strive to be on the same level and to be guided by world practices and to implement activities that are no different from those in the world. the interviewees from the two pr agencies in the republic of macedonia had the opportunity to answer questions as well as the employees in large companies in order to compare how prepared they are for crisis situations and whether their position is generally the same on this issue. furthermore, it entails a relationship in the face of a crisis, how they should first be prepared, and then strong and experienced enough to overcome it. the interviewed representatives of the pr agencies define the crisis as an unfavorable situation, facing an unintended consequence of an action, a bad outcome of an activity or a consequence of an external factor. when asked what is the importance of social media and how they should be used during a crisis faced by a company, one of the coowners of the pr agency believes that like all other channels of communication with the public, social media is an ideal way to spin any information. according to him, the power of social media seems greater, because here the direct transmission of the news in the way imagined by the company plays a role, there is no place for changes in information, changing the order of the news or adding conclusions by journalists as mediators between the company and the medium. most often, companies use unrelated news to the crisis in order to distract the already informed groups that a crisis is occurring in the company itself. however, according to another competing agency, the positive 56 effects of social media come to the fore only and exclusively if they are managed based on the set strategy and carefully. regarding how a company can restore the original state of the organization after dealing with negative publicity and unfair competition, one of the representatives of the pr agencies said that there always has been and there always will be unfair competition. the job of the team in charge of presenting the positive attributes and the image of the company to the public is to deal with the negative publicity and unfair competition. one of the most used tools in these situations are the so-called spins that serve to direct the public's attention to another problem and thus rejecting negative publicity, to unfair competition. on the next question whether negative publicity can be useful for attracting public interest, etc., the interviewees believe that if used properly, negative publicity can be more useful than any other public relations campaign. however, it is still a delicate topic, which can only be answered by an educated, cautious and organized team that will be able to predict all the expected and unexpected effects of the use of negative publicity. when asked if public relations pr provides better marketing results during a crisis in the organization, officials believe that it depends on the kind of the crisis. the pr can show better results, but only on the short term. if the crisis is of longer intensity, and the marketing of the organization is dysfunctional, the pr team will face exceptional working conditions that can cause a series of negatives in the company itself. regarding the issue related to technology, public relations professionals believe that with the development of technology, new opportunities and horizons for work in the field of services have opened. that it can bear a series of risks, the rapid flow of the same, uncontrolled theses that would negatively affect the image of the organization, but they can also be advantages for managing the first. the easier way to communicate with the specific target of the organization, the speed of conveying the desired message, were made possible by the spread of the internet globally, as well as by increasing the popularity of social media that serve as a great tool for work. 5. qualitative analysis: results obtained from the survey s e l e c t , o f w h figure 1. what do you mean by the term ‘crisis’? regarding the activities involved during the crisis, according to the respondents, the most important is: emergency plan development 60% are behind this attitude, 30% think that the consultation and strategy is in question, and the least – i.e. 10% direct communication with consumers during a crisis. figure 2. activities involved during a crisis regarding the question of which media is more relevant in communication during a crisis, all respondents unanimously agreed that is the internet. figure 3. which media is more relevant in communication during a crisis? according to the opinion that the internet is a media that is more relevant in communication during a crisis in the company, when asked which social media is more relevant than the others, 75% put facebook on the pedestal, while 25% are for twitter. 57 figure 4. which social media is more relevant than the others? as the most important step in crisis management by the pr sector respondents believe that it is to quickly be in touch with the public 50%, 25% believe in providing sufficient information to the public, 10% showing care for their customers and 15% maintenance of two-way communication. figure 5. what do you think is the most important step in crisis management by the pr sector? furthermore, the respondents had the opportunity to state the question which answer is most effective during a crisis. the most effective is the apology for what was done, as believed by 40%. furthermore, 25% believe that justification will solve the situation, and the same percentage believes that reconciliation or pleading with the public will give a positive result. figure 6. which response in times of crisis is most effective? to the question that attracts the most attention as news, 55% pay attention to the negative news, and 45% positive. figure 7. what attracts your attention the most? the awareness and expectations of the public regarding pr professionals can be seen from the following question where 90% think that they are the ones who should speak in public when a certain company is facing a crisis. only 10% think that this should be done by the director or president of the organization. figure 8. if a company is dealing with a crisis, who do you expect to speak in public? during a crisis, 85% believe that public relations is a more relevant sector for overcoming the crisis, while 15% consider marketing. figure 9. what is the most relevant sector strategy for overcoming during a crisis? when asked about the internet, what is it that you reach for access to information, 35% rely on television, at least or only 5% on press, while 60% rely equally on all traditional media. 58 figure 10. besides the internet, what is it that you reach for access to information? 90% of respondents believe that social media is key to the success of crisis management. figure 11. do you think that social media is the future to the success of crisis management? most of the respondents, that is, 95% share the opinion that the media have a role of manipulators in society, while only 5% of the respondents do not think that it is the case. figure 12. do you think that the media have the role of manipulators in society? when asked what is the attitude of the respondents towards a company that faces negative publicity, 50% carefully follow the whole situation and come to a conclusion, 45% immediately lose the trust gained and do not go through it. only 5% do not change their attitude and trust towards the enterprise. figure 13. what is your attitude towards a company that is facing negative publicity? finally, regarding the media where the crisis in the companies is most often found out, the internet is again the most active, with 85%, 10% finding out through the print media, and 5% from television. figure 14. on which media do you most often find out about corporate crisis and negative comments? 5. conclusions after conducting the interview and analyzing the answers of the respondents by the companies from the business sector as well as by the largest public relations agencies in the republic of northern macedonia, it was seen how much the macedonian companies have awareness, knowledge and attitude towards the crisis as a period which can appear in any field in the business sector. it was seen how much the companies analyze the potential crisis situations, ie how much they follow the competition, how much they compare and analyze everything that happens in their environment and whether there is a brand or competition that is unfair or there is a threat to their work. during the research it was concluded that certain companies do not have as a department a sector that deals with crises, but if such a situation occurs they hire pr agencies. there is a divided opinion as to whether negative publicity is a risk to the company in the long run. there are opinions that negative publicity is a risk for the company in the long run if they have a strong media exposure for a long period of time because it still affects the perceptions of customers, partners, and customers. 59 some believe that negative publicity depending on the decisions made after it depending on the readiness of the company can bring positive benefits in the long run. the respondents pointed out that although it is a crisis, it is just a condition that will not pass as permanent. although it damages the companies affected in terms of reputation and image, the companies in the republic of macedonia are crisis prepared in terms of paying attention to potential risks and making analyzes, so that if such a thing happens they can work hard to avoid repeated negative publicity and pr activities to enhance the overall impression of the company. it was determined that the person responsible for public relations is the one who is competent to resolve this issue in order to be able to restore the original state of the organization, and of course by hiring pr agencies. macedonian companies generally have the view that negative publicity cannot be useful in attracting public interest because it generates a negative reputation that negatively affects the work. they agree that the pr provides better marketing results during the crisis and that it gives better results, but still in combination with marketing they can manage all the auxiliary tools together to present the information that the company wants to convey. all this with the advantage of the internet because it can accurately direct the information to the one who needs to hear / see it. it was seen what specific activities are taken during the crisis in the company, what strategy the pr develops to achieve a good relationship with the public and what is the biggest challenge during the crisis. the comparison of the macedonian market on this topic in relation to the situation outside borders as a difference is more than evident, but only in terms of the size and experience of companies, and not in the size of the country or knowledge. in general, real pr professionals have guidelines and strategies for dealing with crisis situations that are guided by world practices and literature, so that it does not lag behind other countries in the region and europe and beyond. in recent years, practice has proven that public relations actually exist precisely because of the crises of large companies. in the 21st century, it is even inevitable, without a doubt, that people or organizations have a problem and need rescue action. from all this it can be concluded that today the public is aware of the value of public relations and what that profession means for communication. marketing cannot be replaced, but it can be strengthened. of course, pr is appropriate at a time when the company does not have enough budget to promote its brand, as well as in times of crisis when it needs much more than advertising and product promotion as well as service. and because of that, among the highest paid and most respected public relations professionals are those who succeeded to manage well during fatal crisis situations. although prevention is the best way to insure an organization, crisis management is still very important. exactly because of all the communication during the crisis, and to be effective depends on the experience of the pr professional. however, every procedure is a double-edged sword and all risks should be reasonably assumed. after conducting the interviews of the professionals responsible for public relations of the companies in the republic of macedonia, as well as those interviewed by the pr agencies, until the survey that was conducted, it was proved that managing the crisis in public relations does not pose a risk to the company if you know how to use the moment to achieve the desired goal. research has also shown that no sector can be immune to crisis and poor publicity. during the interviews, many of the answers proved that communication during negative publicity is essential, especially in the business sector to prevent the collapse of the company under the influence of negative circumstances. all this has provided another proof that as a profession with its responsibilities public relations gives better results during a marketing crisis. this is due to the ability for customers and the general public to have excellent communication, and to improve it during a crisis. furthermore, with the development of technology, new opportunities and horizons for work in the field of pr services were opened. although it can carry a number of risks, such as a place for fast information flow and even uncontrolled misinformation, but still the internet is taken as an advantage and potential salvation for crisis management. with its global spread, the popularity of social media is increasing, which serves as a great tool for work. social networks such as facebook, twitter, etc., contribute to creating public opinion and an audience that receives and criticizes the work of the organization and thus are key to the success of crisis pr. given that social networks are the future of the media in general, it is of great importance to control them so that in times of crisis they can be used as an advantage to reach the consciousness of the consumer or client, and not to be a disadvantage. during the interviews, it is concluded that the media have a role of manipulators in society and for any large organization it is of great importance to maintain formal communication with media representatives and to have a special philosophy in dealing with 60 them. pr professionals must at all times know how to give feedback on anyone's question, attack, request for explanation, it is something that is inevitably a challenge to deal with during a crisis. this means that parallel management during crisis situations is enabled by the pr who must have the capacity to understand, mobilize, coordinate, with direct and strategic planning and thus achieve a good relationship with the public. the basis in public relations is exactly creating and maintaining credibility. public relations must be established to work for the common good and honesty, that is, ethical and moral work. however, what is most important regarding the issue of crisis management is the communication readiness for better economic growth. the more the crisis management sector or the public 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(2010). кризно комуницирање. универзитет за туризам и менаџмент. 32 the challenges of learning english as a foreign language in communicative approaches in higher education enes ismeti ¹ south east european university, faculty of languages, cultures and communication, enes.ismeti@hotmail.com article history: submission 06 april 2022 revision 14 july 2022 accepted 10 august 2022 available online 31 august 2022 keywords: foreign language, learning, communication, english language. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.326 a b s t r a c t the purpose of this study was to look at the difficulties students have when learning english as a foreign language in higher education. this paper reports on the results of an interview of 30 randomly selected students and four professors of the faculty of philology and english language department, respectively, at the university “ukshin hoti” prizren. it is critical to provide learners with the best possible support in terms of a helpful learning environment and adequate and meaningful language experience when learning a second language. furthermore, students of english language can work to enhance their english skills, making language teaching and learning more effective and relevant for both lecturers and students. after identifying some of the challenges in english language learning and use in higher education in the kosovar context, this study will attempt to address some of the critical issues identified and suggest some measures to deal with them more efficiently than what is currently being done. one of the first principles to consider when planning and designing english language programs is the need to identify the goals of teaching english in the sociocultural context in which the learning is taking place in no uncertain terms. finally, this research has recommended overcoming these challenges and future research. 1. introduction language is a vital communication tool. it is difficult to imagine a culture that does not use language. it sharpens people's minds and directs and governs their entire behaviors. it is responsible for advancing civilization and culture (widdowson, 1975). in the case of the mother tongue, the child learns it quickly due to its favorable environment and extensive exposure. however, learning a second language requires conscious effort; in most cases, exposure to the second language is limited (bose, 2007). learning a second language is never easy. learning english as a second language is even more difficult. (james, 1996.) english has long been recognized as a vital global language and taught as a second language in kosovo for over two decades. english is taught as a second language in all kosovar schools and is a required subject in both primary and secondary schools. from primary to tertiary education, mastery of the english language is now highly valued. as we all know, students spend approximately 12 years in the elementary and secondary school learning english, and many of them are still unable to understand the language after graduation. as a result, several factors contribute to this failure. as a result, it is critical to comprehend learners' perspectives and experiences in learning english as a second language to recognize the challenges and impediments they face in the efl classroom. weaving all that has been mentioned above, this research aims to look into the challenges students face when learning english as a foreign language. 2. literature review the characteristic of communicative language teaching is that almost everything that is done is done with the purpose of communicative intent. lindsay and knight (2006) claim that clt is not a method but an approach to teaching based on the view https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:enes.ismeti@hotmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0801-360x 33 that learning a language means learning how to communicate effectively in the world outside the classroom. in contrast to traditional methods, whose main focus was teaching the form of the language and the professor's main role in the class was that of the controller, where students were supposed to learn the forms of the language given by the professor, the main purpose of communicative language teaching is to engage the learners to negotiate meaning (pinter 2006, p.59). the professor’s main role in communicative language teaching is to facilitate learning and communication in the classroom, so in this role, his main responsibility is to create an opportunity and atmosphere for students to encourage speaking in the target language. 3. methodology the research was conducted at the university of prizren “ukshin hoti” in prizren, with four different classes and a group of four professors who teach english as a foreign language. professors' interview questionnaires aimed to determine their attitudes and how they value the use of the communicative approach in their english classes. a qualitative method was used to conduct the research by utilizing the content analysis of an interview of 30 students from the university of prizren “ukshin hoti". purposive sampling was used to select 30 first-year students from this university. the respondents were from the faculty of philology and the english language department. the interview responses were examined and classified into four categories based on the students' difficulties in learning the four language skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing). this study is a qualitative case study, as suggested by yin (2012). 3.1. research participants creswell (2013) has recommended 4 to 5 sample size for a single case study. the researcher has selected four professors and 30 english students from the faculty of philology at the university of prizren based on purposeful sampling. this purposeful technique can contribute to a better understanding of the study's key phenomenon and research problem (creswell, 2013). 3.2. research instrument the researcher has conducted semi-structured interviews, which was used to find out the attitude of the professors and students related to the learning challenges in efl when the communicative approach is used and how it can influence their learning in general and how it improves speaking proficiency. the professors' interview was done to find out which language methods and techniques they use in the class and their attitude towards the communicative approach. it contained ten questions. secondly, the students’ interview consisted of nine open-ended questions asking about obstacles in learning english as a foreign language, and there were 30 students. 3.3. data analysis according to patton (2002), qualitative researcher should constantly methodically organize their data. he also suggests that a qualitative researcher reads the transcripts numerous times to get what the respondents are saying fully. keeping all these notions in mind, the researcher followed creswell's data analysis approach (2013). the researcher has developed a table to explain, classify, and interpret data. finally, the researcher organized them into several themes described in the next section of the study's findings. 4. result this section investigates the findings of respondents' opinions on the difficulties they encountered while learning the four language skills. respondents' general thoughts, observations, learning experiences, and recommendations for professors to improve their teaching efficacy and for other students to improve their language abilities based on their personal approaches. 4.1. analyses of the professors’ interviews the first instrument used for the research is the interview with four efl professors who work at the university of prizren “ukshin hoti”, in prizren. the main aim of this interview was to find out which methods and techniques the professors use to develop learners' speaking skills and attitudes towards the communicative approach and face the learning challenges for students. results/analyses of the professors’ interview: researcher: what skills do you consider the most important when teaching english as a foreign language? why? professor 1 considers grammar the most important skill when teaching english as a foreign language. she believes that efl professors should pay special attention to enabling their students to learn the form of the language. according to her, one can communicate in the language when he is grammatically well prepared. professor 2 emphasized speaking as the most important skill. he answered that they always try to create opportunities and encourage their students to express themselves and speak as much as possible during the lesson. this does not mean that other skills are not as important as speaking, but they consider communication the final goal in teaching the language. 34 professor 3 said she focuses too much on enabling his students to learn as many new words as possible. she thinks one should first enrich his vocabulary and then try to speak and express himself. professor 4 makes his students read too much during his classes. she thinks that through reading, learners can learn many things simultaneously, such as the correct pronunciation of the words, new vocabulary, face the grammatical structure of the sentences and memorize the information, which they can use to practice speaking skills like summarizing. researcher: what activities do you use to improve speaking skills? professor 1 said that she finds interesting topics together with the students, and then they are previously prepared for the discussion in the class. they are divided into groups, one of them with pro ideas and another one with contra attitudes. professor 2 usually organizes film watching. he claimed that students enjoy watching films in class and are very much motivated to talk, comment and discuss the film. professor 3 provides students with different topics. they are supposed to prepare power point presentations and present them in front of the class. the audience should listen to it, and then the professor encourages them to discuss the topic. professor 4 said that she usually follows the instructions in the books she uses as teaching resources. there you can find interesting role-play activities that allow learners to exchange ideas in the target language. researcher: how do you react when students make mistakes while communicating? professor 1 said that she does not tolerate when the students make mistakes and immediately tries to correct them. for her, students must always bear in mind not to make grammar mistakes while speaking. professor 2 claimed that he allows his students to express their ideas and then summarizes the errors on the whiteboard. students are given extra time to discuss the errors and come back with their answers. professor 3 encourages learners to speak in the class and indirectly corrects their speaking. she considers that professors should attempt to teach different skills through real language communication and not worry too much about the eventual grammar mistakes. professor 4 said that she also immediately corrects the students when they make mistakes while speaking. researcher: how do you usually organize your classes (group, pair, individual) professor 1 answered that she prefers individual work and thinks that the professor should pay attention to each student individually, give everybody extra time, and listen to them carefully. according to her, when students learn and work alone, they are more concentrated and learn things faster. professor 2 prefers group work. he likes the lively atmosphere when there is a lot of learning noise. he emphasized that learning the language happens when students interact with each other and share their opinions and ideas. professor 3 thinks that students learn better when they cooperate with their close friends. she says that students usually feel shy to express themselves in front of more people. professor 4 prefers to give tasks to the whole class and asks students to discuss and share opinions. she says the atmosphere is unfortunately shy because students do not usually say much. researcher: what is your role as the professor when students do the communicative activity? professor 1 said that she usually gives communicative tasks to be done in groups. in this case, she only monitors how the students perform and make them realize that she, as the professor, is always there to help them. professor 2 said that he often organizes presentations with his students. it is students’ responsibility to prepare power point presentations and present them in front of classmates, and they should be careful to get the others’ attention. in this case, the professor only stays passive and monitors learning. professor 3 gives a particular activity to the students, and they cooperate while the professor waits for them to complete the tasks and then present them in front of the class. professor 4 carefully selects each student in the group and gives a specific task. she monitors their work and does not interact or interrupt them. researcher: what do you think about the communicative approach? professor 1 considered communicative activities very crucial for language learning. however, she thinks that students usually find it challenging to perform the task, and it decreases their motivation. professor 2 found the communicative approach the best method to enable students to manage speaking skills. according to him, students are happy when they produce something in the target language and enjoy the classes. professor 3 said that communicative activities are not motivating, and students hesitate to participate. in this case, only good students express their ideas and contribute to the task. moreover, she thinks that students prefer when they learn the rules of the language, and they should be exposed to real language only at higher levels. 35 professor 4 claimed that the communicative language approach enables learners to be active participants and helps them learn the language for communication. researcher: how do you increase students’ motivation? professor 1 answered that she usually organizes different games to motivate and encourage students to participate in learning. she emphasized that games are usually fun for students, and they have the opportunity to speak english while playing. professor 2 motivates students through different communicative activities. he said students are highly motivated when discussing a topic in the target language. they appreciate their language level only when they can express their ideas in english. professor 3 said her students feel very bored when learning grammar forms. in order to motivate them, she answered that she tries to teach grammar forms only through real communication and avoids the classical way of teaching grammar. professor 4 usually invites native language speakers into the class, and students have the opportunity to talk and discuss different topics. they also are faced with the original accent and pronunciation of the words. researcher: do you organize free activities outside the class to improve learners' speaking? professor 1 answered that she often organizes conversation clubs where students propose different topics and discuss them. the main aim during these meetings is to say something about the topic and not worry about grammatical mistakes since the main focus is on improving fluency. professor 2 goes out with his students once a month for a coffee, where they stay together and chat. the professor says that students are looking forward to such a meeting, and there are many opportunities for them to speak in english in a different, more relaxing atmosphere. professor 3 often goes sightseeing with the students where they have the opportunity to see many different things. during the visit, the professor plays the role of the tourist guide, so the students learn much new vocabulary. in this case, the professor makes students use english as the main language of communication. professor 4 answered that she does not use any special activities. she tries to organize the lessons based on the professor’s manuals which contain different communicative activities. researcher: what language do you use during the lesson? professor 1 said that she gives the instruction and explanation in albanian, and they use english while doing the task. she claimed that students find it very difficult to communicate in the target language. she believes that students should learn the form of the language in the classroom and be able to understand it. it is their ability how they will manage to use the language in real situations. professor 2 answered that he never uses any other language except english. moreover, he claimed that students are supposed to communicate in english. if any of the students use another language, he/she will be nicely punished. according to him, in the beginning, they have many difficulties and are usually stuck, but later they become very fluent and look forward to having english lessons. professor 3 had a similar attitude as the second professor. she uses english with her students even outside the classroom, and she added that she opened a conversation group on facebook where students chat with each other, contribute, and always say something in the group to improve the language. professor 4 answered that most of the time, he tries to explain, organize, and teach in english except when he explains or compares grammar rules. however, she complains that students usually hesitate and feel a kind of shy to participate. in fact, only outstanding students are eager to take part, while the others usually listen and are afraid to say anything because they think their language is not at a good level. researcher: how active participants are the students during the lesson? professors 1 and 2 said that they organized the lesson in a way that everybody participated equally in the classroom. the students are given a task and have enough time to complete it; afterwards, they are supposed to perform when everybody says something. professors 3 and 4 said they pretend to make their students active participants. generally, all of them contribute to the lesson and learn new things, but talkative students are usually more dominant. 4.2. students’ findings the second instrument used for the research is the interview with 30 efl students who study at the university of prizren “ukshin hoti” in prizren. this section examines the findings of respondents' opinions on the difficulties they had while learning the four language skills. respondents' general opinions, remarks, learning experiences, and recommendations for teachers to improve their teaching efficacy and for other students to improve their language abilities based on their personal approaches have been provided. 36 4.2.1. students’ language learning challenges this part presents the findings from the respondents' perspectives on the challenges they faced in learning the four language abilities to speak, listening, reading, and writing. speaking challenges encountered by the first year english language department students table 1. speaking challenges and explanations among the students of english total respondents challenges explanations 20 respondents they were hesitant to speak english with their professors and peers inside and outside the classroom. • afraid of making grammatical errors. • embarrassed by their limited linguistic skills. • had a negative physical reaction (smirk and pout). • speaking stutteringly or hesitantly. 5 respondents they were self-conscious about their ability to communicate. • preliminary negative assumptions about proficient speakers' attitudes toward them, such as that they are not intelligent, incompetent, or dull. 5 respondents difficulty communicating in a fluent manner. in their conversations, they mixed various languages with english. • unacquainted with several words in english. listening challenges encountered by the first year english language department students table 2. listening challenges, explanations and effects among the students of english total respondents challenges reasons effects 20 respondents • they were unable to comprehend what their lecturers were saying properly. • the lecturers spoke too quickly. • uncertainty about the meaning of words. • misunderstood the intent and instructions of their lecturers. • responded incorrectly or did not respond at all. 37 6 respondents • inability to follow part of a conversation or discussion with their classmates. • unable to remember a specific word from a radio conversation. • unacquainted with the themes of dialogue or debate. • the speaker used idioms that were difficult to understand. • speakers were asked for clarification. 4 respondents • during conversation, unfamiliar with connotations and denotations of certain words. • uncertain on how to respond or reply to the speakers. • unwilling to ask speakers to repeat or explain specific words. reading challenges encountered by the first year english language department students table 3. reading challenges, explanations and effects among the students of english total respondents challenges reasons effects 16 respondents • unable to comprehend passages and language completely. • many new terms were encountered. • reading comprehension and fluency were hampered. 14 respondents • reading passages and text took a long time. • came across with many unfamiliar words. • english and bilingual dictionaries were frequently used. 38 writing challenges encountered by the first year english language department students table 4. writing challenges and explanations among the students of english total respondents challenges reasons 25 respondents • writing an essay took a longer time. • unacquainted with the subject matter. pre-writing stage • having concerns coming up with ideas for essay outlines. writing stage: • used simple english to form sentences mentally. • using english and bilingual dictionaries as well as an internet translator on a regular basis. revising stage: • to guarantee that sentences and paragraphs were structured logically and consistently. • to ensure grammatically acceptable and understandable language. 5 respondents • faced difficulties in writing academic essays. • synthesis, paraphrasing, and citation of several sources were required. • not being exposed to academic writing in primary and secondary school. 4.2.2. students’ general view and comments on english language teaching and learning this section presents the results of the respondents' opinions, suggestions and remarks on english language teaching and learning, specifically their professors' teaching methods. 39 professors’ teaching approach table 5. students’ views on professors’ teaching approach total respondents views 27 respondents • disagreed with lecturers who insisted on using only english in class. 3 respondents • lessons from professors were not interactive. student’s suggestions to improve the teaching and learning of english table 6. students’ suggestions to improve the teaching and learning of english total respondents suggestions 4 respondents • when mentoring and instructing students be more patient. 18 respondents • lessons should be more innovative and not solely based on textbooks. 4 respondents • during lessons, lecturers should offer new vocabulary. students’ suggestions to improve speaking and listening skills table 7. students’ suggestions to improve speaking and listening skills total respondents views 20 respondents • use skype, facebook, snapchat, or messenger to communicate with native english speakers or friends who have an excellent command of the language. • watch english documentaries and films. • before giving a presentation, practice speaking in front of a small group. • practice speaking english with lecturers and friends on a regular basis. 40 students’ suggestions to improve writing skills table 8. students’ suggestions to improve writing skill s total respondents suggestions benefits 15 respondents every day, practice writing. when mentoring and instructing students, professors should be more patient. • instruct students on how to express themselves verbally. • instruct students how to use effective language and appropriate word selections. • use dictionaries and other means of learning to learn new vocabulary and synonyms. students’ suggestions to improve reading skills table 9. students’ suggestions to improve reading skills total respondents suggestions benefits 25 respondents • read the news in english, journal articles, story books and magazines. • newspapers deal with a wide range of subjects and issues. • assist students with speaking and writing exercises by providing materials. 5. conclusions the main goal of this research was to shed light on whether the communicative language teaching has an effect on enhancing speaking skills and overthrowing learning challenges in english as a foreign language. from the results, we have found out that the main aim was to find out the professors’ attitudes towards the communicative approach, what skill was the most important for them in their teaching and how they organize their classes. unfortunately, half of the professors still organize their teaching in a traditional way, focusing too much on grammar skills and believing that language can be learned only if the students know the form of the words. such professors also value reading and organize the lessons in a frontal way where everybody equally reads and says in the class. luckily, some professors believe they should enable their students to communicate in the target language. they teach the language based on communicative language principles. for example, they give students opportunities to express themselves either in pairs or in groups, students are highly motivated, there is a lively atmosphere in their classroom, they discuss actual and exciting topics, and they do not worry too much about grammar mistakes, but instead value students' fluency. moreover, to prove this, three research questions were raised. the first research question was how does the communicative approach affect improving speaking skills? based on the outcomes of the study, it can be determined that while teaching the language, professors use different methods and techniques to achieve as better results as possible. since speaking is one of the most important skills, we tried to analyze whether the communicative approach positively affects it. based on the 41 students' questionnaire results, we have assumed that they enjoy learning when their professors organize different communicative activities and make them work in groups. on the other hand, learners feel bored when professors use the traditional way of teaching and pay too much attention to grammar. when professors organized the lesson based on the principles of the communicative approach, the students were active participants and contributed to the task. whereas, during the classes, which were done in the traditional way, students did not enjoy them and did not have the opportunity to cooperate and use real language. the next research question was how communicative language teaching increases learners’ motivation. based on the findings, it may be concluded that professors should always bear in mind that learners’ motivation is very important for continued learning. therefore, professors should carefully plan and organize the lessons, which will enable learners' real language use and enjoyment while learning to keep them motivated and eager to learn. the research shows that learners are very motivated when professors organize communicative activities, such as presentations, discussions, and role-plays. those lessons are very productive, and much communication happens. based on professors' interviews, we have seen that professors in higher education use different methods and techniques. they are divided into two: the ones who organize their teaching more in the traditional way and those who pay more attention to improving students' communication. some professors used a lot of communicative activities and claimed that learners enjoy the lessons and achieve tremendous results, especially in their speaking abilities. on the contrary, some professors used more grammar-oriented lessons and complained that learners usually feel bored and not so much interested while learning. it was revealed that teaching speaking skills is a vital part of english language learning. the ability to interact and communicate in the english language undoubtedly and professionally contributes to the student's success in school and each phase of life later. furthermore, students' interviews were an attempt to investigate the challenges of learning english as a foreign language (efl) to first-year university students in the faculty of philology (kosovo). the researcher discovered that learners are having difficulties in their efl classrooms after conducting semistructured interviews. this research has provided solutions for dealing with these issues. 6. conclusions english is a global language that must be learned by many, and speaking is one of the skills that requires a great deal of practice to acquire. by improving students' speaking ability, many opportunities will be created for them. learners will have the chance to perform speaking activities in the contexts of everyday life, and the societal and cultural norms properly in every communicative occurrence. evidence gathered from the research shows that efl professors share a positive attitude towards the use of clt in overthrowing learning difficulties in efl learning, specifically in speaking skills. they consider the usage of clt as an essential component of language learning. by bringing clt into the english language classes, students will be more courageous and willing to learn the english language since their preferences are considered and appropriately esteemed. moreover, this research proved that if we effectuate the use of clt in efl classes, it will benefit the students to learn the lesson's content. therefore, if students hope to advance in the english language, it is essential to improve their oral production and communication skills in english by participating in clt activities inside and outside the classroom. in this manner, they can enhance their speaking ability and communication skills by listening to media and seeking more opportunities to speak english in real situations. the findings of the earlier studies mentioned support the issue of teaching strategies. as a result, it becomes visible that teaching should constantly change, adapting to learners' needs. as learners progress, so do their difficulties in achieving higher levels of intellectuality and proficiency. considering the discussion of strategies and techniques regarding english language acquisition may lead to better expectations and teaching and learning. the implementation of these methods would improve learning quality and teaching effectiveness. references 1. al asmari, a. a. (2015). communicative language teaching in efl university context: challenges for professors. journal of language teaching and research, 6(5), 976-984. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0605.09 2. bose, m.n.k. (2007). a text book of english language teaching (elt) for indian students (2ed.). chennai: new century book house. 3. brown, d. 2007. teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. new york: pearson education. 4. burstall, c. (1975). "factors affecting foreignlanguage learning: a consideration of some relevant research findings". language teaching and linguistics abstracts 8,105125. 5. cameron, l. (2001). teaching languages to young learners. edinburgh, uk: cambridge university press. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0605.09 42 6. celce-murcia, m. (2001). teaching english as a second or foreign language. 3rd edition, heinle & heinle publisher, boston. 7. celce-murcia, mariana (2001). teaching english as a second or foreign language. thompson learning, united states of america 8. creswell, j. w. (2012). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). boston, ma: pearson. 9. dobson, j. (2005). effective techniques for english conversation groups. united state information agency 10. efrizal, d. (2012). improving students’ speaking through communicative language teaching method, 20(2) retrieved from: http://www.ijhsnet.com/journals/vol_2_no_20_speci al_issue_october_2012/12.pdf 11. gibbs, g. & jenkins, a. (1992). teaching large classes in higher education: how to maintain quality with reduced resources. kogan page, london. 12. harmer, j. 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(2017). difficulties faced by college student in speaking englisha sociological reflection, international journal of trend in research and development, 4(3), pp. 435436. 21. taylor, l. (2006). the changing landscape of english implications for language assessment. elt journal, 60, 51-60 22. urr, p. (1996). a course in language teaching: practice and theory. edinburgh, uk: cambridge university press. 23. widdowson, h. (1975). the teaching of english as communication. cambridge university press, england, united kingdom. 24. willson, j. &. (2012). the link between english language proficiency and academic performance. a pedagogical perspective in tanzanian secondary schools. world journal of english language (2), 110. 25. wu, k. h. (2010). the relationship between language learners’ anxiety and learning strategy in the clt classrooms. international education studies, 3(1), 174-191. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v3n1p174 http://www.ijhsnet.com/journals/vol_2_no_20_special_issue_october_2012/12.pdf http://www.ijhsnet.com/journals/vol_2_no_20_special_issue_october_2012/12.pdf https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v3n1p174 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 12 investor’s behavior towards dividend paying out firms prof. ass. muhammad usman kemal assistant professor iqra university islamabad usmankemal@iqraisb.edu.pk prof. ass. sadaf kashif assistant professor iqra university islamabad sadaf.kashif@iqraisb.edu.pk abstract purpose: the purpose of doing this research is to examine to see the behavior of investors towards the dividend payouts. it also helps the firms to target their investors according to their demographics and investors behavior as well. methodology: purposive sampling technique is used to collect the data of 75 investors. out of the total of 75 responses, 66 responses are used for the analysis purpose because 9 are categorized themselves as noninvestors in the stock market. among all the investors of stock market, 82 percent of the respondents are male while 18 percent are females. cross tabulation technique is used to see the behavior of investors towards the dividend payouts. findings: the results of the research supporting the fact that investors love to receive a dividend regular or irregular basis and whether it is in the form of cash or a share. the behavior of investors toward the firm who provide dividends are strong and they also trust those firms who are acting so as well. investors also believe that the firms providing high dividend are less risky firms and another reason they are providing high dividends is due to their higher growth and they wanted to share the profit with their shareholders as well. practical implications/originality/value: the research is very much practical in nature and it will help the investors towards the dividend payout of their stocks. moreover, this research is giving us a path to analyze which age group is interested in investing in a stock and their reasons of investing in a stock as well. limitations: the data in our research is too less and we cannot generalize to other countries but it gives a direction about the behavior of an investor while investing in a stock market. keywords: investors’ behavior, dividend, payout, stock market, pakistan stock exchange mailto:usmankemal@iqraisb.edu.pk mailto:sadaf.kashif@iqraisb.edu.pk 13 1. introduction dividend refers to a bonus in the form of cash, reinvestment or otherwise, that a company gives to its shareholders. the decision of giving a dividend and how frequently and how much it will be given is decided by the board of directors of the firm and it also requires the shareholders’ approval. it is a type of a profile which a firm share with its shareholders (the economic times, 2018). there are several advantages of paying dividends to their investors. the investors always try to invest in a firm which pays dividend on a regular basis. even if the market is not performing well, dividend helps the investors to get some earning on a frequent basis. the announcement of dividend payment gives a strong signal about the future prospect of the firm and a firm can do publicity to get extra advantage from that (efinancemanagement.com, 2018). firms may have policy of paying regular dividend or occasionally. the decision is based on certain outcomes such as uncertainty of earnings, unsuccessful business operations, lack of liquid resources and fear of adverse effects of dividends on the financial standing of the company (rajendran & nedelea, 2017). in this research, we want to see that if investors are interested in dividend paying firms or otherwise. in addition to that we are also interested in looking at the decision making of investors with respect to experience of investor. 1.1. identification of problem firms are announcing dividend payout on regular and otherwise and few firms do not pay the dividend. the problem we have identify is the influence of dividend payout on the behavior of an investor. 1.2. purpose statement the purpose of doing this research is to examine to see the behavior of investors towards the dividend payouts. it also helps the firms to target their investors according to their demographics and investors behavior as well. 1.3. objectives the objective of this research is to examine the behavior of an investor on a dividend payout. 1.4. research question • what is the impact of dividend payout on the behavior of an investor? 1.5. assumption we are assuming that there are two types of firms listed in a stock market. those who pays dividends according to their dividend policy and on a regular basis and second, those firms who pay the dividends irregularly and do not pay. 14 1.6. limitation to get a survey filled from the investor is a difficult job as the data of the investor’s is not readily available and brokerage houses are willing to provide an information of their investors due to security and privacy concern. to get the data, frequent visits to stock market and brokerage houses are required and which is very time consuming job. this leads to a big limitation of the research study. 1.7. significance the results of the study will help the investors to select the stock which provides the dividend of regular/irregular basis and also helps the firms to target their investors according to their demographics and otherwise. 2. literature review dividends, one of the important factor when we talk about when an investor wants to invest in a stock and they also look for the dividend-paying stocks which pays the dividend on a regular basis (baker & wurgler, 2004). in general, investors like dividends because they treat it as a bonus. previous studies identify that investors like to receive the same amount of dividends or growth in a dividend over time. tse (2005) suggests that dividends are given to investors to show the continuous growth in the firm and also show its future prospects. dividend payout patterns have been examined in some international business context and managers’ behavioral aspects. lintner (1956) conducted interviews of different managers of companies found out that before announcing a dividend, managers first decide whether to change the level of dividend given to shareholders. managers do change the level of dividend by reducing or increasing the dividend only if it is required. this shows that managers setup the dividend policy first and later they adjust other cashrelated decisions to the chosen dividend level. there are researchers who examine payout levels e.g. fama and babiak (1968); brav, grahama, harvey and michaely (2005); aivazian, booth, and cleary (2006); khan (2006), who not only talked about previous researches but also quoted lintner (1956) which is still the baseline model for both dividends and total payout. results of the researchers supported the views of lintner (1956) that managers prefer paying a stable dividend and are reluctant to increase dividends to a level that the firm cannot sustain. abor and bokpin (2010) investigate the effects of investment opportunities and corporate finance on dividend payout policy. they have found that there is a significantly negative relationship between investment opportunity set and dividend payout policy. various measures of corporate finance i.e. financial leverage, external financing and debt maturity has no effect on dividend payout policy. there are few other important variables which influences dividend payout policy such as profitability and stock market capitalization. profitable firms usually support and give high dividend payments to their shareholders but well developed firms usually pay low dividends. palmer (1994) in his research focus on the behavior of individual investors and their views on a dividend. the focus of the study was on private investors in which a survey of 280 private investors were collected and concluded that private investors are of the opinion that dividends do effect the value of share and the dividends are the safer form of income which an investor can earn without any fear on a regular interval. the behavior of investors is best described by lintner (1956) on a dividend policy where they believe that dividends are the safest form of income and it also effect the value of a share as well. 15 dong, robinson and veld (2003) tried to answer the question of why individual investors want dividends is investigated. with the help of a questionnaire, they got the responses from the respondents indicating that investors want dividends mainly because the transaction costs of cashing in dividends are lower than the transaction costs involved in selling shares. the behavioral finance theory of shefrin and statman (1984) is not confirmed for cash dividends but is confirmed for stock dividends. finally, our results indicate that individual investors do not tend to consume a large part of their dividends. this raises some doubt on the effectiveness of the elimination of dividend taxes in order to stimulate the economy. this also implies that individual investor may not look at the dividend paying firms. dividend paying on share is one the most important and significant topic of behavioral finance. dewri, islam and arifuzzaman (2015) attempted to fill the gap and find out the perceptions of investors in developing as well as developed countries. they conducted a survey of 250 investors from bangladesh according to stratified random sampling. the research support that there is negative association between stipulate for dividend paying stocks and investors demographic attributes in the bangladesh capital market. they have revealed that the managers of stock do not consider the expectations of investors while paying the dividend but investors always focus on the stock providing dividends on a regular basis. aroni, namusonge and sakwa (2014) conducted a research in kenya to see the effect of dividend payout on investment in shares by applying the behavioral finance theory. with a collection of data of 311 respondents from the investors of nairobi security exchange, they have find out that there is a significant influence on decisions to invest in shares. the finding of the research suggested and recommended policy makers to enhance make structure strategies aiming to increase profitability and consequently guarantee dividend payout to bolster investor confidence. akhtar, hunjra, andleeb and butt (2012) also emphasizes on a strong preference for dividends among investors. the main objective of conduction a research is to find the behavior of investors whether they want dividend in the form of cash or a stock. the findings of the research were quite mixed and it shows that investors want dividends and preferably in the form of cash and others want in the form of stock as well but at least they want a dividend. ahmad (2017) in their research on determining the factors that influence individual investor behavior in the pakistani financial market by conducting a survey of 102 investors. the study finds out two factors influences the investors behavior are influence of family members and religious factors. other than that dividend also influences the decision making of an investor. jory, thanh and hamid (2017) also talked about the large and stable firms and their policy on dividend payout ratio and they also agree that large and stable firms do favor dividends to their investors. they also added that the presence of pressure sensitive institutional investors (i.e. investors that also hol d business ties with the investee firm) is significantly linked to dividend payout policy. conversely, pressure-insensitive investors use alternative forms of monitoring instead of requiring investee firms to pay dividends, which serve to reduce agency conflicts. 16 3. research design the answer the research questions, there was a need to develop or adopt/adapt a questionnaire. so the questionnaire was developed to get the responses from the investors of pakistan stock exchange (psx). the questionnaire includes some dichotomous questions as well as likert scale questions to get clear picture of the behavior of investors towards the dividends. purposive sampling strategy was used to collected the responses from the investors. we visited brokerage houses and islamabad stock exchange building to get the required information. however, we also floated online questionnaires to get the responses from the investors of stock. out of the total of 75 responses, 66 responses are used for the analysis purpose because 9 are categorized themselves as noninvestors in the stock market. among all the investors of stock market, 82 percent of the respondents are male while 18 percent are females. moreover, most of the investor respondents belong to middle age group, i.e., between 26-45, which shows the age bias of the analysis. since we do not have prior information of age distribution of investors, thus we cannot measure the actual bias of the sample, if there is any. male 82% female 18% sample gender wise 0 5 10 15 20 25 18-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 65 plus sample age dsitribution 3. 1 sample age distribution 17 4. data analysis 4. 1 gender * would you invest in a stock paying a dividend? would you invest in a stock paying a dividend? total regular basis irregular basis gender male 36 18 54 female 6 6 12 total 42 24 66 the above table in a cross tabulation between the gender and the investors who want a dividend on a regular or irregular basis. the data shows that out of the total responses from males, 66% of the males want a dividend on regular basis according of the dividend policy defined by the firm. but females on the other hand having mixed response as 50% of them agree to receive the dividend on regular and irregular basis. 4. 2 age * would you invest in a stock paying a dividend? would you invest in a stock paying a dividend? total regular basis irregular basis age 18-25 8 2 10 26-35 12 9 21 36-45 7 10 17 46-55 6 3 9 56-65 3 0 3 65 plus 6 0 6 total 42 24 66 the above table talks about the cross tabulation between an age and dividend payment pattern and out of all the responses, approx. 64% of the people wants a dividend on regular basis out of which 57% are of the age between 26 to 35. almost 59% of the investors of the age between 36 to 45 said that they can afford to get a dividend irregularly. investors above 56 years old loves to get a dividend on regular basis and the reason of having this pattern is due to an extra income they can enjoy after their retirement. 18 4. 3 education * would you invest in a stock paying a dividend? would you invest in a stock paying a dividend? total regular basis irregular basis education graduate 21 12 33 post graduate 12 12 24 other degree 9 0 9 total 42 24 66 the above table is about the cross tabulation between dividend payout pattern and the education level of the investors. the table shows that only graduate and above level are investing in a stock which is something new and was never tested before. 64% of the investors who are graduated to doing their graduation wants a dividend on a regular basis and those who are having phd of other degrees only want a dividend regularly. 4. 4 what is your current job status? * would you invest in a stock paying a dividend? would you invest in a stock paying a dividend? total regular basis irregular basis what is your current job status? student 6 0 6 self-employed 15 3 18 govt. employed 8 10 18 pvt. job 7 11 18 others 6 0 6 total 42 24 66 the above cross tabulation table shows the current job status of the investors and their behavior todays payout dividend. the data shows that students and other investors including house wives wants a dividend on regular basis. approximately 60% of the private and government jobbers can afford to get a dividend on irregular basis. 83% of the investors who are running their own business or are self-employed want a dividend on a regular basis. 4. 5 what is your income level other than investing in stocks? * would you invest in a stock paying a dividend? would you invest in a stock paying a dividend? total regular basis irregular basis what is your income level other than investing in stocks? less than 40,000 3 12 15 41,000-80,000 12 3 15 81,000-100,000 8 3 11 101,000-150,000 3 0 3 150,000 plus 16 6 22 total 42 24 66 19 the above table talks about the cross tabulation between the income level of the investor and the dividend pattern. 80% of the investors from the income level between rs. 41,000 to 80,000 are of the opinion to get a dividend on a regular basis. investors having income of less than rs. 40,000 a month can afford to get a dividend on irregular basis which is quite surprising. 4. 6 when did you start investing in stocks * would you invest in a stock paying a dividend? would you invest in a stock paying a dividend? total regular basis irregular basis when did you start investing in stocks 1990 2 0 2 1993 1 0 1 1994 2 0 2 1997 1 0 1 1998 4 0 4 2005 2 0 2 2006 0 3 3 2007 1 0 1 2008 2 0 2 2010 3 0 3 2011 0 3 3 2012 0 3 3 2013 3 3 6 2014 3 3 6 2015 12 0 12 2016 0 7 7 2017 6 2 8 total 42 24 66 the above table talks about the investors’ dividend pattern and the start of investment year and the data shows that almost 70% of the respondent started their investment in a stock market after 2010. one of the reasons is the information technology which is helping the investors to sit back and invest from anywhere and no need to visit the stock exchange anymore. 4. 7 gender * would you like to invest in a dividend paying stock? would you like to invest in a dividend paying stock? total yes no not necessary gender male 40 5 9 54 female 8 4 0 12 total 48 9 9 66 the above table shows the cross tabulation between the gender and investors behavioral pattern about investing in a dividend paying stock or not. the result shows that approximately 75% of the males and 66% of the females wants to invest in a stock which pays dividend. 20 4. 8 age * would you like to invest in a dividend paying stock? would you like to invest in a dividend paying stock? total yes no not necessary age 18-25 7 0 3 10 26-35 18 3 0 21 36-45 11 3 3 17 46-55 3 3 3 9 56-65 3 0 0 3 65 plus 6 0 0 6 total 48 9 9 66 approximately 73% investors want a dividend and that is one of the reason they invest in a stock. investors of the age 56 and above invest in a stock due to an extra income and so they want a dividend. 4. 9 what is your current status? * would you like to invest in a dividend paying stock? would you like to invest in a dividend paying stock? total yes no not necessary what is your current status? student 3 0 3 6 self-employed 15 0 3 18 govt. employed 11 5 2 18 pvt. job 13 4 1 18 others 6 0 0 6 total 48 9 9 66 the above table shows the cross tabulation between the job status and investors behavior towards dividend payout and the result shows that students, self-employed, and those who are retired or house wives want a dividend and that is why they have invested in a stock. 4. 10 gender * investing in dividend paying stock is preferable investing in dividend paying stock is preferable total strongly disagree disagree neutral agree strongly agree gender male 0 5 15 24 10 54 female 3 1 6 0 2 12 total 3 6 21 24 12 66 the above table shows the cross tabulation between the behavior of gender towards the investment towards dividend paying stock and the result shows that majority of the males as well as the females agree with the statement that they prefer to invest in a dividend paying stock. 21 4. 11 age * investing in dividend paying stock is preferable investing in dividend paying stock is preferable total strongly disagree disagree neutral agree strongly agree age 18-25 0 0 0 8 2 10 26-35 0 3 15 3 0 21 36-45 0 3 0 10 4 17 46-55 3 0 6 0 0 9 56-65 0 0 0 3 0 3 65 plus 0 0 0 0 6 6 total 3 6 21 24 12 66 the table showing the results of the cross tabulation between the age of the investors and investing in a dividend paying stock and the result showing that only the age group between 46 to 55 not agreeing with a statement about their behavior towards investing in a dividend paying stock but result of the age groups prefers to invest in a dividend paying stock. 4. 12 what is your current status? * investing in dividend paying stock is preferable investing in dividend paying stock is preferable total sd disagree neutral agree sa what is your current status? student 0 0 0 6 0 6 self-employed 0 0 9 3 6 18 govt. employed 3 2 3 10 0 18 pvt. job 0 4 9 5 0 18 others 0 0 0 0 6 6 total 3 6 21 24 12 66 the above table talks about the job status of the investors and their behavior towards dividend payout. approximately half of the respondents including students, businessmen, government/private employees and retired/house wives agree that they want to invest in a firm paying dividends. 4. 13 gender * shares that pay relatively higher dividends are less risky. shares that pay relatively higher dividends are less risky. total disagree neutral agree strongly agree gender male 9 15 20 10 54 female 3 3 4 2 12 total 12 18 24 12 66 the above table talks about the gender and their relation with the behavior on shares paying higher the dividend are less risky. the result shows that more than 50% males are of the opinion that the 22 statement is true, on the other hand 50% of the females believe that the statement is true and rest of the females are confused or didn’t care about the riskiness of the shares. 4. 14 age * shares that pay relatively higher dividends are less risky. shares that pay relatively higher dividends are less risky. total disagree neutral agree strongly agree age 18-25 0 3 4 3 10 26-35 9 3 9 0 21 36-45 3 3 8 3 17 46-55 0 6 3 0 9 56-65 0 3 0 0 3 65 plus 0 0 0 6 6 total 12 18 24 12 66 the above table shows the cross tabulation between the age and firm who are paying higher dividend on their shares are less risky stocks. only less than 43% of the investors of the age bracket between 26 to 35 agree with this statement and rest of the age brackets mostly agree that firms are less risky and doing better if they pays higher the dividend which also shows their stability in the market. 4. 15 what is your current status? * shares that pay relatively higher dividends are less risky. shares that pay relatively higher dividends are less risky. total disagree neutral agree sa what is your current status? student 0 3 0 3 6 self-employed 3 0 15 0 18 govt. employed 3 8 4 3 18 pvt. job 6 7 5 0 18 others 0 0 0 6 6 total 12 18 24 12 66 the above table shows the results of the relationship between the current job status and the shares paying higher prices with having the level of riskiness. the result shows that only government and private job holders are somewhat disagreeing and are of the opinion that firms are paying higher dividends because of their riskiness and wanted to attach with their shareholders. 23 4. 16 gender * do you think that dividend-paying stocks offer more certainty about the companies’ future earnings perspectives compared to stocks that do not pay dividends? do you think that dividend-paying stocks offer more certainty about the companies’ future earnings perspectives compared to stocks that do not pay dividends? total sd disagree neutral agree sa gender male 5 3 20 19 7 54 female 1 0 4 5 2 12 total 6 3 24 24 9 66 almost 15% of the males and 8% of the females disagree with the statement that dividend paying stocks offer more certainty about the companies’ future earnings perspective compared to the stocks that do not pay dividends. that shows the level of trust towards their invested stock. 4. 17 gender * do you buy dividend-paying stocks because these companies generate real earnings and are less likely to “cook the books” do you buy dividend-paying stocks because these companies generate real earnings and are less likely to “cook the books” total sd disagree neutral agree strongly agree gender male 8 3 5 34 4 54 female 1 0 7 2 2 12 total 9 3 12 36 6 66 again in the cross tabulation between the gender and about the trust of firm towards their shareholder, approximately 20% of the males and 8% females disagree and supporting the argument that they do buy the shares of those firms which generate real earnings and are also less likely to do illegal acts. 5. conclusion in the research, our objective was to see how the dividends are changing the behavior of the investors in respect gender, age, job education, their interest towards receiving dividend on regular or irregular basis, level of risk they are taking, image of the firm and their trust. to answer all these questions, we have used cross tabulation to see the relationship among these variables. furthermore, we have used a sample of those investors who have/had actually invested in a stock market and/or having at least a know-how of dividends as well. the results of the research supporting the fact that investors love to receive a dividend regular or irregular basis and whether it is in the form of cash or a share. the behavior of investors toward the firm who provide dividends are strong and they also trust those firms who are acting so as well. investors also believe that the firms providing high dividend are less risky firms and another reason they are providing high dividends is due to their higher growth and they wanted to share the profit with their shareholders as well. our analysis also shows that females are also investing in a stock and their main reason of the invest is to receive a dividend every now and then. there are few aged and retired people in the sample who make the investment in a stock market due to an extra money they can generate due to dividends. our results also show that in the last once decade or so, more people are into stock investment and on inquiry we got to know that it is due to the availability of the information and resources provided to the investors 24 as well as the easiness provided to investors so they can invest in a stock even while sitting back at home or other places and even from a mobile phone. 6. recommendations it is recommended that to attract the investors, firms should provide dividend on regular/irregular basis to see the behavioral shift in the investors. investors wants to invest and if everyone loves to get an extra money so firms should focus on the age bracket between 25 to 45, as these investors are young and also wants to play with a stock. if the firm provides them a dividend, investors will feel the firm is less risky and it will also encourage other investors to invest in their stock. in the future research, it is recommended to focus on more investors and add more variables like dividend policy and investors’ sentiments to see how the firms providing dividends to their investors. are they actually following the policy or not and if they are not following, what are the reasons of doing so? the data in our research is too less and we cannot generalize our conclusion but it gives a direction about the behavior of an investor while investing in a stock market. 25 7. references abor, j., & bokpin, g. a. (2010). investment opportunities, corporate finance, and dividend payout policy: evidence from emerging markets. studies in economics and finance, 27(3), 180194. ahmad, s. (2017). factors influencing individual investors’ behavior: an empirical study of pakistan financial markets. journal of business & financial affairs, 4(6), 1-8. aivazian, v. a., booth, l., & cleary, s. (2006). dividend smoothing and debt ratings. the journal of financial and quantitative analysis, 41(2), 439-453. akhtar, m. n., hunjra, a. i., andleeb, a., & butt, b. z. (2012). individual investors perception of dividends: pakistan's perspective. actual problems of economiics, 2(4), 193-199. aroni, j., namusonge, g., & sakwa, m. (2014). influence of dividend payout on investment in shares a survey of retail investors in kenya. international journal of business and social science, 5(5(1)), 155-163. baker, m., & wurgler, j. (2004). a catering theory of dividends. the journal of finance, lix(3), 1125-1165. brav, a., grahama, j. r., harvey, c. r., & michaely, r. (2005). payout policy in the 21st century. journal of financial economics, 77(3), 483-527. dewri, l. v., islam, m. r., & arifuzzaman, s. m. (2015). behavioral analysis of investors’ attitude towards dividend declaration in developing country–a case of bangladesh. international journal of business and management, 10(11), 185-198. dong, m., robinson, c., & veld, c. h. (2003). why individual investors want dividends. 200328. efinancemanagement.com. (2018). retrieved from dividends – forms, advantages and disadvantages: https://efinancemanagement.com/dividend-decisions/dividends-formsadvantages-and-disadvantages fama, e. f., & babiak, h. (1968). dividend policy: an empirical analysis. journal of the american statistical association, 63(324), 1132-1161. jory, s. r., thanh, n., & hamid, s. (2017). institutional ownership stability and dividend payout policy. managerial finance, 43(10), 1170-1188. khan, t. (2006). company dividends and ownership structure: evidence from uk panel data. the economic journal, 116(510), c172-c189. lintner, j. (1956). distribution of incomes of corporations among dividends, retained earnings, and taxes. american economic association, 46(2), 97-113. palmer, c. d. (1994). dividend policy and private shareholders: a new zealand survey. university of canterbury. rajendran, m. a., & nedelea, a.-m. (2017). ethiopian companies of corporate finance: overwhelming the profit. ecoforum, 6(1(10)). 26 shefrin, h. m., & statman, m. (1984). explaining investor preference for cash dividends. journal of financial economics, 13, 253-282. the economic times. (2018). retrieved from definition of dividend | what is dividend ? dividend meaning the economic times: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/dividend tse, c.‐b. (2005). use dividends to signal or not: an examination of the uk dividend pay out patterns. managerial finance, 31(4), 12-33. investor’s behavior towards dividend paying out firms 1. introduction 1.1. identification of problem 1.2. purpose statement 1.3. objectives 1.4. research question 1.5. assumption 1.6. limitation 1.7. significance 2. literature review 3. research design 4. data analysis 5. conclusion 6. recommendations 7. references prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 1 the impact of remittances on households: the case with residents of the prizren region kujtim hameli istanbul university, republic of turkey kujtim.hameli@ogr.iu.edu.tr qëndrim bytyqi faculty of economics university of prizren “ukshin hoti” qendrimbytyqi077@gmail.com abstract remittances are an important source of external funding. they have a positive impact, both at the microeconomic level, like for the welfare of the household, and at the macroeconomic level, like in the growth of the domestic economy. remittances are current transfers in cash or in other forms or money received by resident households from non-resident households. the purpose of this paper is to discover the impact of remittances on the welfare of the household in the prizren region. for this reason, an online questionnaire with 160 participants was conducted by selecting the non-random sampling method. according to the results obtained, remittances play an important role in the households of the prizren region because most of these remittances are used for food consumption, education and clothing. at the end of hypothesis testing it is found that there is an important relationship between the residence and the frequency of receiving remittances, and people living in both, urban and rural areas receive remittance in different frequencies. however, no significant relationship has been found between the gender and frequency of receiving remittances. the research mainly has a descriptive nature of the effect of remittances on households. key words: remittances, impact, household, receiving, role jel code: d1, e2, i13 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 2 introduction the phenomenon of migration is widespread in every country. kosovo has experienced migration of the population abroad throughout the history, both in turkey at the time of the ottoman empire and in the west, in the post-war and modern times. consequently, a considerable amount of remittances stems from these families. migration can have positive and/or negative impacts, both in the short and long term. on one hand, migration can lead to higher living standards and educational and wellbeing standards improvement. on the other hand, when groups of educated people leave the developing countries, there is a significant human capital loss. this is known as "brain drain", as can be seen in some developing countries where their highly skilled workers move out of their countries. this can be seen as a lost opportunity since developing countries have limited spending on education and training (ahmed et al., 2010). remittances are incomes that come from abroad. these incomes are also called personal transfers. thus, the international monetary fund committee refers to personal transfers as current transfers in cash or in other forms or cash received by resident families or other non-resident families (imf, 2006). personal transfers include all current transfers from resident to non-resident households, regardless of sender’s income sources (such as wages and salaries, social benefits or any other transfer, including transfers from a non-receivable person); relationships between families (either between relative or nonrelative persons); the purpose for which the transfer is made (whether inheritance, a fixed monthly amount, lottery, etc.) (alvieri and havinga, 2006). 1. literature review international remittances have become a very important source globally in recent years. remittances are perhaps the largest source of external financing in developing countries (maimbo and ratha, 2005). the flow of remittances is less affected by the economic downturn and remains a sustainable source of incomes. remittances are identified as the third pillar of development, as their volume is the second for foreign direct investments and higher than aid for overseas development (alvieri and havinga, 2006). household spending reflects family preferences for consumption and family characteristics are very important to understand how revenue between different types of goods is shared (randazzo and piracha, 2014). the country's disposable income level increases as remittances go directly from immigrants to their family or friends (third-party remittances) (salomone, 2006). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 3 migrant transfers play an important role in developing countries. it is important to understand how family members accept and perceive them. randazzo and piracha (2014) emphasize that international remittances have a strong effect on household expenditure behavior: they are used for food, consuming and sustainable goods, and education. however, those who accept international remittances are inclined to spend less on food and more on sustainable goods, education and investment. medina and cardona (2010) have found that remittances have a positive impact on education and that families who received remittances spent 10% more on total spending on education compared to households that did not accept remittances. at the same time, remittances have important effects on the living standards of eligible households and that they have higher standards of living compared to nonremittance families. borici and davoci (2015), in their research found that albanian families involved in different economic activities are more likely to be economically independent and do not need greater support on remittances. however, families with large numbers of women receive remittances as they are considered as a strong protective weapon of their well-being. household members of different ages have a different impact on the presence of remittances. while families with younger members, 18-65 years old, represent an active participatory force in economic life, they have a negative impact on receiving remittances. whereas, older-age members, over 65 years old seem to be heavily dependent on receiving potential remittances. similar results have also wadood and hossain (2016) found that women are more likely to receive remittances comparing with men and that this result depends on the fact that comparing to the past when men were head of households, now females are head of households in the absence of migrant males. the age of the head of the family also positively affected the probability of receiving remittances. ahmed et al. (2010) conclude that the average incomes of a migrant family in pakistan are 17.3% higher than a non-migrant family. the share of remittances in total incomes increases as the household moves to a higher income group. remittances also contribute more to the incomes of rural households than to urban household incomes. regional characteristics also had a significant impact on the migration pattern and consequently remittance flows in pakistan. wadood and hossain (2016) have also found that families in rural areas are more likely to accept remitancas compared to those in urban areas. there is a positive correlation between remittances and food spending, and households receiving remittance suffer less from poverty. these families spend more on health spending than those who do not receive, but there is found no difference in education (wadood and hossain, 2016). muktarbek et al. (2015) claim that remittances in the kyrgyz republic are about one third of gdp, their volumes are larger than foreign direct investment and foreign aid. remittances increase the share of prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 4 expenditures on durable goods, human capital investments (healthcare and education costs), construction and celebrations. at the same time, remittances reduce the share of spending on food and public services. the effect of remittances is statistically significant for constructions, celebrations and durable goods. the increase in the share of remittances from total household incomes leads to an increase of 0.3 percent in the share of construction spending. families receiving remittances share less spending on food and public services, but spend more on construction, durable goods and celebrations. incaltarau and maha (2012) confirm the contribution of remittances to rising consumption and investment in the family. moreover, the relationship between remittances and investments is even stronger than that between remittances and household consumption. research of parinduri and thangavelu (2011) emphasizes another aspect of remittances. they have sought the impact of remittances on the development of the human capital of children in household incomes in indonesia and have found that remittances have an impact on continuing education. however, recently, remittances have been influenced by the weak economic growth in europe, the russian federation and the gcc countries (cyclical factors), as well as exchange controls, burdened regulations and anti-migration policies in many countries (structural factors). remittances, especially in south asia and central asia, have been affected by low oil prices and poor economic growth in russia and the gcc countries. poor growth in europe has also been influenced by flows in north africa and sub-saharan africa. the weakening of the euro, the british pound and the ruble against the us dollar further highlighted the fall in remittances in us dollar terms. the flows of remittances in the region of europe and central asia (eca) marked a significant decline for the third consecutive year; these rates have fallen by 30 percent since 2013. latin america and the caribbean (lac) were the only region that recorded a growth (6.9 percent) in remittances, supported by strengthening employment rates in the united states (world bank group, 2017). 2. remittances in kosovo kosovo as well as any other developing country has a considerable number of its citizens living in developed countries (mainly in the european union). given the high number of unemployed people in kosovo, from the 1990s onwards, there have been remittances that have provided the living conditions for many of kosovo's citizens. thanks to these funds coming from abroad for the citizens of the republic of kosovo has been provided a better life wellbeing, which subsequently contributed to the development of the economy at a general level in kosovo. emigrants from kosovo have migrated mainly to european union countries because of the most developed economic level and the highest standard of living. based prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 5 on the reports released by the cbk, it emerges that over the years kosovo only from migrants who live abroad has received millions of euros of money used for different needs (cbk, 2013). remittances in kosovo have increased by 12,7% in january 2016, according to data from central bank of kosovo. kosovar migrants usually choose money transfer operators to send money to friends or relatives at home. the inflow of remittances to foreign emigrants in kosovo has reached 691 million euros in 2016, compared to 665.5 million euros in 2015. out of the total of 665.5 million euros, 148.4 million euros have been sent by kosovans living in germany and 90.5 million euro from those living in switzerland (insajder, 2017). remittances in kosovo have reached 759.2 million euros in 2017 and marked an annual growth of 9.9 percent (bqk, 2017). remittance flows help alleviate negative shocks in the country and consequently their withdrawal in kosovo should be prioritized by the relevant authorities. kosovar emigrants are characterized by altruistic motives and tend to send more remittances to their family members in kosovo when their financial situation deteriorates (bujupi, 2018). 3. the case with the residents of the prizren region the purpose of this research is to identify the importance of remittances to households for residents of the prizren region. using secondary data, a questionnaire has been applied to residents from prizren region through the convenient sampling. the questionnaire has been performed online using google forms and the link is left opened between 11 to 21 april 2018. a total of 160 questionnaries has been collected for analyses. hypotheses: h1: there is an important relationship between gender and the freuquency of receiving remittances. h2: there is an important relationship between residence and the frequency of receiving remittances. 3.1. data analyses and results 3.1.1. demographic characteristics of research participants the table 1 gives the descriptive frequencies of research participants. from 160 participants, the research consists of 71,3% of males and 28,7% females. 50% belong to 21-40 years old interval and 32,5% to <20 years old. most of the participants, 54,4% have a bachelor degree. 59,4% of participants live in rural areas and 40,6% live in urban areas. 66,9% of participants are single. personal incomes distributions are different, but mostly of them, 30,6% have over 400 euro personal income and 23,1% have 201-300 euro personal incomes. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 6 table 1. frequency distributions question frequency percent gender male 114 71.3 female 46 28.7 < 20 52 32.5 age 21-40 years old 80 50.0 41-60 years old 25 15.6 over 60 years old 3 1.9 primary school 13 8.1 education high school 44 27.5 bachelor 87 54.4 master and phd 16 10 residence urban 65 40.6 rural 95 59.4 single 107 66.9 status married 46 28.7 divorced and widow 7 4.4 0-100 euro 33 20.6 101-200 euro 21 13.1 personal incomes 201-300 euro 37 23.1 301-400 euro 20 12.5 over 400 euro 49 30.6 3.1.2. frequency distributions related to remittance receiving the table 2 describes the frequencies related to remittance receiving. it can be noted that most of the remittances, 38,8% come from germany, 26.3% from swiss and 14,4% from italy. most of the participants, 31,3% receive remittances every month. however, the distributions for other frequencies of receiving remittances are very similar. the received amount is less than 500 euro (52,5%). 45,6% of emigrants send money in cash, however, 35,6% send money through bank. according to the spending resource, most of the participants, 70% use remittances for food consumption, 51,2% for education and 50% for clothing. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 7 table 2: frequencies related to remittance receiving question frequency percent germany 62 38.8 switzerland 42 26.3 origin of remittances italy 23 14.4 usa 6 3.8 austria 5 3.1 other (15 countries) 22 13.6 every month 50 31.3 frequency of receiving every quarter 38 23.8 remittances every six month 41 25.6 once per year 31 19.4 less than 500 euro 84 52.5 amount of remittances 501-1000 euro 51 31.9 received 1001-1500 euro 10 6.3 1501-2000 euro 7 4.4 more than 2000 euro 8 5.0 cash 73 45.6 bank 57 35.6 remittances receiving money transfer agencies 23 14.4 channel debit/credit card 1 0.6 post 1 0.6 goods 5 3.1 choose all that apply question food consumption 112 70.0 education 82 51.2 resource of remittance clothing 80 50.0 using health 68 42.5 car 32 20.0 property 19 11.9 furniture 16 10 3.1.3. the relationship between demographic characteristics and remittances h1: there is an important relationship between gender and the frequency of receiving remittances. chi square value: 4.079; df: 3; sig. .253 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 8 to test this hypothesis the chi-square test of independence has been performed. a crosstabulation has ben extracted between gender and the frequency of receiving remittances. however, there is found no statistitcal relationship between gender and the frequency of receiving remittances. the chi square value is 4,079 and the significance level is 0,253. as a result, the h1 hypothesis has been rejected. h2: there is an important relationship between residence and the frequency of receiving remittances. chi square value: 10.141; df: 3; sig.017 residence * the frequency of receiving remittances crosstabulation the frequency of receiving remittances total every month every quarter every six months once per year residence urban count 21 17 9 18 65 expected count 20.3 15.4 16.7 12.6 65.0 rural count 29 21 32 13 95 expected count 29.7 22.6 24.3 18.4 95.0 total count 50 38 41 31 160 expected count 50.0 38.0 41.0 31.0 160.0 to test the relationship between residence and the frequency of receiving remittances, the chi-square of independence has been performed. the chi square value is 10,141 and this value is significant at the 0,017 significance level. to check this relationship, a crosstabulation between these two variables has been used. it can be seen different distributions of people from urban and rural areas in receiving remittances. we cannot say if most of the urban area participants receive every month remittances since distributions for other frequencies are almost similar. however, the number of participants receiving remittances every six month is lower. participant living in rural areas have as well as different distributions. but, opposite to urban participants, here, the numbers of participants receiving remittances every six month and every month are the highest. we can conclude that there’s a significant relationship between residence and the frequency of receiving remittances. hence, the h2 hypothesis has been accepted. conclusion and further discussion remittances are an important tool of financing from abroad. the aim of this paper was to gain a general frame of remittance receiving of people from prizren region. using an online questionnaire, we have tried to measure the overall degree of remittances in prizren region. the questionnaire has been applied to 160 participants. as it was in relation with the research of cbk, most of the remittances come from germany prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 9 and switzerland. most of the participants receive remittances every month or at least every quarter. the amount they receive is under 500 euro, however, a considerable number receive remittances 501-1000 euro. they receive this money mainly in cash and through bank. they use remittances mostly for food consumption, education and clothes. besides this, we wanted to test if there is any significance relationship between gender and frequency of receiving remittances, as borici and gavoci have found in albania, and wadood and hossain in pakistan. generally, people working overseas leave their wifes in home and they send money to them. this way, we wanted to see this effect. further more, we wanted to check if females (mostly single females here) having no job, receive more remittances from their relatives comparing to males, who are more likely to have a job. nevertheless, there were found no important relationship between gender and the frequency of receiving remittances. this also can be a result of the low number of female participants according to the male participants. the paper has also searched for relationship between residence and the frequency of receiving remittances. as there are different distributions in receiving remittances according to the time frequency, we can conclude that people in rural areas receive more remittances than people in urban area. we can say this also from personal observations. people in rural areas have their relatives abroad and they send money to household, while the people of urban areas are more apt to find a job in their city, with less need for a job abroad. ahmet et. al (2010) and wadood and hossain (2016) have found that there’s a relationship between residence and the frequency of accepting remittances. they state that people in rural areas are more apt to receive remittances than people in urban areas. however, the results from the research show different distributions for both, rural and urban areas. furthermore, it can be searched if there’s any statistical relationship between age groups and the frequency of receiving remittances, as borici and gavoci (2015) have found that older people receive more remittances according to younger people. we can make comparisons between albanians of albania and albanians of kosovo to see how different behave people in receiving remittances. to do this, we need to raise the sample of older people, as there are no significant relationships due to the actual sample size. references: ahmed, v., sugiyarto, g.,; jha, sh., (2010), “remittances and household welfare: a case study in pakistan”, adb economics working paper series, no. 194 alfieri, a. and havinga, i. (2006), “issue paper: definition of remittances”, united nations, department of economic and social affairs statistics division prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 10 borici, a. and gavoci, m. (2015), “the impact of remittances on households’ well-being: evidence from albania”, international journal of economics, commerce and management, vol. iii, issue 11, issn: 2348 0386 kadrijaj, gj. and masar, b. (2013), “analizë mbi mënyrat të dërgimit të remitancave në kosovë”, banka qendrore e republikës së kosovës, departamenti i sistemit të pagesave bqk (2017), “vlerësimi tremujor i ekonomisë”, nr. 21, tremujori iv/2017 bujupi, e. (2018), “përcaktuesit makroekonomikë të remitencave në kosovë: analizë me të dhëna panel”, banka qendrore e republikës së kosovës, departamenti i sistemit të pagesave imf comittee on balance of payment statistics (2006), “definitions of remittances”, prepared by united nations, germany incaltarau, c, and maha, l. (2012), “the impact of remittances on consumption and investment in romania”, eastern journal of european studies, vol. 3, issue 2 kurtuluş, k. (2010), “araştırma yöntemleri”, türkmen kitabevi maimbo, s. m., and ratha, d. (2005), “remittances: development impact and future prospects”, the world bank medina, c., and cardona, l. (2010), “the effects of remittances on household consumption, education attendance and living standards: the case of colombia”, lecturas de economia, no. 72, medellin muktarbek, a., seyitov, t., jenish, n. (2015), “remittances and expenditure patterns of households in the kyrgyz republic” economic research center of the national bank of the kyrgyz republic udc 336.1(575.2)(04) parinduri, r.,; thangavelu, sh. (2011), “impact of remittances on human capital development of children in indonesian household” randazzo, t., and piracha, m. (2014), “remittances and household expenditure behaviour in senegal”, iza discussion paper, no. 8106, germany solomone s. (2006), “remittances. overview of the existing literature”, florence school on euromediterranean migration and development”, european university institute, florence, italy wadood, s. n., and hossain, a, (2016), “microeconomic impact of remittance on household welfare: evidence from bangladesh”, conference: sanem annual economists’ conference 2016, “bangladesh: way towards a middle income country” insajderi http://www.insajderi.com/rriten-remitancat-e-huaja-ne-kosove/ date of access 03-04-2018 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 11 references: 1 perception and use of contraceptives among women in farming households of rural oyo chuks onyeka idiaye ¹* isaac busayo oluwatayo ² taiwo oluwaseun disu ³ ¹ university of ibadan, faculty of agriculture, department of agricultural economics, chuksidiaye@yahoo.com *correspondent author. 2 university of venda, department of agricultural economics and agribusiness, isaacoluwatayo@yahoo.com 3 university of ibadan, faculty of agriculture, department of agricultural economics, taiwodisu2@gmail.com article history: submission 12 august 2021 revision 10 october 2021 accepted 05 december 2021 available online 31 december 2021 keywords: contraception, farming households, nigeria, perception, rural area. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.267 a b s t r a c t the objective of this study was to investigate the extent and perception of contraceptive use among women from farming households in oyo state, nigeria. descriptive statistics were used in profiling the socioeconomic characteristics of respondents, a multinomial logistic model was used to estimate the determinants of contraceptive usage, while the likert scale was used to measure their perception towards the use of contraceptives. a total of 150 women were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. the results obtained indicated that while only 27% of the women were aware of contraceptives, 23% of them had used them. cost was the most important consideration among the women for choosing a method as indicated by 41% of them. further, among those who had not used any contraceptive, traditional and religious beliefs were their major considerations. the regression analysis showed formal education to be a significant factor (at α0.05) that increased the probability of women embracing contraception. perception towards contraceptives among women in rural oyo state, nigeria was seen to be generally positive, although convenience of the methods (mean score 1.49) and side effects (means score 1.35) were considered to be drawbacks. it was recommended that more awareness needed to be created on birth control along with the introduction of modern methods of contraception with fewer side effects. also, family planning interventions in nigeria should be made context-specific and culturally appealing so as to increase their acceptability in rural farming communities. 1. introduction developing countries often experience huge population growth that is partly attributable to high birth rates coupled with lowered death rates along with low adoption of contraception (oyedokun, 2007). sub-saharan africa (ssa) has one of the highest population growth rates in the world at 2.8% (usaid/hpi, 2007). specifically, ethiopia has a fertility rate of 5.4 births per woman (ethiopia demographic and health survey, 2005; population reference bureau, 2007) while it is 7births per women in niger and5.3in nigeria (ndhs 2018). high population growth puts enormous pressure on health, education and other public goods and infrastructure and as such can be an impediment in the reduction of child mortality, improvement of maternal health, attainment of universal primary education, environmental sustainability and combating hiv/aids, malaria and other diseases as part of the sustainable development goals (sdg) (health policy initiative, 2007). furthermore, highly populated societies are known to experience endemic poverty, inadequate education and large families that affect access to basic health services including family planning. womenfolk in rural areas show the highest levels of unmet needs for family planning, estimated at 33 per cent as against only 17 per cent in higher income groups (usaid/hpi, 2007). globally, birth control is employed as a way of addressing the reproductive health needs of society, as well as mitigating population explosion (shrestha et al., 2000). birth control is a practice by which a couple determine the spacing of births https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:chuksidiaye@yahoo.com mailto:isaacoluwatayo@yahoo.com mailto:taiwodisu2@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.267 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7217-6457 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3032-4220 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1587-0848 2 through the use of contraception. it is estimated that over 200 million women in developing countries desire to delay pregnancy or stop childbearing entirely, however they often use traditional methods of contraception which have proven to be less successful or use none at all due to lack of access or barriers to their use of contraception (westoff, 2012). the global increase in the use of contraceptives has afforded families the opportunity to choose the number and spacing of their children with attendant lifesaving advantages. however, despite the obvious merits, contraception and other modern family planning methods are still poorly adopted in the world’s poorest and most populous societies. the significance of providing birth control, while recognizing the rights of individuals to make informed choices, is considered part of a wide-ranging set of services needed to fill the reproductive health needs of individuals and tackle more expansive development issues (westoff and cross, 2006). there, however, still exists a gap between the understanding and adoption of contraceptive use (charles and ann 2000). insufficient understanding of family planning methods as well as incomplete or wrong information about their use or where to obtain them are some of the major factors responsible for the low acceptance of family planning in many developing countries including nigeria (gilliam et al., 2004; onwudiegwu 2002; orji and castle, 2003). according to ndhs 2018, only 17% of married women of reproductive age use contraceptives in nigeria. the united nations estimate that nigeria will attain a population of about 440 million persons by the end of the year 2050 making nigeria globally the third most populated nation. therefore, for its current per capita income to be maintained, economic output from agriculture and industry along with healthcare delivery and the provision of other social services would be required to double across the next 30 years. these estimates mean that rapidly increasing population would continue to be a matter of paramount concern for nigeria for the foreseeable future. currently nigeria has the largest population of any country in africa, with more than 160 million people, at an annual population growth rate of 3% and a fertility rate of 5.7 lifetime births per woman (ndhs, 2018). within the rural population, the growth rate was 1.31 as at 2011. these rural areas are usually characterized by high poverty levels, low levels of education and large household sizes. since rural women are often less educated than their urban counterparts, often resulting in deficient knowledge of family planning services, the adoption of contraception is expected to be low relative to national estimates of 46 per cent. it is pertinent to note, however, that any potential reduction in population growth rate in nigeria (and sub-saharan africa) will be based largely on the balance between the demand for smaller families and the supply of birth control technology (ndhs, 2018) especially in the rural areas. as a consequence of this and other major demographic and health concerns, a national population policy was effected which was designed to achieve a reduction in the birth rate through voluntary birth control methods attuned to the nation’s economic and social goals. among the methods propagated under this policy were mass media campaigns. studies have shown that exposure to a mass media family planning campaigns increases contraceptive use among households (odimegwu et al, 1997; westoff and rodriguez, 1995). overall, 20 per cent of currently married women have inadequate access to family planning 15 per cent to child-spacing and 5 percent to child-limiting. it has been opined that were this gap to be bridged, the rate of contraceptive use for any of the methods would increase from 15 to 35 per cent and there would be an improvement in their welfare status in nigeria (ndhs, 2018). according to world bank (2003), the adoption of family planning services is a critical subject for a developing nation which nigeria is. thus, family planning advocacy in countries like nigeria with high birth rates especially in the rural areas has the capacity to reduce poverty and enhance their welfare status. this will contribute greatly to the empowerment of womenfolk, attainment of universal primary education and long term environmental sustainability (daar, 2017). hawkins et al. (1995) showed that family planning services confer many economic advantages to households, the country and the world at large. further, family planning contributes to reduction in population growth, poverty reduction, welfare improvement and preservation of the environment as well as reducing demand for public goods and services (rele et al., 2019). this paper therefore sought to investigate the extent, perception and determinants of contraceptive use among rural women from farming households in ido local government area of oyo state, nigeria. 2. methodology 2.1. the study area this study was conducted in ido local government area of oyo state. oyo state is an inland state in south-western nigeria with its capital at ibadan. it is bounded by kwara state in the north, in the east by osun state, in the south by ogun state and in the west partly by ogun state and partly by the republic of benin. ido local government area of oyo state has an area of 986 square kilometres and a population of 103,261 according to the 2006 population and housing census. 3 2.2. data collection/sampling procedure respondents were obtained through a random selection of farming households within the lga. structured questionnaires were administered on the wives in each household. a sample size of 150 respondents was used. data collection started in december 2015 and was concluded in march 2016. 2.3. methods of data analysis descriptive statistics were used in profiling the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents as well as their contraceptive awareness and use. a multinomial logistic regression was estimated to examine the determinants of rural women’s choice of contraceptive usage. this method has the advantage of permitting regression against more than two categories of the dependent variable, thereby allowing the determination of choice probabilities for each category (gujarati, 2004; deressa et al, 2009). given a dependent variable i y representing the decision of a respondent to use (or otherwise) contraception (where i = 1, 2, . . . j), the multinomial logistic model used incorporates three categories of the dependent variable: (i) those who have used contraception and never stopped (ii) those who have used contraception and stopped and (iii) those who have never used contraception. on the other hand, the vector x is a set of explanatory variables which influence the choice made ( i y ). the model, therefore estimates the effects of changes in the covariates of x on the response probabilities as follows:                    h h k i exp exp y   x x x 1 1 j p where k  represents the coefficients of the covariates of x to be estimated (where k = 1 . . . j) the explanatory variables included in the model are: x1 = age of the respondent (in years) x2 = religion of the respondent (christian = 1, 0 = muslim) x3 = household size (in number) x4 = number of years of formal education (in years) x5 = number of years of formal education of partner (in years) x6 = number of female children 17years or younger in the household (in numbers) x7 = number of male children 17years or younger in the household (in numbers) x8 = primary occupation in agriculture (yes = 1, 0 otherwise) x9 = social group membership of the respondent (yes = 1, 0 otherwise) the likert scale was used to measure the perception of the respondents regarding the use of contraceptives. it was measured by asking the respondents to rate in qualitative terms their perception using a four point likert type scale ranging from “very satisfied” (3), “satisfied” (2), “fairly satisfied” (1) to “not satisfied” (0). the mean satisfaction level was obtained by adding the likert scale points (i.e. 0+1+2+3) to obtain a score of 6 which was divided by four to get a mean score of 1.5. the respondents’ mean score was obtained on each index of contraceptive use measured. any index with a mean score greater than or equal to 1.5 was regarded as satisfactory while one with a mean score less than 1.5 was considered to be unsatisfactory. 2.4. limitations of the study a few challenges were encountered while collecting data for this study including the following:  outright refusal of some potential respondents to be interviewed, thereby limiting the sample size.  unwillingness of some of the rural women to disclose information regarding contraception which they considered too personal.  limited funds, given the fact that the study was entirely self-sponsored. 3. results and discussion 3.1. socio-economic characteristics of respondents table 1 shows that 96% of the rural women surveyed were 49years of age or below with a mean age of 34 years. this showed that the women farmers in the study area were mostly within their child-bearing years. also, most of them (90.7%) were married and had some form of formal education (60%).education can influence rural women’s use, as well as choice, of contraceptives and also determine their understanding of the various methods available. on the average, the respondents had 4.6 years of formal education. households in the study area were modest, with an average of 5 persons per household. furthermore, farming was the primary occupation of most (83.3%) of the sampled women, while 34% of them practised mixed farming. most (90.0%) of the respondents did not belong to any social groups which could be a factor in their level of contraceptive adoption as information can be passed across via social groups 4 table 1. socioeconomic characteristics of rural women (n=150) socioeconomic characteristic percentage socioeconomic characteristic percentage socioeconomic characteristic percentage age household size do you belong to any social group 20 – 29 29.3 2 – 4 36 yes 10 30 – 39 46.7 5 – 7 57.3 no 90 40 – 49 20.0 8 – 10 4 level of monthly food expenditure 50 – 59 4.0 11 – 13 2.7 less than or equal to n1,000 18 mean = 34.4, standard deviation = 7.3 mean = 5.3, standard deviation = 1.8 n1,001 – n5,000 39.3 marital status number of males n5,001 – n10,000 18.7 single 1.3 1 – 3 80.7 greater than n10,000 24 married 90.7 4 – 6 14.7 level of monthly non-food expenditure divorced 4.7 7 – 9 3.3 less than or equal to n1,000 27.3 widowed 3.3 number of females n1,001 – n5,000 36.7 level of education 1 – 3 79.6 n5,001 – n10,000 19.3 no formal education 40 4 – 6 20.4 greater than n10,000 16.7 primary 36.7 is farming your primary occupation? secondary 23.3 yes 83.3 number of years of formal education no 16.7 1 – 4 17.9 if yes, what type of farming 5 – 8 61.5 crop farming 29.3 9 – 12 19.2 livestock farming 28.4 13 – 16 1.4 mixed farming 38.0 mean = 4.6, standard deviation = 3.9 others 4.3 source: authors’ computation from survey data 3.2. awareness and usage of contraceptives methods table 2 reveals that 27% of the respondents had knowledge of contraceptives while 73% had never heard about them. of the 41 respondents who were aware of contraceptives, most (68.3%) indicated that abstinence, condoms and withdrawal were the available methods they knew about. the table further revealed that mass media (television, newspapers and radio) were the main source of information about contraceptives for the respondents (60%) while health centres were also an important source of information (24%). most of the respondents (77.3%) had not used some form of contraception while 22.7% had. similarly, oyeadeniran et al., (2006) showed good knowledge and awareness did not always translate to a high prevalence of use of contraception. the use of condoms (41%) was the most common method among the respondents who employed contraception. this finding is similar to that of abiodun and balogun (2009) who also found that the use of condoms was the most commonly employed method of contraception (69%) in ilorin, kwara state. furthermore, the decision on which method of contraception to use was mainly based on the low cost of the method as indicated by 41% of the women interviewed, while partner’s decision was the second most important consideration (30%) and 41% of the women had even had to stop the use of contraception at some point due to their partner’s perception. over 75% of the women interviewed who had never used contraception cited traditional or religious beliefs as their reasons for not using any method. table 2. awareness and use of contraceptive methods frequency percentage have you ever heard of contraceptive methods (n=150) yes 41 27.2 no 109 72.8 available methods known (n=41) oral, condom, withdrawal 11 26.8 abstinence, condom, withdrawal 28 68.3 oral, abstinence, implant 1 2.4 oral, abstinence, condom 1 2.4 sources of information about methods (n=41) health centres 10 24 television 9 21.9 newspaper 8 18.4 radio 8 20.1 5 friends/family 6 15.6 have you ever used any contraceptive method (n=150) yes 34 22.7 no 116 77.3 methods used (n=34) oral drugs 3 8 withdrawal 12 36 uterine implant 2 6.7 condom 14 41.3 withdrawal, condom 3 8 why did you choose the method (n=34) it is cheap 14 40.9 few side effects 7 20.4 partner’s decision 10 29.9 others 3 8.8 have you ever had any reason to stop using this method (n=34) method is too expensive 5 14.6 i experienced health problems 13 38.7 partner didn’t like the method 14 40.7 no reason 2 6 reason for non – usage (n=116) methods have side effects 27 23.3 tradition/religious beliefs 89 76.7 source: authors’ computation from survey data 3.3. determinants of contraceptive usage the results of the multinomial logistic regression model on the determinants of contraceptive usage are presented in table 3. respondents that used contraceptives but stopped are the base category. the results revealed that formal education of a respondent was positively and significantly related to the continuous usage of contraception, implying that the more educated the respondents were, the more likely they were to continuously use contraception. this can be connected to their increased awareness of the benefits of contraception due to their education as opined by gidado (2012). similar positive relationships between contraceptive usage and educational attainment were found by kaggwa et al., (2008). contrary to common opinion, the results in table 3 showed that religion is not a significant determinant of contraceptive usage among the rural women. also, those with more female children, 17 years of age or younger were more likely to never use contraception. this is not surprising given the fact that past studies in nigeria has shown that women are less likely to use contraceptives during their early reproductive years as depicted in the study by ebigbola and ogunjuyigbe (1998) and oyedokun (2007). table 3. determinants of contraceptive usage explanatory variables used and never stopped (p-value) never used (p-value) marginal effects age -0.376 (0.490) 0.0149 (0.814) 0.004 religion -0.120 (0.926) -1.494 (0.361) -0.068 household size 0.0953 (0.776) -0.227 (0.427) 0.008 formal education 0.337** -0.184 0.029 6 (0.010) (0.297) formal education of partner -0.222** (0.036) 0.081 (0.608) -0.019 number of female children (≤17years) 0.118 (0.787) -0.434 (0.412) 0.011 number of male children (≤17years ) 0.442788 (0.932) 0.701* (0.098) -0.000 primary occupation -0.002 (0.999) 0.330 (0.772) -0.002 social group membership 1.550 (0.279) 1.891 (0.148) 0.121 choice of usage -0.242 (0.725) 16.81 (0.990) -0.117 constant -2.275 (0.381) -18.588 (0.988) log likelihood -67.362 pseudo r square 0.233 l-r chi square 41.46 number of observations 150 base category used and stopped using source: authors’ computation from survey data note: **means significant at 5% level; *means significant at 10% level; ( ) means standard error 3.4. perception of the use of contraceptive methods table 4 shows that the respondents were satisfied with most of the indices of contraceptive usage. the result indicated that the rural women interviewed were only dissatisfied with the level of convenience of the use of contraceptives as well as the side effects some of them experienced. the role of community health workers in creating awareness on birth control received the highest mean score (2.22), indicating that there were marked efforts being made to spread awareness on contraception in the area. also, the respondents generally agreed that the use of contraceptives was effective in birth control as indicated by its high mean score (2.03). these results imply that, overall, rural women could be said to be positively disposed to contraception. table 4. perception of respondents of the use of contraceptive methods s/n indices of contraceptive use mean score 1. level of convenience 1.49 2. few side effects 1.35 3. birth control efficacy 2.04* 4. accessibility to contraceptive methods 1.95* 5. providers’ attitude 1.91* 6. level of confidence in the use of the methods 1.80* 7. cost of getting the methods 2.01* 8. professional competence of the provider 1.89* 9. role of community health workers in creating awareness on birth control 2.22* source: authors’ computation from survey data * indicates mean scores greater than the likert scale mean (1.5) 4. conclusions and recommendations this study has revealed that, although the level of contraceptive usage among rural women from farming households in oyo state, nigeria is relatively low, the general perception towards it, among those who have used it, is positive and this can be attributed largely to the efforts of community health workers in spreading awareness of the benefits of contraception as well as the cheap sources of contraceptives made accessible to rural women. also, education of women can significantly increase the likelihood that they will accept contraception. however, more efforts are still needed to change the perception of most rural families on contraception as these still hold on to traditional beliefs and customs which forbid its use. based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made: 7 more awareness should be created by the governments at the state and local government levels on birth control measures especially through mass media which has been shown in this study to be the most important source of information on contraception. studies such as abiodun et al (2009) and oye-adeniran et al (2000) have shown that mass media is a good means to disseminate information on contraception in order to create more awareness. this becomes even more important given the fact that, as both studies showed, efforts in this regard in nigeria have not yet translated into strong prevalence of use of contraception. rather, there has been a high level of sexual activity corresponding with a low contraceptive prevalence with the average age of sexual debut in many studies ranging between 12 and 20 years, with a mean age of 16 years (oye – adeniran et al., 2005, okpani et al., 2000). more modern methods of contraception with fewer side effects such as subcutaneous implants can be introduced to rural women so as to reduce or eliminate biases against contraceptive use which are based on the side effects of other methods. umoh and abah (2011) similarly revealed that fear of side effects and previous side effects experienced were among the major factors that caused unwillingness to use contraception among in southsouth nigeria. family planning interventions in nigeria should also be made context-specific and culturally appealing so as to increase their acceptability among rural communities. as etokidem et al (2017) showed, cultural factors play a major role in the decision of households to use (or not) contraceptives. therefore, birth control education can be incorporated into farming programed/schemes targeted at rural farming communities in order to increase their appeal so as to ensure greater uptake of family planning. references 1. abiodun, o.m., & balogun, o.r. 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(2017). family planning practices of rural community dwellers in cross river state, nigeria. nigeria journal of clinical practice, 2017; 20: 707-15. https://doi.org/10.4103/njcp.njcp_193_15 8. gidado, o.s. (2012). community and individual level factors influencing modern contraceptive use among married women of reproductive age group (15-49) in nigeria. thesis, faculty of public health, university of ibadan. available at: https://library.adhl.africa/handle/123456789/12176 9. gilliam ml, warden m, goldstein c & tapia b (2004). concerns about contraceptive side effects among young latinas: a focus group approach. contraception, 70(4):299-305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2004.04.013 10. gujarati, d.n. (2004). basic econometrics, 4th edition, usa: mcgraw−hill companies, 2004. 11. hawkins j, matteson ps and tabeek es (1995), a fertility control in fogel, ci and nwoods (eds.), a comprehensive handbook. london, uk, sage publishers, inc. https://doi.org/10.2147/oajc.s94826 12. health policy initiatives (hpi), task order 1 (2007). inequalities in the use of family planning and reproductive health services: implications for policies and programs, inequities and barriers to family planning services, washington d.c. microsoft word https://doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2008.08.002 https://doi.org/10.2307/2947843 https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.12987/yale/9780300137156.001.0001/upso-9780300137156-chapter-1 https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.12987/yale/9780300137156.001.0001/upso-9780300137156-chapter-1 https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.12987/yale/9780300137156.001.0001/upso-9780300137156-chapter-1 https://doi.org/10.4103/njcp.njcp_193_15 https://library.adhl.africa/handle/123456789/12176 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2004.04.013 https://doi.org/10.2147/oajc.s94826 8 inequalities in use of family planning final 2-8-07 bw.doc (healthpolicyplus.com). 13. kaggwa, e.b., diop, n., & storey, j.d. (2008). the role of individual and community normative factors: a multilevel analysis of contraceptive use among women in union in mali. international family planning perspectives, 32(2): 79-88. https://doi.org/10.1363/3407908 14. nigeria demographic and health survey, ndhs (2018). national population commission, abuja, nigeria. nigeria demographic and health survey 2018 summary report [sr264] (dhsprogram.com). 15. odimegwu, c.o., ojo, m., & amd-siyangande, a. (1997). regional correlates of choice of contraceptive methods in nigeria. korea journal of population and development, 26(1):131-145. available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43783497 16. orji, e.o., & onwudiegwu, u. (2002). prevalence and determinants of contraceptive practice in a defined nigerian population. journal of obstetrics gynecology, 22(5):5403. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144361021000003126 17. oyedokun, a.o. (2007). determinants of contraceptive usage: lessons from women in osun. asia-pacific population journal, 6(1):25-38. 18. oye-adeniran, b.a., adewole, i.f., umoh, a.v., oladokun, a., ghadegsin, a., ekanem, e.e., yusuf, b., odeyemi, k.a., iwere, n., & mahmoud, p. (2006). community-based study of contraceptive behaviour in nigeria. afr j reprod health, 10(2):90-104. pmid: 17217121. 19. rele, j, r., kapoor, p.n., & khan, m.e. (2019). determinants and consequences of contraceptive method choice in india. choosing a contraceptive, 191–211. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429042881-10 20. shrestha, a., stoeckel, j., & tuladhar, j.m. (2000). the kap-gap in nepal: reasons for non-use of contraception among couples with an unmet need for family planning. asia-pacific population journal, 6(1), 25-38. https://doi.org/10.18356/1b0f170f-en 21. umoh, a.v., & abah, m.g. (2011). contraception awareness and practice among antenatal attendees in uyo, nigeria. pan african medical journal, 10(53). https://doi.org/10.5455/gmj-30-45779 22. usaid/hpi (2007). achieving equity for the poor in kenya, 2007. achieving equity for the poor in kenya: health policy initiative (yumpu.com) 23. westoff, c., & cross, a. (2006). the stall in the fertility transition in kenya, dhs analytical. the dhs program the stall in the fertility transition in kenya (english). 24. westoff, c.f. (2012). unmet need for modern contraceptive methods–dhs analytical studies 28. unmet need for modern contraceptive methods [as28] (dhsprogram.com). 25. westoff, c.f., & rodriguez, g. (1995). the mass media and family planning in kenya. international family planning perspectives, 21(1), 26 – 31. https://doi.org/10.2307/2133602 https://doi.org/10.1363/3407908 https://www.jstor.org/stable/43783497 https://doi.org/10.1080/0144361021000003126 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429042881-10 https://doi.org/10.18356/1b0f170f-en https://doi.org/10.5455/gmj-30-45779 https://doi.org/10.2307/2133602 97 criminal law reform toward deprivation of property resulting from corruption criminal acts: a criminological perspective yogi yasa wedha ¹* edy nurcahyo 2 ¹ udayana university denpasar, faculty of law, doctoral study program, yogie_wedha@yahoo.com *correspondent author. 2 udayana university denpasar, faculty of law, doctoral study program, cahyonur3dy@gmail.com article history: submission 10 october 2020 revision 23 january 2021 accepted 27 february 2021 available online 30 april 2021 keywords: legal reform, the deprivation of properties, corruption, criminology. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i1.207 a b s t r a c t criminal law reform is part of criminal law policy and is closely related to law enforcement policies, criminal policies and social policies. one of the forms of national legal development reform is the reform of the criminal justice system (spp) which is an integral part of a sub-system, namely legal substance, legal structure, and legal culture. corruption as an organized crime in indonesia is categorized as extra ordinary crimes that have an impact on the creation of injustice in society. one of the injustices referred to is related to the non-return of state losses stolen by corruptors. whereas efforts to recover state losses are closely related to legal instruments in force in a country. in indonesia, the criminal code and the law on the eradication of corruption places the confiscation of proceeds of corruption only as an additional punishment and does not have a clear formula for the mechanism of deprivation of properties, resulting in un-clarity/obscurity of norms. this condition should not occur, therefore it is necessary to reform the criminal law immediately by studying the criminal perpetrators of a criminological perspective, which is related to the factors that cause people to commit criminal acts of corruption. this article is a study of the author concerning the importance of making legal arrangements regarding the deprivation of properties from the proceeds of corruption to mitigate the state losses. this article is compiled by applying normative legal research using statutory approaches, historical approaches, conceptual approaches and comparative approaches. it is concluded that there must be immediate reform of criminal law in indonesia, especially regarding the deprivation of properties from the criminal act of corruption based on the development of criminal behavior (criminology) and the development of international criminal law concerning corruption. 1. introduction the criminal code (kuhp) in force in indonesia cannot be properly expected and is not in accordance with current development. the current criminal code is a legacy product of the dutch colonial era as the translation of wetboek van strafrecht voor nederlandsch-indie which is a criminal law enacted since january 1, 1918, and then promulgated and reregulated under the law number 1 of 1946. in addition to being incompatible with the development of national life, the regulation of criminal law is also incompatible with the political, philosophical and sociological situation, therefore it is necessary to reform the indonesian criminal law. the effort of carrying out criminal law reform is basically including in the criminal law policy and is closely related to law enforcement policies, criminal policies and social policies. legal reform in indonesia cannot be separated from the objective conditions of the indonesian people who uphold the values of religious law in addition to customary law, therefore it is necessary to explore legal products that are sourced and rooted in cultural, moral and religious philosophical values (fatoni, 2016). https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:yogie_wedha@yahoo.com mailto:cahyonur3dy@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i1.207 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4683-0232 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1606-4709 98 one of the forms of national law development reform is related to the reform of criminal court system (spp) or what is called criminal justice system (cjs) which is essentially identical to the law enforcement system (sph), for the judicial process is essentially a process of enforcing the law. it is also identical to the judicial power system, because judicial power is basically also the power/authority to enforce the law (arief, 2009). furthermore, it is also stated that the criminal justice system or the so-called law enforcement system (sph), if integrally viewed is a unit of various sub-systems (components) consisting of legal substance components (legal substance), legal structure, and legal culture (arief, 2009). the term "legal culture" in the context of law enforcement, of course, is more focused on the values of legal philosophy, legal values existing in society and awareness/attitudes of legal behavior/social behavior, and education/law science (arief, 2009). corruption is said to be an organized crime and in indonesia it is categorized as an extraordinary crime because it occurs sporadically, extends to all aspects of government institutions including the executive, legislative, judiciary, and even private parties. corruption seems to be a common thing and seems to have become the culture of society. in addition to detrimental to state finances, corruption is also a violation against social and economic rights of the community which in turn obstructs the government's efforts to improve the welfare of society, thereby creating injustice. table 2. indonesia's corruption perception index (cpi) 2017 2018 2019 cpi score 37 38 40 rank 96 89 85 source: transparency international indonesia (tii) data release the description concerning the occurrence of corruption practices in indonesia is at least reflected in the corruption perception index in 2017 score of 37, ranking 96th out of 180 countries (https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2019/01/29/naik-1poin-indeks-persepsi-korupsi-indonesia-naik-ke-per rank-4-diasean, 2020) increased to a score of 40, ranked 85th out of 180 in 2019, this data shows that there is an effect of efforts to eradicate corruption in indonesia, but it is not significant. when compared to indonesia's score with neighboring countries such as singapore and malaysia, indonesia is still far behind. compiled data from indonesia corruption watch (icw) the number of cases handled and the comparison with the amount of state losses suffered by the state can be seen in the table below: table 1. data on corruption cases and state losses 2017 2018 2019 total cases 576 cases 454 cases 271 cases state losses 6.5 trillion 5.6 trillion 8.4 trillion source: trend of prosecution for corruption cases in 2017, 2018 and 2019 indonesia corruption watch (icw) the data shows that the number of corruption cases prosecuted from 2017 to 2019 has decreased quantitatively, but what cause of concern is the amount of state financial losses incurred. whereas, the amount of state losses due to corruption is very large and in 2018 it was around 8.7% (eight point seven percent). the state losses that can be returned through the additional penalty of replacement money are very low, not reaching 10%. (https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2019/01/29/naik-1poin-indeks-persepsi-korupsi-indonesia-naik-ke-per rank-4-diasean, 2020). the public still think that the punishment given to the perpetrators of corruption is not proportional to the corruption committed, and the range of imprisonment they receive (langkun, et.al, 2006). the public still consider that the verdict against the perpetrators of corruption has not fulfilled the public sense of justice. it is still considered not proportional (langkun, et.al, 2006). for this reason, the reform of criminal law through criminal aggravation and additional criminal sanctions in the form of confiscation of the proceeds of corruption is one of the steps that can be taken to provide a deterrent effect for corruptors, as well as to mitigate state losses and to provide a value of justice for society. the measures that must be taken by the government include: restructuring the criminal law system in indonesia, namely by structuring it and existing law enforcement agencies, including human resources who carry out law enforcement, structuring the substance of the law by reviewing the existing regulations, carrying out revocation (recall), revision (amendment) as well as the imposition of new necessary provisions and building a legal culture in accordance with the living and development law as adopted in a society (langkun, et.al, 2006). the punishment/penalties in criminal code (kuhp), can be divided into two, namely the principal and additional penalties. this arrangement is contained in article 10 of the criminal code. criminal of imprisonment is kind criminal principal which is the most popular among other principle criminal. indeed, it is https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2019/01/29/naik-1-poin-indeks-persepsi-korupsi-indonesia-naik-ke-per%20rank-4-di-asean https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2019/01/29/naik-1-poin-indeks-persepsi-korupsi-indonesia-naik-ke-per%20rank-4-di-asean https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2019/01/29/naik-1-poin-indeks-persepsi-korupsi-indonesia-naik-ke-per%20rank-4-di-asean https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2019/01/29/naik-1-poin-indeks-persepsi-korupsi-indonesia-naik-ke-per%20rank-4-di-asean https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2019/01/29/naik-1-poin-indeks-persepsi-korupsi-indonesia-naik-ke-per%20rank-4-di-asean https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2019/01/29/naik-1-poin-indeks-persepsi-korupsi-indonesia-naik-ke-per%20rank-4-di-asean 99 effective give deterrent effect to the the convicted upon the criminal corruption committed. however, criminal of imprisonment does not always solve the problem, on the contrary it can rise to new problems such as overcapacity correctional institutions, disgust of corruptors, and the state losses are not resolved. deprivation of certain goods is placed as an additional penalty which is optional in nature following the main crime and can only be applied if the main crime is proven. the enactment of law no. 31 of 1999 in conjunction with law no. 20 of 2001 (uu ptpk) actually has provided fresh air as a basis for eradicating criminal acts of corruption and conviction of the perpetrator of a criminal act of corruption, article 18 of the ptpk law, letter (a) as additional penalties are: deprivation of movable property either tangible or intangible or immovable property that is used for or obtained from a criminal act of corruption, including the company owned by the convicted where the criminal act of corruption was committed, as well as from the items replacing the goods even though it has been regulated regarding the confiscation of goods as referred to in article 18 of the ptpk law, the problem is that the regulation of confiscation is still within the framework of an additional punishment that is optional in nature, it can only be applied if the main crime is proven, namely an act which has been proven to have committed a criminal act of corruption. and materially there has been a loss to the state due to criminal acts of corruption (yusuf, 2013). until now, there is no statutory regulation that specifically regulates the implementation mechanism for confiscating the properties as the proceeds of corruption. the concept of purpose of punishment that is developing so far is considered to have various weaknesses, particularly since it is considered to provide no sense of justice for the victim, namely the state and society. the applicable criminalization in indonesia, especially those regulated the criminal code (kuhp) and the corruption eradication act (ptpk law) still use the paradigm. retributive that is, law enforcement which emphasizes more on punishing the perpetrators, apparently this retroactive paradigm cannot fulfill its purpose in providing a deterrent effect to the perpetrators of criminal acts due to the fact that the quantity and quality of corruption has not significantly decreased. according to john o haley, restorative justice is an integrated approach to the retributive model that offers a much more effective and efficient alternative to the achievement of the objectives of punishment, namely the improvement of victims, perpetrators and prevention of crime (haley , 2011): i would only add that as broadly defined an integrated approach to restorative justice offers an alternative to the retributive models that far more effectively and efficiently achieve each of the three principal aims of criminal justice, victim reparation, offender correction, and crime prevention. the idea of a criminal system that is oriented towards restoring losses and suffering experienced by victims is known as the conceptual approach of restorative justice (restorative justice). one of the forms of application of the restorative justice concept in cases of criminal acts of corruption is the application confiscation and sentencing on property confiscation originating from the proceeds of corruption. humans/ individuals as the subjects of criminal law (natuurlijke person) in the criminal act of corruption, of course, are related to the issue of criminal responsibility as andagium geen starf zonder schud that is, a criminal law subject committing a criminal act can only be convicted if the element of guilt is fulfilled, according to the formulation in the law. this element is closely related to the ability to be responsible, actions committed deliberately or negligently and there is no excuse for forgiveness. regarding the legal subject of the criminal act of corruption, an individual legal subject will be examined in the perspective of criminology, which is related to the factors causing corruption and how to overcome them. conducting studies from a criminological perspective to the criminal acts of corruption cannot be separated from the development of society where there are prevailing social values which are ultimately linked to cultural patterns existing in society. on the other hand, every member of society has basic desires affecting their behavior patterns through cultural standards learned as well as individual experiences in interacting with community members (suharti , 2000). according to the social control theory, that the motivation to commit crime is part of humanity and studies the ability of social groups and institutions to make their rules effective and finally to find out the answers why people do not commit crimes (swardhana , 2020). based on the description described above, the author is interested in legal writing focusing on the problem of criminal law reform regarding the confiscation of properties from the criminal act of corruption in a criminological perspective. the formulations of the problems that can be drawn are (1) what is the arrangement of the criminal law against confiscation of properties resulting from criminal acts of corruption in indonesia? 2 how is the 100 criminal law reform of confiscation of properties result from the criminal act of corruption in a criminological perspective? 2. research methods this type of legal research uses objects in the form of legal norms carried out through the process of finding legal rules, legal principles, and legal doctrines in order to answer legal issues at hand (marzuki, 2008). as a type of normative legal research (normative law research), namely legal research examining written law from various aspects, including aspects of theory, history, philosophy and comparison. normative research uses a statutory approach (statute approach), historical approach, a comparative approach (comparative approuach), and the conceptual approach (marzuki, 2008). legal materials used in this research can be primary legal materials, namely statutory regulations, secondary legal materials derived from literature in the form of books or results of research. legal materials are collected through library research, and are used to study the existing problems. the writing of this research is analytical descriptive, namely research that is intended to describe, elaborate and describe a state of an object or event as well as to draw a conclusion related to the object of research, namely regarding the confiscation of corruptors' property in a criminological perspective. 3. results and discussion 3.1. legal regulations for deprivation of properties from corruption proceeds. in indonesia, the latest developments related to the prevention and eradication of corruption, namely there has been a paradigm shift in law enforcement. the original paradigm only focused on pursuing and punishing perpetrators of criminal acts (follow the suspect) with corporal punishment, and it has also developed by pursuing wealth (follow the money). confiscation of properties obtained by illegal means (violating of law), the punishment is regulated in the corruption eradication law, namely law no. 31 of 1999 in conjunction with law no. 20 of 2001 concerning amendments to law no. 31 of 1999. actually, the criminal code has regulated the confiscation of objects related to a criminal act, which is a continuation of the act of deprivation. however, deprivation as regulated in the ptpk law and the criminal code is placed as an additional crime that is optional in nature following the main crime and can only be carried out after the perpetrator of the criminal act is found guilty of committing a criminal act and the verdict has permanent legal force (inkracht van gewijsde). the ptpk law provides two ways with regard to deprivation of the proceeds of a crime causing financial or economic losses to the state. the two routes referred to are confiscation through criminal channels and confiscation through civil lawsuits. confiscation of properties as the proceeds of corruption through criminal charges can be carried out provided that the public prosecutor must be able to prove the defendant's guilt for committing a criminal act of corruption. the confiscated properties must be the assets generated and associated with corruption. therefore, to prove this relationship, the public prosecutor must have sufficient knowledge and expertise and must have the expertise to prove the relationship of all assets confiscated with the criminal act committed, or the properties were used to commit a criminal act. the success of the property or asset confiscation is very dependent on the public prosecutor having the capability to prove the defendant's guilt and also prove that the properties to be confiscated are properties resulting from the corruption accused. this concept is called confiscation of properties based on the fault of the defendant (conviction based assets forfeiture). deprivation of assets from the criminal act of corruption through the criminal law mechanism as criminal forfeiture, must be able to prove that there is an element of guilt from the criminal act perpetrator. criminal forfeiture is also known as deprivation in persona is confiscation committed through the criminal law mechanism. the criminal forfeiture confiscation mechanism has been implemented, but until now it has not shown any significant results. it was proven in 2018 the amount of state losses that can be returned was only 8.7 percent. one of the reasons for this ineffectiveness is that the norms governing the deprivation are unclear. apart from confiscation which is an additional and optional punishment, it turns out that in article 18 paragraph (1) of the ptpk law there is no more detailed explanation of the mechanism for the implementation of confiscation, this condition shows that there is a lack of clarity in legal arrangements resulting in ineffective repayment of state losses. another problem is that confiscation of assets resulting from criminal acts of corruption through civil channels in the ptpk law, is only an alternative way, it can only be done if handling through criminal channels cannot be carried out for the reasons of 101 law, namely the suspect/accused passes away, to provide access for confiscation due to the death of a suspect/accused eliminates the authority to prosecute (article 77 of the criminal code). the conditions as described above hamper the effectiveness of recovering state losses because law enforcers are not required to confiscate the proceeds of corruption for it is an alternative crime as well as obstacles to the obscurity of laws and regulations. the criminal law enforcement process is interrelated with criminology, because criminology can provide input to criminal law, especially why people commit crimes and the factors causing them and what efforts must be made so that law enforcers do not violate the law. for this reason, an analysis of the causes of corruption is needed and at the same time overcoming it in the form of formation of legal substance so that the criminal law enforcement process is implemented based on the values of justice and does not violate individual rights. 3.2. criminal law reform toward deprivation of properties resulting from criminal acts of corruption, a criminological perspective criminal law reform is an effort to review and reassess the main points of thought or basic ideas or socio-philosophical, sociopolitical and socio-cultural values underlying criminal policies and criminal law enforcement policies so far. criminal law reform shall be formulated with a policy-oriented approach, as well as a value-oriented approach. therefore, criminal law reform should be based on the basic ideas of pancasila, which is the basis for the values of national life that are aspired to and explored for the indonesian nation. the republic of indonesia as a welfare state where the state actively strives for welfare, the community is very disturbed by the corrupt behavior of the corruptors, which hinders the realization of public welfare. therefore, the authors argue that the deprivation of properties resulting from the criminal act of corruption shall always be applied to every resolution of corruption and must be supported. with legal instruments that are certain and just. jhon rawls states that justice as fairness is to view various parties in the original position (the position of original equality) as rational and equally neutral, requiring equality in the application of basic rights and obligations, and social and economic inequality only to the most disadvantaged of society. that it is unfair if some people have to be deficient, so that others can enjoy prosperity (rawls , 2011). criminology studies the cause and effect, improvement and prevention of crime as human symptoms that can gather input from various sciences (soedjono, 1979). sutherland cressey stated criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon. criminology is a body of knowledge that implies crime as a social phenomenon. this phenomenon is reflected in law enforcement carried out by law enforcement officials from police, prosecutors, courts to the execution level (edywarman, 2012). the cause of the criminal act of corruption in the perspective of criminal psychology consists of internal factors, which are related to aspects of individual behavior, namely greedy, morale that is not strong enough, and a consumptive lifestyle (yuwanto, 2015). yuwanto added that one of the internal factors driving corrupt behavior is the values of the individual (yuwanto, 2015). external factors are related to (supratman, et., al., 2017): 1. apart from being slow, law enforcement against perpetrators of corruption also does not cause a deterrent effect and is considered a normal case. 2. gaps in the payroll and welfare system in the form of political risk and economic risk as budget support, material facilities on duty and inadequate family welfare of employees, employees who are not worthy of the minimum standard of living needs so that they become potential elements of corruption. 3. the inherent feudal culture, with upetism, premodialism and nepotism emphasizing their family or cronies, encourages corruption. 4. the existence of poverty and unemployment, which are structured in people's lives, accompanied by discrimination in legal treatment for perpetrators of corruption and ordinary crimes by means of abuse of authority and power which become opportunities for the proliferation of corrupt behavior. these opinions are true, but the main thing is mental factors, namely that an unhealthy mental factor is more dominant to encourage acts of corruption. even if other factors are present in a person, if he has a healthy mind, he will not commit any acts of corruption. therefore, crimes are not only committed by people who are poor, or lacking education, but can also be committed by people who have high social, economic and political positions, such as crimes of corruption or manipulation. emile durkheim's anomie theory is in line with this opinion emphasizing that the weakening of social supervision and control affects the occurrence of moral decline which causes individuals to find difficulties for adjustment (atmasasmita, 2010). in contrast to what was conveyed by edwin h. sutherland in his book principles of criminology as differential association 102 theory which emphasizes that all (criminal) behavior is learned, nothing is passed on parental inheritance, it can be clearly said that evil behavior patterns are not inherited but are learned through intimate association where the process of learning criminal behavior through social interaction (swardhana, 2020). based on theory differential association that the perpetrators of crimes committing crimes are not a continuation of delinquency that was committed during childhood or adolescence, but are influenced by a bad work environment that causes bad behavior for themselves as well. the author argues that corruptive behavior is caused by internal factors of the perpetrator, namely the weak self-control of the perpetrator who cannot withstand the impulse of lust to gain wealth quickly, weak faith, honesty and low morality values, in addition to the external factors such as weakness and lack of an attitude of fairness, leadership, working conditions and social communication and interactions. law enforcement in the criminal act of corruption must be carried out in extraordinary ways, considering that this crime is classified as an extra ordinary crime. the idea continues to this day is whether the model of punishment given to corruptor is sufficient only with corporal punishment (prison)? the ideas for increasing effectiveness of action to return the properties resulting from the criminal action of corruption is a general idea therefore it is important to create a strong legal basis as for confiscation the proceeds of corruption to bring about restorative justice (restorative justice) as the purpose of punishment. sentencing based on the concept of restorative justice shall provide a more sense of justice, because the law is not implemented rigidly as retaliation by imprisoning the perpetrator of a criminal act with the objective of giving deterrent effect, but more than that, punishment shall be to restore balance and bring a sense of peace in society as well as to provide a deterrent effect and restore the dignity of the perpetrator to become a better human being. as a criminal law reform in confiscating properties as the proceeds of corruption, then follow the money approach is an approach that complements the conventional approach follow the suspect namely the approach in pursuing and punishing the perpetrator of a criminal act. this follow the money approach has advantages and breakthroughs in disclosing crimes, pursuing the results of crimes and proving them in court. the follow the money approach can be implemented using the concept of deprivation non conviction based asset forfeiture (ncb). deprivation of ncb also known as civil appropriation, in rem appropriation, or appropriation of objects, is an act against the assets itself, and not against an individual. this is an act that is separate from any criminal justice process and requires evidence that the properties are involved (i.e. property is the result or instrument of a criminal act). indonesia has ratified the united nations convention against corruption in 2003 (united nation convention against corruption / uncac, 2003) which has been ratified under the law number 7 of 2006. one of the important parts of the un conventions is the existence of arrangements relating to the tracing, confiscation and deprivation of proceeds and instruments of criminal acts including international cooperation in the framework of returning the proceeds and instruments of criminal acts between countries, but indonesia does not yet have laws and regulations that are in line with the confiscation of assets based on these international conventions. this is one of the considerations regarding the importance to draft a separate law particularly applied to confiscate the properties related to criminal acts. 4. conclusion the provisions in the penal code, penal code procedures (kuhap) and ptpk law as well as several criminal provisions concerning the eradication of corruption, confiscation of property that can only be carried out after the perpetrator of the criminal act is proven in court legally and convincingly committing a criminal act constitutes a type of criminal confiscation in person (personam) or as criminal forfeiture. corruptive behavior is caused by the perpetrator's internal factors, namely the weakness of self-control of the perpetrator which causes a decrease in moral value, in addition it is also influenced by external factors such as weak working conditions and lack of social supervision and control affecting the occurrence of moral decline, therefore criminal law reforms must be carried out immediately in accordance with the paradigm shift in society and international criminal law which places more emphasis on restoring the balance 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kosovar consumers qendrim bytyqi university of prishtina ”hasan prishtina”, faculty of economics, qendrimbytyqi077@gmail.com article history: submission 22 august 2022 revision 01 october 2022 accepted 24 december 2022 available online 31 december 2022 keywords: covid-19, online business, impact, development. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.380 a b s t r a c t the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on the growth of online businesses in kosovo is a topic that is treated in this paper. due to the fall in economic activity brought on by the economy's closure, the covid-19 pandemic inevitably had a negative impact on the kosovar economy, just like it has on other nations around the world. the requirement for enterprises to undergo a digital transformation has been considerably expedited by covid-19, which has had a tremendous impact on businesses, society, and the economy in general. e-commerce is based on the idea of conducting business more effectively and quickly online. giving clients access to the company's computer system allows them to modify the product and service to their specifications and ensure on-time delivery. these automated tailored services have a significant financial impact on enterprises by boosting earnings and lowering operating expenses. this paper seeks to shed light on the covid-19 pandemic's effects on kosovo's internet commerce growth. for this reason, a survey was conducted online, with 251 respondents selecting the appropriate sample using a non-random selection approach. the results show that covid-19 appears to have had a favorable effect on the growth of online businesses in kosovo. the covid-19 pandemic has positively impacted the growth of online enterprises in kosovo, and the 24/7 accessibility of the online business has positively impacted the increase in sales volume, according to the results of the hypothesis testing. the paper primarily describes how the covid-19 epidemic affected the growth of online enterprises in kosovo. 1. introduction the covid-19 pandemic unavoidably had a negative effect on the kosovar economy, as it has on other countries throughout the world, because of the decline in economic activity brought on by the economy's closure. the obligation for enterprises to undergo a digital transformation has thus been drastically accelerated by covid-19, which has also had a significant impact on businesses, society, and the economy as a whole. covid-19, among other things, has developed a new narrative for how companies should behave while taking into account the changes that have an impact on companies across all industries. (jashari, 2020). a sizable portion of kosovo's population found themselves unexpectedly jobless as a result of the coronavirus outbreak and business closures. as a result, there are now much more people who are unemployed who live close to employment agencies. the employment agency and its 34 local offices alone recorded 32,377 young job searchers in april 2020. as a result, there are already 37,392 job seekers registered for the period of january to april 2020. (instituti gap, 2020). the ramifications and difficulties that this pandemic has brought today are those that the economy in general and business in particular will face tomorrow. (hajrizi et al, 2020). not just in kosovo, but all around the world, the covid-19 pandemic has made the present and the future unclear and unpredictable. for economic sectors including cuisine, lodging, https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:qendrimbytyqi077@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.380 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7630-3882 27 travel, construction, etc., losses are estimated to be enormous. the sale of essential food and hygiene goods is the only industry that has been able to reduce losses to some extent. (municipality of gjilan, 2020). nevertheless, despite the numerous bad impacts that this epidemic has on most nations around the world, it did send a strong message that businesses should prioritize going digital in order to encourage growth and combat crises like the pandemic. covid-19. regarding covid-19's effects on the labor market in kosovo, the afp reports that in 2019 the country's unemployment rate was 25.7%, or 125,305 unemployed individuals in total. there were 368,180 employees, or about 30.1% of the total labor force, in terms of absolute numbers. (bellaqa, 2020). it is intended to assess the impact of the pandemic on the growth of internet enterprises in kosovo using the results obtained through this topic. by examining the research on covid-19, a questionnaire was made, and a pilot study was conducted using practical sampling to determine the impact of covid-19 on the growth of internet enterprises in kosovo. 2. literature review the novel coronavirus (2019-ncov, also known as covid-19), a brand-new variety of coronavirus, was discovered in wuhan, china, in december 2019. then, covid-19 spread swiftly throughout china and the rest of the world. this virus can produce a number of symptoms, such as fever, breathing problems, coughing, and invasive lung lesions in patients. viral pneumonia can result from the virus spreading to the lower respiratory system. patients infected with this virus can experience dyspnea and respiratory distress syndrome. (zhu, et al 2020). the sars-cov-2 virus primarily spreads through close contact between individuals and by respiratory droplets released during coughing or sneezing. the number of human cases in asia, europe, the middle east, and north america significantly increased as a result of covid-19's global dissemination. as of march 11, 2020, there were already more than 118,000 instances in 114 nations, and 4,291 individuals had died as a result of the rising worldwide risk. the world health organization (who) classified covid-19 a global pandemic based on these indicators. (zhou, et al 2020). though there is a great deal of ambiguity over the scope of the virus and the efficacy of the political reaction, estimates suggest that covid-19 might cost the globe more than $10 trillion. over 10 million people worldwide fall into poverty for every percentage point the global economy shrinks. poorer populations are more likely to have chronic illnesses, which increases their risk of dying from covid-19. as a result of the pandemic's ongoing economic crisis, unemployment rates will increase significantly, and the prospect of health and social instability will grow as welfare safety nets deteriorate. (ahmed, et al 2020). numerous research on the global public health emergency during the covid-19 pandemic have covered a wide range of fields, including medicine, arithmetic, and the social sciences. one of covid-19's most crucial characteristics is spatial spread, which is heavily influenced by the epidemic process, human mobility, and control tactics. one technique that is frequently used to visualize the distribution of disease morbidity or mortality, to identify hotspots, clusters, and potential risk factors, and to reveal relationships between the spatio-temporal patterns of infectious diseases and the characteristics of the host or environment (cao et al, 2020). significant human misery and extensive death are being brought on by the covid-19 pandemic. we are being put to the test by a public health crisis that has never before occurred in recent memory. after 9/11 and the 2008 global financial crisis, this pandemic brings with it the third and biggest economic, financial, and social shock of the twenty-first century. (vokshi , 2020). in fact, just 16 autopsy cases had been reported in the peerreviewed literature by the end of april 2020, when 150,000 individuals had already passed away from covid-19, with nine publications offering scant autopsies, postmortem core needle evaluations, or collections of tissues. authorities prohibited doing autopsy since there were no accurate statistics on the prevalence of sars-cov-2 infection in those who had died. (tzankov & jonigk, 2020). nearly all nations in the globe were compelled to use the most extreme measures (complete closure of their country) alone to preserve people's lives as a result of the corona virus's steadily rising case count and the tremendous rise in the number of deaths brought on by this invisible enemy. (donthu & gustafsson, 2020). the requirement to work remotely, avoid intimate contact with others, and in some cases stay at home with children has also led to tension and anxiety throughout the entire global population. in this line, some research has connected food choice with psychological variables, including anxiety, in addition to the study of emotional eating. additionally, imprisonment severely restricts one's physical activity, which might exacerbate emotional instability because of the "alert situation"(pérez, et al 2020). 28 3. research methodology the research approach was developed using both primary and secondary data. the impact of covid-19 on the growth of online wallets in kosovo has been adequately reviewed in the literature using secondary data. a questionnaire was created and given to a particular sample group based on these data. this survey was obtained from matz (2021 and modified there. the data collected from the questionnaire constitute the primary data of the research. this data is collected specifically for the purpose of research. 3.1. research variables the questionnaire contains two different types of variables: demographic and covid-19-related characteristics. questions with a likert scale are provided for variables relevant to the covid-19. while the demographic variables include:  gender  age  family size  education  residence 3.2. research hypotheses the following defines the research hypotheses: h1: the pandemic has a positive impact on the growth of online sales in kosovo h2: online business positively affects the increase in sales volume thanks to 24/7 availability 3.3. methods and tools for data collection the questionnaire approach was used to get the data. due to the many benefits that the internet provides, research has recently started to spread more broadly online. the use of data collection methods by researchers has been made easier by advanced technology. the ability to gather data quickly and affordably, knowing that it is possible to reach people who are dispersed across large geographic areas, facilitating the researcher's job by turning the data into basic data, etc. are the major benefits of doing data collection online. the inability to reach the target population, which has strong online skills and connections, the inability to verify the identity of the person responsible and the veracity of the data, etc., are some general drawbacks of this strategy. email lists and websites can be used to collect data for these kinds of surveys. (hameli & bytyqi, 2018). the survey was created on survey.com and disseminated via social media, mostly facebook. to a number of organizations and friends, it has been distributed. they were requested to take part in the study. 3.4. sampling method the research sample was chosen from a non-random sample, and the proper sample type was taken from this sample. "the objective of an adequate sample is to include people in the sample from whom data can be collected most easily. for instance, a surveyor on the street might ask those who approach him or conduct the study among those in his social circle." (hameli & bytyqi, 2018). through the use of social media, we attempted to poll as many people as we could be using this sample. 251 questionnaires in total were gathered for examination. 3.5. data analysis the information that was taken from the questionnaire and used to analyze the results. in turn, the research's descriptive statistics, the participants' descriptive traits, and the descriptive data pertaining to covid-19 are presented. the testing of the developed hypotheses is then provided. table 1. gender of research participants' respondents? count perc. male 146 58,16 % female 105 41,84 % source: author compilation the gender of the research participants is described using the descriptive data in table 1. as can be seen, there are 251 responses in total, with men making up 58.16% of the research participants and women accounting for 41.84%. 29 table 2. the research's participant respondents' age? count perc. 15 25 years old 109 43,42 % 26 35 years old 68 27,09 % 36 45 years old 43 17,13 % 46 55 years old 22 8,76 % 56 65 years old 8 3,18 % up 65 years old 1 0,39 % source: author compilation the age ranges of the study's participants are shown in table 2. the majority of participants in the study (43.42%) are in the 15– 25 age bracket, followed by 27.09% of participants in the 26–35, 17.13% of participants in the 36–45, 8.76% of participants in the 46–55, 3.18% of participants in the 56–65, and 0.39% of participants in the 65+ age bracket. table 3. size of families with respondents who took part in the research? count perc. family 2-3 members 37 14,74 % family 4-5 members 105 41,83 % family with more than 6 members 109 43,42 % total 251 100% source: author compilation descriptive information regarding the size of the families of the research participants is included in table 3. as can be seen, 43.42% of the research participants are respondents who are members of families with more than six members, 41.83% are respondents who are members of families with four to five members, and 14.74 are respondents who are members of families with two to three members. table 4. education level of the research participants' respondents? count perc. primary school 15 5,97 % high school 43 17,13 % university 193 76,89 % total 251 100% source: author compilation the statistics on the participants' educational backgrounds are shown in table 4. the majority of them are well educated, with 76.89% of participants having graduated from college, 17.13% from high school, and 5.97% from elementary school. table 5. location of respondents' homes where they participated in the research? count perc. urban 130 51,79 % rural 121 48,2 % total 251 100% source: author compilation the residences of the research participants are shown in table 5. the data in the table shows that 51.79% of the participants reside in urban settlements, while 48.2% do so in rural settlements. table 6. preferred method of purchasing? count perc. a) online 77 30,67 % b) offline 119 47,41 % c) hard to answer 55 21,91 % total 251 100% source: author compilation it turns out that, when asked what their preferred method of shopping is, research participants prefer shopping offline 47.41% of the time, online shopping is preferred by 30.67%, and 21.97% of respondents said they find it difficult to choose between these two methods of shopping. 30 table 7. how frequently you made online purchases in the month before to the pandemic's ones? count perc. a) every day 12 4,78 % b) two/three times a week 20 7,96 % c) once a week 45 17,92 % d) once a month 134 53,38 % e) i don't buy online 40 15,93 % total 251 100% source: author compilation in response to the question of how frequently they conducted their online shopping in the month prior to the pandemic, 53.38% of participants said they did so at least once per month, 17.92% said they did so once per week, 15.93% said they did not, 7.96% said they did so twice or three times per week, and 4.78% said they did so daily. table 8. how frequently did you shop online before the pandemic for various product categories? 1 -first choice 2-second choice 3-third choice 4-fourth choice 5-fifth choice 6-sixth choice 7 seventh choice a) food items 142 100% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% b) fashion 0 0% 47 33% 22 15% 20 14% 20 14% 18 12% 15 10% c) presents 0 0% 13 9% 43 30% 33 23% 30 21% 14 9% 9 6% d) accessories 0 0% 5 3% 19 13% 52 36% 27 19% 28 19% 11 7% e) household supplies 0 0% 34 23% 21 14% 17 11% 40 28% 18 12% 12 8% f) skin products 0 0% 17 11% 23 16% 10 7% 16 11% 55 38% 21 14% g) fitness/wellness products 0 0% 26 18% 14 9% 10 7% 9 6% 9 6% 74 52% source: author compilation prior to the pandemic, table 8 explains the significance of choices for internet shopping. participants ranked these alternatives from 1 (first choice) to 7 (seventh choice) in order of significance. 100% of participants believe that the first option to purchase food supplies before the pandemic is to do so. the alternative two fashion is ranked second in importance to purchase by 33% of participants, third by 15%, fourth by 14%, fifth by 14%, sixth by 12%, and seventh by 10%. the third gift option is the third choice for 30% of the participants, the fourth choice for 23% of the participants, the fifth choice for 21% of the participants, the sixth choice for 9% of the participants, and the seventh choice for 6% of the participants. in terms of relevance to purchase, the fourth accessory option is ranked by 36% of participants as their fourth preference, followed by 19% as their fifth preference, 19% as their sixth preference, and 13% as their third preference. while 3% of participants choose it as the second option, 7% of people rank it as the seventh. the fifth option, home supplies, is ranked fifth in terms of importance to purchase by 28% of participants, second by 23%, third by 14%, sixth by 12%, fourth by 11%, and seventh by 8%. the choice of six skin products, ranked in order of purchasing importance, it is the sixth choice for 38% of the participants, the third choice for 16% of the participants, the seventh choice for 31 14% of the participants, the second choice for 11% of the participants, the fifth choice for 11% of the participants, and the fourth choice for 7% of the participants. as the seventh most crucial fitness/wellness product to purchase, 52% of respondents rank it as their seventh option, while 18% rank it as their second choice, 9% rank it as their third choice, 7% rank it as their fourth choice, 6% rank it as their fifth choice, and 6% rank it as their sixth choice. table 9. how frequently you used the internet to shop within a month of the pandemic's onset? count perc. a) every day 5 3,52 % b) two/three times a week 48 33,8 % c) once a week 52 36,61 % d) once a month 22 15,49 % e) i don't buy online 15 10,56 % source: author compilation in response to the question of how frequently they conducted online shopping in the month following the pandemic, 36.61% of participants indicated that they did so once per week, 33.8% indicated that they did so twice or three times per week, 15.49% indicated that they did so once per month, 10.56% indicated that they did not conduct online shopping, and 3.52% indicated that they did so daily. table 10. how likely you were to shop online for different product categories after the pandemic? 1-first choice 2-second choice 3-third choice 4-fourth choice 5-fifth choice 6-sixth choice 7-seventh choice a) food items 117 82% 5 3% 5 3% 1 0% 4 2% 2 1% 8 5% b) fashion 7 4% 38 26% 7 4% 13 9% 23 16% 24 16% 30 21% c) presents 3 2% 7 4% 36 25% 16 11% 36 25% 34 23% 10 7% d) accessories 5 3% 4 2% 15 10% 57 40% 27 19% 22 15% 12 8% e) household supplies 3 2% 45 31% 28 19% 24 16% 30 21% 8 5% 4 2% f) skin products 3 2% 18 12% 38 26% 13 9% 11 7% 41 28% 18 12% g) fitness/wellness products 4 2% 25 17% 13 9% 18 12% 11 7% 11 7% 60 42% source: author compilation the significance of options when it comes to online shopping following the epidemic is outlined in table 10. participants ranked these alternatives from 1 (first choice) to 7 (seventh choice) in order of significance. the first option to purchase food items after the pandemic is viewed as the first option by 82% of the participants, the seventh option by 5% of the participants, the second option by 3% of the participants, the third option by 3% of the participants, the fifth 32 option by 2% of the participants, and the sixth option by 1% of the participants. the alternative two in terms of importance to purchase, fashion is ranked as the second choice by 26% of the participants, the fifth choice by 16% of the participants, the sixth choice by 16% of the participants, the fourth choice by 9% of the participants, the first choice by 4% of the participants, and the third choice by 4% of the participants. in terms of how important it is to purchase, the third alternative, gifts, it is the third choice for 25% of participants, the fifth choice for 25% of participants, the sixth choice for 23% of participants, the fourth choice for 11% of participants, the seventh choice for 7% of participants, the second choice for 4% of participants, and the first choice for 2% of participants. in terms of how important it is to purchase, the fourth accessory option, it is the fourth choice for 40% of the participants, the fifth choice for 19% of the participants, the sixth choice for 15% of the participants, the third choice for 10% of the participants, the seventh choice for 8% of the participants, the first choice for 3% of the participants, and the second choice for 2% of the participants. the fifth option, household supplies, is ranked fifth in terms of importance to buy by 31% of participants, followed by 21% of participants who rank it fifth, 19% of participants who rank it third, 16% of participants who rank it fourth, 5% of participants who rank it sixth, 2% of participants who rank it first, and 2% of participants who rank it seventh. the choice of six skin products, ranked in order of purchasing importance, it is the sixth choice for 28% of the participants, the third choice for 26% of the participants, the second choice for 12% of the participants, the seventh choice for 12% of the participants, the fourth choice for 9% of the participants, the fifth choice for 7% of the participants, and the first choice for 2% of the participants. the seventh most crucial fitness/wellness product to purchase 42% of participants rank it as the seventh option, 17% of participants rank it as the second option, 12% of participants rank it as the fourth option, 9% of participants rank it as the fourth choice, 7% of participants rank it as the fifth option, 7% of participants rank it as the sixth option, and 2% of participants rank it as the first option. table 11. the most important factors in determining where to shop? 1-first choice 2-second choice 3-third choice 4-fourth choice 5-fifth choice a) time of receiving/acceptance of the product 31 21% 13 9% 14 9% 30 21% 54 38% b) product price 24 16% 66 46% 39 27% 9 6% 4 2% c) trust in the seller 4 2% 42 29% 73 51% 19 13% 4 2% d) product quality 73 51% 15 10% 14 9% 36 25% 4 2% e) concern about suspicious/fraudulent behavior 10 7% 6 4% 2 1% 48 33% 76 53% source: author compilation the most important characteristics that affected where to shop are listed in table 11. participants scored these alternatives from 1 (first choice) to 5 (fifth choice) in terms of priority. regarding the first factor, the time it takes to receive or accept the product, as influencing factors to choose where to buy, 38% of the participants see it as the fifth choice, 21% of the participants see it as the fourth choice, 21% of the participants see it as their first choice, 9% of the participants see it as their second choice, and 9% of participants see it as their third choice. concerning the second factor product price is viewed by 46% of participants as the second most important factor in determining where to make a purchase, 27% of participants as the third most important factor, 16% of participants as the first factor, 6% of 33 participants as the fourth most important factor, and 2% of participants as the fifth most important factor. regarding the third aspect, trust in the seller, as influencing factors to choose where to buy, 51% of the participants see it as the third choice, 29% see it as the second choice, 13% see it as the fourth choice, 2% see it as the fifth choice, and 2% see it as the first choice. regarding the fourth aspect, product quality, 51% of the participants rank it as their first option, 25% rank it as their fourth choice, 10% rank it as their second choice, 9% rank it as their third choice, and 2% rank it as their fifth choice when deciding where to make their purchase. concern for suspicious or fraudulent behavior is regarded by 53% of participants as the fifth most important factor, 33% as the fourth most important factor, 7% as the first most important factor, 4% as the second most important factor, and 1% as the third most important factor in choosing where to shop. table 12. online shopping habits? strongly disagree disagree neutral agree strongly agree i buy online because it's easier to see discounts and prices 24 16% 17 11% 13 9% 56 39% 32 22% i buy online because i have a greater variety of products 9 6% 28 19% 11 7% 62 43% 32 22% i buy online because it's a good opportunity to buy things when you're short on time 14 9% 15 10% 23 16% 47 33% 43 30% i buy online because it can save me the trouble of buying what i want in offline retail stores 9 6% 23 16% 22 15% 58 40% 30 21% i buy online because i can gather more information 17 11% 36 25% 20 14% 37 26% 32 22% i buy online because i appreciate the convenience of 24/7 availability 9 6% 17 11% 23 16% 55 38% 38 26% i buy online because i can shop in the privacy of my home 11 7% 10 7% 22 15% 47 33% 52 36% i buy online because the quality of decision-making has improved 8 5% 18 12% 33 23% 35 24% 48 33% source: author compilation the assertions about internet buying behaviors are displayed in table 12 according to a likert scale. highly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree are some of the options that participants have selected. regarding the first statement, "i buy online because it's easier to see discounts and prices," the percentage of participants who agreed or disagreed was as follows: 39% said they agreed, 22% said they completely agreed, 16% said they didn't agree completely, 11% said they disagreed, and 9% said they were neutral. regarding the second statement, "i shop online because there is a wider selection of goods," participants were divided into four groups according to their levels of agreement or disagreement: 43% said they agreed, 22% said they completely agreed, 19% said they disagreed, 7% said they were neutral, and 6% said they completely disagreed. 34 regarding the third statement, "i buy things online because it's a good opportunity to buy things when you're short on time," the percentage of participants who agreed or disagreed was as follows: 33% said they agreed, 30% said they completely agreed, 16% said they were neutral, 10% said they do not agree, and 9% said they completely disagreed. regarding the fourth statement, "i buy online because it can save me the trouble of buying what i want in offline retail stores," the percentage of participants who agreed or disagreed was as follows: 40% said they agreed, 21% said they fully agreed, 16% said they disagreed, 15% said they were neutral, and 6% said they completely disagreed. regarding the fifth statement, "i shop online because it allows me to gather more information," the percentage of participants who agreed or disagreed with it was as follows: 26% said they agreed, 25% said they disagreed, 22% said they fully agreed, 14% said they were neutral, and 11% said they completely disagreed. the degree of agreement or disagreement with the sixth statement, "i buy online because i value the convenience provided by the 24/7 availability," was as follows: 38% of participants agreed, 26% of participants agreed completely, 16% of participants remained neutral, 11% of participants disagreed, and 6% of participants completely disagreed. regarding the seventh statement, "i buy online because i can do it privately at home," 36% of participants said they fully agreed, 33% said they agreed, 15% said they were neutral, 7% said they disagreed, and 7% said they completely disagreed. these results indicate how much agreement or disagreement participants had with each statement. regarding the eighth and final statement, "i buy online because the quality of decision-making has improved," 33% of participants said they fully agreed, 24% said they agreed, 23% said they were neutral, 12% said they disagreed, and 5% said they completely disagreed. the degree of agreement or disagreement was as follows: 24% said they agreed, 23% said they were neutral. table 13. preferred tool/device to shop online? strongly disagree disagree neutral agree strongly agree when i buy online i do it through my smartphone 21 14% 13 9% 16 11% 68 47% 24 16% when i buy online i do it through my tablet 15 10% 40 28% 31 21% 35 24% 21 14% when i buy online, i do it through the computer 8 5% 8 5% 30 21% 28 19% 68 47% source: author compilation table 13 examines the statements measured with the likert scale regarding the preferred tool/device to shop online. participants have chosen several types of options; strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree. regarding the initial assertion made when i shop online i carry out this activity using my smartphone. according to the participants' levels of agreement or disagreement, 47% of them said they agree, 16% said they totally agree, 14% said they disagree completely, 11% said they were neutral, and 9% said they disagree. regarding the second statement, "when i make an online purchase, i use my tablet to complete the transaction," the percentage of participants who agreed or disagreed with it was as follows: 28% said they disagreed, 24% said they agreed, 21% said they were neutral, 14% said they completely agreed, and 10% said they completely disagreed. concerning the third assertion, when i shop online i use a computer to complete it, and the percentage of participants who expressed their level of agreement or disagreement was as follows: 47% said they totally agreed, 21% said they were neutral, 19% said they agreed, 5% said they disagreed, and 5% said they completely disagreed. 35 table 14. online purchases during covid-19? strongly disagree disagree neutral agree strongly agree i'm buying online more often than before 17 11% 11 7% 22 15% 22 15% 70 49% i am interested to buy in store 7 4% 16 11% 31 21% 67 47% 21 14% i only go to the shops when i buy necessary products like food and drinks 60 42% 20 14% 23 16% 28 19% 11 7% i have decided to postpone the big expenses after the pandemic 43 30% 40 28% 30 21% 21 14% 8 5% i am worried about my physical health 12 8% 17 11% 42 29% 39 27% 32 22% source: author compilation table 14 shows the statements related to covid-19 which were measured with the likert scale. participants have chosen several types of options; strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree. the participants' levels of agreement or disagreement with the first statement, "i am buying things online more frequently than before," were as follows: 49% of the participants said they completely agreed, 15% said they agreed, 15% remained neutral, 11% said they completely disagreed, and 7% said they disagreed. the participants' levels of agreement or disagreement with the second statement, "i am interested in shopping in stores," were as follows: 47% of the participants said they agreed, 21% said they were neutral, 14% said they completely agreed, 11% said they disagreed, and 4% said they completely disagreed. regarding the third statement, "i only visit stores when i need to purchase necessities like food and beverages," the participants' levels of agreement or disagreement were as follows: 42% said they do not fully agree, 19% said they agree, 16% said they were neutral, 14% said they disagree, and 7% said they completely agree. regarding the fourth statement, "i decided to postpone the big expenses after the pandemic," participants' levels of agreement or disagreement were as follows: 30% said they don't completely agree, 28% said they disagree, 21% said they were neutral, 14% said they agree, and 5% said they completely agree. the fifth and final statement, "i am concerned about my physical health," received the following levels of agreement or disagreement: 29% of participants expressed neutrality, 27% of participants expressed agreement, 22% of participants expressed full agreement, 11% of participants expressed disagreement, and 8% of participants expressed complete disagreement. 3.5.1. discussion of hypotheses the following are this paper's main hypotheses: h1: the pandemic has a positive impact on the growth of online sales in kosovo h2: online business positively affects the increase in sales volume thanks to 24/7 availability the two hypotheses are discussed below, and an analysis will be done to see how they compare to the paper in question while taking into account the data that was retrieved from the questionnaire. h1: the pandemic has a positive impact on the growth of online sales in kosovo the information gleaned from the questionnaire suggests that the covid-19 pandemic has contributed to the expansion of the trend of online sales in kosovo. this notion is supported by the fact that 49% of study participants said they shop online more frequently than they did previously. along with the rise in the number of customers who are making more online purchases following the 36 pandemic, kosovo's electronic commerce has also seen growth in terms of the volume of online sales, which has helped the country's trend toward sales digitization advance at an everincreasing rate. h2: online business positively affects the increase in sales volume thanks to 24/7 availability there are numerous advantages to conducting business online. online shoppers gain access to a number of advantages, including time savings, the ability to finish transactions more quickly, and the ability to conduct their business anonymously from home. according to the data taken from the questionnaire, 26% of the research participants completely agree that they make more purchases online because they value the convenience provided by online retailers' 24/7 availability, while 38% of the participants appear to agree with this statement. this idea is also confirmed when these indicators are taken into account. 4. conclusions the goal of this paper is to evaluate the effects of the covid-19 epidemic on the major kosovar economic sectors. through the analysis of numerical data, we hope to provide a clearer picture of how this pandemic has affected our nation's online enterprises. to accomplish this, 251 people participated in an online survey that was carried out using survey.com. 146 males and 105 women participated in the study. the majority of participants are between the ages of 15 and 25. these individuals make up 43.42% of the family units with more than six members. these people have high levels of education because the majority of them attend universities. these individuals dwell in urban regions to the tune of 51.79%. this study demonstrates how the covid-19 pandemic has positively impacted the growth of online businesses in kosovo using data from the literature and information related to the pandemic. the hypotheses were discussed after the descriptive statistical data. the first hypothesis looked at whether the epidemic had a beneficial effect on kosovo's burgeoning online commerce. the first hypothesis was confirmed by the data that were taken from the questionnaire. the second hypothesis examines whether the 24/7 accessibility of online businesses has a favorable impact on the growth in sales volume. the data from the extracted data indicated that this hypothesis was also accepted because 38% of the participants concur that they make more frequent purchases online because they value the convenience that 24/7 accessibility provides. 4.1. limitations of the research like all studies, this one has some restrictions. first, the research was conducted primarily online and on a narrow sample due to time and financial constraints. since the majority of the research sample is composed of young people, it is impossible to draw broad conclusions about the country or the region. the sample is affected by the sample's internet usage patterns, which are dominated by young individuals. however, the study offers a clear overview of how the covid-19 pandemic affected the growth of online businesses in kosovo and offers valuable information for further study. 4.2. recommendations this study makes several crucial suggestions: • the government should prioritize de-bureaucratizing and digitizing the administration. additionally, enterprises should receive funding to digitize their business processes and expand their e-commerce operations. • since conducting business online is a very practical approach to increase earnings, kosovar companies should concentrate more on doing so. kosovar companies, on the other hand, appear to understand the value of digitization, but they lag behind in developing and putting into practice real digitalization strategies and action plans. therefore, it can be said that the covid-19 pandemic and the stringent measures for its avoidance have made digital transformation once again a pressing issue for kosovar firms. • the digitization of enterprises should be a present-day priority, not a future-day one, in the event of unforeseen events, such as the covid-19 pandemic, in which all business-related activities were prohibited with the exception of 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https://www.kas.de/sq/web/kosovo/einzeltitel/-/content/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-digital-transformation https://www.modul.ac.at/uploads/files/theses/bachelor/undergrad_2021/bsc_2021/1721520_matz_maximilian_p.__thesis_bsc.pdf https://www.modul.ac.at/uploads/files/theses/bachelor/undergrad_2021/bsc_2021/1721520_matz_maximilian_p.__thesis_bsc.pdf https://www.modul.ac.at/uploads/files/theses/bachelor/undergrad_2021/bsc_2021/1721520_matz_maximilian_p.__thesis_bsc.pdf https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061730 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00428-020-02887-5 https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.26.20044289 https://doi.org/10.1186/s41256-020-00135-6 101 the right to a prosperous life born and inner: gender change perspective mochamad ade syukur nur alam ¹* abdul rachmad budiono ² abdul madjid ³ istislam ⁴ ¹ brawijaya university, faculty of law, hukumlawrecht@gmail.com *correspondent author. ² brawijaya university, faculty of law, rachmad.budiono@ub.ac.id ³ brawijaya university, faculty of law, abdul.madjid@ub.ac.id ⁴ brawijaya university, faculty of law, istislam@ub.ac.id article history: submission 26 february 2021 revision 26 may 2021 accepted 14 july 2021 available online 31 august 2021 keywords: gender change, human right, right to a prosperous life born and inner, justice perspective. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.243 a b s t r a c t gender change is the right of every citizen, but this invites pros and cons in society. although the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia has regulated human rights, there is no specific mention of human rights related to sex change. this study aims to determine, examine, and analyze the meaning of "the right to a prosperous life born and inner" as referred to in article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia and article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law, from the perspective of justice related to sex change in indonesia. indonesia. this research is a normative legal research with philosophical, legislative, conceptual, case and comparative approaches. the analysis technique uses descriptive, comparative, evaluative and argumentative techniques. the results of the study indicate that the meaning of the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity in the perspective of gender change is the right to conditions in which an individual with a gender disorder gets health care, safety, and is free from all kinds of disturbances and suffering in order to develop physically, mentally, and physically. spiritual, and social so that the individual realizes his own abilities, can cope with pressure, can work productively, and is able to contribute to himself, his family, community, and society in his environment. 1. introduction people's lives in indonesia cannot be separated from the influence of global community life in the midst of rapid advances in technology and information that continues to roll. ikrar (2010) states that globalization will have an impact on all aspects of life. this includes aspects of health services. one form of health care is plastic surgery. plastic surgery to change gender from male to female or from female to male. sex change that is carried out through a medical process or commonly called sex change surgery, invites pros and cons in the community. the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia has provided a wider scope for human rights. in chapter xa the provisions of article 28a to article 28j specifically regulate human rights. however, in these articles, there is no article that specifically mentions human rights related to sex change. therefore, a more specific and specific elaboration of legal norms is needed. the provisions of article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia are a mandate as well as the embodiment of the objectives of the administration of the republic of indonesia as contained in the fourth alenia of the preamble to the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia. in line with the provisions in article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia, law no. law number 39 of 1999 concerning human rights in article 9 https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:adesyukur.fhub@outlook.com mailto:rachmad.budiono@ub.ac.id mailto:abdul.madjid@ub.ac.id mailto:istislam@ub.ac.id https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.243 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2884-3072 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6010-6470 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1162-9045 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0663-9927 102 paragraph (2) states that "everyone has the right to live in peace, security, peace, happiness, physical and spiritual prosperity". however, the human rights law also does not explain the meaning of the intended physical and mental welfare rights. because in the explanation section of article by article it is stated "quite clear". whereas the clarity of the meaning of the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity is needed as a measure of 2 (two) prepositions in the formulation of the provisions of article 28h of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia and article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law. in this law on human rights, there is also no 1 (one) provision that mentions sex change. even the word "sex" is only found in 1 (one) provision, namely in article 1 number 3 which regulates the definition of "discrimination" (faradz, 2011). the concept of the right to live in prosperity based on the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia and the human rights law includes two aspects, namely physical prosperity and inner prosperity, both of which cannot be separated and must be fulfilled. the right to live in prosperity is the right of every citizen in indonesia. including for people with ambiguous genitalia and transgender people who have the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity as indonesian citizens. the group of people with ambiguous genitalia is a group that is really physically sick (genital) which affects their psychological condition. there is often confusion between people with ambiguous genitalia and transsexuals or transgender people in society. widhiatmoko and suyanto (2013) state that transsexual is a psychological disorder, the shape of the genitals in transsexual sufferers is very clear, male or female, but the feelings they have are not in accordance with/opposite their gender so that they act and behave according to their feelings, even some of them try to change their anatomical shape (change gender) to suit their feelings and desires. the issuance of the current health law has become a new chapter for plastic and reconstructive surgery, which strictly prohibits plastic and reconstructive surgery aimed at changing identity (gender), either from male to female or vice versa. in relation to plastic surgery and reconstruction, there are provisions in article 69 paragraph (2) of law number 36 year 2009 concerning health. on the other hand, law number 23 of 2006 concerning population administration has provided space for everyone to submit an application to change their resident identity in this case for a change in gender as long as it has received a determination by the district court as stipulated in the provisions of article 56 paragraph (1) population administration law. referring to the 2 (two) statutory provisions mentioned above, the proposition built by the researcher, that a person can make a sex change through the initial step by submitting a sex change application addressed to the district court. furthermore, in the event that the district court decides to grant the request for a gender change that is requested by a person with ambiguous genitalia or transgender, then the next process is a gender change in the identity of the transgender or a person with ambiguous genitalia by the civil registration officer. the process of changing gender identity by the civil registration officer is carried out through a mechanism for recording other important events as regulated in article 56 paragraph (1) of the population administration law. after changing gender identity, then transgender or someone with ambiguous genitalia can perform plastic and reconstructive surgery without being deemed to have violated the provisions of article 69 paragraph (2) of the health law. in the event that the district court in its stipulation turns out to have rejected the request for a sex change from a transgender or a person with ambiguous genitalia, the identity change process through the mechanism for recording important events cannot be carried out. this has resulted in sex change through plastic or reconstructive surgery being forbidden to do. in essence, plastic and reconstructive surgery solely with the aim of changing gender from male to female or vice versa can only be carried out, after the decision of the district court followed by the recording of other important events by the civil registration officer. legal facts show the need for the existence of legal norms that function as a tool for judges in examining, adjudicating, and deciding on requests for sex change, so that the decisions issued are expected to be decisions that reflect justice, benefit, and legal certainty for trans genders or someone with ambiguous genitalia as the applicant. gender change (fanani, 2014). on the other hand, as stipulated in article 10 paragraph (1) of law number 48 of 2009 concerning judicial power, it is stated that the court cannot refuse to try on the pretext of the absence of legal rules governing. even if there is no legal norm that regulates it, the judge is still considered to know the law for what he is examining (adagium: iura novit curia). therefore, the judge must seek the law for what he is examining. the panel of judges in their legal considerations, their decision should have a "framing" of justice for ambiguous genitalia and transgender sufferers for the sake of justice based 103 on the one godhead. because it means that judges must make justice above all others, including legal certainty. especially because sex change does not yet have legal certainty in indonesia. based on the legal issues above, this study will discuss more deeply the meaning of "the right to a prosperous life born an inner" as referred to in article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia and article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law, from the perspective of related justice gender change in indonesia. 2. research method this type of research is a legal research, which is a research conducted through a way of reviewing the rules and laws that apply to answer the legal problems studied (efendi dan ibrahim, 2016). the research approach uses a philosophical approach, a statutory approach, an analytical approach, a conceptual approach, a case approach and a comparative approach. the sources of legal materials used consist of primary legal materials, secondary legal materials, tertiary legal materials or non-legal materials. primary legal materials consist of statutory regulations; secondary legal materials consist of all publications on law that are not official documents. tertiary legal materials consist of encyclopedias and legal dictionaries. legal material analysis techniques are carried out through several stages, namely: descriptive techniques, comparative techniques, evaluative techniques and finally argumentative techniques (diantha, 2015). 3. results and discussion 3.1. the urgency of the meaning of the right to a prosperous life born an inner based on the provisions of article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia and article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law, the state guarantees everyone without exception having the right to live in prosperity, both physically and mentally. the principle of equality and without discrimination is also documented in the constitution, as stipulated in article 28d paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia which emphasizes that the state provides fair recognition, guarantees, protection and legal certainty and equal treatment for everyone before the law. therefore, this human right of course also applies to groups that are often marginalized in society such as transsexuals and hermaphrodites. as stated by gunawan setiardja, that human rights mean rights inherent in humans based on their nature, so the rights that humans have as humans, therefore we must not exclude certain groups (setiarja, 1993). if we compare the scope of human rights between the provisions in article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia and the provisions in article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law, then the scope of human rights in the provisions of article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia feels wider than with the provisions of article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law. this is because article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia not only regulates the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity as is article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law, but also the human right for everyone to live, to have a good environment. and healthy, as well as the right to obtain health services. if we diversify the provisions of article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia, then there are 4 (four) human rights which are protected and guaranteed by the state for everyone. meanwhile, the provisions of article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law bring a single issue, namely the right to a peaceful, safe, peaceful, happy, physically and mentally prosperous life. carrying the same legal issue regarding the human right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity, but in both laws they do not provide clear and definite limits and measurements as a prescription that is "grounded" as well as reflects the principle of clarity of formulation. the ambiguity of the meaning of the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity is due to the fact that neither in the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia (amended) nor in article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law, no explanation is found regarding the meaning of the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity itself, including in the explanation section. article by article. likewise, in the social welfare law and its implementing regulations, there is not even a mention of the phrase “prosperous life born an inner”. so that the two articles do not cause multiple interpretations or have a clear formulation. the search for the meaning of the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity becomes important as an effort to present the dimension of legal philosophy in the case of sex change in indonesia, along with the reality of several requests for sex change on the pretext of feeling uncomfortable with the gender of the applicant. this gender discomfort occurred in 2 (two) subjects, namely the transsexual group who medically "needs" a sex change and the hermaphrodite group which in this context "needs" the perfection of their own sex. this is reflected in the court's decision that has decided on the application of the two legal subjects. the following are some of the decisions made by the district court on requests for sex change in indonesia, including: 104 a. determination of the yogyakarta district court number 517/pdt.p/2012/pn. yk, with the name of the applicant thio wi kun; b. determination of the semarang district court number 518/pdt.p/2013/pn.ung, with the name of the applicant supriyanti; c. determination of the klaten district court number 77/ pdt.p/2014/pn kln, with the name of the applicant sally novi marcelina; d. determination of the boyolali district court number 54/pdt.p/2015/pn byl, with the names of the applicants sugiman and suciati/nuri winarti; and e. determination of the surakarta district court number 87/pdt p/2016/pn skt, with the name of the applicant romandito haryo prabowo. several court decisions on requests for sex change have been decided by the courts. in some cases, the application for sex change in the district court has been preceded by sex change through plastic surgery. so that in this context the sex of the applicant has physically changed and no longer matches his identity. for example, the cases of vivian rubianti, henriette soekotjo, thio wi kun, supriyanti, and romandito haryo prabowo. of course, this makes the position of the judge more difficult to reject the application submitted by the applicant with a different gender from the identity. while the judge must constitute (find legal facts), qualify (find and classify the laws and regulations relating to the subject matter), and constitutive (stipulate the law of the case) (asnawi, 2013), but on the other hand the rule of law which regulates sex change in indonesia cannot be used as a "qualification tool" for the panel of judges in deciding whether to grant/reject the application submitted to the court. likewise, the influence of the principle of "ius curia novit" (ali and heryani, 2012) or "iura novit curia" (spagnolo, 2011) which means "court knows the law", which means that every judge is considered to know the law of the case being examined or tried. actually requires the judge to decide on this sex change application. therefore, judges have an obligation to explore, follow, and understand the values of justice that live in society as stipulated in the provisions of article 5 paragraph (1) of the law on justice. one of the pendulum pendulums of justice that can be used by the panel of judges in deciding the application for sex change is to find the true meaning of the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity for everyone as mandated by article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia and article 9 paragraph (2) human rights act. considering that as legal subjects, this transsexual and hermaphrodite condition is highly correlated with these 2 (two) aspects, namely the outer and inner aspects. the correlation between physical and spiritual aspects with transsexuals is illustrated in court decisions and the documented reality of transsexuals below: a. surakarta district court decision number 87/pdt p/2016/pn skt, the applicant on behalf of romandito haryo prabowo, in his application letter dated march 31, 2016 he stated that since childhood the petitioner had felt different, the petitioner felt as a woman, even though physically and in some documents the petitioner is stated as a man; b. the decision of the klaten ib district court with the determination number 77/pdt.p/2014/pn kln, the applicant on behalf of sally novi marcelina, in his application letter dated december 6, 2010, he stated that the applicant in his daily life was more comfortable and chose to have a male gender. males, although the number of chromosomes tends to be dominant in females, because the applicant's physical and psychological/mental conditions are more dominant in males. c. physically a man, but spiritually a woman, for example the case of dorce, vivian rubianti (nadia, 2003); and d. physically women, but spiritually men, for example the case of dra. rio agusto vishnu murti. while in the hermaphrodite group, this outer and inner aspect is illustrated in the following cases: a. the decision of the semarang district court in ungaran with the determination number 518/pdt.p/2013/pn.ung., the applicant on behalf of supriyanti, in his application letter dated june 18, 2013 he stated that the child after getting bigger and growing showed good signs physically. physically and clinically tend to be a male figure; b. boyolali district court decision number 54/pdt.p/2015/pn byl, the petitioners on behalf of sugiman and suciati, in their application letter dated 15 october 2015 stated that after the age of 18 the petitioners' children changed gender to become male. men according to the results of semen analysis from the fertility clinic "sekar moewardi" and a certificate of examination results from the regional general hospital dr. moewardi issued by a.n. director of rsud dr. moewardi central java province plh. deputy director of services (dr.dr. suharto wijanarko, sp. u) who explained that nuri wiyarti is male; c. the case of rogayah-not her real name. a hermaphrodite from bandung, west java (tempo, 1985). 105 rogayah since she was a toddler has been treated as a woman. when he entered the age of puberty, he seemed to have female symptoms in him, although not complete. for example, he experienced his chest also appear, but not perfect. changes occurred when rogayah was about 17 years old, where he felt like a man. he had a wet dream and released sperm. more than that, rogayah also has a girlfriend. however, from the results of the doctor's examination, it turned out that rogayah's penis was considered very small, with a diameter of 0.5 centimeters and a length of 2 centimeters. a strong reason that rogayah is a man is the result of an ultrasound examination which states that there are no female organs in rogayah's body (koewinarno, 2004). several court decisions above have illustrated how the correlation between the outer and inner aspects with transsexual and hermaphrodite conditions as legal subjects in court is very strong. the outer and inner aspects themselves cannot be separated from the existence of natural human existence. even a french philosopher, rene descrates in his phenomenal phrase stated "cogito ergo sum" which means because i think i exist. this indicates that mere physical existence is not a complete human presence. although not exactly the same in the use of terminology and the number of divisions, the approach to thinking about the position of humans in the view of natural law is a milestone in the history of the same thought towards the existence of this human dichotomous. 3.2. meaning of a prosperous life born and inner the issue of justice as the main theme in perennial (eternal) law, is in line with the long history of thinking about the definition of justice itself, even starting in ancient greece (manullang, 2006). however, at least the justice proposed by john rawls through 2 (two) mainstream concepts of justice, namely ethical justice and institutional justice, can be accepted as proportional justice for applicants for sex change. ethical justice which views justice that prioritizes rights rather than the benefits of justice itself, while institutional justice emphasizes prioritizing benefits over rights (asnawi, 2013). the term "outward and inner" itself in people's lives in indonesia is sometimes placed parallel to several other terms (which are considered) similar, for example: physical-spiritual, physicalspiritual, physical-psychic, and material-spiritual, which are symbol of the unity between the body and spirit of a human being. this is not entirely to blame if viewed from the grammatical meaning. some experts include the provisions of article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia in the social welfare cluster, one of which is kurnia (2015). in his writings, stating that according to its functional nature, the concept of social welfare rights by titon slamet kurnia is used as a synonym for economic, social and cultural rights. meanwhile, in the social welfare law, the definition of social welfare is the condition of meeting the material, spiritual and social needs of citizens in order to live decently and be able to develop themselves, so that they can carry out their social functions (see article 1 point 1). the targets of social welfare based on the social welfare law include: individuals, families, groups, and/or communities who experience poverty, neglect, disability, remoteness, social disability and behavioral deviations, disasters, and/or acts of violence, exploitation and discrimination (see article 5). the provisions of article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia are contained in chapter xa** with the chapter title "human rights". the search for the meaning of the phrase "every citizen has the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity" as mandated in article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia is continued in the human rights law. history records that this law was proposed by the government to the house of representatives of the republic of indonesia during the fourth session of the 1998-1999 session year through the letter of the president of the republic of indonesia number r.09/pu/1999, dated february 8, 1999, regarding submission of the draft law. on human rights and the national human rights commission (secretariat general of the house of representatives of the republic of indonesia, 2001). the human rights law as a follow-up to the mandate of the mpr decree number xvii/mpr/1998 on human rights was proposed by the government in conjunction with the law on the national human rights commission. in the government's statement before the house of representatives, prof. dr. muladi, sh, said that the main reason for the proposed draft of the human rights law, apart from following up on the mandate of the mpr decree number xvii/mpr/1998 on human rights, the main thing was to answer the implementation of respect, protection, and enforcement of human rights in indonesia which is still far away. from satisfying. in the human rights law, the phrase "prosperous born and inner" is formulated in article 9 paragraph (2), which states in full that "everyone has the right to live in peace, security, peace, happiness, physical and spiritual prosperity". the phrase “prosperous physically and mentally” has been proposed by the government since the beginning of the discussion of article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law. however, in the initial 106 formulation of article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law, there were 2 (two) additional words, namely "safe" and "peaceful" during the discussion. in the initial draft of the human rights bill when the formulation of the provisions of article 9 paragraph (2) has not yet been ratified, it reads: "everyone has the right to live in peace, happiness, physical and spiritual prosperity". after going through a long discussion, the chairman of the dpr h. harmoko through the decree of the house of representatives number 6/dpr-ri/i/1999-2000 dated september 8, 1999, approved the draft law on human rights law. referring to the history of the formulation of physical and spiritual prosperity in article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia and article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law, the birth of human rights in the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia, cannot be separated from the background of the birth of several international legal instruments which regulates human rights, especially the universal declaration of human rights. firdaus (2004) stated that this fact prompted the habibie government to ratify various international human rights instruments and issue a human rights law. meanwhile, on the other hand, the mpr did not want to miss out on amending the 1945 constitution to incorporate human rights norms into its body. so that in the end it caused irregularities in the history of the formulation of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia, where the human rights law existed first and became the source of the material for the content of human rights in the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia. referring to the search on the history of the formulation of the phrase “prosperous born and inner” above, it can be described as follows: figure 1. schematic of the history of the phrase “prosperous born and inner” the differences in the formulation of the regulation of welfare rights among the four legal products above are as follows: table 1. different formulations regarding the regulation of welfare rights universal declaration of human rights on 10 december 1948 mpr decree number xvii/mpr/1998 human right law 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia article 25 paragraph 1: everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old pasal 27: everyone has the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity. article 28: everyone has the right to a good and healthy environment. article 29: article 9 paragraph (2): everyone has the right to live peacefully, safely, peacefully, happily, physically and mentally. article 28h paragraph (1): everyone has the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity, live, and get a living environment good and healthy and have the right to obtain health services.** universal declaration of human rights mpr decree number xvii/mpr/199 8 concerning human rights law number 39 of 1999 concerning human rights contents of human rights in the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia (second amendment) 107 universal declaration of human rights on 10 december 1948 mpr decree number xvii/mpr/1998 human right law 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. everyone has the right to live and have a decent life. from the history of the above arrangement, it shows that the issue of welfare as part of human rights in the formulation of the universal declaration of human rights on 10 december 1948 does not separate welfare into 2 (parts) namely physical prosperity and inner prosperity. the phrase "prosperous physically and mentally" in indonesian law was first mentioned in article 27 of the mpr decree no. xvii/mpr/1998 on human rights, which states that "everyone has the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity." then the mention is continued in article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law and article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia. the search for the meaning of this phrase prospering physically and mentally is getting more complex, because both in mpr decree no. xvii/mpr/1998 concerning human rights, the human rights law and the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia did not find an explanation for the provisions regarding this matter. regarding the explanation of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia, actually before the amendment was made, the 1945 constitution had an explanation section for explanation. however, when the amendment was made, the explanation section was shifted to the torso as agreed by the people's consultative assembly which stated that: a. first, it does not change the preamble to the 1945 constitution. the preamble to the 1945 constitution is preserved because it contains a philosophical and normative basis that underlies all articles in the 1945 constitution. in addition, the preamble to the 1945 constitution contains the stats on the establishment of the state, the goals of the state, and the basis of the state. b. second, maintaining the unitary state of the republic of indonesia (nkri). the agreement to defend the unitary state of the republic of indonesia is based on the consideration that the unitary state is the form that has been established since the beginning of the founding of the indonesian state. the unitary state is also considered the most appropriate to accommodate the idea of unity of a pluralistic nation. c. third, reinforce the presidential system of government. the presidential system of government is considered more suitable to be applied in indonesia. because, when indonesia implemented a parliamentary system of government, the practice of administering state life was never stable. in addition, other considerations are based on the choice of the founders of the indonesian state who established a democracy with a parliamentary system of government. d. fourth, negate the explanation of the 1945 constitution by elevating normative matters into articles. the addition of articles of the 1945 constitution by itself has changed the elucidation of the 1945 constitution and the explanation is deemed unnecessary. e. fifth, make changes by means of an addendum. amendments by means of an addendum were chosen to maintain the authenticity of the 1945 constitution. thus, the original text of the 1945 constitution and its explanation as contained in the state gazette number 75 of 1959 as a result of the presidential decree of july 5 1959 were attached to the text of the amendments to the 1945 constitution. the mpr faction also agreed that the indonesian state adheres to a system of separation of powers with a system of checks and balances. in the perspective of pancasila essentialia, soekowati (1977) states that pancasila contains a belief that the dynamics that grow from the totality of all physical and spiritual forces, from the totality of all material and spiritual forces, are the dynamics that determine the growth and development of society, the collapse and development of history and the rise of society. fall of human civilization. he further said that our ancestors hundreds of years ago had taught their children and grandchildren that humans have rights and obligations to themselves, to their families, to the state, and to god. that is why for the indonesian people, social happiness is when an intimate harmony has been achieved between the individual and his "group" and between his "group" and the cosmos. the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity which is part of the human rights of every indonesian citizen as mandated in article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia. (2) the human rights law which states that "everyone has the right to live in peace, security, peace, happiness, physical and spiritual prosperity". basically, the meaning of the right to a prosperous life has not been found in a clear measure. as stated in the explanation section of article by article of the human rights law against the provisions of article 9 paragraph (2) it is stated "quite clear". 108 5. conclusions human rights to live in physical and spiritual prosperity in accordance with the provisions of article 28h paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia and article 9 paragraph (2) of the human rights law must be interpreted broadly and not limitedly. because in measuring it, it is not enough to use indicators of economic welfare alone, or aspects of health, education, security, social, and other aspects partially, but are holistic and individualistic. this holism also means not limited to aspects of life, but its existence which is both intrinsic and extrinsic for an individual. this also means that the overall dose of physical and spiritual prosperity for one individual will differ from one individual to another. for example, between humans with normal hormones and chromosomes compared to humans with abnormal hormones and chromosomes, there will be differences in understanding themselves and their surroundings, even though physically there seems to be no difference. so to measure the physical and spiritual prosperity of an individual is not appropriate if only measured from the economic side without paying attention to other aspects of life. because every aspect of life is interrelated with one another which converges to form conclusions about the perception of inner and outer prosperity in an individual. for example, in the health aspect, the kbbi equates mental welfare with mental health. meanwhile, if we refer to the mental health law, it describes mental health as a condition in which an individual can develop physically, mentally, spiritually, and socially so that the individual is aware of his own abilities, can cope with pressure, can work productively, and is able to contribute to his community. this is highly correlated with the conditions experienced by transgender and ambiguous genitalia sufferers who experience psychological stress due to disturbances to their gender. in line with dwi prasetyo's research, someone who changes his gender must continue to struggle to carry out the negotiation process against the surrounding norms so as to produce more open gender performativity and no violence. the theory of gender performativity shows that gender occurs because of the process of materialization and construction. a person who changes his gender is a social reality through language, gestures, and all social markers that are shown. so that the meaning of the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity in the perspective of gender change is the right to conditions in which an individual with a gender disorder gets health, safety and free services from all kinds of disturbances and suffering in order to develop physically, mentally, spiritually, and physically. so that the individual realizes his own abilities, can cope with pressure, can work productively, and is able to contribute to himself, his family, community, and society in his environment. based on this conclusion, the people's consultative assembly as the state institution with the power to amend the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia, to amend the provisions of article 28h paragraph (1) of the nri constitution by placing the right to live in physical and spiritual prosperity as a large group that is meta-norm and does not align with other things. which is specific and concrete, and to the president and dpr and dpd as the holder of the power to amend the law, to amend the provisions of article 69 paragraph (2) of the health law which regulates the exclusion of plastic surgery for the purpose of changing identity with the requirement of a court order and adding 1 one) new paragraph which aims to provide legal norms for judges to grant/reject requests for sex change. references 1. ali, a. & heryani, w. 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it has been tried to reveal the perception methods that artists such as petrit halilaj, louis bourgeois, gordon matta-clark nevin aladağ and maider lopez brought their own phenomenological approaches to home. 1. introduction today, the house should not be seen only as a shelter that protects people's vital activities from natural factors. this study aimed to try to define the house beyond just a concrete object made of stone concrete. although the house is considered as a building that the architectural field evaluates, when it is considered as a place where the shelter function is fulfilled in general, it is a concept that has been the research field of almost every discipline from the most distant past of humanity to the present. this situation is beyond the fact that the house is a house whose boundaries and definitions are determined by architectural approaches, but also psychology, sociology, philosophy, literature, etc. in research and literature on disciplines; it arises from its constant reproduction as an object, a language, in its relations with human, environment and space and in almost every discipline of art that deals with all these situations. as a functional structure in the basic sense, the house has been used as shelter, protection, etc. throughout the history of humanity and culture. going beyond its functions, it has turned into a production object in which multiple meanings are intertwined (güneş, 2002). addressing the house with the help of phenomenology will make it easier to examine the house as an image that exists in the field of different disciplines. in this case, the house is a complex phenomenon with variable definitions, just like art. 2. the phenomenon of home as object-space in the twentieth century 2.1. the phenomen of the home the house, whose boundaries and qualities are determined by the subject, is the dominance area that can be intervened and embodied after the person's own body. this space, in reality, is the space that man idealizes for the sake of livability that he https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:rcpkrkz@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.284 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2299-0351 2 establishes with another limited space on the "space" that he defines as unlimited. “human forms a private and to some extent personal space from the universal space and thus separates the interior from space” (bollnow, 1961). according to norberg-schulz; a place gains a spiritual dimension and becomes a place. here, what is expressed by the spiritual dimension is the life-related features that give the space its character; actions, concepts, feelings, experiences, physical characteristics (schulz, 1979). as a requirement and proof of human existence, he acts with the urge to find a nook and shelter of his own within the size of the universe and the world. the house or the subjectively named 'home' becomes a personal space that enables the sustainability of human life. by living in line with the instincts of protection and shelter in this space he has shaped, he creates a space in which he separates and isolates himself from the 'outside'. however, people who limit the space with the urge for shelter and protection are not satisfied with this either; he places his own special/important objects at home in relation to space. rooms, objects create their own spaces and memories within the space created by the house. in this way, the bond of belonging between the house and the human (man) begins to form. this two-way relationship becomes so strong over time; space is now defined as a 'home' by becoming a place/space loaded with different meanings for each person (güneş, 2002). according to adolf loos, “the house does not have to say anything to the outside; on the contrary, all his wealth must be evident inside” (colomina, 2011). in le corbusier's houses, it has the opposite attitude compared to loos. the arrangement that includes the public can be seen. in loos homes, the eye turns away from publicity and focuses on privacy. in le corbusier, on the other hand, the opposite can be said here. no curtains are used on any of the windows and the windows are easily accessible; because the windows are not blocked by furniture. on the contrary, everything in these houses is arranged in such a way that the eyes are constantly directed to the public space, not to privacy. when viewed from a roof garden or a terrace, the walls are built to enclose the view, so a kind of publicity of the house becomes part of the space. (colomina, 2011). it can be said that the windows of the house and even the façade are designed as frames to watch the view. over time, the house takes shape as if it is a second body in which the person who identifies with him is withdrawn and protected; on the other hand, it turns into the center of the memory, where people preserve their experiences, memories and fantasies about life. “every corner in a house, every corner of the wall in a room, every small space where one wants to squeal is a solitude for the imagination; that is, a room as a seed is a house as a seed” (bachelard, 2014). based on this quote from bachelard (2014), it can be said that home is the way of experiencing and solving the problems of humanity, perhaps from the past to the present, to cope with their impulses based on anxiety and fear, on space. 2.2. a home transformed into a modern object as a result of industrialization, modernization and rapid urbanization, the capitalist metropolis, which is an economic, social, technical and cultural phenomenon, was born. modernization organizes all private and public, interior and exterior spaces of the metropolis in line with the ideal of rationality. first, it rationalizes and objectifies all patterns of material relations in the business world, working life and public sphere, and then the home, which is the center of the private sphere (talu, 2012). the house's involvement in such an objectification process has made it the center of attention for over a century, not only in modern architecture, but also in many fields such as sociology, philosophy, art and literature. in sociology and philosophy with critical texts discussing the concept of home, subject, place, context and its phenomenological relationship with nature; it is produced over and over again in art visually. however, the commodification of the house as a product of the capitalist system through modern architecture by technology and mind-oriented modernization results in a way that modern minds can never predict: the house turns into an impossible myth, an object of desire (talu, 2012). the metropolis, which is almost the meaning of modern life, was the home of a crowd and confusion, which was overflowing due to excessive immigration, where people tried to reach the factories in masses, and where the public transportation system gained great importance in urban planning (talu, 2012). the overgrowth of cities due to economic growth and population explosion in cities were undoubtedly the results of the industrial revolution, but crowds, turmoil, people leaving their homes to work in factories, and the control of ordinary human life by mass production processes were the reality of the daily life of european cities in the middle of nineteenth century (talu, 2012). centering the mass production process necessitated the standardization of working life and the integration of machines and ordinary people, and thus gave birth to a mechanized civilization, an industrial society. 3 objectivity has been the main element of metropolitan life and modernization, and the human body has been robotized by planning its movements in order to adapt to this new order. the scale system of le corbusier's "modulor" resizes the human body to fit modernist architecture, molding the world into a single mold regardless of its context can be seen as an indicator of the loss of the subjectivity of the house. figure 1. le corbusier's "modulor" sketches (artun, 2014) the house was cut out of its phenomenological context, sized, cut and defined only within a mathematical system; it has been presented as a new, productive field of experimentation, where the methods and rules of the rational objective world will be tested. thus, the first half of the twentieth century witnessed the works of modern architecture to build the house, or rather the modern house, with the principles of modernization such as standardization, flexibility and diversity. after the efforts to rationalize housework in the usa, researches were started in europe to improve the modern housing and to determine the minimum living conditions for the working class, with the help of modernization policies. it can be said that by determining the minimum dimensions of the modern house, solutions were tried to be brought to the housing need after the industrial revolution (talu, 2012). figure 2. standardized as gemeinde-wien type in austria; one of the first modern housing examples (talu, 2012). (38 m2 on the left, 48 m2 on the right.) in the eyes of modernist architects, the house has now turned into a laboratory, a playground, where ideas of modernity such as individuality, freedom and rootlessness will be exhibited. le corbusier defines the house as “a machine to live in”, emphasizing functionality; he likened a good home to be proud of to a well-functioning typewriter (colomina, 2011). the relationship with place and geography, the whole phenomenological context of the house, leaves its place to space organization and contextlessness. by making it the focal point, visual media strengthens rational discourse. some magazines of the period also pioneered the idea of prefabricated housing production by publishing special issues in which modern houses were exhibited. it is widely believed that the houses, whose parts are produced in the factory and assembled on-site, look much more modern. prefabricated modern housing production is combined with the 'suburban dream house' discourse. as beatriz colomina emphasized, with all these advertisements, exhibitions and fairs, the ideal residence is presented and visualized as a package that can be bought in the market. (fig; 3, 4, 5) (colomina, 2011). figure 3-4-5. houses advertised in magazines (smithson, 2008) the interior and exterior duo, which consists of white walls and transparent surfaces along the facade, in which concepts such as privacy and domesticity are ignored, is almost a declaration of modernity by modernist architects. these houses are printed in the most popular magazines and feature many feature films (colomina, 2011). 3. “home” in contemporary art today, the concept of home, which is discussed in many aspects as an object-space used in daily life in the field of art, is handled without separating it from the socio-cultural environment that created it, as a result of being an 'external' element. it can be read as objects that are subject to being an 'inner' element. in this sense, home, cultural coding, environmental elements, etc. objective with factors; sometimes it turns into a subjective object-space that cannot be confined within the boundaries of physical reality with factors such as personal experiences, relationships, time, memory moment. again, although the house is a concrete structure consisting of physical elements as an architectural element, on the other hand, it becomes a whole with the experiences, memories, fears and expectations of the person who 4 exists in it, and such situations actually create the concept of home (güneş, 2002). the house is the object of search for artists, in addition to being a means of expression, representation in the form of object, form or language in every field of art. the house image turns into a space that becomes objectified according to the meanings that the artists attribute to the house. in order to convey different functions and meanings, social/cultural life, domestic relations etc. it takes its place in art productions as an image that gains a function and meaning in order to convey the situations to the audience. the home is the first place where the child's relations with the outside world and society begin. the child's ability to give meaning to the outside life, perhaps his protection from the outside, and the formation of his identity are based in the childhood home (güneş, 2002). home as a form and subject of contemporary art; time, memory, identity, family, public, society, etc. on meanings, it becomes a space-object loaded with metaphors, gaining visuality by assuming a complementary role in every aspect of human life. under this title, we will try to examine the "house" as the subject of contemporary art, with examples under three different subheadings, from the different phenomenological perspectives; in “memories of the past”, “as an object of revolt” and “in the paradox of inner external / public – private”. 3.1. home: in memories of the past kosovar contemporary artist petrit halilaj’s” home” installation “the places i’m looking for, my dear, are utopian places, they are boring and i don’t know how to make them real” it is a life-size reconstructed family house, appears here in a completely new form, which was destroyed during the war he lived in kosovo between 1998-1999, by enlarging the scale of the scaffolding. for halilaj, the house gains visually in the form of an image in search of a lost place (inferno-magazine, 2016). halilaj's work here demonstrates the expression of an aesthetic out of the home, conveyed as a home owner, a fragile space of longing, belonging and memory. lauzon (2017) in other words, not the concrete aesthetics of the house, but the meaning of the past that the house makes itself felt. chickens that roaming around the house pier are also reminders of the rural-urban migration as a reference to the rural life he lived in during his childhood. figure 6-7. petrit halilaj’s “the places i’m looking for, my dear, are utopian places, they are boring and i don’t know how to make them real” art installation, berlin 2010 (art map, 2010) another work about the “home: in memories of the past” is louis bourgeois' red room. in her work, which takes the interior of the house as a reference, the spaces are transformed into places full of fear and anxiety, sometimes with the installations of daily household items located in the space that can be defined as belonging to the person, and sometimes with the cells depicted as a house or room. to the household items used in this house installation, feelings of boredom and confinement descending on women's clothes turn the house into an object of anxiety and distress. bourgeois, who says “all of my works and subjects take their source from my childhood”, creates the leading power of his creativity by bringing the traumas of his childhood home to consciousness through art products (koruç, 2018). figure 8-9. left photo; red room (child) richard-max tremblay, right photo; red room (parents) (geuter, 1994) bourgeois used the image of two separate rooms of the house, the child and the parent, in his installations called “red room”, which he aimed to reveal the mood in his childhood home. the rooms are filled with red symbolic household items and other everyday items that reference bourgeois' personal themes (veryeri, 2008). in this way she described these rooms not only a visual thing, but already as a place that hosts desires, pleasures, anxieties and even fears. veryeri (2008) the house objectified in these installations of bourgeois, which is about the interior; it has turned into a whole of relations in which the anxieties of the past and the feeling of being stuck are represented by objects through the child / woman in a sense. 5 3.2. home: as an object of revolt american artist gordon matta-clark (1943-1978) treats artistic production not as object-oriented or product-oriented, but as a process-oriented action in an approach close to craft production. thus, he criticizes the transformation of both art and modern housing into a commodity that is detached from its place and context and that can be bought and sold (artun, 2014). she evaluates art not as objects exhibited in museums, accompanied by articles titled "please do not touch", but as an environment to be constructed on social problems in a striking way, and in this context, he focuses on "home". with his works between art and architecture, he challenges rationalist thought with a poetic expression. matta-clark, who is also an architect, cut a suburban home in englewood new jersey in two with two parallel sharp vertical lines in the middle, with a slit or crack in his work called splitting, in which he cut through various shapes of abandoned suburban homes in the 1970s. talu (2012) it can visualize both the emotional and psychological dimension of the modern home problem and the uncontrollable turbulences of the human psyche (talu, 2012). as in the modernist approach, it is not to build the house from pieces, but to destroy it by breaking it into pieces. matta-clark criticizes both the concept of home, which can be built with a sense of place and subjectivity, as the capitalist system transforms it into a machine to live in, a consumption object, and that it is stereotyped and standardized (talu, 2012). figure 10-11. gordon matta-clark, splitting, (clark, 1974) 3.3. home: in the paradox of inner external / public – private nevin aladağ, on the facades of the buildings, in her 2005 installation in amsterdam with the name 'curtain house'; he placed long, translucent white curtains on the windows. the curtains, which are a little too big for the windows, hang out and cover a part of the facade. the sway of these curtains in the wind attracts the attention of the viewer, making the work more perceptible. the overly large curtains hung on a house by the canal in amsterdam cover almost the entire façade, emphasizing the regionalization of inside and outside, exposure and concealment. while the curtains block the view, they also become the center of attention, thus creating curiosity towards the buildings. in addition, the new situation determined by the placement of an interior element outside, while emptying the curtains' function of drawing the privacy area and blocking the sunlight, also triggers a contradiction of belonging (ustek, 2011). figure 11-12. nevin aladağ 2005 amsterdam, curtain house (nevinaladag.com) the applications of the curtain house work in various buildings with different functions manifest themselves as small design elements placed in the private and public areas. in other words, while the transparency of a curtain comes together with a line drawn between inside and outside, the connotations evoked by a flying curtain cause a permanent deterioration in this sharp distinction (ustek, 2011). aladağ not only defines the boundaries of the private and the public, but also emphasizes and blurs this distinction at the same time. this work of aladağ created a new situation by focusing on an ordinary element of daily life and bringing its function to a new context. it has grayed out the black and white line between interior and exterior, private and public. another example focusing on “home: in the paradox of inner external / public – private” is maider lopez's work titled "intermediate period". for this work, the artist drew floor plans on the ground of an empty land in a neighborhood of the city of cordoba and tried to prevent any random meetings that may occur in the space by ending the undefined state of this area where the installation was made and transforming this area into a defined area. the 6 associations of the space are prevented by defining the space (ustek, 2011). in this study, with the public space where the installation was made, focused on the conceptual dichotomy between possible future housing structures in this area. thus, he reconsidered and interpreted the concepts of private and public space. figure 13-14. maider lopez, 'the intermediate period' 2011 (lopez 2008) however, the re-functioning of this place, on the one hand, invited the audience, on the other hand, it prevented random and social gatherings (ustek, 2011). the relations brought by the openness of the space became defined and deteriorated, as the area ended its undefined open space quality and transformed into an area that defines a certain area. in other words, he defined an empty open public space with two-dimensional architecture in a sense. according to ustek (2011), the area where the "intermediate period" takes place triggered a question; what will future homes be like? by putting forward the questions of how people will act in these structures, he also highlighted a game element with this work; the viewers, who are unlikely to live in these "prospective houses", can move from room to room and enter the space from any point instead of the drawn doors. in addition, these open plans allowed the audience to make a comparison with their own homes. the new space created by the "intermediate period" refers to the future state of this space, while doing so in a public space that contrasts with the privacy of the residences. contemplating the dichotomy of private-public space, the work used the scale of real living space exactly, and defined these spaces through lines; thus making it possible to pass through the walls. in this way, we can say that the installation changed the use of the field and introduced new ways of perceiving the public space. starting from pre-existing spatial designs, the artist saw public spaces as a visually dynamic and figuratively transformable phenomenon, and strengthened the meeting and socialization functions by playing with their formal elements (ustek, 2011). in the words of maider lopez: “the project aims to show the possibilities of people transforming urban space” (ustek, 2011). the audience's own initiatives, participation and coming together, while defining the concept of architecture through the use of public space, using this space in this way. in a sense, it can be said that he designed the urban space through occupation. 5. conclusions with the many different perspectives that we met with the twentieth century, "home" also took its share from the transformations in art, design and architecture in general, which started in this period, opening the way for its conceptualization and enriching its meaning. a "house" has evolved from the context of being a space separated from the outside only by walls, in its usual relationship with time, and has evolved into a concept that is evaluated beyond in terms of meaning and visually. the house, whose boundaries and qualities are determined by the subject, is the dominance area that can be intervened and embodied after the person's own body. the house image turns into a space that becomes objectified according to the meanings that the artists attribute to the house. considering the productions that contain the house as an object, variable meanings and forms in the field of art; in general, it is possible to say that there are differentiating qualities and criteria that artists encode the house as an image into their memories. the house's involvement in an objectification process has made it the center of attention for over a century, not only in modern architecture, but also in many fields such as sociology, philosophy, art and literature. technology and mind-oriented modernization has commodified the house as a product of the capitalist system through modern architecture, and it has been separated from its phenomenological context, disassembled, standardized and presented to us as a testing ground for rationality. thus, the first half of the twentieth century witnessed the works of modern architecture to build the house, or rather the modern house, with the principles of modernization such as standardization, flexibility and diversity. with the second half of the twentieth century, "house" now approaches "home" as a contemporary art material, in a way, with 7 stereotyped thoughts, but it also becomes an object of phenomenology. "home", which is the subject of contemporary art, has been examined from different phenomenological perspectives with examples under these three different sub-titles:  home: in memories of the past  home: as an object of rebellion  home: in the paradox of inner external / public – private by integrating the works of petrir halilaj and louis bourgeois under the title of "home: in memories of the past", the difficult life conditions and family relationships in the domestic life, and external elements that negatively interfere with human life are seen in the works of both artists. in both of them, it can be said that for a person who remembers the past time and place in adulthood, there is a search for the meaning and search of the house, a sad nostalgia about the house at the center of the experiences gained as a result of problematic or external negative conditions. when we examine gordon matta clark in the definition of "home: as an object of revolt", we see that artistic production is not focused on the object or the end product, but is approached as a process-oriented action in an approach close to craft production, thus disconnected from the context of both art and modern housing. criticizes its transformation into a commodity that can be bought and sold (artun, 2014). accompanied by articles titled "please do not touch", he evaluates art not as objects exhibited in museums, but as an environment to be dramatically fictionalized on social problems, and focuses on "home" in this context. gordon mattha clark's revolt ends by dividing the house into two pieces. we can say that "home: in the paradox of inner external / public – private” emerged in nevin aladağı's "curtain house" and maider lopez's "intermediate period" work. “curtain house” not only defines the boundaries of the private and the public, but also highlights and blurs this boundary at the same time by randomly destabilizing the curtain with the effect of the wind. in the "intermediate period", on the other hand, the conceptual duality between the housing structures that are possible to be built in this area in the future by making an imaginary installation with a plan drawing in the public space was emphasized. by creating a space here, it provides an experimental space experience. in the study, with a phenomenological framework, "house" has moved beyond retinal perception, as it can only be perceived visually, as in the examples of “in memories of the past”, “an object of rebellion” and “in the paradox of inner external / public – private”. references 1. aladağ, n. (2005). curtain house. (photography) curtain house amsterdam, installation in public space. available at: https://nevinaladag.com/works/curtain-house 2. artun, n. (2014). “sürrealizm/ mimarlık mekân sanati” i̇letişim yayınları, istanbul 2014 3. bachelard, g. (2014). mekanın poetikası (çev. a. tümertekin). i̇stanbul: i̇thaki yayınları 4. bollnow, o. f. (1961). “lived-space”, philosophy today 5. clark, g. (1974). splitting (photography). original photograph in the collection of sfmoma new york. available at: https://www.cca.qc.ca/en/search/details/collection/ob ject/379692 6. colomina, b. (2011). ‘’kamusallik ve mahremiyet yazar: (çev. a. u. kılıç). i̇stanbul: metis yayıncılık. 7. geuter, m. (1994). red room (child) & red room (parents) (photography). guggenheim museum bilbao, spain. available at: https://bourgeois.guggenheim-bilbao.eus/en/redroom-parents 8. güneş, e. (2002). ‘’i̇nsan varlığının bütünleyicisi olarak 'ev'in anlamı’’ yıldız teknik üniversitesi, fen bilimleri enstitüsü, yüksek lisans tezi 2002 9. halilaj, p. (2010). the places i’m looking for, my dear, are utopian places, they are boring and i don’t know how to make them real. (photography). berlin biennial for contemporary art, berlin germany. available at: https://artmap.com/petrithalilaj/chapter/images#_v2a 5c 10. inferno art attitudes. (2016). petrit halilaj: space shuttle in the garden. (photography). hangarbıcocca mılan inferno-magazine.com. available at: https://infernomagazine.com/2016/03/03/petrithalijaj-space-shuttlein-the-garden-hangarbicocca-milan/ 11. koruç, e. (2018). “günümüz sanatinda otobiyografik anlatilar” hacettepe üniversitesi güzel sanatlar enstitüsü, yüksek lisans sanat çalışması raporu. ankara. https://nevinaladag.com/works/curtain-house https://www.cca.qc.ca/en/search/details/collection/object/379692 https://www.cca.qc.ca/en/search/details/collection/object/379692 https://bourgeois.guggenheim-bilbao.eus/en/red-room-parents https://bourgeois.guggenheim-bilbao.eus/en/red-room-parents https://artmap.com/petrithalilaj/chapter/images#_v2a5c https://artmap.com/petrithalilaj/chapter/images#_v2a5c https://inferno-magazine.com/2016/03/03/petrithalijaj-space-shuttle-in-the-garden-hangarbicocca-milan/ https://inferno-magazine.com/2016/03/03/petrithalijaj-space-shuttle-in-the-garden-hangarbicocca-milan/ https://inferno-magazine.com/2016/03/03/petrithalijaj-space-shuttle-in-the-garden-hangarbicocca-milan/ 8 12. lauzon, c. (2017). the unmaking of home in contemporary art. canada: university of toronto press. 13. lopez, m. (2008). “ara dönem” intervention on a pot. córdoba city hall, spain. available at: https://www.maiderlopez.com/portfolio/intermedio2008/?lang=en 14. schulz, n. (1979). “genius loci: towards a phenomenology of architecture” new york: publisher rizzoli. 15. smithson, a. (2008). ‘house of the future, axonometric projection” first published in oase. 16. talu, n. (2012). ‘bir arzu nesnesi olarak ev‘’. arzu mimarlığı: mimarlığı düşünmek ve düşlemek’’ ed. artun n., ojalvo r., i̇stanbul i̇letişim yayınları. 17. ustek, f. (ed.), (2011). beklenmedik karşılaşmalar metis yayıncılık. 18. veryeri, i. (2008). ‘’louise bourgeois’nin sanatinin kronolojik dönüşümü’’ ç.ü. sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, cilt 17, sayı 3, beykent üniversitesi, güzel sanatlar fakültesi, istanbul. https://www.maiderlopez.com/portfolio/intermedio-2008/?lang=en https://www.maiderlopez.com/portfolio/intermedio-2008/?lang=en 43 examination of internet and shopping online addiction on kosovo students during the covid period grenita grazhda ¹* ertan basha 2 yll kada 3 rina gashi 4 erza ibrahimi 5 nimete muji 6 agnesa isufi 7 ¹ aab college, department of psychology, grenitagrazhda@gmail.com *correspondent author. 2 aab college, department of psychology ertan.basha@aab-edu.net 3 aab college, department of psychology, y.kada@hotmail.com 4 aab college, department of psychology, rinnagashi9@gmail.com 5 aab college, department of psychology, erza.ibrahimi08@gmail.com 6 aab college, department of psychology, nimetemuji60@gmail.com 7 aab college, department of psychology, agnesa.isufi@universitetiaab.com article history: submission 19 november 2022 revision 10 december 2022 accepted 25 january 2022 available online 31 august 2022 keywords: online shopping, addiction, compulsive shopping, internet importance, kosovo, covid-19 period. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.338 a b s t r a c t in order to carry out this research, questionnaires were collected online, where the main focus was students from public and private faculties. the specific focus of the research is the correlation of internet addiction with online shopping. in order to achieve the objectives of the study and the ideal results, participants were selected from different faculties in kosovo and we were able to collect data from different parts of kosovo. these questionnaires were collected during the covid-19 period in 2021. questionnaires were applied to different age groups starting from 18 years old and above. the number of participants in this study is 295. the research analyzes were done with ibm spss statistics, where a non-parametric correlation and spearman's analysis between internet addiction and online shopping were aimed in our research, we noticed gender differences in the dependence on online shopping where women have resulted higher in this case, the value is higher of addiction to online student shopping varies significantly in terms of gender. our results also show a significant change in financial status which means dependence on online shopping leads to financial difficulties. internet and shopping addiction has resulted in positive correlations; addiction has been high where the main cause may be the pandemic time which has made people more passive. this research aimed to find the dependency of online shopping in the universities of kosovo, where the research was conducted through two questionnaires that measured internet addiction and online shopping where the focus was on students. 1. introduction the importance of this topic is that the addiction to online and internet shopping is seen to be appearing very recently both in young people and at advanced ages, as online shopping becomes easier without spending a lot of energy and this has made them more passive and more dependent on the internet. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:grenitagrazhda@gmail.com mailto:ertan.basha@aab-edu.net mailto:y.kada@hotmail.com mailto:rinnagashi9@gmail.com mailto:erza.ibrahimi08@gmail.com mailto:nimetemuji60@gmail.com mailto:agnesa.isufi@universitetiaab.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.338 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3413-1108 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5231-7806 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9790-9629 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3961-1891 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5076-4891 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2498-5337 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3680-2481 44 the development of computers and the establishment of communication networks and private use with the opening of the internet, today it has come to the form of relationship and communication called "internet". internet are generally interconnected computer networks around the world and the internet the relationship established by passing the communication through the network of networks to which computers are connected tells erdoğan, i. (2013). purchasing is defined as the process of browsing or purchasing items on a cash basis. shopping today is understood as a functional activity, as well as a social or leisure activity with communist characteristics. the element of joy is emerging from the introduction of large market centers that needs a notable activity that had been bought, frozen, and argued. the highly sensitive nature of the purchasing sensation in the sale of service insurance itself to the individual is separated from the active purchasing rewards. people with an impulse-control disorder are less likely to have had insight into their behavior and their ability to resist attenuated behaviors. such repetitive behavior is often extreme and takes a ritual form. it has been reported to relieve anxiety or tension within the individual but may re-result in inappropriate or disruptive consequences (rose & dhandayudham, 2014). 2. literature review at first, addiction was considered only drugs and substance abuse, but now non-substantial or behavioral addiction is increasing every day. these include games, gambling, internet use, and work, online shopping addiction is classified as internet addiction. compulsive purchases tend to be long-term behaviors, repetitive purchases these behaviors individuals display as a response to stressful outbursts and negative emotions. addiction to online shopping and compulsive shopping are very similar to each other both internally and externally, the main difference is that addiction to shopping is done online while compulsive shopping can be done in stores (zhao et al., 2017). phone addiction affected the increase in online shopping which brought about a new addiction (bellman et al., 1999). a study done on the impact of online shopping addiction turned out to have a negative impact on people's lives whether routine, social but mostly economic (rose & dhandayudham, 2014). internet addiction is considered when it is harmful and uncontrolled (beard, 2005). compulsive shopping is seen to have a lifetime prevalence involving 5.8% of the united states population. according to clinics in the us compulsive shopping is more prevalent in women which covers 80% of this disorder. compulsive purchases are chronic or intermittent, this disorder usually appears in adolescence or early 20s (black, 2007). in a study of 400 students, it was found that individuals saw buying as a means of raising mood, but then came the downsides such as debt and deteriorating financial side (clark & calleja, 2008). according to the dsm-v, repetitive behavioral groups, which some long-term behavioral addictions, with subcategories such as "sex addiction", "exercise addiction" or "purchase addiction" are not included because at this time there is evidence insufficiently reviewed by colleagues to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders. behavioral disorder (also called behavioral addiction) is not related to any substance of abuse that shares certain traits with substance-induced addiction. the excessive purchase form of collection disorder, which characterizes most but not all individuals with collection disorder, consists of the excessive collection, purchase, or theft of items that are not needed or for which there is no space available approx. 80% -90% of individuals with disorder clusters exhibit excessive absorption. the most common form of shopping is excessive shopping, followed by the purchase of free items (e.g., leaflets, items thrown away by others). the main features of asset accumulation disorder (i.e., difficulty in removing them, excessive amount of clutter) are generally comparable in males and females, but females tend to exhibit more oversupply, especially oversupply, than men (apa, 2013). kleptomania can be associated with a forced purchase, as well as depression and bipolar disorder (especially major depressive disorder), anxiety disorders, eating disorders (especially bulimia nervosa), personality disorders, and substance use disorders (especially substance use disorders). of alcohol) and other disruptive, impulse, and behavioral control disorders (nettelbladt, 2019). previously, the term addiction was used only for addiction to substances, while recently several behaviors have been seen that can lead to addiction such as. exercise, sex, gambling, video games, shopping, and internet use (davenport et al., 2012). orford, (2001) explained how individuals do not tend to become addicted to substances, but to objects and activities, one of which may be substance use. according to studies women tend to become more addicted to eating and shopping (mcelroy et al., 1994), while men are more addicted to drugs, gambling, and sex (holden, 2001). in another study, it was found that about 80% of compulsive buyers are female rather than male (black, 2007). hirchman (1992) proposed an addictive consumption model that explains compulsive consumption behaviors. this model proposes that people with developmental and similar circumstances exhibit such behaviors. compulsive shoppers exhibit several personality predispositions that are often associated with compulsive consumption behaviors (faber et al., 1987). compulsive buying has been reported by many studies as a way to reduce negative feelings (christenson et al., 1994). this is related to the potential that this behavior has to become 45 addictive by being reinforced through pleasure, attention, praise, and thus pushing the individual to repeat the behavior (salzman 1981; griffiths & banyard, 2009). compulsive buying was first mentioned as a disorder by kraepelin, (1915) who described people who exhibit this behavior as "buying maniacs". but later this phenomenon has been described more as a reactive impulse (black, 2007). otherwise, this addiction is also considered a pathological purchase and is characterized by extreme and poorly adapted buying behaviors that lead to personal, social, and financial problems, although the diagnostic classification of this disorder is still in debate (faber & o'guinn, 1992). also, low selfesteem is present in individuals with compulsive buying behaviors, as a way to get rid of negative feelings about themselves (jacobs, 1986). over the past decades, the buying process has changed from using the internet. online shopping offers many benefits in terms of product search as well as the buying process itself (rose & dhandayudham, 2014). there is ample evidence from studies that problematic buying behaviors are now occurring online (chen, tarn & han, 2004). there are different types of problems related to internet use such as online sex addiction, social network addiction, online gambling, and gambling, where most are previous addictions that combine with internet use, creating internet addiction (davenport et al., 2012). the question is whether there is such an addiction as online. griffiths (2000) suggests that technological addictions should be seen as a subcategory of previous addictions, hence even real internet addictions are not so obvious (davenport et al., 2012). according to young (1999), the symptoms that characterize the unhealthy use of the internet are obsessive thoughts about the internet, the inability to stop using it, etc. sun & wu (2011) linked online shopping to internet addiction itself, concluding that emotional instability and materialism are positively correlated with internet addiction, which increases the likelihood of impulsive online shopping. also, materialism and impulsivity have been associated with technology addiction in young people (roberts & pirog, 2013. on the other hand, larose and eastin (2001) found evidence that poor self-regulation influences this behavior. they proposed that lack of control as an element of online shopping may be a stronger determinant of dependence than economic considerations (larose & eastin, 2001). as we know the internet today has an impact and is a very big helper nowadays for someone both in the academic as well as the personal life of someone resulting in people having easier access to search for the latest knowledge in their studies but also easier access to communicate with others via the internet. seeing the benefits that the internet brings us, they have noticed that its excessive use can or otherwise called as binternet has relatively shown its negative consequences on both mental and physical health, not forgetting here the impact on the financial situation of an individual. where can we relate it to how much time individuals spend online shopping online creating addiction and where they are most likely to experience depression is inevitable (sharma et al., 2018). individuals who uncontrollably repeatedly shop online can be variously described as pathological buyers or dependent on it. it has emerged as problematic where individuals addicted to online shopping make expenses out of their control. but for some, it may please you to shop online with the thought that by buying online on various sites it is easier to meet its needs (trotzke, starcke, müller, et al., 2015). in a study done in india, they have shown that they prefer to spend hours while shopping online but the prevalence which was measured for excessive behavior for online shopping was generally 4% where the biggest problem is online shopping behavior was greater in females. but this prevalence can vary depending on different countries and cultures where we can also take the example of a study which was done in the us where the prevalence among respondents was 5.8% while in germany it was 7.6% (manchiraju et al., 2017). the internet has made it easier for consumers to buy often and quickly at any time possible the things they need which is consisting of uncontrolled purchases by consumers are seen as quite a worrying problem. where this impulsiveness to buy things online is resulting in a sense of guilt them as uncontrolled buying of things online has a negative impact on both their financial situation and also their emotional and social ones on these individuals (kukar-kinney et al., 2009). in one study, buying shopping disorder was more associated with depression and anxiety disorders in individuals, regardless of gender, schooling, or even partnership status. a type of gambling disorder that uncontrollably persists and acts as a gamble can also be compared to online shopping disorders as an easier way to access the online marketplace. individuals with shopping disorders have noticed that online shopping online has had an impact on their availability and anonymity by using the internet as it provides instant access to many different stores at the same time (trotzke et al., 2015). according to a two-model study, there are several variables such as stress, depression, ease of use, and utility that predict hedonic purchasing. also, these variables: stress, ease of use, and utility along with hedonic purchasing predict depression. so, according to the first model from stress to hedonic purchases, and according to the second model from stress to depression (doğan & günüc, 2017). addictive behavior can bring positive benefits to the wellbeing of the individual in the short term or negative benefits in the longer term such as feelings of guilt, anxiety, or depression. according to one study, a strong association has been found in women between loneliness, rejection sensitivity, and purchase addiction, as opposed to relationship stability, self-efficacy, and relationship satisfaction. so, according to this research, there is a reciprocal relationship between well-being and addiction to purchasing, which behavior is quite prevalent and harmful 46 (cassidy & adair, 2021). according to a study, hedonic purchases, escape, and reduction of negative mood have a significant effect on addiction (kirezli & arslan, 2019). also, the reasons/causes of purchase addiction are the avoidance of negativity and escape, which are negative psychological conditions in relation to people addicted to purchases, who seek satisfaction in shopping. these consumers are driven by an uncontrollable need for purchases and as a result, they have to face negative psychological, social, and financial consequences (kirezli & arslan, 2019). as more and more college students tend to become addicted to online shopping, one study with them found that 62.8% of them were addicted to online shopping. in excessive consumption, impaired function, truncation reaction, and satisfaction with online shopping, women have higher scores than men. also, there are differences in these dimensions depending on which year the students belong to, those of the first year have the most obvious excess consumption, while those of the second year have a functional impairment (zhang et al., 2019). 3. methodology 3.1. purpose of the research the research aims to make the connection between internet addiction and online shopping, where we are expected to see how much the variables correlate with each other and how much students depend on the internet and online shopping. hypotheses are expected to be validated which will be analyzed through quantitative analysis. 3.2. hypothesis hypothesis 1: there is a link between internet addiction and online shopping addiction. hypothesis 2: men are more addicted to the internet while women are more addicted to online shopping. hypothesis 3: the average middle-income individuals are more dependent on online shopping. 3.3. participants the specific focus of the research is on internet addiction and online shopping among students. to complete the study and results, participants from three cities in kosovo, prizren, prishtina, and peja, were selected. participants completed the questionnaire online through google forms and where out of 300 participants 295 completely answered the questions (n = 295, 96 males, 197 females, and two others). in this survey, a total of 295 respondents answered, gender distribution 197 (66.8) women, 96 (32.5%) men and 2 others (0.7%). in terms of age, all were students, i.e. 18 years or older. therefore, age was not asked in the questionnaire as the focus was on students. the sample of this research was mainly students. 3.4. instruments i the questionnaire measuring online shopping addiction “bergen shopping addiction scale” was developed in 1996 by cecilie andreassen at the university of bergen, norway. of the four pooled item sets reflecting the seven addiction criteria, the highest loading item was retained. in the final scale, the factor structure of the bsas on the bergen shopping addiction scale (bsas) was good (rmsea = 0.064, cfi = 0.983, tli = 0.973) and the alpha coefficient was 0.87. the questionnaire contains 28 questions and 7 sub-dimensions where each contains 4 questions (salience, mood modification, conflict, tolerance, withdrawal, relapse, and problems). in the first questionnaire for online shopping the answers are given in 5 scales where the likert scale is used, starting from 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (strongly disagree), 3 (neutral), 4 (strongly agree), and 5 (strongly agree). it ıs builde in the form of likert’s scale. 3.5. instruments ii this study aims to verify the dimensions of internet addiction in the albanian “internet addiction scale for adolescents” which was adopted by basha, telaku & mustafa (2021) to determine internet addiction. the cronbach alpha internal stability coefficient was found to be .828. it has been shown that the factor loading values of the scale items vary between .56 and .72. the kaiser-meyer-olkin coefficient (kmo) was 0.86 and the bartlett x2test of sphericity value was 605.873 (p less than 000). in confirmatory factor analysis, the one-dimensional structure of the scale fits well [x2= 63.166, df = 26, x2 / df = 2.42 rmsea = .077, rmr = .069, s-rmr = .049, gfi = .95, agfi =. 91, cfi = .94, nnfi = .90, ifi = .94]. contains 9 questions in total and the answers are given 1. once, 2. rarely, 3. sometimes, 4. often, 5. always. it ıs build in the form of likert’s scale. 3.6. data collection and analysis in order to carry out this research, questionnaires were collected online, where the main focus was students from public and private faculties. the specific focus of the research is the correlation of internet addiction with online shopping. in order to achieve the objectives of the study and the ideal results, participants were selected from different faculties in kosovo and we were able to collect data from different parts of kosovo. these questionnaires were collected during the covid-19 period in 2021. questionnaires were applied to different age groups starting from 18 years old and above. 47 the number of participants in this study is 295. the research analyzes were done with ibm spss statistics, where a nonparametric correlation and spearman's analysis between internet addiction and online shopping were aimed. relations screening models are studies that aim to determine the change between two or more variables (karasar, 2004). otherwise, spps is a software program that is used for interactive or joint statistical analysis. the spss program analyzes scientific data related to the social sciences. this study is quantitative since we applied the questionnaire, this type of research has to do with the study of social behavior through computationally based techniques. 4. results the results of this study were made through the software program spss (statistical package for the social sciences) which is designed for statistical analysis for the social sciences. table 1. gender differences in online shopping addiction, salience sub-dimension salience sub-dimension of addiction to online shopping n mean rank sum of ranks u p male 102 136,38 13911,00 8658,000 ,042 female 198 157,77 31239,00 the results of the salience sub-dimension of dependence on online student purchases vary significantly in terms of gender, u = 8658.00, p <.05. the results of the salience sub-dimension of female online shopping addiction are higher than those of men. the reason for this may be that women spend more time taking care of their appearance compared to men. table 2. gender differences depending on online shopping, mood modification sub-dimension mood modification sub-dimension of addiction to online shopping n mean rank sum of ranks u p male 102 136,68 13941.00 8688.000 ,047 female 198 157,62 31209.00 the results of the mood modification sub-dimension of dependence on online student purchases differ significantly in terms of gender, u = 8688.00, p <.05. the results of the mood modification sub-dimension of female online shopping addiction are higher than those of men. the reason for this may be that women spend more time taking care of their appearance compared to men. table 3. dependence on online shopping and perception of monthly income, sub-dimension salience salience n mean rank sd χ2 p significant difference low 45 127,20 2 8,233 ,016 high > average, high > low average 222 150,25 high 33 183,95 the results of the sub-dimension of dependence on online shopping of students, salience (questions that measure the perspective of people towards online shopping) show a significant change in terms of financial status, r, x2 (sd = 2, n = 300) = 8,233, p <.05. 48 table 4. dependence on online shopping and perception of monthly income, sub-dimension mood modification mood modification n mean rank sd χ2 p significant difference low 45 124,11 2 10,578 ,005 high> average, high> low average 222 150,20 high 33 183,50 the results of the sub-dimension of addiction to student online shopping, mood modification (questions that measure mood modification) show a significant change in terms of financial status, r, x2 (sd = 2, n = 300) = 10,578, p <.05. table 5. nonparametric correlations – spearman’s analysis salience mood modification conflict tolerance relapse withdrawal problems internet salience 1 .549** .464** .662** .536** .485** .404** .219** moodmod... 1 .483** .673** .513** .507** .463** .310** conflict 1 .622** .624** .469** .560** .305** tolerance 1 .720** .623** .609** .350** relapse 1 .544** .637** .251** withdrawal 1 .534** .463** problems 1 .299** internet 1 in the 5th table is found a positive and significant correlation between online shopping and internet dependence and subdimensions which are with values max (r. =. 673 **) and min (r. =. 219 **) table above. according to the table above (r. =. 673 **), this shows that the correlation between the variables is higher significant. according to the sub-dimensions it is seen that the dependence on online and internet shopping exists and stays. 5. conclusions the purpose of this research was to make the relationship between internet addiction and online shopping, where we are expected to see how correlated the variables are and how much students are dependent on the internet and online shopping. thus analyzing gender and economic differences. as a result of the data obtained from this research, it is noticed that the female gender in the results of the sub-dimension 49 salience (questions that measure the perspective of people towards online shopping) p <.042, is a value higher than p <.05. of addiction to online student shopping vary significantly in terms of gender. where it is seen that the results of the salience subdimension of addiction to online shopping of women are higher than those of men. according to the results achieved it is worth noting that the above hypothesis stated that women are more dependent on online shopping in our case stands. this result achieved in the gender difference where it was observed that women are more dependent on online shopping is supported by many other types of research. in countries like india, the usa, and germany this gender difference was also found with different percentages (manchiraju, 2017; mcelroy, 1994; black, 2007; zhang, 2019). the reason for this may be that women spend more time taking care of their appearance compared to men. a significant change was observed in students' online shopping addiction sub-dimension results and salience financial status. this change in financial status is also highlighted by other research that has also been done on young students, where this dependence has had a negative impact on the financial lives of students (kukar-kinney 2009; larose, 2001; wu, 2011; roberts, 2013; clark, 2008; rose, 2014). in the addiction link, results in a positive and significant link were found between online shopping and internet addiction and sub-dimensions. where in this case even the first hypothesis posed to addictions stands and it is clear that they have a positive correlation. internet addiction among young people can come as a result that the internet being used as a source of any information or questions we have in mind; the internet also facilitates communication with any country in the world. these results were also supported by other research (sharma et al., 2018). phone addiction affected the increase in online shopping which brought about a new addiction (bellman et al., 1999). thus, the positive results about the dependence on online shopping among students, mainly during in the period of the pandemic, when this research was conducted, the increase in online shopping should be visible. this can come as a result of hygiene, closure from the virus, and quick purchase. other research supports online shopping addiction with ease of searching, lower prices, a variety of goods, time savings, ease of use, entertainment, promotions, and impulsive behavior on the part of shoppers. also, the reasons/causes of purchase addiction are the avoidance of negativity and escape, which are negative psychological states of people addicted to purchases, who seek satisfaction in shopping, these consumers are driven by an uncontrollable need for purchases and how results they have to face negative psychological, social and financial consequences. individuals addicted to shopping have been found to shop online has had an impact on their availability and anonymity by using the internet as it provides instant access to many different stores at the same time (gunuc; kirezli; trotzke). recently, especially with the covid-19 pandemic, studies on internet addiction and the transition of schools and universities to online education have inevitably led to an increase in children's and adolescents' interest in internet addiction, online communication and online games and online games (basha & topal, 2020; basha, 2021). research on internet addiction and online shopping was conducted in the state of kosovo for the first time we hope to pave the way for further research on these addictions which are worth analyzing from time to time, especially in these periods when we are facing the pandemic, and are increasing these wire addictions making people more passive and changing everyone's routines. references 1. american 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(2017). the development and validation of the online shopping addiction scale. frontiers in psychology, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00735 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2015.05.043 https://doi.org/10.1556/jba.1.2012.011 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00735 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 52 effectiveness of google classroom: teachers’ perceptions kaukab abid azhar barrett hodgson university kaukababidazhar@gmail.com nayab iqbal barrett hodgson university nayab.iqbal20@gmail.com abstract technology has gained importance in all stages of education yet educators have been unable to figure out which of the many available technological tools best fit their classroom practices. google classroom is one such tool that is free of cost and has gained popularity within a short span of time. the main purpose of the study is to assess teachers’ perception on the effectiveness of google classroom. the study is carried out through a qualitative research design. the sample of the study, which uses semi-structured interview method, consists of 12 higher education teachers who have implemented google classroom for at least one semester in their classroom. the data acquired has been put through a comprehensive analysis by coding and categorizing the data through nvivo. findings revealed that teachers perceive it as only a facilitation tool that can be used for document management and basic classroom management, without having a significant impact on teaching methodologies. the responses of the teachers indicate that lack of user-friendly interface is the main reason for its inefficiency. further studies can be conducted by taking the students’ perspective into account. keywords: educational technology, google classroom, integrating technology, virtual classroom mailto:email%3akaukababidazhar@gmail.com mailto:nayab.iqbal20@gmail.com prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 53 1. introduction the concept of education has undergone a major shift, in recent times, from teacher-centric to learner or learning-centric. earlier, teachers played the role of knowledge providers, but now their role has expanded. there is a lot of emphasis on integrating technology in the classroom through innovative teaching strategies that focus on enabling students to achieve the desired learning objectives (hwang, lai, & wang, 2015). technology facilitates increasing student engagement (northey, bucic, chylinski, & govind, 2015) which is critical to obtain the desired learning objectives (bolkan, 2015). educational technologies are often incorporated in a classroom setting to allow learning to be personalized and independent for the students (graham, 2006). advocates and critics of using educational technologies have found a middle ground through blended (or hybrid) learning (hinkelman, 2018). the terms blended learning, mixed-mode learning, and hybrid learning are used interchangeably (zhao & breslow, 2013). blended learning allows a smooth transition from a shift in teaching methodology, for teachers and learners. it is important that the goal should not be just to integrate technology in the classroom; instead, pedagogical objectives should determine the different mode of teaching instructions (o’byrne & kristine, 2015). teachers can now use a number of educational technologies, along with the traditional classroom setup, to enhance the learning environment for the students. in 2014, google apps for education (gafe) launched google classroom. the application is free to use for teachers and students which makes it an ideal fit for developing countries, where the budgets are limited. it can act as a learning management system in schools, colleges, and higher education institutes. teachers can effectively utilize classroom time using google classroom. 1.1 problem statement with the objective of increasing classroom effectiveness, teachers aim to enhance student engagement by making student experience more independent and personalized, a growing number of schools, colleges, and higher education institutes are in the phase of adoption of blended learning in developing countries (spring, graham, & hadlock, 2016). google classroom can be prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 54 used as a blended learning tool to elevate classroom productivity. the lack of research on google classroom, specifically in the context of developing countries, has prompted the need to further investigate the effectiveness of the tool. using technology in an appropriate manner is one of the biggest challenges for the teachers to manage in a blended learning environment; therefore, this study is focused on assessing the effectiveness of google classroom in higher education classes. 1.2 purpose of the study the purpose of the study is to explore the teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of google classroom in higher education classes. 1.3 research question what are the teachers’ perceptions of effectiveness of google classroom? 1.4 significance of the study technology is an integral part of the young generation. the widespread use of technology has generated interested in many researchers and academicians to explore the ways teachers can use that technology prowess to enhance the learning of students. the popularity of google classroom is increasing day by day; however, there are limited studies which have explored the effectiveness of the tool. the results of the study can provide evidence to the administrators, teachers, and educationists of the effectiveness of google classroom. 2. literature review 2.1 google classroom google classroom was launched in 2014; therefore, studies related to the effectiveness of google classroom are limited. shaharanee, jamil, & rodzi (2016) analyzed google classroom’s active learning activities. they used tam (technology acceptance model) to study the prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 55 effectiveness of the activities posted on the platform. results of 100 students revealed that comparative performance of google classroom was far better in the areas of communication, interaction, perceived usefulness, ease of use, and overall students’ satisfaction. similarly, (espinosa, estira, & ventayen, 2017) conducted a research to evaluate the functionality of google classroom as a learning management system (lms). the study found that cost was the primary reason for the adoption. collaborative learning through assignments was viewed as an extremely effective tool for enhancing student engagement. liu & chuang (2016) conducted an action research in taiwan in which they used google classroom with the integration of peer tutor mechanism for 6th grade students. students held a positive perception regarding the use of google classroom. the learning objectives were also achieved. martínez-monés et al. (2017) called for an integration of learning analytics with google classroom as they believed that this is a major limitation of the emerging tool. so far, to the best knowledge of the researcher, all the research conducted on google classroom have indicated a positive response from the students. none of the research has focused on taking into account the teacher’s perceptions of the effectiveness of google classroom. the role of teachers in the adoption of any new learning methodology should not be ignored as they are the central figure in the transformation of educational practices. 2.2 integrating technology in classroom educational institute’s management or administration has a major role to play in integrating technology in classrooms as they have to finance or manage the process and ultimately decide to what extent they plan to use technology. öznacar & dericioğlu (2017) conducted a research in high schools on the role of administrators in the use of technology in which they discovered that the administrators held positive beliefs regarding integrating technology in the classroom. one of the many reasons for the failure of not successfully integrating technology was that the administrators believed that 80% of their teachers were not technologically aware to use it effectively; hence, the project failed. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 56 another study by machado & chung (2015) showed the same findings in which they studied the role of the principal in the process of integrating technology in the classroom. findings revealed a strong belief of principals of teachers’ lack of technical training and competency which was preventing the schools from technology integration. samy et al. (2008) consider teachers’ acceptance as an important factor in the effective use of technology in classrooms. the role of administrators is to facilitate the training and infrastructure for the teachers; however, ultimately it is the teacher who has to enhance the use of technology with the students. the educational technology, at the moment, is not transformative alone, student learning can improve only through a teacher; therefore, it is absolutely essential that teachers’ acceptance of technology is present. blair (2012) has mentioned two elements in providing an environment for technology integration. first, teachers need to place technology into the hands of students carefully by selecting the right mediums. second, technological tools should be constantly evolving to enhance problem-solving, innovation, decision-making, and teamwork. based on the literature review section, this study is focused on teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of google classroom. 3. methodology 3.1 research method the research problem requires a phenomenological methodology. for this qualitative exploratory study, a total of 12 semi-structured interviews were conducted. purposive sampling technique was used. participants for the study were selected from the teachers that were using google classroom for at least one semester. the intention of using purposive sampling technique was to gain an insight into the matter under investigation (gall, gall, & borg, 2006). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 57 3.2 participants all the participants (8 males and 4 females) were higher education teachers. participants were affiliated with three different universities of karachi, pakistan. only those teachers were selected who had used google classroom for at least one semester. in order to protect the confidentiality of the participants, codes were assigned to participants at the time of transcription of interviews. 3.3 instrumentation the semi-structured interviews were conducted on the basis of a set of questions that were devised from the literature review and past studies. the questions covered various aspects of google classroom including familiarity, awareness, impact, effectiveness, and reflection on using google classroom. 3.4 data collection prior to the interviews, a consent form was given to the participants in which the purpose of the study and approval of ethics committee was attached. they were also informed that they could choose not to answer any of the formulated questions. after taking their consent, interviews were scheduled as per their convenience. all the interviews were conducted in the faculty office of the participants, apart from two which were conducted in the researcher’s office. the duration of an interview, on an average, was 36 minutes. the interviews were conducted, primarily, in urdu language. all the interviews were recorded on a mobile application “voice recorder pro”. field notes were also taken to record observations including any non-verbal gestures that could not have been captured in the digital recording. at the end of the interview, the researcher thanked the participant and informed him/her that a follow-up interview might be scheduled to triangulate data or for any clarification. digital recordings were transcribed into nvivo (version 10). transcription of the interviews was carried after each interview. after transcribing, the data was analyzed and reviewed through the software to spot the emerging themes. the use of the software helped in quickly prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 58 discovering the commonalities in the interviews. data started to saturate when nine interviews were analyzed. 4. findings the questions were aimed at gaining insight into teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of google classroom. the study included 12 higher education teachers (8 lecturers and 4 assistant professors) from different educational backgrounds: two english teachers, one economics teacher, three accounting teachers, one finance teacher, two marketing teachers, and three management teachers. the teaching experience of the participants ranged from 2 years to 15 years and they selfreported that they have been using google classroom from one to two semesters (5-10 months). table 4.1 represents the summary of respondents’ profiles. table 4.1 respondent’s profile identifier gender position subject years of teaching experience experience in using google classroom p1 female lecturer english 2-3 2 semesters p2 female lecturer english 5 + 2 semesters p3 male lecturer accounting 3 + 2 semesters p4 male lecturer marketing 2-3 2 semesters p5 male assistant professor marketing 10 + 1 semester p6 male assistant professor finance 10 + 2 semesters p7 male lecturer accounting 5 + 2 semesters p8 female lecturer economics 4 + 2 semesters p9 male assistant professor management 15 1 semester prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 59 p10 female assistant professor accounting 2 1 semester p11 female lecturer management 2 1 semester p12 female lecturer management 2 1 semester table 4.2 represents the findings from the interviews: table 4.2: codes, categories, and themes codes category themes record keeping of assignments facilitation of assignments tracking progress of assignments benefits of using google classroom checking assignments check and balance of assignment feedback on assignment replacing whatsapp group improvement in teacherstudent interaction announcement feature facilitates communication message any time no time constraints uploading of materials improvement in classroom organization videos upload take quick quiz upload marks use as learning management system no students involvement issues faced by students in class usage (other websites) challenges in implementing google classroom no individual student folder not user-friendly for students difficult for students to comprehend prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 60 not user-friendly for teachers issues faced by teachers unable to make it interactive took time to adjust 5. discussi 5.1 overall effectiveness: when the teachers were asked about the overall effectiveness of google classroom, most of the teachers were neutral as they considered it as a small part of their overall teaching strategy. my teaching effectiveness is the same but it has facilitated me and the students. (p1) i didn’t experience any improvement in increasing the level of student engagement although it has helped me a lot in other areas. (p7) i would consider 50% success and 50% failure overall. (p3) i find google classroom as an average tool. (p11) it hasn’t affected anything on my teaching. communication with the students has improved through it. (p2) it’s just a communication tool. no impact on teaching. (p9) some of them had negative remarks on its overall performance. although they were comparing it to very different kind of technological platforms, they had formed a strong belief against google classroom due to their misconceptions. it cannot compete with udemy. (p6) universities’ lms software is much better than google classroom. (p5) 5.2 facilitation of assignments: the main benefit that emerged from the interviews was related to assignments of the class. teachers used google classroom for different purposes, such as uploading, announcing, and assessing assignments online. i use it for sharing assignments with the class, although i do not use it for checking and grading assignments. (p3) eliminates the hard copies of the assignments which is beneficial for the teachers as well as the students. (p1) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 61 now i can easily mark the assignments online at the end of the semester without students complaining that you have misplaced my assignment. (p9) i receive notification when a student has completed an assignment. (p12) easy tracking of assignments. (p2) 5.3 improvement in teacher-student interaction: some of the teachers pointed out that they were able to interact with the students even outside the classroom which facilitated the overall teacher-student interaction. i now don’t require a whatsapp group to communicate with the students as i use the announcement feature regularly to exchange messages with the class. (p2) i don’t have to send separate emails. i can send messages and assignments easily. (p6) it facilitates interaction and discussion among students. (p1) 5.4 improvement in classroom organization: another key benefit that emerged from the interview was how teachers were able to better organize their class and course through google classroom. it helps in uploading course materials with the whole class. (p3) i mostly use the feature of uploading course materials. it saves paper. (p2) now i don’t have to send separate emails. i can send messages and assignments easily. (p12) it’s a good tool for record keeping. i used to collect a number of sheets and papers from the students. (p8) uploading handouts and assignments. tracking progress of students’ tasks and portfolios. (p7) i use it mostly to upload books, materials, and assignments. (p11) assignments, materials, and quizzes. (p10) it makes data sharing extremely easy. (p5) i can take instant quizzes through google classroom. (p9) 5.5 issues faced by students: teachers highlighted some of the major issues faced by the students. it is quite evident from their statements that students have faced difficulties in adoption of google classroom due to lack of ease of use and familiarity. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 62 they find whatsapp easy to use. (p2) students make a lot of excuses when i want to initiate an online discussion. excuses such as “i didn’t see the post”, “what was i supposed to do?”, “i tried commenting but it didn’t get through” etc. (p9) it doesn’t seem user-friendly to the students. (p11) it’s not widespread, so initially, students find it challenging to use. (p2) there is no peer-interaction in my google classroom. students interact with the teacher only by sending personal messages. (p1) i could barely see students commenting on the posts unless they were asked to do so. (p12) students think that uploading material online is problematic. (p6) students have come to me and said that it’s not easy to upload or edit material online. (p4) 5.6 issues faced by teachers: teachers responded to the issues faced by them based on their unique experiences because of which diverse responses were observed. some of the teachers were concerned about the misuse of mobile and technology in the classroom. it’s difficult to monitor if students are using their mobile phones in the classroom for study purposes or checking their social media notifications. (p3) when students are using mobile phones in the classroom, i do not know if they are using google classroom or browsing any other site. (p6) students often divert from studies if they use mobile phones in the class. (p8) excessive use of such technologies can be problematic. (p11) there were a few teachers who admitted that they were not able to effectively use the technology for improving classroom practices. maybe i wasn’t able to make the platform interactive. (p7) i didn’t post a lot of content to make the group interactive. i want to engage students in my classroom. (p12) it helps in uploading course materials to the whole class; however, sometimes when i forget to upload a file then students face difficulties. (p1) on the other hand, there were some teachers who considered google classroom difficult to adopt. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 63 it’s difficult for teachers to understand how to use it effectively. (p3) i don’t like the fact that it is linked to my personal gmail account. (p4) 5.7 improvement areas: the participants of the study were asked to identify areas which can improve the effectiveness of google classroom. teachers came up with some interesting features that can be included in google classroom. i think video editing is a feature that is missing from google classroom. (p11) can there be live streaming of videos, like skype? if no, then if this feature is added then it will become a complete virtual classroom. (p5) there must be an individual folder for each student. (p9) there should be a space where students can work directly on documents; instead of downloading, editing, and then uploading documents. (p3) 6. conclusion: the analysis of the interviews revealed that google classroom has not made a significant impact on overall classroom teaching. it has been used effectively for uploading assignments, classroom management, and communication with the students; however, the overall use is limited to only these features; whereas, google classroom has a lot to offer apart from just these basic features. an intriguing observation from the interviews was that none of the participants acknowledged or brought up the fact that it is a free tool and has no cost implications which is a major consideration while implementation of technology in the majority of the education sector in pakistan. these are early years for google classroom and familiarity with this platform will grow over time which is a significant barrier for students and teachers at the moment. an important finding of the study was that the interface of google classroom is not viewed as user-friendly by the teachers. if the administrators can work on ease of use and making it simpler with some additional features, such as video streaming, then the effectiveness of google classroom can improve drastically. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 64 7. contributions of the study the study proposes several recommendations for administrators and teachers. google classroom is a free tool that can be used by any university that does not have enough resources to form its own lms (learning management system). it reduces the paperwork for the teachers and assists in classroom management. it also helps in enhancing the student-teacher interaction and communication. teachers need to do spend some time initially to understand the various features of google classroom as the study suggests that a number of teachers faced initial difficulties in getting used to its functionality. teachers should also conduct a session to train students regarding the importance and use of google classroom in which they could explain the various features and benefits for the students. 8. limitation and future research the study was conducted in the higher education sector in pakistan so findings cannot be generalized. a similar study can be conducted in primary or secondary schools to compare if the findings are consistent with the study. future studies can also incorporate quantitative techniques and obtain a mix methodology approach to further strengthen the validity of the findings. the study was based on analysis of interviews from teachers, it will be interesting to take into account the perceptions of students and compare those with teachers’ perceptions. a comparative study can also be conducted by comparing the effectiveness of google classroom with other educational platforms. 9. references blair, n. (2012). technology integration for th. principal, 91(3), 8–11. bolkan, s. (2015). intellectually stimulating students’ intrinsic motivation: the mediating influence of affective learning and student engagement. communication reports, 28(2), 80–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934215.2014.962752 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 65 espinosa, n., estira, k. l., & ventayen, r. j. m. (2017). usability evaluation of google classroom: basis for the adaptation of gsuite e-learning platform. asia pacific journal of education, arts, and science, 5(1). gall, m. d., gall, j. p., & borg, w. r. (2006). educational research: an introduction (8 edition). boston: pearson. graham, c. r. (2006). blended learning systems. the handbook of blended learning, 3–21. hinkelman, d. (2018). evolution of blended learning. in blending technologies in second language classrooms (pp. 1–21). palgrave macmillan, london. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53686-0_1 hwang, g.-j., lai, c.-l., & wang, s.-y. (2015). seamless flipped learning: a mobile technologyenhanced flipped classroom with effective learning strategies. journal of computers in education, 2(4), 449–473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-015-0043-0 liu, h.-c., & chuang, h.-h. (2016). integrating google classroom to teach writing in taiwan. minnesota elearning summit. retrieved from https://pubs.lib.umn.edu/index.php/mes/article/view/730 machado, l. j., & chung, c.-j. (2015). integrating technology: the principals’ role and effect. international education studies, 8(5), 43. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v8n5p43 martínez-monés, a., reffay, c., torío, j. h., & cristóbal, j. a. m. (2017). learning analytics with google classroom: exploring the possibilities. in proceedings of the 5th international conference on technological ecosystems for enhancing multiculturality (p. 47:1–47:6). new york, ny, usa: acm. https://doi.org/10.1145/3144826.3145397 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 66 northey, g., bucic, t., chylinski, m., & govind, r. (2015). increasing student engagement using asynchronous learning. journal of marketing education, 37(3), 171–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0273475315589814 o’byrne, w. ian, & pytash, kristine e. (2015). hybrid and blended learning. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 59(2), 137–140. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.463 öznacar, b., & dericioğlu, s. (2017). the role of school administrators in the use of technology. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 13(1), 253–268. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2017.00615a samy, n. k., che rose, r., & alby, j. l. d. (2008). teachers’ readiness to use technology in the classroom: an empirical study. european journal of scientific research, 21, 603–616. shaharanee, i. n. m., jamil, j. m., & rodzi, s. s. m. (2016). google classroom as a tool for active learning. aip conference proceedings, 1761(1), 020069. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4960909 spring, k. j., graham, c. r., & hadlock, c. a. (2016). the current landscape of international blended learning. international journal of technology enhanced learning, 8(1), 84–102. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijtel.2016.075961 zhao, y., & breslow, l. (2013). literature review on hybrid/blended learning. teaching and learning laboratory (tll), 1–22. abstract 1. introduction 1.1 problem statement 1.2 purpose of the study 1.3 research question 1.4 significance of the study 2. literature review 2.1 google classroom 2.2 integrating technology in classroom 3. methodology 3.1 research method 3.2 participants 3.3 instrumentation 3.4 data collection 4. findings 5. discussi 5.1 overall effectiveness: 5.2 facilitation of assignments: 5.3 improvement in teacher-student interaction: 5.4 improvement in classroom organization: 5.5 issues faced by students: 5.6 issues faced by teachers: 5.7 improvement areas: 6. conclusion: 7. contributions of the study 8. limitation and future research 9. references 66 the impact of foreign direct investment on gdp and agriculture in kosovo: an empirical study fatjona parallangaj ¹ university “ukshin hoti” prizren, faculty of life and environmental science, msc. student, fatjona.parallangaj@outlook.com article history: submission 11 december 2022 revision 27 march 2023 accepted 17 april 2023 available online 30 april 2023 keywords: fdi, economic growth, agriculture. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.412 a b s t r a c t this study examines the effect of fdi on economic growth and agriculture in kosovo in the years 2010-2021. to quantify the effects of the explanatory variables on the explanatory variables, data was generated for the variables collected by the world bank and the kosovo statistical agency. the results of analysis (ols robust) show is performed with two models. two models, olsr1 and olsr2, were developed to analyze the impact of independent variables on gdp and agriculture. olsr1 found agriculture land and government expenditure positively affect gdp, while olsr2 found gdp positively affects agriculture land, while inflation has a negative impact. the negative coefficients for fdi, interest rate, and government expenditure in olsr2 suggest they negatively impact agriculture land but are not significant. the results have important implications for policymakers in kosovo, who aiming to attract more fdi and boost economic development. 1. introduction one of the most significant areas of an economy is foreign direct investment because of the impact it brings. specifically, to commercialization and globalization, fdi is a source of funding and a driving force behind economic development in underdeveloped nations. for many countries, especially developing and transition countries, fdi has been an important component of country’s development initiatives. fdi is a crucial step in the process of integrating the world's economies and is motivated by market liberalization, international competition, and technological development. they have an impact on both the investing and host nations. academics and policymakers frequently make the case that developing nations should draw in fdi to boost economic growth by giving local businesses access to direct capital funding and beneficial productivity externalities (alfaro & matthew, 2012). in many nations throughout the world, fdi has become increasingly important in driving economic development and prosperity. in recent years, particularly in emerging countries, there has been increased interest in the relationship between fdi, gdp, and agriculture. fdi is currently a major factor in the expansion and growth of the economy of kosovo. the link in kosovo between investment, gdp, and agriculture has attracted greater attention. the aim of this study is to empirically examine the effect of foreign direct investment on both the economic growth (gdp) and the agricultural sector in kosovo. the study aims to determine how much fdi impacts economic development and growth, as well as how it specifically affects the country's agriculture sector. by analyzing the connection between fdi and gdp and agricultural growth, understanding the possible benefits and drawbacks of fdi in kosovo will be improved by the findings of this study, and provide insights into how the government and policymakers can best leverage fdi to support sustainable economic growth and agricultural development. this paper has the following format. the study’s relevant literature is reviewed in part 2. part 3 covers the methodology for the study and analyzes the data and sources of the variables. the study’s empirical findings are justified economically in part 4 of the paper. the discussion and conclusions reached in part 5 are outlined considering the paper’s results. mailto:fatjona.parallangaj@outlook.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.412 https://orcid.org/0009-0003-6721-6201 67 2. literature review foreign direct investment (fdi) is an investment abroad by a company or individual from another country. in many countries, fdi has played a significant role in the growth and prosperity of the economy. the relation between fdi and economic growth has been the topic of several studies. foreign direct investment is now widely acknowledged to have a significant role in both the industrial development of developed and emerging nations as well as contributing to economic growth, for example through raising overall factor effectiveness (bartels & crombrugghe, 2009). evidence suggests that the nigerian economy’s market size or gdp, attracts foreign direct investment due to increased production leading to an increase in fdi inflows by about 2.35% (maku, 2015). several emerging nations have seen exceptional economic growth thanks to foreign direct investment. in general, fdi not only expands capital supply, but can also accelerate technology transfer, subject to host country’s regulations. technology transfer contributes to human resource development, that in turn can increase opportunities for economic progress. in other words, fdi can use both direct and indirect channels to promote economic growth (anwar & nguyen, 2010). foreign direct investment has a favorable and statistically significant influence on economic growth in mena nations, according to omri (2014). using panel data for latin america, bengoa and sanchez-robles (2003) examined the relationship between foreign direct investment, economic freedom, and economic development. they concluded that foreign direct investment has a significant positive effect on host country economic growth by comparing fixed and random effects estimates. research has also been conducted on how foreign direct investment affects economic expansion. for example, a study by akinlo (2004) found that foreign direct investment has a positive impact on economic growth in nigeria. to assess if foreign direct investment fosters economic growth, jyun-yi and chih-chiang (2008) used a threshold regression analysis. their research demonstrates that fdi alone does not clearly contribute to economic growth based on a sample of 62 nations evaluated between 1975 and 2000. they concluded that the first most significant elements influencing foreign direct investment were gdp and human capital. foreign direct investment has a favorable and considerable impact on growth when the host nations have higher gdp and human capital. mehic and babichodovic (2013) examined the impact of foreign direct investment (fdi) on economic growth in southeast european transition countries. the empirical study covers seven countries in southeast europe and spans the years 1998 to 2007. the estimation model chosen by the authors is the prais-winsten regression with panel-adjusted standard errors. the main finding of the study is that fdi has a positive and statistically significant impact on economic growth. the impact of fdi is statistically significant and strong when domestic investment is considered. çakërri (2019) argues that fdi has a significant impact on the economic growth and development of the host country. in theory, foreign direct investment should promote economic growth in the host country by facilitating knowledge transfer, boosting local investment, and creating employment opportunities. thus, this link has been discussed by many authors both theoretically and experimentally. a beneficial effect of fdi on gdp has been noted. alfaro et al. (2004) assert that fdi may boost local businesses’ productivity, transfer technology and information, and foster rivalry in host nations, all of which contribute to higher economic growth. in a similar vein, lipsey (2004) discovered that fdi may improve local businesses’ productivity and expand the export potential of host nations. according to a study by borensztein et al., (1998) fd investment is beneficial for economic development, particularly in underdeveloped nations. according to a study by santangelo (2018), there are different effects depending on the investor's place of origin on fdi in agricultural land in emerging countries, a fact that sometimescalled land grab. due to institutional pressure from the home country regarding respect for human rights and responsible management of agricultural land, in addition to positive spillover effects, direct land investment by investors from developed countries has a positive impact affect the availability of food by expanding the area used for agricultural production. lack of investment by firms and governments has led to lower rates of productivity growth and output stagnation in many emerging nations since the agricultural sector has long been disregarded as a source of development and a means of eradicating poverty (oloyede 2014). also, to have a comprehensive understanding of the issue, the authors’ empirical scientific research on foreign direct investment, gdp, and agriculture is evaluated (javorick, 2004; furtan & holzman, 2004; alvaro et al., 2006; mottaleb, 2007; falki, 2009; denisia, 2010; louzi & abadi, 2011; adefabi, 2011; lipsey & sjöholm, 2011; dritsaki, c. & dritsaki, m., 2012; amendolagine et al., 2013; dritsakis & stamatiou, 2014; kilic, bayar & arica, 2014; kukaj & ahmeti, 2016; epaphra & mwakalasya, 2017; siddique et al., 2017; sertoglu, ugural, & bekun, 2017; bunte et al., 2018). the findings of the many research analyzed have demonstrated a relationship between foreign direct investment, economic growth and agriculture. 68 3. methodology this study will use a quantitative research design as the method of investigation. secondary data will be used to conduct the study. gdp and agriculture in kosovo will be the study's dependent variables. fdi will be the independent variable. the analysis will involve government expenditure, interest rates, and inflation as control variables. data was collected by the world bank (wb) and the kosovo statistics service (kas) to assess the impact of the independent variable on the dependent variable. primary and secondary data were used in the data gathering process. data were analyzed using the stata statistical software. we have adopted general form of multiple regression model: y = β0 + β1x1 + β2x2 + β3x3 + β4x4 + β5x5 + 𝜖 • y = the predicted value of the dependent variable • β0 = the y-intercept (value of y when all other parameters are set to 0) • β1x1 = the regression coefficient (β1) of the first independent variable (x1) (the effect that increasing the value of the independent variable has on the predicted y value) • βnxn = the regression coefficient of the last independent variable • 𝜖 = model error 4. research results econometric techniques are used to examine the data. using panel data regression analysis, the study will examine the relationship between fdi, gdp, and agriculture in kosovo. 4.2. descriptive statistics a summary of descriptive research statistics is shown in table 1. depending on the data set displayed, the minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation values are displayed. based on the descriptive statistics presented from table 3, we can see that the mean gdp value is 22.668 with a std.dev., of 0.148, indicating values that are relatively close to the mean. the minimum and maximum values are 22,399 and 22,965 respectively. a standard deviation of.2 and a mean value of 12.806 indicate that agricultural land values are significantly dispersed. 12.503 and 12.949 are the minimum and highest values, respectively. with a std.dev., of.301 and a mean value of 19.647, the fdi indicates that the values are often near to the mean. 19.113 and 20.098 are the lowest and highest numbers, respectively. table 1. descriptive statistics variable mean std. dev. min max gdp 22.668 .148 22.399 22.965 agriculture land 12.806 .2 12.503 12.949 fdi 19.647 .301 19.113 20.098 inflation 2 2.122 -.537 7.336 int rate 6.934 2.1 4.41 11.427 gov exp 28.384 3.019 24.92 34.3 source: calculated by the author 41 and 11.427 are the minimum and maximum values, respectively. government spending has a mean value of 28.384 and a std.dev. of 3.019, which shows that the values are well dispersed. 24.92 and 34 are the least and highest values. 4.2. correlation analysis table 2 shows a correlation matrix between variables, which is used to test the relationship between variables. according to the correlation results, agriculture land has a 0.701 correlation coefficient and is connected positively with gdp. this suggests that countries with more agricultural land tend to have higher gdp. 69 table 2. matrix of correlations variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1) gdp 1.000 (2) agriculture_land 0.701 1.000 (3) fdi -0.048 -0.472 1.000 (4) inflation -0.135 -0.649 0.646 1.000 (5) int_rate -0.610 -0.577 -0.183 -0.038 1.000 (6) gov_exp -0.123 -0.671 0.569 0.498 0.396 1.000 source: calculated by the author fdi and gdp have a -0.048 correlation coefficient, which is a negative relationship. this suggests that countries with higher fdi tend to have lower gdp, although the correlation is weak. inflation is negatively correlated with gdp and fdi, with the correlation coefficients being -0.135 and -0.649 respectively. this suggests that higher inflation tends to be associated with lower gdp and less fdi. gdp, agricultural land, and foreign direct investment are all inversely connected with interest rates, with correlation values of -0.610, -0.577, and -0.183, respectively. this indicates that lower gdp, fewer agricultural land, and lower fdi likely to be related to higher interest rates. the correlation coefficients between government expenditure and gdp and inflation are -0.123 and -0.671, respectively. this suggests that higher government expenditure tends to be associated with lower gdp and higher inflation. 4.3. regression analysis in the table below (table 3) we can see results from olsr1 model that examines the relationship between independent variables (agriculture, fdi, inflation, interest rate and government expenditure) and a dependent variable (gdp). the coefficients in the table indicate the estimated impact of the individual independent variables on the dependent variable. table 3. summary of econometric models variable/model olsr1 olsr2 agriculture 0.984* -3.3 fdi -0.0489 -0.0184 (-0.42) (-0.17) inflation 0.0335 -0.0381** -1.84 (-3.95) int_rate -0.00617 -0.0147 (-0.32) (-1.37) gov_exp 0.0306* -0.022 -2.87 (-1.92) gdp 0.692** -4.61 _cons 10.13 -1.723 -1.74 (-0.34) n 12 12 mean vif 3.62 3.62 hettest 0.8955 0.8955 source: calculated by the author t statistics in parentheses * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001 70 the asterisk (*) next to the coefficient for agriculture and government expenditure indicates that these coefficients are statistically significant at the 5% level, suggesting that there is strong evidence to support a relationship between these variables and gdp. the agriculture has a positive impact to gdp, so for every 1% of growth in agriculture, we will have economic growth of 0.984%. government expenditure have a positive impact in gdp, implying that for every 1% of growth in government expenditure, the gdp will increase for 0.03%. the _cons term represents the intercept term in the regression model and indicates the estimated value of gdp when all independent variables are equal to zero. in this case, the intercept is estimated to be 10.13. in the olsr2 model, we can consider agriculture as the explanatory variables as well as the controlled variables as gdp, fdi, inflation, interest rates and government spending. gdp coefficient is positive (0.692) and has statistical significance, showing that gdp increases by 1%, agriculture increases by 0.692%. the inflation coefficient is also negative (-0.0381) and statistically significant (-3.95), implying that a 1% increase in inflation corresponds to a 0.038 increase in agriculture. the coefficient of fdi is negative (-0.0184), the coefficient of interest rate is negative (-0.0147), the coefficient of government expenditure is negative (-0.022). however, the t-statistic suggests that this coefficient is not statistically significant. regarding to the findings of the vif test, the outcomes have been examined for multicollinearity, as shown in the table (3.62), we consider that the problem of multicollinearity does not appear in the data. from testing for heteroskedasticity with the breusch pagan test (p=0.8955), the error term has constant variance, so the data are homoscedastic and the problem of heteroskedasticity is not present. 5. conclusion and discussion in summary, this study intends to investigate how fdi affects kosovo's economy and agricultural sector. the study looked at the connection between fdi, gdp, and agriculture using a quantitative research approach and regression analysis. the research will expand existing understanding of how fdi influences economic growth and development in developing nations and will give policymakers information on the variables that affect how fdi affects gdp and agriculture. the review of the literature predicts that foreign direct investment will significantly affect the growth and expansion of the host countries’ economies. according to the general theory, fdi promotes technology transfer, increases domestic investment, and creates job opportunities that contribute to the host country’s expanding economy. correlation matrix shows that there are significant correlations between gdp and several independent variables, including agriculture land, fdi, inflation, interest rate, and government expenditure. to investigate the impact of these independent variables on gdp and agriculture, the olsr1 and olsr2 models were developed. the olsr1 model shows that farmland and government spending have a statistically significant positive effect on gdp. specifically, a 1% increase in agriculture corresponds to a 0.984% increase in gdp, while a 1% increase in government spending corresponds to a 0.03% increase in gdp. these results suggest that investment in agriculture and public spending can lead to economic growth in the countries studied. the olsr2 model suggests that gdp and inflation have significant impacts on agriculture. a 1% increase in gdp corresponds to a 0.692% increase in agricultural land area, while a 1% increase in inflation corresponds to an increase in agricultural land area of 0.038%. the negative relationship between inflation and farmland suggests that higher inflation rates may harm agricultural production. the negative coefficients for fdi, interest rate, and government expenditure in the olsr2 model suggest that these variables have a negative impact on agriculture land, but these coefficients are not statistically significant. additionally, there appears to be no multicollinearity or heteroskedasticity issues in the data. hence, these results are in line with and consistent with some earlier investigations, including (owutuamor & arene, 2018). the following suggestions can be made in light of the analysis' findings: encourage investment in agriculture: given the positive impact of agriculture land on gdp, policymakers should consider promoting investments in agriculture. this could involve providing incentives for farmers and agribusinesses, improving access to credit and infrastructure, and investing in agricultural research and development. increase government spending: the positive impact of government expenditure on gdp suggests that policymakers should consider increasing public spending in areas such as education, healthcare, and infrastructure. however, care should be taken to ensure that public expenditure is concentrated in sectors that are most likely to contribute to economic growth. monitor inflation: the negative impact of inflation on agriculture land suggests that policymakers should monitor inflation rates and take measures to control inflation if necessary. this could involve implementing monetary policies such as interest rate adjustments or fiscal policies such as reducing government spending. encourage foreign investment: while the negative impact of fdi on gdp is weak, policymakers should still consider promoting foreign investment to diversify the economy 71 and create employment opportunities. this could involve providing incentives for foreign investors, improving infrastructure and the business environment, and promoting trade and investment agreements. continuously monitor and analyze economic trends: policymakers should continuously monitor and analyze economic trends to make informed decisions. this could involve regularly updating the correlation matrix and regression models, as well as conducting additional research to explore the causal relationships between variables. overall, these findings suggest that investments in agriculture and government spending could lead to economic growth in kosovo. however, policymakers should be cautious about the potential negative impacts of inflation on agricultural production. further research could investigate the causal relationships between these variables and explore potential policy interventions to promote economic growth and agricultural production in kosovo. this study has several limitations that need to be noted. first, the study uses secondary data that might contain mistakes or omissions. secondly, the study may be affected by the limitations of the econometric techniques used. third, the study was limited to a twelve-year period, 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(2017). the contribution of agricultural sector on economic growth of nigeria. international journal of economics and financial issues, 7(1), 547-552. https://www.econjournals.com/index.php/ijefi/article/ view/3941 https://doi.org/10.1257/0002828041464605 http://economicsbulletin.vanderbilt.edu/2008/volume15/eb-08o10014a.pdf http://economicsbulletin.vanderbilt.edu/2008/volume15/eb-08o10014a.pdf https://www.econjournals.com/index.php/ijefi/article/view/629 https://www.econjournals.com/index.php/ijefi/article/view/629 https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2016.v12n7p288 https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226036557.003.0010 https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226036557.003.0010 https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2050384 http://www.arpapress.com/volumes/vol8issue2/ijrras_8_2_16.pdf http://www.arpapress.com/volumes/vol8issue2/ijrras_8_2_16.pdf https://doi.org/10.2753/ree1540-496x4901s101 https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/9457/ https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/9457/ https://doi.org/10.12816/0018804 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rie.2013.11.001 https://doi.org/10.15414/raae.2018.21.01.40-54 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeca.2015.05.001 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2017.07.006 https://bbejournal.com/index.php/bbe/article/view/189/146 https://bbejournal.com/index.php/bbe/article/view/189/146 https://www.econjournals.com/index.php/ijefi/article/view/3941 https://www.econjournals.com/index.php/ijefi/article/view/3941 48 promoting youth empowerment through business mentorship in south africa anthony kambi masha ¹ elvin shava 2* tafadzwa mambiravana 3 patrick william bwowe 4 ¹ walter sisulu university, faculty of economics and information technology systems amasha@wsu.ac.za 2 university of johannesburg, school of public management, governance and public policy, ellyshava@gmail.com , *correspondent author. 3 university of fort hare, department of sociology, tmambiravana5@gmail.com 4 walter sisulu university, faculty of economics and information technology systems, pbwowe@wsu.ac.za article history: submission 11 december 2021 revision 01 february 2022 accepted 19 april 2022 available online 30 april 2022 keywords: mentoring, entrepreneurship, youth empowerment, economic development. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.291 a b s t r a c t one of the setbacks in youth entrepreneurship is the unavailability of proper business knowledge and mentorship. in rural municipalities of south africa, the absence of youth mentorship has widened the inequality gap and triggered deep youth poverty. this article reinforces the importance of youth mentoring in crucial business aspects such as writing business plans for entrepreneurial success. this study is premised on a positivist paradigm that uses a quantitative research design. the researchers administered twenty questionnaires to youth entrepreneurs in buffalo city metropolitan municipality (bcmm) in the eastern cape province of south africa to examine whether mentoring the writing of business plans plays an essential role in their entrepreneurial ventures. the results for this article reveal that most youth entrepreneurs do not receive mentoring to boost their entrepreneurial ventures, even though mentoring has been identified as necessary. the report recommends that youth entrepreneurs be mentored to promote their businesses, which will create youth economic development and employment creation in bcmm. 1. introduction mentorship is not a new phenomenon in entrepreneurship and has been regarded as a panacea to mitigating challenges encountered by start-up entrepreneurs (srivastava, 2013). maluleke (2016) describes mentoring as an effective way of efficiently keeping entrepreneurs at the top. a mentor plays a critical role in an individual’s entrepreneurial development in this process. the mentor guides entrepreneurs from the start of their business to product development and expansion (memon, rozan, ismail, uddin & daud, 2015). mentors in entrepreneurial ventures act as a ‘sounding board’ as most have been through emerging entrepreneurs' experiences (maluleke, 2016). therefore, there is little doubt that good mentors are almost indispensable for an entrepreneur’s business success. the benefit of mentorship is that it allows one to develop and grow as an independent entrepreneur (xiao & north, 2017). in light of this, st jean & audet (2012) emphasize the importance of mentorship in the development of young entrepreneurs and thus put: mentored youth develop high self-esteem, self-confidence, improved abilities for goal achievement, problem-solving skills, learning, dealing with change and doing business, enhanced contact network and knowledge and opportunity recognition, and entrepreneurial self-efficacy. this assertion shows the importance of mentoring the youth in their entrepreneurial ventures to achieve entrepreneurship growth. the strength, weaknesses, opportunities, threats (swot) analysis, as advocated by several authors (co, groenewald et al. 2018; ehlers & lazenby, 2019), is crucial for identifying personal and career goals that help improve the visibility of the youth in various organizational situations. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:amasha@wsu.ac.za mailto:ellyshava@gmail.com mailto:tmambiravana5@gmail.com mailto:pbwowe@wsu.ac.za https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.291 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9306-0042 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8721-4666 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7543-2989 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1023-2094 49 further, swot can assist the youth in organizations to engage, reflect, self-evaluate towards understanding the basic entrepreneurial knowledge crucial to driving their businesses. globally, mentorship in entrepreneurship receives high appreciation since it is a critical instrument and a driver of longterm economic growth through career advancement and employment creation (ekpe, razak, ismail & abdullah, 2016; light & bhachu, 2017). global research (ngatse-ipangui & dassah, 2019), highlights the importance of entrepreneurial mentorship and its role among youths (oni, agbobli & iwu, 2019). the studies yield that this is predominant in africa, where the continent's population continues to get younger while struggling to find employment opportunities. in south africa, youth unemployment accounts for 73 percent of the total unemployment rate or 63.5 percent of the youth unemployment rate (statssa 2018). youth unemployment in south africa is a burden on the government’s budget that is already constrained (motala, 2020). owing to high unemployment south africa, youth entrepreneurship development plays a critical role in formulating government policy (shava & maramura, 2017). according to the 2014-2015 global entrepreneurship monitor (gem), south african youth entrepreneurship propensity is the lowest in africa, at 23.3%, compared to 55.2% in malawi and 55.4% in uganda. in addition, the gem report also highlights that south african youth entrepreneurship participation is the lowest in the african continent, with only 12.8% compared to other african countries. even though the south african government is committed to creating a favorable environment to nurture and support young entrepreneurs in the country, recent studies confirm that young entrepreneurs continue to face various challenges in establishing long-term business ventures (din, anuar, & usman, 2016; kickul, griffiths, bacq & garud, 2018). therefore, mentorship has positive benefits; these benefits can be linked to successful youth entrepreneurship. herrington & kew (2015-2016) noted that south africa's economy is not growing compared to other sub-saharan countries due to different societal challenges such as poverty, high unemployment, and income inequality, among others. as stated by nwajiuba et al. (2020), south africa still ranks very low on start-ups when compared to other emerging market economies. yet, as pointed out by several authors (bamford & bruton, 2019; barringer & ireland, 2019; botha, 2021; chimucheka, chinyamurindi & dodd, 2019), entrepreneurial activities have a favorable impact on economic growth. the data extracted from the 2015-2016 gem report revealed that south africa’s continually low level of total entrepreneurial activity (tea) rated at 9.2%, which is half the regional average of africa (li, isidor, dau & kabst, 2018; du & o’connor, 2018). it is vital to foster youth entrepreneurship because they are a vulnerable population group highly affected by unemployment (herrington & kew, 2015). therefore, to solve the problem of escalating unemployment among youth, south africa has since the late 1990s invested significant resources into growing the entrepreneurial capacities of its citizens, alongside understanding what is required to create an enabling environment for entrepreneurs (development bank of south africa (dbsa), 2011). as noted by lam, leibbrandt & mlatsheni (2008), south african policymakers have attempted to tackle youth unemployment through several mentorship interventions in the past decade. shava & chamisa (2018) affirm the various plights of youth entrepreneurs, including not being taken seriously, lack of enterprise culture, lack of access to finance/start-up, and lack of business connections. despite legal frameworks such as the national development plan vision 2030, youth in south africa still experience youth poverty and inequalities that threaten youth economic development. the absence of a vital mentoring institution negatively impacts youth; hence this study examines how mentoring in bcmm helps achieve youth growth in entrepreneurship. the article responds to the following questions: what is the purpose of mentoring? do youth entrepreneurs in buffalo city require mentoring in their entrepreneurial ventures? how does mentoring contribute to the effective entrepreneurial goals of youth entrepreneurs in buffalo city? the article is structured as follows. the following section presents the theoretical framework followed by data and methodology. section four presents the results, followed by a discussion. finally, the conclusions, limitations and future guidelines are outlined. 2. theoretical framework 2.1. mentor relationship theory the research employs the mentor relationship theory, developed based on ground-breaking research by kram (1983, 1985, 1996), who defined two types of mentor functions: professional and psychosocial. mentoring was clarified thanks to this classification of mentor functions, which distinguished it from other types of interpersonal learning interactions. career functions are operationalized as mentor behaviors that foster protégés’ career development and advancement, for example; sponsoring, coaching, enhancing visibility and exposure, protecting, and providing challenging assignments (scandura & pellegrini, 2007). career functions help protégés learn organizational rules and culture and assist with planning, networking; and job searching mentors who perform career 50 functions with protégés; typically, model, coach and give feedback. psycho-social functions are intended to foster protégés’ psychological and social development. mentors perform psychosocial functions when they interact with protégés personally to enhance their self-efficacy, sense of identity and overall job comfort through emotional support (johnson, 2014). in fulfilling psycho-social functions, mentors may model, counsel, show acceptance and provide confirmation (ragins & cotton, 1999); and they may actively listen, criticize constructively and encourage development (nora & crisp, 2008). psycho-social functions are less well-explored than career functions; thus, their potential to support protégés’ development remains unrealized. but psychosocial processes are hypothesised to be essential for protégés’ career development (clark, harden & johnson, 2000). researchers (ragins & cotton, 1999; ragins & kram, 2007) have validated the distinction between career and psycho-social functions and their relevance to positive mentoring relationships and desirable protégé outcomes (e.g., self-efficacy, personal development, job knowledge). other conceptualizations construe mentoring functions somewhat differently, but these perspectives are united in stressing the importance of functions. scandura (1992), for example, modified kram’s (1985) theory to emphasize protégés aspirations to become more like their mentors and identified role modeling as a third mentoring function. kram's (1985) premise that protégés benefit from mentoring when mentors take professional and psychosocial duties seriously and do them well, is widely supported by research (scandura & pellegrini, 2007). the authors also employed the social cognitive theory (sct) propounded by albert bandura. the theory is critically discussed below. 2.2. social cognitive theory although many theories relate to mentorship (haggard, dougherty, turban & wilbanks, 2011), the social cognitive theory situates behavior within a model of interaction and personal (cognitive; affective) behavioral and social or environmental factors. this model emphasizes the importance of proactively shaping one's thoughts, actions, and environments to achieve desired outcomes. this appears to be a dynamic process highly applicable to entrepreneurship mentoring, where practical skills and attitudes are required to effectively manage business ventures (rasheed & rasheed, 2004). bandura (1986) postulated three aspects of self-regulation: selfobservations, self-judgments, and self-reactions. key selfregulation processes are goal setting, self-evaluations of progress, and self-efficacy, or beliefs about one’s perceived capabilities to learn or perform actions at designated levels (bandura, 1997). individuals enter achievement situations with learning goals and a sense of self-efficacy for attaining them. bisk (2002) supports these viewpoints by providing the factors that influence the learning process and business development skills self-worth, personal advice, value systems, and interpersonal relationships. according to sullivan (2000), the latter aspect includes friendship, support and acceptance although social cognitive theory stresses the social context of learning, researchers in this tradition have concentrated more on individual learning than how group members coordinate their self-regulated learning. the expanding educational emphasis on collaborative and peer learning aligns well with self-regulated group learning (rohrbeck, ginsburg-block, fantuzzo & miller, 2003), mentoring theory and practice (fletcher & mullen, 2012). most importantly, social cognitive theory explains different entrepreneurial behaviour situations based on ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behaviour. thus, according to this theory, individuals will show their entrepreneurial potential if they have confidence, ability, and social support. therefore, it is required for society as a whole, and institutions in particular, to have positive views toward such an endeavor, for academics to believe they are capable of doing so, and for academic personnel to believe it is innately rewarding. 2.2.1. key imperatives in coaching and mentoring coaching overlaps with mentoring and this not only make it difficult to draw a clear distinction between the two, it leads to a wide-spread misunderstanding and debate surrounding the terms mentoring as well as to definitional confusion regarding the definition of mentoring (clutterbuck, 2012; nel, werner, du plessis, ngalo, poisat, sono, van hoek & botha, 2017; van der merwe, 2016). some people use the two interchangeably and refer to coaching and mentoring as one process (van der merwe, 2016). despite the reality that there is not only one definition for mentoring, but it has also been compared with other relational processes such as coaching, counselling, advising, and teaching. van der merwe (2016) emphasizes that understanding that the two processes are very different and complimentary. where mentoring provides the mentee with a guide and advisor to look up to, coaching provides a platform for the individual to unlock their potential (van der merwe, 2016). coaching, therefore, is not the same as mentoring (kram, 1985). in defining the difference between mentoring and coaching, clutterbuck (2008) believes that coaching deals with personal development while mentoring is associated with the mentee's much broader holistic career advancement. 51 3. data and methodology this study adopted a quantitative research method. the researchers opted for group-administered questionnaires by following the guidance of denscombe (2017). this ensured a very high response, but the researchers could also explain the study's purpose, relevance, and importance and clarify any respondents' questions (denscombe, 2017). since there are no hard and fast rules in designing questionnaires (wild & diggines, 2015), this study used a 12-step model adapted from masha (2014), who modified questionnaire design steps from different authors. noting that researchers use relevant literature to plan and construct questionnaires (johnson & christensen, 2020), all questions in the administered questionnaire were linked to relevant literature of this study. data were analyzed using the eight stages of data analysis proposed by wild and diggines (2015). the statistical information in this study was generated and tabulated visually using graphic representations, namely, bar charts. simple descriptive statistics translated the raw data, giving significant insights (wild & diggines, 2015). to present findings, the text was used to explain the data since the reader has significance in conveying possible meaning (du plooy-cilliers et al., 2019). 3.1. sampling the researchers sampled respondents using a census sampling technique to acquire data from every member of the targeted population (johnson & christensen, 2020). by gathering data from the niche group of respondents, we achieved a satisfactory response rate whereby there was the allowance of a confidence level of 95% with a margin of error = 5%. 3.2. ethical considerations after securing ethical clearance for this study, we secured informed consent from all the respondents before data collection could commence. we identified all risks and, through the principle of non-maleficence, did not harm the participants (bartley & hashemi, 2021). since we dealt with people’s personal information, the protection of personal information (popi) (act no 4 of 2013) required such information to be treated with respect and ethically. still on the principle of nonmaleficence, we assured all participants of their confidentiality and anonymity in the research study (babbie, 2021). 4. results and discussion 4.1. the need for mentoring a likert scale was used in the questionnaire to establish the purpose of mentoring. according to zikmund, babin, carr & griffin (2019), with the likert scale, respondents indicate their attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with carefully constructed sentences, ranging from very negative to very positive attitudes towards some object. therefore, to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with the following statements regarding the need for a mentoring programme for the success of entrepreneurial ventures, respondents were requested to respond by putting an ‘x’ on the appropriate number on a scale of 1-5; 5 strongly agree, 4 agree, 3 neutrals, 2 disagree, and 1 strongly disagree. the results are seen below. figure 1. results from the need for mentoring figure 1 above shows that all (100%) of the participants agree (agree + strongly agree on each questionnaire item) on the need for mentoring. they all agree that mentoring: has a place in the success of entrepreneurial ventures; is different from coaching; enhances the satisfaction and commitment of entrepreneurs; provides entrepreneurs with a sense of belonging and engagement; increases entrepreneurs’ sense of empowerment; increases one’s sense of business satisfaction and personal 52 effectiveness; provides both learning and socio-emotional learning to the mentor-mentee relationship; offers rolemodelling, confirmation, and friendship, which help the mentee develop a sense of business identity and competence; provides advice, business career planning and instruction in socialtechnical and management skills; provides mentees with business career-enhancing functions, exposure, and visibility; all which help the mentees to establish a role, learn the ropes and prepare for advancement. closed-ended questionnaires are meant to analyses the results to yield only numbers in the form of percentages. however, respondents in closed-ended questionnaires cannot add their opinions about a particular issue raised by a question or item. accordingly, this study’s questionnaire incorporated a few openended questions to gain additional insights. results from both closed-ended and open-ended questions show that entrepreneurs are aware of the importance of mentoring and require mentoring. 4.2. achieving success in youth entrepreneurship this section aimed to test the quality of the features for successful youth entrepreneurship among respondents. according to zikmund et al. (2019), a summated ratings likert scale using poor, fair, neutral, good and excellent is used in such instances to measure quality. therefore, to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement regarding their assessment of the quality of the features for successful youth entrepreneurship, respondents were requested to darken the circle with the appropriate number, on a scale of 1-5, 5 being excellent, 4 good, 3 average, 2 fair and 1 poor. the results are seen in figure 2 below. figure 2. successful youth entrepreneurship figure 2 above shows that the majority (83%) of respondents have good features for successful youth entrepreneurship in the following areas: competencies, characteristics, personality, attitude, creativity, passion and customer care, while 33% of the participants have satisfactory features for successful youth entrepreneurship. the implications of the participants’ ratings on the above points are that respondents seem to be good in terms of the elements for successful youth entrepreneurship. 4.3. mentoring on requirements of entrepreneurial ventures in this section, the aim was to test the frequency at which entrepreneurs receive mentoring on the requirements of entrepreneurial ventures. according to zikmund et al. (2019), a summated ratings likert scale; never used, rarely, sometimes (neutral), often, and very often; is used to measure the frequency of such occurrences. therefore, to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with the following statements regarding the frequency of mentoring on running entrepreneurial ventures, youth entrepreneurs were requested to please tick ( ) the items below on a scale of 1-5; 5 being never, 4 rarely, 3 sometimes (neutral), 2 often and 1 very often. the results are seen in figure 3 below. 53 figure 3. results from the frequency of mentoring figure 3 shows that the majority (83%) of the participants disagree (rarely + not at all) that they receive mentoring on requirements of entrepreneurial ventures, which include; business plans, business start-ups for youth entrepreneurial ventures, resource requirements, and legal aspects of an enterprise (sole proprietor, partnership, companies, close corporations, and informal entrepreneurship). there was a strong emphasis on mentoring in writing business plans. 4.4. discussion the study has found a strong need for entrepreneurial mentoring among the youth in bccm, as it guides new entrepreneurs to start and develop their businesses. the mentoring process is critical for achieving bandura’s (1986) essential aspects of social learning: self-regulation, self-observations, self-judgments, and selfreactions. these aspects are goal setting, self-evaluations of progress, and self-efficacy or beliefs about one’s perceived capabilities to learn or perform actions at designated levels (bandura, 1997). laukhuf & malone (2015) support the above, providing the factors influencing the learning process and business development skills. these factors include: self-worth, personal advice, value systems and interpersonal relationships. thus, these aspects are fundamental in developing and empowering the mentees toward their business goals. the study has also shown that the respondents have good features for successful youth entrepreneurship in the following areas: competencies, characteristics, personality, attitude, creativity, passion and customer care. these features are addressed by the mentor relationship theory, which identifies two broad classes of mentor functions which are career and psycho-social (kram, 1983, 1985, 1996). according to researchers such as newman, obschonka, schwarz, cohen & nielsen (2019) and baluku, matagi & otto (2020), these two mentor functions positively link positive mentoring relationships to desirable outcomes as personal development, self-efficacy and job development. the survey found a high level of interest in mentoring for entrepreneurial venture requirements such as business plans, company start-ups for junior entrepreneurs, resource requirements, and legal aspects of an enterprise. according to nabi, walmsley & akhtar (2021), youth mentorship fosters knowledge development and socio-emotional functions such as entrepreneurial career development, specialist business knowledge, role model presence, and emotional support. as a result, st jean and audet (2012) underline the importance of mentorship in the growth of young entrepreneurs since it fosters self-confidence, self-esteem, goal attainment, enhanced abilities, and measures for dealing with business changes. therefore, mentorship is essential for nurturing and developing youth interested in business. 5. conclusions this research aimed to extend the knowledge on mentorship in youth in a metropolitan municipality. the results of the study indicate many factors affecting youth entrepreneurship in bcmm. these factors relate to the absence of business knowledge, low education levels, and limited platforms to expose youth to entrepreneurial skills and knowledge required to drive innovative ventures. the other question this study sought to respond to relates to mentoring and its usefulness in meeting the entrepreneurial goals of youth entrepreneurs in bcmm. the researchers found that many youths could become entrepreneurs if they had the proper guidance and funding to kick-start their businesses. the study found it imperative to develop entrepreneurial knowledge among the youth and entrepreneurial programs that link up youngsters with other business organizations such as the 54 chamber of commerce, south african united business confederation (saubc) and the global business round table to boost confidence and inspire youth to engage in various entrepreneurial ventures. these interactions also allow youth to experience first-hand the challenges successful entrepreneurs face. thus, this research contributes to understanding mentoring and coaching as determinants for spearheading youth entrepreneurship in south african municipalities. 5.1. managerial and policy making directions this study was quantitative and premised on the mentor relationship theory and social cognitive theories. the analyses of the findings have shown a massive gap in skills mentoring for youth in buffalo city municipality. mentoring youth in entrepreneurship was reiterated as the key to eradicating youth poverty and improving youth empowerment. ensuring that youth acquire skills to write business plans and understand resource requirements and legal aspects is crucial to sustaining youth empowerment in buffalo city. the findings of the study point to vital insights for local government officials and policymakers. given the high unemployment in south africa, supporting youth entrepreneurship remains a strategic and innovative method for promoting youth development and growth. the study has noted the eagerness of youth in bcmm to indulge in entrepreneurship; however, hindrances that emanate from limited business knowledge start-up capital, among others, adversely affect them. policymakers are enlightened by a plethora of literature and evaluation reports on how they can help establish government institutions that offer start-up capital to youth. however, criteria must be set to determine those who deserve state support. furthermore, policymakers would understand the need to promote enabling policies that foster youth entrepreneurship and growth as part of youth empowerment. 5.2. limitations and direction for further studies the study was limited by the reliance on surveys which could have left out some critical aspects in examining youth entrepreneurship. therefore, the findings are generalizable to youth in bcmm who are confronted with challenges such as lack of business mentorship. however, other municipalities experiencing similar challenges can tap into the study recommendations. therefore, future research on youth entrepreneurship can be qualitative, which is crucial for exploring detailed insights into the feelings of youth regarding mentorship in youth projects as part of poverty alleviation and empowerment. references 1. aldrich, h.e., & carter, m.n. 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(2019). business research methods. south western: cengage learning. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0021-9010.84.4.529 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0021-9010.84.4.529 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.240 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.240 https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-13c8ee1ae3 https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v9i2(j).1664 https://doi.org/10.1108/13552550010346587 https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/dtl011 15 evaluation of location selection criteria for coordination management centers and logistic support units in disaster areas with ahp method kadir kaan göncü ¹* onur çetin 2 ¹ trakya university, edirne social sciences vocational college, kkaangoncu@trakya.edu.tr *correspondent author. 2 trakya university, faculty of economics and administrative sciences, onurcetin@trakya.edu.tr article history: submission 02 may 2022 revision 08 july 2022 accepted 03 august 2022 available online 31 august 2022 keywords: disaster management, disaster logistics, large-scale emergency, emergency response, location allocation, site selection, mcda, mcdm, ahp. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.334 a b s t r a c t in recent years, human beings and our planet have suffered great losses in the frequent disasters. effective and timely intervention is of utmost importance in all large-scale disasters, whether natural or man-made. in this article, a study has been conducted on a model in which the location selection criteria of the management and support centers, where the coordination works as well as the management and administration are carried out in disaster areas, are evaluated by the multicriteria decision making (mcdm) method. for this, an in-depth literature analysis was carried out at the first stage, and then all the findings obtained as a result of the literature research were presented to the professionals related to the subject, and expert opinion was sought. in the light of expert opinion, the location selection criteria for the coordination management center and logistic support units in disaster areas were determined, and a model proposal was made, in which the importance values were weighted by using one of the mcdm methods, the analytic hierarchy process (ahp), which is widely used. 1. introduction incidents that disrupt the normal course of life in a society, exceed the capacity to respond and adapt, cause great loss of property and life, or result in disabilities are called “disasters” (gögen, 2004). reducing life, material and natural losses and accelerating the recovery process as much as possible are among the objectives of disaster management, which covers the management of before, during and after the occurrence of the disaster. the basis of effective aid operations is the delivery of essential supplies and equipment to the requesting regions within the shortest time and under the most suitable conditions possible. logistics activities have an important role in emergency events and disaster management processes (köseoğlu & yıldırımlı, 2015). being prepared for the mentioned disasters or large-scale emergencies and preventing possible losses can only be possible through a planned and coordinated administrative organization (çiçekdağı & kırış, 2012). when the studies in the field of disaster management are evaluated; communication, transportation, shelter, water sanitation, security, psychological support and food and health modules are seen to be the main points in the emergency action plans that need to be implemented. in an effective disaster management organization, these modules should be within communication with each other effectively and uninterruptedly (işık, et al., 2012). reduction of the negative situations experienced by people exposed to disasters depends on the effective and efficient execution of humanitarian aid operations. approximately 80% of disaster-related operations are related to logistics activities. for this reason, it is vital to perform logistics management and supply chain management effectively in terms of humanitarian aid (cozzolino, 2012). disaster logistics can be defined as the planning, implementation, and control of activities for the efficient flow of both products and https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:kkaangoncu@trakya.edu.tr mailto:onurcetin@trakya.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.334 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4810-6336 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1835-3333 16 materials as well as the necessary information about them from the point of supply to the last point of need in order to meet the needs of people in need, particularly, on time and on site (thomas & kopczak, 2005). since the type, severity and effects of disasters can vary, the logistics must also be case-based, dynamic and flexible. one of the most important issues in a disaster case is the supply of basic need supplies and their transportation to the needed points, which are the responsibility of the logistics units. therefore, disaster logistics has an important position in the disaster management system in terms of distributing agile and ready-to-use materials to the victims and working teams (gülhan & esmer, 2017). one of the most important issues to be considered in disaster logistics is the determination of the location of the logistics support units or coordination centers. following a disaster occurrence, the location selection and placement of logistics centers constitute an important task in terms of delivering aid equipment and basic need supplies to the affected communities and individuals, and providing support (peker, korucuk, ulutaş, sayın-okatan, & yaşar, 2016). determining the location selection for these facilities is important in order to help the disaster victims in need more easily before, during and after the disaster. although academic studies on humanitarian logistics activities and related supply chain management activities have increased in recent years, it cannot be said that sufficient number of studies have been accumulated in this field. for example, studies on the location selection of the coordination management centers and logistics support units in disaster areas in turkey are limited. some of the examples of studies that can be given in this area are çiçekdağı and kırış (2012); kılıç, kara and bozkaya, (2015); peker et al., 2016; aydın, ayvaz and küçükaşçı, (2017); cavdur, sebatli-saglam and kose-kucuk (2020). the aim of this study is to determine the establishment location selection criteria for the coordination management centers and logistic support units in disaster areas. the location selection problem is a problem structure in which the most suitable place is selected among the alternatives by using more than one criterion. therefore, the site selection problem can be considered as a multicriteria decision making (mcdm) problem, and also the method used in this study is the analytical hierarchy process (ahp) method, which is one of the mcdm methods. 2. literature review in this study, the “systematic literature review” method (tranfield, denyer , & palminder , 2003) was used in the examination and classification of the studies on the location selection for the establishment of the coordination management centers and logistics support units in disaster areas. as a result of the application of the aforementioned method in the study, access to all relevant resources in the literature in the field of location selection in disaster areas was gained; and, by selecting those related to the research topic, a systematic review was made. a comprehensive study for the period between 2001 and 2021 was conducted for the literature analysis, and scopus, science citation index, sciencedirect, social sciences citation index, ieee xplore digital library, arts & humanities citation index, british library ethos, emerald insight, springer nature. ebooks databases were selected for this. to be able to choose a large-scale and unbiased literature; “afet yönetimi”, “afet lojistiği”, “büyük ölçekli acil durum”, “acil müdahale”, “yer tahsisi”, “yer seçimi”, “çkkv”, “mcda”, “mcdm”, “ahp”, “disaster management”, “disaster logistics”, “large-scale emergency”, “emergency response”, “location allocation”, “site selection” keywords are used. below are the number of articles that were gained through the searches made according to the constraints determined by the keywords and the time intervals in the databases by using the ebscohost system infrastructure. keywords were searched in the "title/başlık", "abstract/özet" and "keywords/anahtar kelime" sections of the articles. 2.1. literature findings when the keywords determined to be used in the literature study “afet yönetimi”, “afet lojistiği”, “büyük ölçekli acil durum”, “acil müdahale”, “yer tahsisi”, “yer seçimi”, “çkkv”, “mcda”, “mcdm”, “ahp”, “disaster management”, “disaster logistics”, “large-scale emergency”, “emergency response”, “location allocation”, “site selection” were used, the number of articles that were reached was 55. as a result of an in-depth review of the literature, 18 studies that were found to be directly related to the research topic were evaluated and summarized below. lu, hou, and qiang (2010) use a fuzzy theory to develop a location allocation model, called the fuzzy queuing maximal covering location-allocation model, to determine facility locations for large-scale emergencies. the model aims to maximize population coverage ability. all demand areas, considering the need to identify suitable plant sites for the proper allocation of resources and also to categorize potential demand areas; different characteristics such as population density, economic importance, geographical features, weather conditions, as well as whether the facilities have easy access to more than one 17 main road/highway and are not affected by the damages that may occur in emergencies were taken into account (lu, hou, & qiang, 2010). çiçekdağı and kırış (2012) handle the problem of location selection for disaster stations, and thus determining the collecting center of people. in an environment where alternatives are plentiful, it is a difficult decision for managers to determine the location of most suitable accommodation area. in the study, using clustering analysis, the units were grouped according to the coordinates they had and, by taking their numbers into account, the most suitable location for disaster station was determined for each group using the center of gravity method (çiçekdağı & kırış, 2012). mirzapour, wong, and govindan (2013) aim to find suitable places for the evacuation of people to a safe place to mitigate the possible consequences of floods. in the research, a p-center location problem was handled to determine the distribution of aid centers in the city. the proposed model aims to minimize the expected maximum weighted distance for demand zones to reduce the evacuation time from affected areas before flood occurs (mirzapour, wong, & govindan, 2013). omidvar, baradaran-shoraka, and nojavan (2013) propose a model for appropriate and systematic site selection for preearthquake temporary shelters using a geographic information system based on earthquake damage assessment and multiattribute decision making. after determining the effective criteria for the site selection of temporary shelters, the geographical layers of these criteria were prepared for a region in tehran (omidvar, baradaran-shoraka, & nojavan, 2013). barzinpour and esmaeili (2014) develop a new multi-objective mixed integer linear programming model for the preparation planning phase of disaster management. the model they propose is inspired by a real case study of an urban area in iran that takes both humanitarian and cost-based objectives into account (barzinpour & esmaeili, 2014). fan (2014) proposes a hybrid analytical method for the location selection of emergency response centers and defines the relationships between emergency locations and surrounding objects. he proposes a spatial data association mining method to determine the correlation rules including emergency information and geographical factors, and developed a simulated annealing algorithm with the method of adding weights to find the most suitable regions for emergency centers (fan, 2014). kılıcı, kara, and bozkaya (2015) discuss the problem of choosing a shelter area. they formulated a mixed integer linear program to solve the problem and made a sensitivity analysis to validate the model (kılıcı, kara, & bozkaya, 2015). gama, santos and scaparra's study presents a multi-period location allocation approach that determines where and when a predetermined number of shelters will be opened, when evacuation orders will be sent, and how evacuees will be assigned to shelters over time. the aim is to minimize the overall network distances that evacuees have to travel to reach the shelters (gama, santos, & scaparra, 2016). peker, korucuk, ulutaş, sayın-okatan, and yaşar (2016) created a two-stage model for disaster logistics. in the first stage of the model; the criteria to be used in site selection for the distribution center were weighted with ahp method, and in the second stage, the most suitable establishment location was determined by the vikor method (peker, korucuk, ulutaş, sayın-okatan, & yaşar, 2016). fereiduni and shahanaghi (2017) developed a network design model for humanitarian logistics that can assist in location allocation decisions during disaster periods. to deal with the uncertainty, dynamic nature and consequences of disasters, the proposed model takes the values of critical input data in a number of scenarios into account. to generate related random numbers and different scenarios due to possible disruption in the distribution infrastructure, monte carlo simulation was used in the study. sensitivity analysis experiments have been proposed to investigate the effects of various problem parameters (fereiduni & shahanaghi, 2017). aydın, ayvaz and küçükaşçı (2017) handle the problem of location selection for disaster logistics warehouses, which ensure the delivery of emergency aid materials to the points of need as soon as possible within the scope of disaster logistics. in the first stage, a cluster coverage model that determines the minimum number of alternative locations for a given coverage area was developed, and in the second stage, the p-median problem for demand-weighted distance minimization was presented (aydın, ayvaz, & küçükaşçı, 2017). trivedi and singh (2017) developed a hybrid group decision support approach for the emergency shelter location selection problem. in the study, factors related to finding potential areas were identified through consultation with a panel of disaster management experts. fuzzy analytic hierarchy process theory and technique were used to prioritize defined criteria and evaluate 18 potential locations for displacement sites (trivedi & singh, 2017). xu et al. (2018) developed a group-targeted multi-objective mathematical model with particle swarm optimization algorithm to solve the location allocation problem for an earthquake shelter. the model they propose includes identifying shelters and how the population will be allocated to them. then, the objective groups and solutions of the model are given and compared with the example of chaoyang region of beijing city of china using the security, capacity, and investment evaluation index. regarding the government's preferences and future urban planning, an optimal model solution has been proposed to decide where it is appropriate to build shelters and how the population will be allocated to them (xu, et al., 2018). zhao, coates, and xu (2019) developed a multi-objective hierarchical mathematical model by combining particle swarm optimization algorithm and genetic algorithm (mpso-ga) to solve the earthquake shelter location allocation problem. while the model determines which of several candidate shelters will be emergency resettlement sites and which should be used for longterm use, it also optimizes the allocation of the population to these locations. in the model, in which the number of evacuees and the shelter capacity as well as the damage to the evacuation routes are taken into account, the targets in terms of emergency and longterm sheltering phases are minimizing the total weighted evacuation time and the total shelter area used (zhao, coates, & xu, 2019). rizeei, pradhan, and saharkhiz (2019) evaluate the current situation of emergency response centers in terms of points prone to excessive flooding. in the study, flood-prone urban areas were determined using a multi-layered perceptron machine learning model, and then a taguchi method was used to calibrate the mlp variables (rizeei, pradhan, & saharkhiz, 2019). in the study of cavdur, sebatli-saglam and kose-kucuk (2020), a electronic spreadsheet-based decision support tool is presented for allocating temporary disaster response facilities with the aim of distributing relief supplies. the developed decision support tool consists of three main components: database, decision engine and user interface. each component was developed using appropriate platforms and these components were integrated into the spreadsheet environment. in the study, a sample case which shows the decision support tool and where various scenarios are defined and the relevant facility allocations are made is presented (cavdur, sebatli-saglam, & kose-kucuk, 2020). wu, ren, and xu (2020) developed a decision-making method under uncertainty that validly handles site selection for earthquake shelters to reduce damage caused by earthquakes. criteria are scale and location, disaster risk, rescue facilities, feasibility, building direction (wu, ren, & xu, 2020). ramirez-nafarrate, araz, and fowler (2021) formulated the problem of location allocation in disasters with capacity and time constraints and with the aim of minimizing service time for individuals in an affected area. due to the complexity of solving the problem for large-scale scenarios, the presented algorithm simultaneously relaxes capacity and time constraints and offers flexibility to evaluate trade-offs. a modified nsga-ii algorithm was used to benefit from the sources (ramirez-nafarrate, araz, & fowler, 2021). in the examined studies, it was seen that the type of problem studied related to disasters and location selection was the preference of temporary shelters and emergency evacuation. most of the applied methods include heuristic methods and the evaluated criteria have been determined to be; location, infrastructure, cooperation, transportation of relief supplies, provision of relief supplies, health facilities, topography of land, land type, land inclination, electrical infrastructure, plumbing, flora of land, ownership, availability of land, electrical infrastructure, hygiene and sanitation system, community infrastructure, safety and security, and carrying capacity. 3. multi-criteria decision making (mcdm) individuals or officials in the relevant units of institutional organizations have to face the necessity of making continuous decisions, both subjective and objective, at every stage throughout their lives. the problems encountered can be very simple, but they also have the potential to be extremely complex issues affected by many factors. in decision making problems affected by a single criterion, the alternative that corresponds to the best value in this single criterion is simply selected. however, in cases where the number of criteria is more than one, determining the best alternative becomes more complex; factors including weighting of criteria, determination of dependencies and contradictions between criteria can come into play. the steps of the process in decision making problems can be listed as follows (tzeng & huang, 2011): • defining the problem: the aim desired to achieve by this first step is to determine the criteria to be used for decision making. 19 • establishing priorities: not all criteria are equally important. at this stage, criteria are weighted (prioritized) by using knowledge and experience. • evaluating the alternatives: by using the weights of the criteria, the probability values between the alternatives are analyzed to reach the goal. • choosing the best alternative: among the analyzed alternatives, the best one is determined. 3.1. analytic hierarchy process (ahp) ahp is an analysis method, the foundation of which thomas l. saaty laid in the 1970s. ahp is a powerful and easy-tounderstand method enabling to combine quantitative and qualitative factors in decision-making processes (bertolini & bevilacqua, 2006). in the ahp method, it is made possible for decision makers to evaluate both countable and uncountable data over pairwise comparison matrices. in the analysis process, a matrix is created to compare the criteria placed in the model by the decision makers using the concepts of importance or superiority through a scale (saaty scale, 1-9), numerically or over verbal values (pan, 2018). table 1. pairwise comparisons scale (saaty, 1990) importance values value definitions 1 equal importance 3 moderately more important (slight superiority) 5 strongly important (heavy superiority) 7 very strongly important (overwhelming superiority) 9 extremely important (definite superiority) 2, 4, 6, and 8 intermediate values (combine values) this matrix is normalized and the relative priorities of the elements of the pairwise comparison matrix are calculated. at this stage, the matrix a, which is called the comparison matrices, and the eigenvector 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥, which provides the a×w= 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 × w equality, should be obtained. while a represents the comparison matrix created by experts, w indicates the criteria weights. consistency ratio (cr) is calculated with the help of equations (1) and (2) below. ci stands for consistency index and ri stands for randomness indicator. the randomness indicator consists of fixed ri values that take different values according to the alternative amount of the matrix. 𝐶𝐼 = (𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑛)/(𝑛 − 1) (1) 𝐶𝑅 = 𝐶𝐼/𝑅𝐼 (2) table 2. randomness indicator (saaty, 2008) n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ri 0,00 0,00 0,58 0,90 1,12 1,24 1,32 1,41 existence of the expression cr<0.1 in the ahp indicates that the comparison matrix is consistent. at this stage, the sum of the multiplication products of the weight value of each criterion and the importance of the alternatives according to the criteria will give the priority value of each alternative separately. 3.2. multi-criteria decision making and location selection criteria in disaster management the criteria obtained from the studies in the literature regarding the decision for location selection during a disaster are as follows; • main criteria of location, infrastructure and cooperation were used. sub-criteria for location are; proximity to disaster victims, distance to settlement, distance to highway, airport, railway, cost of land, warehouses, and distance to demand points. the subcriteria of the infrastructure are; the ground of the land, disasterproneness, the diversity of the workforce, the distance to the fault lines, whether the land belongs to the private or the public. the sub-criteria of the main criterion of cooperation are listed as the number of companies providing logistics services that can be cooperated with, the cooperation of the government, the cooperation of national and non-governmental organizations, and the cooperation of the university (peker, korucuk, ulutaş, sayınokatan, & yaşar, 2016). • transportation of aid materials, supply of aid materials, healthcare establishments, topography of the land, land type, slope of the land, electrical infrastructure, sanitary installation, flora of the land and ownership (kılıcı, kara, & bozkaya, 2015). • the main criteria of land availability, electrical infrastructure, hygiene and sanitation system, community infrastructure, safety 20 and security, carrying capacity were used (trivedi & singh, 2017). 3.3. application establishing a hierarchical model for the selection of disaster coordination location selected articles were analyzed and examined meticulously, and publications containing the criteria and methods used in the selection of establishment location in disaster areas were determined. the main and sub-criteria in the hierarchical table in figure 1 were determined upon taking the opinion of a group of 3 experts for the criteria to be used in the aforementioned area. two of the evaluators, who were selected for the pool of experts and whose knowledge was consulted, are professionals with bachelor’s degree in geological engineering and surveying engineering, who have been on active field duty for more than 10 years in the disaster and emergency management presidency (afad) of turkey. these two professionals are afad engineers who worked personally in the establishment of the coordination management center in disaster areas and logistics support units in disasters that occurred in various regions of turkey. therefore, they have experience in the decision of location selection during disasters in different regions of turkey. the third expert is an academician who has been working on logistics sector for more than 15 years and has a doctorate degree in logistics. upon the evaluation done by the expert group over the location selection criteria, obtained from the literature, for establishment in disaster areas; the main criteria of security, land structure, infrastructure, transportation ability, distance and ownership are included in the hierarchical table. 3.4. ahp application for the selection of disaster coordination location the degree of importance of the criteria, which is accepted as a measure of its effect on the evaluation of alternatives in decision problem types, has been determined by the expert group according to the business objectives. the importance levels of the criteria were calculated by utilizing the ahp method through the data provided from the questionnaires prepared according to the pairwise comparison of the criteria. the aforementioned questionnaire forms were automatically determined by the system as a result of the data entered into the superdecision program and presented to the evaluator expert team. the outputs related to the steps in the progress regarding the superdecision program are shown below. figure 1. location selection criteria for disaster coordination center as can be seen in figure 2, in the hierarchical structure of ahp there are 6 main criteria: security, land structure, infrastructure, transportation ability, distance and ownership. there are a total of 16 sub-criteria consisting of 2 sub-criteria for each of the main criteria titles of property and security; and 3 sub-criteria for each of all other main criteria. figure 2. superdecision program ahp relationship among criteria to apply the ahp method, a pairwise comparison matrix should firstly be created by the enterprise, which shows the importance levels of the main criteria. while creating the pairwise comparison matrix, saaty's scale given as "1-9" range in table 1 was used. questions in the questionnaire formed to make pairwise comparisons through the superdecision program by using pairwise comparison expressions were directed to the experts. after the pairwise comparison results are entered into the superdecision program, the program calculates the inconsistency rate values of the entered values. for the comparison values that the program warns as inconsistent, again considering the intervals given as the ideal values by the program, the experts were contacted and asked to re-score these sections. necessary results were obtained by rearranging the inconsistency rate to be less than 0.10 in all criteria comparisons. all the values of each pairwise comparison form the supermatrix in the program. 21 unweighted supermatrix, weighted supermatrix and limit supermatrix values were reached with the superdecision program. table 3. table of ahp criteria weights on table 3, the weight values taken from the superdecision program can be seen. when table 3 is examined carefully; it can be observed that the sum of the values of the main criteria of security, land structure, infrastructure, transportation ability, distance and ownership is 1. again, it is possible to see that each sum of the sub-criteria under each main criterion reaches the number 1 in its own set. when the weight results are examined, it is seen that the security main criterion is the main criterion with the highest value of 0.45560. the sub-criterion of disaster exposure, which is under this main criterion, appears as the main criterion with the highest weight in this set. the main criteria of security were followed by transportation ability and distance to other centers, respectively. the main criterion of ownership emerged as the main criterion with the lowest weight value of 0.02230. 5. conclusions and recommendations this study aims to select the criteria to be used for the solution of my establishment location selection problem on disaster areas and to determine their importance. the criteria used for the selection of establishment location in disaster areas and encountered in different studies in the literature review were determined and presented to expert opinions for evaluation. as a result of the group decision taken by experts who have experience in the field of study; the main criteria of security, land structure, infrastructure, transportation ability, distance and ownership and sub-criteria that form the hierarchical structure are included in the study. while selecting the establishment locations for disaster coordination centers and logistics support units, which are of vital importance in disaster areas and are seen as the center of the response phase, the main criterion of safety comes to the fore as the most important criterion to be considered and evaluated. as a result of the consensus of experts and experiences from past emergencies, disaster areas have a much higher risk of experiencing similar or related disasters in a short time period when compared to other regions (aftershocks that occur following earthquakes; or, tsunami or volcanic origin disasters that are likely to trigger such tectonic movements). for this reason, the importance of the safety criterion comes to the fore during location selection. in addition, the fact that activities related to transportation such as transportation ability and distance to other centers have emerged as the second and third main criteria is also significant. this situation shows that the factors related to transportation have an important place in disaster logistics. in other words, it is important to minimize the distance of the selected location to transportation facilities and other centers. in future studies, the selected location can be optimized both in terms of safety and the mentioned distances. one of the limitations of this study is that the study was carried out with a limited number of experts. in future studies, the criteria obtained from the literature analysis part of this study can be evaluated with a larger pool of experts. therefore, both the literature analysis and the ahp analysis results of this study can be used by future studies. another limitation of the study is that the relationships between the criteria (as per the opinions of the experts, it is said that there is no relationship) are ignored. if the existence of these relationships is claimed by different experts for different regions in future studies, the models can be developed through such methods as the anp. both the literature analysis and the application part of the study were carried out considering all disasters in order to generalize the results. based on this study, different models can be developed for special disaster types in future studies. studying the importance levels for each criterion according to the disaster type in detail will help to draw clearer and more consistent results. as included in the presidency of the republic of turkey's 20192023 development plan, it has been stated that studies and projects on risk maps of settlements can be carried out through the "geographical information system". in order to enable 22 practical application in the future, alternative location proposal applications for all regions with a population above a certain density limit should be carried out according to the hazard types, and relevant partners should be invited to cooperation. references 1. aydın, h., ayvaz, b., & küçükaşçı, e. ş. 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(2019). a hierarchical mathematical model of the earthquake shelter location-allocation problem solved using an interleaved mpso–ga. geomatics, natural hazards and risk, 10(1), 1712-1737. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2019.1609605 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2019.101205 https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-2217(90)90057-i https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03191825 http://www.fritzinstitute.org/pdfs/whitepaper/fromlogisticsto.pdf http://www.fritzinstitute.org/pdfs/whitepaper/fromlogisticsto.pdf https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.00375 https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.00375 https://doi.org/10.1002/mcda.1611 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ins.2019.12.059 https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2018.1470114 https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2019.1609605 24 the role of corporate social responsibility in consumer trust and perception of company image edisa koro ¹* samra jusufi 2 ¹ university “ukshin hoti” prizren, faculty of economics, business administration master student, edisakoro2@gmail.com *correspondent author. 2 university “ukshin hoti” prizren, faculty of economics, business administration master student, jusufisamra@gmail.com article history: submission 12 november 2022 revision 10 january 2023 accepted 25 march 2023 available online 30 april 2023 keywords: social responsibility, corporate image, customer reliability. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.407 a b s t r a c t corporate social responsibility is an issue to which businesses attach great importance today. they coordinate their activities in such a way that they are useful for the environment and society. the purpose of this study is to research how corporate social responsibility influences business image and customer trustworthiness. furthermore, the study intends to investigate the relationship between corporate image and consumer credibility. we used an online survey with the appropriate sample to obtain data for this topic. this study evaluated corporate social responsibility, business image, and consumer trust in kosovar food firms across three instruments. according to the study's findings, social responsibility benefits both company image and consumer credibility, and there is a considerable positive association between corporate image and customer credibility. due to time and cost restrictions, the sample was limited to survey participants. based on the findings of this study, we recommend that corporate executives pay more attention to the use of social responsibility, as this factor has a direct influence on corporate image and customer credibility, as well as managing the interplay between these two factors. 1. introduction contributing to satisfying people's needs and contributing to the development of natural resources and human capital, in addition to focusing on profit. it is an area where companies must give their all to ensure both harmony in the workplace and in the external environment that is affected by the company's activities. it has been proven that csr has an impact on the growth of a company's reputation; but, how does this affect consumer confidence and what image the firm generates in them? (berényi & deutsch, 2021). the current commitment of companies to social responsibility measures has a direct impact on securing customer trust. when a company cares about society and the environment, consumers are more likely to buy its products because they believe they also contribute to human well-being. it also strengthens and secures the company's image in the market as a company that ensures safety and works well for all stakeholders (berényi & deutsch, 2021). the importance and influence of csr reporting in the global business environment continues to evolve across industries. this is related to mandatory reporting by the government or stakeholders demanding more detailed reporting to fully understand the company profile (lavan et al., 2021). the determination of business strategy has a significant impact on the financial performance and corporate actions of organizations. therefore, the interdependence between csr and business strategy is widely recognized (berényi & deutsch, 2021). in today's economic environment, when firms are required to focus on their impact on society and the environment in addition mailto:edisakoro2@gmail.com mailto:jusufisamra@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.407 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7732-5661 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5763-1327 25 to their profitability, corporate social responsibility (csr) has become more and more important. consumers are more inclined to support and positively view businesses that participate in csr initiatives, according to studies. consumers are more likely to respond favorably to csr activities that are pertinent to the company's core business and expressed in an open and honest way, according to a study by du, bhattacharya, and sen (2010). the main objective of this research is to get a clear picture of how much citizens value companies that behave in a socially responsible manner. in terms of social responsibility, a questionnaire survey was conducted, and respondents were also asked questions about the use of social responsibility in kosovar food companies and the value of corporate image and consumer loyalty. a food firm in kosovo called albi has made investments in programs that support regional agriculture, give people access to safe and wholesome food, and preserve the environment. "we are not simply a food company, but also a firm that cares about the wellbeing of people and the safety of food," the company said in a statement (albi, n.d.). the kosovo food industry still has to deal with issues like income inequality and a lack of the essential technologies to increase food production, nevertheless. it is crucial for food businesses to exercise social responsibility, participate in the growth of kosovo's food sector, and focus on raising the standard of their goods (musa et al., 2019). another food firm in kosovo, fshati, has supported regional farmers and exploited local resources to manufacture highquality, fresh food. the business is dedicated to creating a food supply chain that is sustainable and has a good effect on the environment and nearby communities (fshati, n.d.). by studying these companies, we obtain a deeper grasp of the relationship and influence of social responsibility on product credibility and the direct impact on the company's image. 2. literature review 2.1. social responsibility corporate social responsibility (csr) is becoming a hot topic among academics and industry professionals as they see it as a good way to build long-term partnerships with customers (mohammed & rashid, 2018). in recent years, corporate social responsibility (hereafter, csr) has been recognized as an effective strategic marketing technique. there are two reasons for the increased interest in csr. on one hand, customers expect more from companies than a high-quality product at a reasonable price, and when they compare identical items, they choose socially responsible companies. on the other hand, focusing on non-economic variables can give a company a competitive advantage (porter & kramer, 2006). there are a number of reasons for today's emphasis on corporate social responsibility. criticism of the company has increased dramatically in recent years. corporate social responsibility refers to the idea that companies have obligations to all social groups, except shareholders, that go beyond what is required by law or a union contract (jones, 1980). it has been scientifically established that there is an indirect link between csr and brand loyalty via the mediating role of functional and symbolic representations. the results show that legal and ethical obligations, as the two basic characteristics of nsp, promote brand loyalty by building positive functional and symbolic representations (he & lai, 2014). therefore, corporate legal responsibility enhances a more functional image that consumers perceive as a symbolic image, while ethically responsible behavior influences a symbolic image rather than a functional image (he & lai, 2014). looking back at previous empirical studies, the business justification for social responsibility and the reciprocal relationship between corporate social performance (csr) and corporate financial performance (cfp) remain the most controversial issues in society (barnett, 2007). if csr has a universal and meaningful impact on customers, we need to be clear about the meaningful impact of socially responsible companies on the bottom line (castaldo et al., 2009). changing societal expectations have led companies to pay more attention to social responsibility in social terms, as they need to consider the potential impact of csrs on policy and stakeholder interactions. this is particularly important in times of economic uncertainty (lacey & kennett-hensel, 2010). 2.2. customer reliability in some ways, consumer confidence is a subjective concept. there is no single explanation of what it means, nor is there an established technique for evaluating it (merkle et al., 2003). customers characterize the quality of service, and each customer considers the standard of care to be significant (saleem & raja, 2014). thus, the customer is associated with a company's activity as the basis for building a brand's credibility. the priority a company gives to social responsibility has a direct impact on this scenario. previous research has shown that csr has a significant positive impact on brand loyalty. therefore, rodrigueset et al. (2011) 26 extended this work by experimentally investigating how csr, including legal forms and ethical commitments, improves brand loyalty via the mediating role of functional and symbolic representations. companies increasingly need intriguing alternatives that reinforce the symbolic strength of their brand. corporate social responsibility policies could be one of these options. consumers choose companies and brands that practice active social responsibility. when social responsibility and brand image are linked, the same consumers adopt certain behaviors. these attitudes make customers more loyal and willing to pay a premium for the brand (rodrigues et al., 2011). consumers' views are influenced by their identification with the brand, but not by their actions, loyalty, or willingness to pay a higher price for the brand (rodrigues et al., 2011). consumer loyalty and attitude are significantly and positively related to corporate social responsibility (csr). in both attitude and action, there is a clear link between perceived service quality and loyalty. as a result, there is also a positive relationship between attitude, loyalty, and behavior (mandhachitara & poolthong, 2011). 2.3. company image aaker (1996) defines brand image as "the way people perceive the brand." for marketers, brand image is a crucial concept. numerous studies have confirmed that image issues influence purchase decisions (dolich, 1969). a product is more likely to be used and loved if its image matches the user's current or desired self-image (sirgy, 1985). according to several studies, one of the main incentives for including csr in strategy is the ability to differentiate a company from its competitors (porter & kramer, 2006) and strategies to increase its competitiveness (lee, 2008). today, companies use their branding to define and tell their story and build their image. because consumers associate products and services with their corresponding brands, the image of a successful company is a significant economic advantage. brands serve as the foundation for a company's positioning and differentiation. in addition, the synergistic benefits derived from the power of a brand enable the creation of services and goods (rodrigues et al. 2011). brand image refers to a comprehensive view of the brand and emphasizes the person's thoughts and the ideas that the individual has about the product or service. it denotes the maximum expression of consumer loyalty and willingness to pay a premium price (rodrigues et al. 2011). a strong brand has many advantages. a well-designed advertising campaign for a company leads to more positive thoughts and perceptions about the brand image among consumers. an advertising effort that emphasizes a brand's connection to a better society has a high degree of loyalty (kaur & agrawal, 2011). 2.4. kosovar food producers food safety is part of the customer's perceived (subjective) quality of a food product and is considered an essential component of food quality (peri, 2006). "quality confidence" is defined as the informational stimulus related to product quality that customers can determine with their senses prior to consumption (steenkamp, 1990). food safety is a reliable attribute because it is not known before purchase whether the food is safe. nor can safety be inferred from post-purchase experiences (grunert, 2005), unless the customer becomes ill and the illness can be traced to the food with some certainty. local foods are considered safer and of higher quality. of course, consumer patriotism is vital to kosovo residents (haas et al., 2021). miftari (2009) found that the majority of kosovar consumers had positive attitudes toward domestic (as opposed to foreign) dairy products, indicating an overriding patriotism among consumers regarding food. domestic dairy products, according to kosovo customers, were safer and of higher quality than imported dairy products (haas et al., 2021). a previous study found that consumers consider provenance, food safety certifications, and private labels as important tools for determining food safety and quality (haas et al., 2016). organic products (one type of food certification) are used by consumers as an indicator of quality. the extent to which people accept organic certification as an indicator of quality depends on their environmental concerns, trust in local producers, and ethnocentrism (thogersen et al., 2019). based on a review of the literature, the following three options were proposed: h1: corporate social responsibility improves brand image. h2: business responsibility influences customer credibility positively. h3: a positive association exists between brand image and customer credibility. the following is the research theoretical model: 27 figure 1. model of conceptual research source: author, 2022 3. methodology 3.1. sample the study was conducted using a questionnaire, which was distributed to 303 kosovo people (consumers). the participants in the research were potential consumers who could use kosovar foods. the questionnaire was completed online, and only those who could access the link placed on social media were included in the research. table 1 presents the sample's descriptive data. 3.2. instruments we utilized habel's (2016) engaged csr meter, which comprises of eight questions, to measure social responsibility (statements). using a likert measure, responses were graded from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. "kosovo food corporations investigate environmental sustainability," for example, is one of these assertions. swaen and chumpitaz's (2008) confidence gage was used to gauge consumer trust in the firm. this measure consists of six statements (questions) scored on a likert scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. one of these comments would be, "the goods of these firms provide me a sense of security". the company's image was assessed by adapting the kim et al. (2017) scale, which consists of five assertions" (statements). the likert scale was used to assess whether (1) i disagree to (5) i completely agree. for example, "i believe kosovar food firms are safe," is one of these assertions. the questionnaire also includes six demographic items with a nominal numerator. 3. data analysis spss 26 and amos 23 were used to analyze the data. validity, reliability, linear regression analysis, and correlation are among the statistical studies done. table 1. the sample's descriptive statistics (n = 303) variable frequency percent gender male 125 41.3 female 178 58.7 age 21-30 184 60.7 31-40 61 20.1 41-50 40 13.2 51-60 16 5.3 over 60 2 0.7 education primary school 9 3.0 high school 60 19.8 bachelor 156 51.5 master & doctorate 78 25.7 occupation employed in the public sector 57 18.8 employed in the private sector 108 35.6 unemployed 41 13.5 student 85 28.1 housewife 9 3.0 retired 3 1.0 marital status single 157 51.8 married 126 41.6 other 20 6.6 monthly income under 300 euros 140 46.2 301-600 euro 102 33.7 601-900 euros 28 9.2 901-1200 euro 14 4.6 over 1200 euros 19 6.3 28 table 1 summarizes the sample's characteristics. men outnumbered females by a 58.7% to 41.3%. most of the participants are aged 21-30 with 60.7%. at the level of education, 50.5% have a bachelor's education level and 25.7% have a master's and doctorate level. in the private sector, 35.6% of the participants are employed, in the public sector 18.8% and 28.1% of the participants are students. regarding marital status, 51.8% of the participants are single, while 41.6% of them are married. regarding the level of income, 46.2% of the participants earn less than 300 euros per month, while 33.7% of them earn 301-600 euros per month. 4.1. reliability and validity of research the validity of the measure was tested using confirmatory factor analysis. the findings of the confirmatory factor analysis are summarized in figure 2. social responsibility: of the 8 (eight) items on this aspect, 5 (five) were removed and only 3 (three) were utilized. these questions were removed because they had a low burden on that factor and so were left. no questions were removed from the other two categories, business image and customer reliability. thus, 5 (five) questions were used to assess the firm's image, and 6 (six) questions were used to assess customer reliability. the questions that were shown to be linked were those that assess customer trustworthiness. the following questions were found to be related: question 14 with question 13, question 13 with question 12, and question 10 with question 9. figure 2. a visual representation of the confirmatory factor analysis results. source: author, 2022 table 2. confirmatory factor analysis results variable weights cr ave msv csr csr8 .806 0.785 0.552 0.566 csr7 .766 csr5 .647 cr cr6 .776 0.888 0.570 0.924 cr5 .811 cr4 .687 cr3 .776 cr2 .757 cr1 .716 ci ci5 .738 0.894 0.629 0.924 ci4 .754 ci2 .777 ci1 .835 ci3 .856 source: author, 2022 the cfa findings are summarized in table 2. the table covers cr (each factor's reliability), ave (average variance extracted or convergent validity), and msv (maximum share variance or discriminatory validity). these numbers are greater than 0.50 and so are acceptable. demonstrate that the meters are both trustworthy and accurate. regression weight and convergent validity suggest that the scales employed are extremely reliable, and the ave values for the three 29 variables are all more than 0.50. as a result, our model is both trustworthy and accurate. 4.2. hypothesis testing the amos software was used to evaluate hypotheses using linear regression analysis. figure 3. implementing regression analysis visually. source: author, 2022 table 3. the findings of a linear regression study in relation to hypothesis testing. parameter weights the lowest level of reliability the highest level of reliability p csr→ci .944 .909 .968 .013 csr→cr .973 .921 .997 .021 source: author, 2022 regarding the first hypothesis, the regression analysis findings show that corporate social responsibility has a 94.4 percent influence on the company's image, and this impact is significant (p=0.013<0.05). as a result, our research's initial hypothesis is accepted. in terms of the second hypothesis, the regression analysis results indicate that corporate social responsibility has a 97.3 percent influence on customer reliability, which is statistically significant (p = 0.021<0.05). as a result, the second hypothesis is accepted. table 4. model testing results for the link between cr and ci. parameter weights the lowest level of reliability the highest level of reliability p cr→ci .939 .905 .967 .014 source: author, 2022 the outcomes of the correlation study between customer dependability and corporate image are presented in table 4. customer reliability and corporate image have a 93.9 percent positive and very high relationship, and this relationship is significant (p = 0.014 < 0.05). the third hypothesis is deemed acceptable. 5. conclusions the aim of this paper was to investigate the relationship between these three factors (social responsibility, customer reliability, and corporate image). the effect and relationship that these three factors have with one another is also investigated. based on the conclusions of the aforementioned writers, such as jones (1980), the influence of social responsibility in today's business world and corporate commitment to this problem have emerged. the impact of social responsibility on a company's image has also been 30 demonstrated, making it look more serious and powerful in the market. the authors, he and lai (2014), observed a beneficial impact in their study and validated this influence. furthermore, the research confirmed the positive influence that social responsibility has on customer reliability, based on the findings of rodrigueset et al. (2011), where this influence exists and plays a significant role in the assessment of consumers when they buy things from certain companies. moreover, it has been shown that there is a relationship between a company's image and consumer trustworthiness, two aspects whose development and success also depend on each other. thus, if a company has a good reputation in the market, it influences customers to behave in a more trustworthy way when making a purchase, and vice versa, if customers have confidence in a company, this has the effect of further strengthening the company's image in the market alongside its competitors. managerial implications it is important to emphasize that managers should also pay more attention to these three variables. even though they are the responsible individuals who carry out the different operations in the company, they are also the people who must show the willingness to carry out actions related to social responsibility while being in contact with the owners. any company that is developing or anticipates future growth and expansion should have a department dedicated to this sector, and all actions should be overseen by competent management. it is worth investing in this sector not only to reduce costs for the company, but also to understand the other side of the coin in terms of marketing benefits. companies have a number of actions to strengthen their csr involvement and improve their reputation as socially conscious organizations. according to research, the following tactics can be successful: recognize and rank societal issues: the social concerns that are most important to businesses and their stakeholders should be identified and given the highest priority by them. by doing so, they may direct their efforts toward those areas where they will have the greatest influence and forge a clearer sense of direction (matten et al., 2008). create a thorough csr strategy: businesses should create a thorough csr strategy that includes precise goals, targets, and performance indicators. this can assist them in transparently and responsibly measuring and communicating their progress (caroll et al., 2010). integrate csr into fundamental company operations: organizations should integrate csr into their operational procedures and decision-making frameworks. this can ensure that social and environmental concerns are taken into account in all areas of the business rather than being a secondary concern (caroll et al., 2010). as a result, the image of the company in the market will improve, and customers will have more confidence in the brand. research limitations and recommendations for future research the sample size used for the analysis limits the results of the study. due to the global epidemic, the questionnaire was conducted online. therefore, the sample size is only as large as the number of people who were able to access it by distributing the link to complete the questionnaire. despite the fact that the study was conducted with clients (public, private, and students), the majority of participants were young. the hypotheses studied have been confirmed. however, it is suggested that future studies investigate and evaluate how the use of social responsibility affects the internal organization of the company. what is the impact on employee emotions and organizational performance? how do employee emotions affect organizational performance? since this is a new topic that plays an important role in corporate marketing, i think it should be considered more and evaluated in a broader framework to properly understand and evaluate the impact. that social responsibility seems to have on corporate operations and on the environment and society in general. list of measurement items corporate social responsibility (habel, 2016) food companies value environmental sustainability. food companies consciously act in the interest of the environment. they regularly donate a portion of the proceeds to charity. kosovar food companies donate money to people in need. kosovar food companies are socially responsible for their employees. they take care of their employees outside of the legal framework. kosovar food businesses engage in local projects to support the community. kosovar food businesses care about the people in the communities where they operate. 31 consumer reliability (swaen and chumpitaz, 2008) the products of these companies give me a sense of security. i believe in the quality of the products of kosovar food companies. buying products from kosovar food companies is a guarantee of quality. these companies are interested in their customers. kosovar food companies are honest in dealing with their customers. these companies are honest with their customers. company image (kimet et al., 2017) i think kosovar food companies are safe companies. i think these companies value consumer rights. i have a good impression of kosovar food companies. i think kosovar food companies have a good image in the minds of consumers. i think that the value of products and services offered by kosovar food companies is high. demographic questions gender? 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(2019). the impact of organic certification and country of origin on consumer food choice in developed and emerging economies. food quality and preference, 72, 10-30. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 43 remittance incomes and economic development in kosovo rrezarta gashi aab college rrezartag@gmail.com abstract in globalism period, when the migration of the population is informal, migration and remittances have played an extraordinary important role on the socio-economy development of the country. as in many places that are in transition phase and in kosovo remittance have played a positive role on the development of the country, considering the great number of the diaspora living in foreign countries. even in the world’s greatest crises, remittance has been the main pillar of a country, mainly for those countries under development. they are considered as primary incomes for many families of the countries under development and those in transitions, too. according to the researches performed during last years, it is argued that the remittance increase effect on the economic development of the country. during this paperwork will be explained the theory and practice aspects on the role of remittances on the development of such countries that receive them. key words: remittance, migration, economic development, importance, kosovo mailto:rrezartag@gmail.com prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 44 1.introduction the number of international migrations, including also refugees, increased in 258 million in 2017, by 172 million as was in 2010. part of international immigrants in the world wide population increased by 3, 4%, as per 2, 8%, as it was in the same time period. ¾ of the increased migration in period of 2000-2017 was for the countries with the maximum incomes, where the part of international migrants, increased the number of population by 9, 6% in 14% (world bank, knomad, 2018) according to the world bank report, official registered remittances in countries with lower and medium rate of incomes achieved in 466 milliard dollar during 2017, an increase of 8.5% compared to 2016, since in 2016 there were 429 milliard dollar (world bank, 2018). in macroeconomic level they bring a foreign needed commutation and contribute on the improvement of balance of the current account in the places of origin. in many countries, deliveries of the emigrants represent a high percentage of gdp (rahmije topxhiu, albulena mustafa, 2013). today, we also live in a modern economic period; unfortunately kosovo still faces difficult economic situations. such difficult situation can be explained by the high level of unemployment and low export compared to other region countries. for these reasons remittances have positive effect in kosovo, since this country is one of the poorest countries in the region. mainly, their destination has been for consume, but there were many cases when remittances in kosovo are used also for the opening of new businesses, which have positively effect in the economy of the country. merely, during 2017 their value has been 759.2 million euro; such value represents 9.9% of the annual increase. remittances were and are one of the main factors that contributed on the economic development of our country. germany and switzerland are the greatest contributors of the remittance deliveries by 22.5% of the total received remittances in kosovo, whereas usa by 7% of the total received remittances in kosovo. moreover, foreign direct investments (fdi), have had an increase of 30.8%, where the value has reached the value of 287.8 million euro (central bank, 2018). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 45 during this research, a specific importance was dedicated to the theory and practice aspects of the role of remittances on the development of such countries that received them. a special analyze was dedicated to the country of kosovo, since the remittances for this country have specific importance. their role in economic development of the country will be presented through the data of different published statistics by specific institutions, as well as the use of foreign and local literature. 2. literature review on the role of remittances in economic development positive impact by population migration have developed countries, since they usually have higher ability to transfer their practice knowledge and abilities to migrants that came back in their origin, or the delivery of remittances for the opening of new private businesses and the opening of new job vacancies. (kristina matuzeviciute, mindaugas butkus, 2016). one of the many empirical studies that are done especially for the influence of remittances in economic development of the country, support the evidence by migration literature, where is implicated that remittances have a greater net effect on the economic development expressed as annual increase of gdp in developed countries (robert stojanov, wadim strielkowski, 2013). in order to testify the opinion of the above mentioned authors, related to the positive opinion of remittances of the country of origin, below will be presented the table with the fluxes of remittances from regions with low and medium incomes, report presented by central bank. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 46 2010 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018f 2019f $ billion low and middle income 341 444 440 429 466 485 503 east asia and pacific 96 121 126 123 130 135 140 europe and central asia 38 52 41 40 48 51 53 latin america and caribbean 57 65 68 74 80 83 87 middle-east and north africa 39 54 51 49 53 56 57 south asia 82 116 118 110 117 120 123 sub-saharan africa 30 37 36 34 38 41 43 table 1. estimates and projections of remittance flows to lowand middle-income regions (world bank, 2018) in macroeconomic level, the influence of remittances occurs within the multiplier effect through the consume of goods and services, human capital investments, that improve the employment productivity, as well as the investment in the formation of gross capital (kristina matuzeviciute, mindaugas butkus, 2016). negative remitances impact at positive increasing price level decreasing export competitiveness decreasing labour supply increasing currency exchange rate increasing import decreasing macroeconomic volatility increasing amount of foreign currency increasing investment prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 47 figure 1. the macroeconomic impact on economic development many literatures emphasize that the positive impact on migration and remittance in the countries of origin brings many arguments based on which diaspora contributes sensitively in the decrease of poverty, increase and development of the country of origin. they can support such as: the trade also the investment since they are better informed on the different economic possibilities and its benefits (rahmije topxhiu, albulena mustafa, 2013). according to some authors, the impact of remittances depends on the structural characteristics, such as consume and investments, models and abilities to manage great financial revenues of the hosting country (n.aziz, s.sen, p.sun, l.wu, 2015). a study is made during 1987-2007 by nsiah and fayissa, in 64 different countries of africa, asia and latin america regarding the relationships between remittances and economic development of those countries. after the completion of several year researches, they concluded that between remittances and economic development of the country exist positive relationship (dietmar meyer, adela shera, 2017). beside the positive impact that remittances have on economic development of the country, some authors say that they also might have negative influences. therefore remittances can be harmful on the contribution of positive investment in human capital, therefore running the country toward a negative economic development (natalia catrinescu,miguel leon,mtloob piracha,bryc, 2006) whereas, another negative impact to migration is also because of the “brain wash”, mainly for countries under development and further as well as to those in transition (kristina matuzeviciute, mindaugas butkus, 2016). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 48 3. the role and impact of remittances in economic development of kosovo as in many countries that are in transition, also in kosovo remittances play an important role in the economy of the country. as it is mentioned by the beginning of the paperwork, the remittance increased in 2017 compared with the year 2016 is 9.9%. according to the kosovo central bank remittances until 2018 are expected to achieve an annual increase of around 8%, such increase will be welcomed for kosovo, since it is one of the countries with the weakest economic development in the region, and based on this fact are depended by remittances. . table 2. remittances in million euro (central bank, 2018) according to the report of the world bank, kosovo is in the top ten position countries that receive the most remittances in the world, where their participation in gdp is by 16.7%. below is presented the table with the followed evidences: prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 49 table 3. 10 first receivers of the remittances in the world (world bank, 2018) revenues by remittances have helped on the improvement of standard of living in kosovo, mainly in rural countries, and in specific to benefiting families as well as on the decrease of the poverty. moreover, they play an important role in macroeconomic stability of the country and assisting rapid development of construction and service sectors. beside the remittances also fdi are indicators with a specific importance on the economic development of the country. in kosovo remittances every year are increasing, excluding 2016, where decreased by 8% compared to 2015. different from remittances, fdi have fluctuation by years, where during two last years have been notices a decrease. positive trend has also had in 2011. their data are presented on the table below: milion € year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 remittances 584.33 584.81 605.63 620.83 693.68 752.40 691.00 759.20 fdi 314.60 414.00 229.06 258.90 123.90 324.40 215.90 287.80 table 4. remittances and fdi in kosovo 2010-2017 – central bank prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 50 remittances vs fdi % year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 remittances vs fdi 186% 141% 264% 240% 560% 232% 320% 264% table 5. the percentage and the importance of remittances beside fdi according to the report of undp, the greatest part of remittances is spent for consume 35.4% (undp, 2012). expenditure categories report average current consumption (food, clothing, services, utilities) 35.4% other consumption (mobile, household appliances, cars, marriages, funerals, etc.) 24.8% investment in housing (purchase / home / apartment building, home / apartment renovation) 19.6% investment in human capital (education (4.6%), health (6%)) 10.6% investment in businesses (land acquisition (0.8%), business (0.9%), manufacturing assets (2.2%) 3.9% savings (bank, family loan / relatives, other savings) 3.7% debt payment (borroëed for migration or other reasons) 2.0% table 6. the use of remittances among the consume categories, average report (undp, 2012) 4. conclusions and recommendations remittances are and continue to be an important part of the economy of kosovo. remittances have helped beneficiary families to have a better living standard, where in many cases also the families in deep poverty reached to survive. nowadays, almost every family has at least one family member who lives abroad. regarding this kosovo economy, consider remittances as an important part. kosovo institutions, in order to have an investing character in kosovo market, should compile authentic strategies on how diaspora can contribute on kosovo market. therefore, taxes for such investments to be lower, in order to open a path to those who invest in kosovo and their percentage to be higher. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 51 references banka qendrore. (2018). raporti vjetor. prishtinë: banka qendrore e republikës së kosovës. dietmar meyer, adela shera. (2017). the impact of remittances on economic growth: an econometric. economia, 147-155. kalaja, r. (2016). vleresimi i cilesise se sherbimit spitalor dhe kenaqesia e pacienteve ne shqiperi: studim krahasues mes sektorit publik dhe privat. disertacion ne kerkim te grades "doktori i shkencave". fakulteti i bizesit, universiteti "aleksander moisiu" durres. kristina matuzeviciute, mindaugas butkus. (2016). remittances, development level, and longrun. economies, 2. le thanh. (2011). remittances for economic development: the investment. macroeconomics research group. n.aziz, s.sen, p.sun, l.wu. (2015, september). migrant workers’ remittances and. retrieved 2018, from https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/66992/1/mpra_paper_66992.pdf natalia catrinescu,miguel leon,mtloob piracha,bryc. (2006). remittances, institutions and economic growth. germany: iza dp no.2139. rahmije topxhiu, albulena mustafa. (2013). roli i remitancave/dërgesave të diasporës në zhvillimin ekonomik të vendit. kontributi i diasporës dhe investimeve të jashtme në zhvillimin e ekonomisë, biznesit dhe rritjes se punësimit në kosovë dhe në vendet tjera botërore (p. 118). prishtinë: ifk. robert stojanov, wadim strielkowski. (2013). retrieved july 2018, from file:///c:/users/admin/downloads/464.pdf undp. (2012). studimi mbi remitencat ne kosove 2012. prishtine: undp. world bank. (2018). record high remittances to lowand middle-income countries in 2017. washington: the world bank, ibrd-ida. world bank, knomad. (2018). migration and remittances brief 29. washington: world bank. references 41 teachers’ opinions on the competency of primary school administrators in kosovo dr.sc. nuri bri̇na ¹* assoc. prof. dr. turan akman erkiliç ² ¹ prizren ukshin hoti university, faculty of education, nuri.brina@uni-prizren.com *correspondent author. 2 anadolu university, faculty of education, terkilic@anadolu.edu.tr article history: submission 01 august 2021 revision 08 november 2021 accepted 19 december 2021 available online 31 december 2021 keywords: kosovo, school administrators, competence. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.277 a b s t r a c t in this study, it is aimed to determine the teachers’ opinions on the school administrators’ competency in kosovo, who work at primary schools. the data of the study were collected in the 2020-2021 academic year by using the school administrators competencies inventory (saci). in the analysis of the data, findings were obtained by using statistical analyses such as correlation, ttest and manova. based on the findings, it was found that the school administrators' competencies inventory is adequate in all dimensions. no significant difference was found based on the variables of the teachers' opinions, gender and educational level. a significant difference was found in the dimensions of preparing a convenient school building and environment and professional service as a result of the ethnic analysis. a significant difference was found in the dimension of the curriculum development under the views on the school administrators’ competency based on age. based on the results, it is recommended that school administrators can be encouraged to engage in personal and administrative activities and provide more opportunities, with a central systemic support, in order to have more positive effects on their competencies. 1. introduction the only way to reach beyond the age is through breakthroughs in education. researching the competencies of school administrators, which is accepted by everyone to have an important place in the education system, is very necessary at the beginning of the twenty first century, especially in this age of change and information. the information age has emerged throughout the world as a result of the developing technology and information which has been produced in the twenty-first century (aydın, 2000). importance of management has increased in the information age due to the change in the lifestyles of individuals, technological developments, renewed business sectors and rapid changes in occupational characteristics. in this age, people have started to satisfy their needs through organizations. it is the managers who manage and organize those organizations well in order to satisfy the needs accurately and successfully. in the information age, it has become a must to create environments which can meet different needs in educational organizations due to the complex and versatile nature of people, rapid changes in education and new approaches (kırhan, 2009, p. 1). it should be perceived as a very important responsibility for the future to raise qualified people who will lead this rapid change, particularly for educational institutions (demir, 2009). it is unimaginable that schools, which are information producing institutions, and the administrators who manage them, fall behind these processes (aydın, 2000). however, the qualifications and the behaviors which managers in general and school administrators in particular, should have and exhibit have differentiated (çetin, 2008). at this point, the school administrators’ competencies gain importance (baltacı, 2017). although certain theoretical and applied researches have been performed on the determination of the competencies of school administrators in some european countries and turkey, these competencies remained only theoretical and could not be translated into practice, since school administrating was not professionalized (ağaoğlu, altınkurt, yılmaz, & karaköse, 2012). nevertheless, school administrators need to have certain competencies in order to manage their schools effectively and efficiently. after all, there is a need for qualified employees who https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:nuri.brina@uni-prizren.com mailto:terkilic@anadolu.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.277 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0885-0993 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2507-2663 42 do their job well and who are competent in their field, as well as quality managers who will organize and direct them (tuzcuoğlu, 2009). 1.1. problem it has been concluded that the most important of the interorganizational factors is the human factor as a result of the studies which were conducted in the social development process. as özdemir (1988) stated, the fundamental element which guides education is human being. if the employees in this field cannot be trained and evaluated effectively enough, the problems of the education system continue exponentially. in line with this, the socio-economic, political, educational and cultural development of kosovo, which is a 13-year-old state, depends on the condition of training human capital. this is possible with qualified education in the first place. it has been accepted by all the world that education is the most important element for the development of communities and for them to continue their lives in peace and prosperity (barut, 2007). as a matter of fact, as çelik (1990) stated, education lies behind the social, economic and political problems in many countries and it is considered to be locomotive power. the effective use of material and human capital resources allocated to education necessitated the organization of an adequate staff of school administrators who are trained in the field of educational administration (çelik, 1990). in countries where trained human capital and financial resources are considered scarce, it can be suggested that school administrators’ competencies are of greater importance (kayıkçı, 2001). therefore, it is observed that it is necessary for school administrators to have certain knowledge, abilities, conditions and behaviors. one of the problem dimensions of the school administrators in kosovo is that enough research on this subject has not been performed and it can be claimed that the researches merely consider the theoretical dimension. it can also be argued that the evaluation and development of effective school administrator's qualifications in kosovo will contribute positively to the education service provided in schools. the main subject of this study is the school administrators’ competencies. in the context of kosovo, a comprehensive study has been conducted to evaluate the existing practices in the education system and the information obtained through quantitative means in the dimension of school administrators’ competence. studies on this subject in the world and in turkey exist, but as a result of the literature review, it makes this study much more valuable by constituting the main reason for making the study in kosovo, which aims development to observe the limited number of such studies in the context of kosovo, the inadequacy of the literature on the school administrators’ competencies, the lack of awareness and qualifications, and the lack of awareness of such competencies in kosovo. 1.2. purpose in this study, it is aimed to determine the teachers’ opinions about the school administrators’ competency in kosovo based on the opinions of primary school teachers. in line with this general purpose, answers to the following questions are sought: 1. what are the teachers' views on the competencies of primary school administrators (principals and deputy principals) in kosovo? 2. how do the teachers’ opinions on the school administrators’ competencies in kosovo vary based on: a) gender, b) age, c) education level, d) ethnicity? 2.3. the concept of competency competency can be described as "having a certain level of knowledge and ability to perform a behavior (kaya 1993; başaran, 2006), a whole consisting of certain personal characteristics (bursalıoğlu, 1981) and abilities which enable a person to survive in the social system" (balcı, 2003). the perception of competency which an individual has can make it possible to do their work more easily, both in daily and working life (baltacı, 2017). başaran (2006) argues that the reliability in employing competency comes from the fact that the knowledge and skills on which it is based are of scientific origin. manager competencies, on the other hand, can be considered as a performance criterion consisting of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and behaviors which are expected from managers in order for the organization to achieve its goals. however, these criteria differ according to the management perspective of the manager, and these competencies also change in parallel with the changes in management science (gökçe, 2008). furthermore, managerial competencies imply what is expected from managers in providing organizational effectiveness in the most general sense. these are characteristics which need to be addressed in a wide variety, from technology use to communication and leadership competencies. in this sense, it is very difficult to connect the theoretical background of managerial competencies to a standard theory (ağaoğlu, altunkurt, yılmaz, & karaköse, 2012). it is of great importance to know the areas of competencies in administration, especially in school administration. these 43 competencies are determined legally by the relevant ministries, and different criteria have been put forward by the academic circles (gülşen & gökyer, 2012). katz (citing from 1956, bursalıoğlu, 1981), who has an important role in the literature, determined the competencies which school administrators should have as technical, human and organizational (conceptual) based on the results of his research. suggesting a similar explanation, şişman (2013) argues that school administrators should have some skills and competencies in human, technical and conceptual aspects. this classification is also widely used in educational administration studies. this is because these competencies can be determined easily and reliably in terms of the knowledge and skills which they cover (bursalıoğlu, 1981). based on the results of his applied research, aydın (2014) collects the competencies of the school administrator under the headings of working effectively with people, an effective business management, preparing a convenient school building and its environment, developing a training program, and serving the profession. again, it can be claimed that aydın (2014) focuses on the human, organizational and technical competencies of school administrators. in the studies which were conducted by uslu, (2013) and can, (2014), açıkalın (1998); basar, (2000); toremen ve kolay (2003); munis, (2006); kombiçak, (2008); lunenburg, (2010); it is also observed that they classify the competencies of school administrators based on similar points. based on the descriptions in the literature, human competencies, organizational competencies and technical competencies can be explained as follows; human competencies are the ability of school administrators to work with people (başar, 2000). these are the competencies which the administrator should have in human affairs such as being a good team leader and establishing and developing good workplace relations (şişman, 2012). organizational competencies are the ability to manage and consider the organization from an institutional and conceptual perspective (kayıkçı, 2001). technical competencies, on the other hand, include the technical knowledge and skills which school administrators need to know in the field of work related to the tools and equipment which are used in business life (açıkgöz, 1994; eren, 2012). school administrators can gain some of them through the education they receive, and some of them through experience while working (şişman, 2012). a school administrator with mentioned scope of competency can manage the school more effectively (balyer, 2016). as a result, school administrators can be more successful in their organizations if they have effective competencies and skills in these areas. 2. research method the research dimension of the study has been designed in the descriptive survey model. the survey model is a research approach which aims to describe a past or present situation as it is or was (büyüköztürk, çakmak, akgün, karadeniz, & demirel, 2010). the descriptive survey model is a research model which tries to describe and examine events, entities, groups, and features in the preexisting condition (kaptan, 1998). the main purpose of this type of research is to describe and explain the considered situation in detail (çepni, 2007). 2.1. the universe which was created for data collection and sample the general universe of the research consists of 23,234 (10,069 female and 13,165 male) teachers working at primary and secondary level (educational level) in kosovo in the 2020-2021 academic year (masht, 2020). it was decided to take sample in the study due to the fact that the universe becomes abstract as it increases in number and it becomes difficult to access the members (karasar, 2008). the population of 6,336 teachers was calculated considering the confidence interval of 95% and the margin of error of 5%, and minimum sample number to represent the population was 362 in order to be sure in the determination of the sample which is sufficient to represent the universe in the study. as yıldırım and şimşek (2016) stated, schools in the city and district centers were preferred by using the easily accessible sampling method in the study, since the schools which are close and easy to reach should be selected. in this method, the researcher chooses a situation which is close and easy to access (patton, 2005; yıldırım & şimşek, 2016). the power of representation of the universe in sample selection is extremely important in terms of ensuring the validity and reliability of the study. for this reason, the data on the number of teachers in the sample of the study are shown in table 1 below (masht, 2020). 44 table 1. the distribution of ethnicity of the teachers who constitute the research universe and sample in the provinces and districts): as can be seen in table 1, 6,336 albanian, turkish and bosnian teachers are in the study population of the research. 5,860 of the teachers are albanian, 193 are turkish, 273 are bosnian and 10 are from other ethnic identities. it is also can be seen that, the total number of albanian teachers in the sample is 285 (47.50%). 4.86% of the albanian teachers in the study universe were taken into the sample. 173 of the teachers are turkish (28.83%). 89.63 of the teachers in the study universe were taken into the sample. the number of bosnian teachers is 142 (23, 66%). 52.01% of bosnian teachers in the study universe were taken into the sample. the representation ratio of the number of teachers (600) who are included in the sample to the study population is 9.46%. based on this information, the researcher comes to the conclusion that the level of representation of the population of the sample which are reached is quite sufficient. 750 forms were distributed to the study universe of the study, 24 of the 624 returned forms were not included in the study as they were incomplete, and a total of 600 people were included in the sample. the personal details of the teachers who participated in the quantitative research is presented in table 2. table 2. personal details of the teachers who participated in the study ethnic origin frequency percentage total percentage albanian 285 47.500 47.500 turkish 172 28.667 76.167 bosnian 143 23.833 100.000 total 600 100.000 gender female 373 62.167 62.167 male 227 37.833 100.000 total 600 100.000 age 22 – 25 38 6.333 6.333 26 – 30 91 15.167 21.500 31 – 35 110 18.333 39.833 36 – 45 184 30.667 70.500 46 and older 177 29.500 100.000 total 600 100.000 number of the teachers in the research universe provinces and districts albanian turkish bosnian other total prishtine 2,632 21 12 / 2,665 prizren 1,837 107 261 8 2,213 gilan 1,375 24 / 2 1,401 mamusa 16 41 / / 57 total 5,860 193 273 10 6,336 number of the teachers in the sample provinces and districts albanian turkish bosnian other total prishtine 42 16 2 / 60 prizren 199 111 139 / 449 gilan 35 14 / / 49 mamusa 9 32 1 / 42 total 285 173 142 / 600 45 educational level higher pedagogical education school (2 years) 44 7.333 7.333 bachelor completion (ypo+2) 342 57.000 74.833 undergraduate education 147 24.500 99.333 postgraduate 63 10.500 17.833 doctorate 4 0.667 100.000 total 600 100.000 branch classroom teacher 238 39.667 39.667 branch teacher 288 48.000 87.667 preschool teacher 59 9.833 97.500 other 14 2.333 99.833 unspecified 1 0.167 100.000 total 600 100.000 professional seniority 5 years and less 137 22.833 22.833 6-10 years 134 22.333 45.167 11-15 years 109 18.167 63.333 16-20 years 67 11.167 74.500 21 years and more 153 25.500 100.000 total 600 100.000 place of duty prizren 449 74.833 74.833 prishtine 60 10.000 84.833 gilan 49 8.167 93.000 mamusa 42 7.000 100.000 total 600 100.000 considering table 2, which presents the number of teachers included in the sample group and from whom data was obtained, it is observed that total 600 teachers have participated in the research. 285, 172 and 143 of the participants are albanians, turks and bosnians, respectively. based on the gender variable, it consists of 373 female and 227 male participants, and it is seen that 38, 91, 110, 184 and 177 of the participants belong to age ranges of 22 – 25 years, 26 – 30 years, 31 – 35 years, 36 – 45 years, 46 years old and over, respectively. examining the educational status of the teachers, 44 of them graduated from the higher pedagogical school (2 years), 342 from the bachelor's degree (ypo+2), 147 from the undergraduate education, 63 from the master's and 4 from the doctorate. based on the branch variable, it is observed that the 238, 288, 59 and 14 of the teachers are class teacher, branch teacher, preschool teacher, other and not specified, respectively. considering professional seniority, 137, 134, 109, 67 and 153 of the teachers have professional experience of 5 years and below, 6-10 years, 11-15 years, 16-20 years, 21 years and above, respectively. it is seen that 449, 60, 49 and 49 of the teachers work in prizren, pristina, gilan and mamusa, respectively. 3. results as a result, it can be stated that the teachers in the sample are albanians in accordance with the demographic structure of kosovo, most of the participants are female, between the ages of 36-45, their education level consists of undergraduate completion and branch teachers. 3.1. findings on the analysis of the school administrators competency inventory dimensions by gender in the study, it is aimed to examine the dimensions of the inventory of school administrators' competencies based on gender which are communication with people and working effectively, preparing a convenient school building and environment, effective organizational management, professional service and curriculum development. in line with this purpose, independent groups t-test analysis was used to determine the variation of teachers based on gender. means and standard deviations of scores obtained in the analysis and test results are presented in table 3 (variances are equal). 46 table 3. t-test results of the school administrators’ competency inventory dimensions by gender variables group n mean s s s h t sd. p cohen d communication with people and working effectively female 369 53.664 8.374 0.436 1.425 460.300 0.155 0.121 male 226 52.628 8.738 0.581 preparing a convenient school building and environment female 369 21.423 2.950 0.154 4.078 386.385 .001 0.355 male 226 20.208 3.837 0.255 professional service female 369 46.136 6.785 0.353 3.799 414.513 .001 0.327 male 226 43.695 8.069 0.537 effective organizational management female 369 33.154 4.864 0.253 2.506 433.906 0.013 0.215 male 226 32.044 5.464 0.363 curriculum development female 369 38.005 5.430 0.283 2.408 441.666 0.016 0.206 male 226 36.832 5.967 0.397 as can see in table 3, communicating with people and working effectively which is one of the dimensions of the school administrators' competencies inventory do not vary by gender. on the other hand, women's averages are statistically significantly higher than those of men in terms of preparing a convenient school building and environment, effective organizational management, professional service and curriculum development. 3.2. findings on the analysis of the school administrators competency inventory dimensions by ethnic origin in the study, it is aimed to examine the dimensions of the inventory of school administrators' competencies based on ethnic origin which are communication with people and working effectively, preparing a convenient school building and environment, effective organizational management, professional service and curriculum development. in this context, multiple analysis of variance (manova) was used to determine the variation of teachers according to ethnicity in the context of these variables. the manova assumptions were maintained and the wilks' lambda test was used as the covariates were not equal (box test p= .001). the correlations between the dependent variables of the study were examined and it was determined that there was no multi-collinearity. in the study, bonferoni was applied in univariate analyzes to prevent type 1 error (huck, 2012; pallant, 2007). accordingly, the p value of 0.005 was divided by the dependent variable of 5, and the new p value was determined as 0.01. according to the obtained results, it was determined that the multivariate test was significant. wilk ʌ =. 0.021, f (5, 590) = 5484.70, p < 0.001, multivariate ƞp2= . 0.98. the results of the univariate tests are presented in table 4. table 4. variance analysis results of the school administrators’ competency inventory dimensions by ethnic origin source of variance dependent variable kt sd ko f p ƞp 2 constant communication with people and working effectively 1542294,256 1 1542294,256 21269,025 0,000 0,973 preparing a convenient school building and environment 238057,088 1 238057,088 21275,106 0,000 0,973 professional service 1106828,417 1 1106828,417 20571,141 0,000 0,972 47 effective organizational management 581782,490 1 581782,490 22220,273 0,000 0,974 curriculum development 767641,516 1 767641,516 23929,604 0,000 0,976 ethnic origin communication with people and working effectively 209,365 2 104,683 1,444 0,237 0,005 preparing a convenient school building and environment 97,947 2 48,973 4,377 0,010 0,015 professional service 571,650 2 285,825 5,312 0,005 0,018 effective organizational management 96,466 2 48,233 1,842 0,159 0,006 curriculum development 65,771 2 32,885 1,025 0,359 0,003 error communication with people and working effectively 42928,070 592 72,514 preparing a convenient school building and environment 6624,164 592 11,189 professional service 31852,508 592 53,805 effective organizational management 15500,045 592 26,183 curriculum development 18990,861 592 32,079 as indicated in table 4, a significant difference is found in preparing a convenient school building and environment f (2, 592) = 4.377, p = .01; ƞp2= 0.015 and in professional service f (2, 592) = 5.312, p = .005; ƞp2= 0.018. for other variables, no statistical difference is detected. tukey test was used to determine the resulting difference, since the variances were equal, and the results are presented in table 5. table 5. tukey test results related to the ethnic origin variable of the school administrators’ competency inventory dimensions dependent variable ethnic origin mean difference sh p preparing a convenient school building and enviroment albanian turkish 0,0838 0,32459 0,964 bosniak ,9796* 0,34400 0,013 turkish albanian -0,0838 0,32459 0,964 bosniak ,8959* 0,38029 0,049 bosniak albanian -,9796* 0,34400 0,013 turkish -,8959* 0,38029 0,049 professional service albanian turkish 0,0162 0,71177 1,000 bosniak 2,3055* 0,75434 0,007 turkish albanian -0,0162 0,71177 1,000 bosniak 2,2893* 0,83391 0,017 bosniak albanian -2,3055* 0,75434 0,007 turkish -2,2893* 0,83391 0,017 as can be seen in table 5, the scores of albanian and turkish ethnic groups are statistically significantly higher than bosniak participants in the dimension of preparing a convenient school building and its environment. similarly, the scores of albanian and turkish ethnic groups are statistically significantly higher than bosniak individuals in the dimension of professional service. 48 3.3. findings on the analysis of the school administrators’ competency inventory dimensions by age in the study, it is aimed to examine the dimensions of the school administrators' competencies inventory based on age which are communication with people and working effectively, preparing a convenient school building and environment, effective organizational management, professional service and curriculum development. in this framework, multiple analysis of variance (manova) was used to determine the variation of teachers based on age in the context of these variables. manova assumptions were maintained and covariates were found to be unequal (box test p= .001). wilks' lambda test was used. the correlations between the dependent variables of the study were examined and it was determined that there was no multicollinearity. in the study, bonferoni was applied in univariate analyzes to prevent type 1 error (huck, 2012; pallant, 2007). accordingly, the p value of 0.005 was divided by the dependent variable of 5, and the new p value was determined as 0.01. considering the obtained results, it is determined that the multivariate test is significant. wilk ʌ = 0.951, f (5.589) = 1.491, p < 0.05, multivariate ƞp2= 0.013. the results of the univariate tests are given in table 6. table 6. analysis of variance results related to the age variable of the school administrators’ competency inventory dimensions source of variance dependent variable kt sd ko f p ƞp 2 constant communication with people and working effectively 1240148,3 1 1240148,37 17201,30 0,000 0,967 preparing a convenient school building and environment 191035,35 1 191035,359 17027,11 0,000 0,967 professional service 888283,72 1 888283,728 16520,54 0,000 0,966 effective organizational management 464812,07 1 464812,070 17810,42 0,000 0,968 curriculum development 617546,94 1 617546,943 19573,94 0,000 0,971 age communication with people and working effectively 600,684 4 150,171 2,083 0,082 0,014 preparing a convenient school building and environment 102,619 4 25,655 2,287 0,059 0,015 professional service 700,784 4 175,196 3,258 0,012 0,022 effective organizational management 198,836 4 49,709 1,905 0,108 0,013 curriculum development 442,464 4 110,616 3,506 0,008 0,023 error communication with people and working effectively 42536,751 590 72,096 preparing a convenient school building and environment 6619,492 590 11,219 professional service 31723,374 590 53,768 effective organizational management 15397,675 590 26,098 curriculum development 18614,168 590 31,549 as can be seen in table 6, a significant difference is found in f (4, 590) = 3,506, p = 0.008, ƞp2= 0.023 development of curriculum dimension. for other variables, no statistical difference was detected. tukey test was used to determine the difference since the variances were equal and the results are presented in table 7. table 7. tukey test results related to the age variable of the school administrators’ competency inventory dimensions dependent variable age mean difference sh p development of curriculum 22 – 25 26 – 30 1,1916 1,09516 0,813 31 – 35 1,2966 1,06747 0,743 36 – 45 2,9916* 1,01341 0,027 46 and over 1,6454 1,01585 0,485 49 26 – 30 22 – 25 -1,1916 1,09516 0,813 31 – 35 0,1050 0,79593 1,000 36 – 45 1,8001 0,72181 0,093 46 and over 0,4539 0,72523 0,971 31 – 35 22 – 25 -1,2966 1,06747 0,743 26 – 30 -0,1050 0,79593 1,000 36 – 45 1,6951 0,67906 0,093 46 and over 0,3489 0,68269 0,986 as can be seen in table 7, the scores of those in the 22-25 age are statistically significantly higher than those in the 36-45 age range in the dimension of developing curriculum. 3.4. findings on the analysis of the school administrators’ competency inventory dimensions by educational level in the study, it is aimed to examine the dimensions of the school administrators' competencies inventory based on educational level which are communication with people and working effectively, preparing a convenient school building and environment, effective organizational management, professional service and curriculum development. in this framework, multiple analysis of variance (manova) was used to determine the variation of teachers based on educational level in the context of these variables. manova assumptions were maintained and covariates were found to be unequal (box test p= .001). wilks' lambda test was used. the correlations between the dependent variables of the study were examined and it was determined that there was no multi-collinearity. in the study, bonferoni was applied in univariate analyzes to prevent type 1 error (huck, 2012; pallant, 2007). accordingly, the p value of 0.005 was divided by the dependent variable of 5, and the new p value was determined as 0.01. considering the obtained results, it is determined that the multivariate test is significant. wilk ʌ = 0.973, f (5.589) = 1.086, p >0.05, multivariate ƞp2= 0.009. as can be seen in table 8, the results of the univariate tests did not change based on the education level. table 8. univariate test results of the school administrators’ competency inventory dimensions by educational level source of variance dependent variable kt sd ko f p ƞp 2 constant communication with people and working effectively 941146,126 1 941146,126 12978,181 0,000 0,956 preparing a convenient school building and environment 145643,869 1 145643,869 12824,849 0,000 0,956 professional service 683255,769 1 683255,769 12504,320 0,000 0,955 effective organizational management 354724,143 1 354724,143 13500,465 0,000 0,958 curriculum development 463258,534 1 463258,534 14472,960 0,000 0,961 educational level communication with people and working effectively 279,551 3 93,184 1,285 0,279 0,006 preparing a convenient school building and environment 10,490 3 3,497 0,308 0,820 0,002 professional service 130,986 3 43,662 0,799 0,495 0,004 effective organizational management 68,011 3 22,670 0,863 0,460 0,004 curriculum development 139,576 3 46,525 1,454 0,226 0,007 error communication with people and working effectively 42857,884 591 72,518 50 preparing a convenient school building and environment 6711,621 591 11,356 professional service 32293,172 591 54,642 effective organizational management 15528,500 591 26,275 curriculum development 18917,056 591 32,009 4. conclusions, discussion and suggestions t-test results of communicating with people and working effectively which is one of the dimensions of the school administrators' competencies inventory do not differ based on gender. considering this result, it can be claimed that teachers' school administrators' competency inventory is not affected by the gender variable and gender difference is not an important factor in determining the school administrators’ competencies. thus, it can be suggested that the opinions of both male and female teachers are similar and they hold similar views. as a consequence, it indicates that both genders evaluate the school administrators’ competencies in a similar way. accordingly, school administrators' competencies in communicating and working effectively are considered sufficient by both male and female teachers. it can be claimed that there is a parallelism between this result and the results obtained from studies in the literature by ağaoğlu et al., (2012); asar (2014); ozdere (2015); tümkaya and asar (2017); gök (2017) and yalçın (2019). according to gök (2017), this is due to the similar administrative activities which are performed by school administrators. it can be explained as the existence of similar activities lead to the similar communication competency. it can be concluded that the mean of women is statistically significantly higher than men in the dimensions of preparing a convenient school building and environment, an effective organizational management, professional service and development of curriculum, which are the other dimensions of the inventory. female teachers are found to consider school administrators’ competency adequate in these dimensions of the inventory. according to this result, female teachers have higher opinions about the other dimensions of the inventory apart from communicating with people and working effectively. in line with these results, the fact that school administrators are familiar with their behaviors as a role model by encountering them in the same cultural environment may be due to the fact that female teachers' professional roles are different and their professional satisfaction is higher. yalçın (2019) has found that male administrators were more competent in the dimension of "curriculum development " in the comparison made by gender. female teachers, on the other hand, find male administrators more competent in terms of "professional service ". the researcher states that this was due to the fact that male managers have more knowledge and experience. we can state that these results do not match the results of our study. as a result of the ethnic origin analysis, a significant difference was found in the dimensions of preparing a convenient school building and environment and professional service. we can state that teachers and school administrators have positive opinions based on the dimensions of the school administrators’ inventory, preparing a convenient school building and environment, and professional service. it can be said that teachers and school administrators are of the opinion that the achievements in these dimensions of competencies are sufficient. however, since kosovo is a newly established state and has the aim of development, it is possible to say that it is necessary to concentrate more on these dimensions and to make school administrators more competent by making improvements and restructuring. therefore, we can state that school administrators and related institutions should work on these dimensions. tukey test was conducted to determine how the school administrators' competencies vary based on the ethnic origin. as a result of this analysis, the scores of albanian and turkish ethnic groups are statistically significantly higher than bosniak participants in terms of preparing a convenient school building and environment and professional service. albanians and turks consider these items more adequate than bosnians. according to this result, we can state that albanian and turkish teachers internalize these dimensions of the inventory more than bosnian teachers do and identify with them, and consider school administrators’ competency gains adequate. this may be due to the fact that albanians are familiar with domestic and international literature while turks are also familiar with studies in turkey. it can be claimed that turks in kosovo are more conscious, particularly, in terms of preparing a convenient school building and environment and professional service in order to preserve their ethnic and cultural existence, and it can be an important factor for their attitude. it can be argued that considering these dimensions is essential for a healthy and effective management and school administrators’ competencies. no statistical difference was found in other dimensions. it can be stated that there are similarities in the teachers’ opinions at this point, so they consider the school administrators' competencies adequate. this may be due to the fact that the multicultural 51 structure of kosovo has positively affected the opinions, and the social and cultural thought structures are similar to each other. a significant difference was found in the opinions on the curriculum development dimension of the school administrators’ competencies, in the analysis based on age. the reason for this may be due to the fact that school administrators have more control over the curriculum. tukey test was used to determine the resulting difference, since the variances were equal. in the dimension of curriculum development, the, the scores of those between the ages of 22-25 are statistically significantly higher than those between the ages of 36-45. according to this, it can be said that the teachers who are in the 22-25 age range consider school administrators more competent in the curriculum development compared to the teachers who are in the 36-45 age range. it can be claimed that this result is similar to the result of the study by tümkaya and asar (2017) that the perceptions of managers regarding their competencies differ significantly based on age. however, in the study of tümkaya and asar (2017), it was determined that the difference in all dimensions of the inventory was caused by administrators who were 51 and over and the administrators from other age groups, and this difference was in favor of administrators who were 51 and over. in our study, it can be argued that the significant difference in age may be due to the increase in the experience of the teachers as they age. another reason for the difference in age groups may be due to the fact that a gap exists among the views although both young and old teachers work in the same environment and share knowledge. the reason for this can be explained by the fact that knowledge can be obtained relatively easily as a result of various activities (educational lessons, teaching practice, etc.) of the intensive curriculum which are conducted by the teachers throughout their educational life, and with the development of technology in today's information age. on the other hand, since the curriculums in kosovo are usually assigned by the central organization, it can be thought that teachers want school administrators, especially school administrators, to take part in the curriculum development. as a result of the teachers' opinions, it is possible to interpret it as an opportunity for the development of the competencies of the school administrators by taking the dimension of the curriculum development into consideration. no statistical difference was found in other dimensions. this indicates that teachers have similar thoughts and expectations regarding the school administrators’ competencies. it is determined that the multivariate test is not significant based on the results obtained in the analysis for educational level. in line with these data which were obtained from the participants of the study, it can be claimed that the dimensions of the inventory do not have a statistically significant effect. this result can be interpreted as the fact that educational level of teachers has no effect in determining school administrators’ competency. therefore, there is no significant difference in terms of stating the administrators’ opinions about the level of their competencies. in the analyses which were formerly performed in the literature; açıkalın (2000); akcay (2000); çetin (2001) and doğan (2006) did not find a significant difference based on the variable of educational level. however, tümkaya and asar (2017) found a statistical difference in the perceptions of administrators’ competencies in all dimensions except for "professional service" based on the 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(10. baskı) ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. isbn: 9789750239991 http://www.nationalforum.com/electronic%20journal%20volumes/lunenburg,%20fred%20c.%20the%20principal%20and%20the%20school%20-%20what%20do%20principals%20do%20nfeasj%20v27,%20n4,%202010.pdf http://www.nationalforum.com/electronic%20journal%20volumes/lunenburg,%20fred%20c.%20the%20principal%20and%20the%20school%20-%20what%20do%20principals%20do%20nfeasj%20v27,%20n4,%202010.pdf http://www.nationalforum.com/electronic%20journal%20volumes/lunenburg,%20fred%20c.%20the%20principal%20and%20the%20school%20-%20what%20do%20principals%20do%20nfeasj%20v27,%20n4,%202010.pdf http://www.nationalforum.com/electronic%20journal%20volumes/lunenburg,%20fred%20c.%20the%20principal%20and%20the%20school%20-%20what%20do%20principals%20do%20nfeasj%20v27,%20n4,%202010.pdf http://www.nationalforum.com/electronic%20journal%20volumes/lunenburg,%20fred%20c.%20the%20principal%20and%20the%20school%20-%20what%20do%20principals%20do%20nfeasj%20v27,%20n4,%202010.pdf https://masht.rks.gov.net/uploads/2020/07/statistikat-e-arsimit-2019-2020_1.pdf https://masht.rks.gov.net/uploads/2020/07/statistikat-e-arsimit-2019-2020_1.pdf https://doi.org/10.1002/0470013192.bsa514 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/2159 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/108271 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/108271 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/361983 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/361983 75 drawing experiences on participatory forestry extension approaches: implication for forestry extension in ethiopia omer hinde ethiopian forest development;, socio-economic policy, extension, and gender research program, naaftoli@hotmail.com article history: submission 19 july 2022 revision 15 october 2022 accepted 17 november 2022 available online 31 december 2022 keywords: forestry extension, technology development, participatory approaches, ethiopia. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.350 a b s t r a c t forestry extension in ethiopia has been mirrored in the agriculture extension package as one aspect commonly to address land and forest degradation. in contrast to the top-down approach, the participatory extension has given momentum to promote afforestation and rehabilitation of degraded land for transferring sufficient knowledge and addressing growers’ choices to raise tree species for various purposes. however, the research on forestry-related participatory technology development, adaption, and extension seems overlooked. the purpose of this review was to draw on the experiences of countries with low economic development on participatory forestry technologies development and extension. hence, i reviewed good practices of various selected countries where forestry participatory extension approaches have been effective. the result of the review shows that participatory extension approaches like group training, demonstration trial, farmer's field school, and community-based extension approaches have been effective in forest management and livelihood development in the forest sector. therefore, the review implies that key forestry stakeholders engaging in research, technology development and extension should prioritize participatory approaches to address both community needs and ecological aspects. 1. introduction ethiopia is rich in diverse natural resources, particularly in forest resources (amogne, 2014). forest provides various socioeconomic and ecological benefits, which are related to the overall economy, and combat land degradation and desertification (million, 2011). in light of this ethiopia emphasized sustainable forest sector development for better socio-economic and environmental outcomes (abab, 2018). environment, forest and climate change commission (efccc) then the ministry of environment, forest and climate change (mefcc) initiated national forest sector development program (nfsdp) for strategic policy interventions. the goal was to provide strategic directions for natural resources management and forestry actions in particular (mefcc, 2018). however, malmer & sollander (2019) viewed stakeholders' uncertainties about the implementation of nfsdp as a need to take measures like extension services for increased efficiency of the sector. forestry extension has been mirrored in the agriculture extension package as one aspect commonly to address land and forest degradation. according to turner & de satge (2012), tree planting has been emphasized in the last several decades to address land degradation. in light of this, the promotion of degraded land restoration has been practiced within forestry in a non-participatory approach. thus, natural resource utilization and conservation were considered forest-related extension packages (carlsson et al., 2005). this approach had been criticized for transferring insufficient knowledge and lack of planting materials particularly for growers’ choices to raise tree species for various purposes (achalu et al., 2003). it is noted that extension has to envisage building local capacity and innovation based on an understanding of forest producers' circumstances. thus, there should be an understanding of the local target group's sensitivities to constraints and livelihood opportunities (turner & de satge, 2012). the promotion of agroforestry through tree planting and participatory forest https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:naaftoli@hotmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.350 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0792-7741 76 management has given attention to forestry extension (ibid). in the last decade, the strategy of tree planting to reverse forest degradation has been conducted each year seems to increase forest coverage in ethiopia (kilawe and habimana, 2016). however, the literature indicates that it lacks the active participation of local people and a sense of ownership. according to wassie et al. (2014), non-participatory approaches were bottlenecks to the dissemination of nrm technologies. they suggested the need for greater participation and empowerment of communities for the accelerated dissemination of nrm technologies. different participatory rehabilitation strategies in ethiopia are constrained mainly due to the absence of uniform participation and unfair benefit-sharing (zewdu & beyene, 2018). according to alemayehu et al. (2017), there was a discrepancy between the institutional participatory forest management (pfm) principles and local forest management practices. they put forward, the need to understand and fix pfm according to the local context. duguma et al. (2019) found lack of local communities' participation in forest resource use and its management was among the major factors, which undermine the sense of community ownership and in turn lead to the illegal exploitation of forest resources. kassahun & omer (2019) recommended in their study that pfm needs the active participation of relevant stakeholders from the local community, and religious leaders, including government and non-government agencies to create enabling environment for forest conservation. they further put forward that the local community still needs knowledge and skill as well as the confidence to exercise pfm. ethiopian forest development is mainly mandated nationally to import and adapt relevant technologies; conduct rigorous research; disseminate technologies, knowledge, and skills related to forest protection, its management, and appropriate utilization. having different research programs established for different research themes, it has also a role to advise and provide forestryrelated research output in matters of technology generation, adaption, and dissemination. hence, this piece of review literature focuses on forestry-related participatory extension approaches in technology development and dissemination. it picks up on good practices where participatory extension approaches of different projects contributed to the livelihood of the community as well as sustainable ecological goals mainly in developing countries. 2. methods a narrative review was employed to draw the experiences of selected countries on participatory technology development and extension approaches related to the forestry sector.. countries were selected mainly from africa and asia to relate the context of economic development status to ethiopia. hence, different kinds of literature through google and google scholar search engines mainly journals including conference papers, dissertations, reports, and project works were collected and reviewed. the review analysis picks on approaches and synthesized themes for this specific topic. thus, the reviewed literature was based on the theory and empirical research papers as well as successful practices of participatory technology development, adaption, and extension in the projects. table 1. major selected countries on participatory forestry extension approaches selected countries topics extension approaches theme references vietnam, laos, and indonesia forest restoration and sustainable management forest landscape approach addressing the needs of forest users nguyen et al., 2017 tanzania dissemination of agroforestry innovations participatory training active participation matata et al., 2013 malawi forest protection demonstration trials and farmer-to-farmer extension women’s inclusion and considering local knowledge jafry et al., 2014 indonesia agroforestry technologies method and result demonstrations farmer’s involvement through the practice martini et al., 2016 uganda forest conservation group training community involvement buyinza et al., 2015 indonesia development of sustainable landscapes farmers field school agroforestry as the primary basis for livelihood martini et al., 2017 ghana, malawi, and uganda agriculture yield increase community-based extension approach participatory community approach wellard, 2011 bangladesh innovation and expansion of garden floating community-based extension approach engaging key stakeholders unfcc, 2014 77 viet nam community-related forestry programs community-based extension approach involvement of ethnic minorities forest users adb, 2014b philippines land restoration project community-based extension matching the needs and interests of the community gregorio et al. 2020 3. review literature finding 3.1. concept of technology in academic literature, technology generally refers to both physical tools and information as it advances previous material functions as well as a system of institutional actions (thomas and muthukumara, 2008). likewise, united nations framework convention on climate change (unfccc, 2014) and christiansen et al. (2011) classified the technology into three major aspects, which refer to physical tools; processes, knowledge, and skills; and institutional arrangements relating to technology respectively. they noted that similarities and differences between various technologies nature need to consider for their adaptation. interchangeably used to technology, innovation could be knowledge or a tool as it advances new adopter's practices (everett, 2003). thus, various socio-economic and environmental challenges can be addressed, and also vulnerabilities of climate change can be alleviated by applying technologies (adb, 2014b). technology transfer includes aspects of the movement of knowledge and networking which needs communication between the producer organizations and recipients. it has also an aspect of deliberate economic and social goals (maeve et al., n.d). thus, technology transfer requires the acquisition of tools as well as knowledge and skill transfer to run or manage for further independent innovation by the community to local conditions (third world network, n.d.). innovation needs to be translated and validated in perspectives of local socio-economic and agroecological conditions in target areas (cramb, 2000). according to asareca (2014), technology or innovation has to be tested and validated to local aspects before dissemination for wider adoption. 3.2. participatory technology development in the review literature, participatory technology development (ptd) has commonly been interchangeably used with participatory innovation development (pid). here, in this review, ptd is used for the sake of suitability to terminology, which our institute adapted. ptd basis on the internal capacity of rural communities linking research with extension to meet the desires of farmers and communities for innovation in natural resource management (bao huy et al., 2002). they further noted that the participatory approach empowers the community at the local level; which technically and innovatively improves organizational or management systems. according to cramb (2000), the approach has been proven to be appropriate to address farmers’ needs and local circumstances. he puts forward participatory technology development process should be stimulated within the context of participatory extension. according to nguyen et al. (2016), the main emphasis of ptd is considering both local and scientific knowledge in research by involving relevant stakeholders. the approach empowers local people to discover either new things or ways that work or both, which contribute to improving the livings of the rural community. in ptd, key stakeholders in collaboration test technologies that are suitable to local situations. thus, farmers and researchers have an experimentation role in technical aspects, while extensionist facilitates the process of interactions (helvetas vietnam, 2007). farmer participatory research is appropriate for developing needbased technology and advantageous for incorporating indigenous knowledge in the process of technology development (jafry et al., 2014). according to bao huy et al. (2002), there are two conditions under which ptd could be applied. the first is when farmers or communities can face difficulties but are unable to find answers to overcome themselves. it serves as an occasion for key stakeholders for working together in a proper mechanism in various trials. in other cases, farmers or communities could have a better idea on different matters but it needs to be tested. this is also an opportunity in which key stakeholders in research propose and facilitate new investigations on different issues. 3.3. forestry extension forestry extension having organizational character enables people with knowledge, skills, and technologies to solve their problems in forest production to advance their living and welfare (kumeh, n.d.). according to (anderson & farrington, 2012) in an organized process: forestry extension focuses on concepts, information, and procedures sharing, which leads to changes in attitude and behavior aiming at the improvement of forest management and its usage. thus, forestry extension is intended to address the needs of forestry managers and users with scientific information and technologies regarding biodiversity and forest conservation as well as agroforestry and wood processing (agbogidi & ofuoku, 2009). further, they indicated that forestry perspectives research and extension bridge rural and urban mutual relationships on socio-economic and ecological aspects. 78 tesfaye (2011); kandzior & rivas (2015) complimented forestry extension should consider the socio-cultural, organizational, and geopolitical circumstances of the region including the context of the local market related to forest products as well as environmental services. they emphasized the need to practice real and effective participatory extension over nominal participatory forestry extension. davis (2004) advised extension approaches should enable farmers’ groups to access information on new practices by assisting them with resource mobilization other than their villages. 3.4. participatory extension approach the development of technology and its transmission should consider socio-economic, political, and institutional aspects (olhoff, 2015). thrupp (1996) cited in anandajayasekeram et al. (2008) maintains one of the major factors for the achievement of the knowledge and technology transfer process is involvement and building capacity at the local level. kalim (2011) noted that the motive behind the participatory extension approach is that the concerns of the local people are addressed better in the process of the extension planning exercise. thus, locally-based community participation before implementation would give impetus to the approach with the facilitation of extensionists. the participation of the community in all stages of forest management is a prerequisite for sustainable forest management and its conservation (secretariat of the convention on biological diversity, 2009). there has been growing agreement in the literature that participatory research and technology development is one of the keys to the adaption of technology. according to cramb (2000), participatory research and extension activities brings better result in technology development and enhance the problem-solving capacity of farmers as its basis on community needs at the local level. sustainable land management research and promotion of its technologies could be effective where there is an opportunity for mutual skills and knowledge sharing as well as the active involvement of the local community (eneku et al., 2013). unfcc (2014) maintains that community-based participatory approaches enhance the duplications of local innovations, and ensure sustainability and fitness to the local context. they further stress participatory approaches increase stakeholder understanding and build a sense of ownership of technologies as well as improve and sustain adaptation of technologies. participatory extension methods go beyond farmers' knowledge and concerns. it has more advantages in facilitating the process of action research needed to improve proper technologies and build the capacity of farmers in problem-solving skills (anderson & farrington, 2012). according to egziabher et al. (2013), the participatory extension approach focuses on community empowerment in producer groups better than purely transferring information and improving management practices on new technologies. 3.5. group extension approaches extension methods are generally grouped into individual, group, and media methods. but in terms of cost and effort saving, media and group methods are favored respectively. media methods lack two-way communication though it has the advantage of more coverage (anandajayasekeram et al., 2008). according to darr (2008), communicating the basic technical message of technologies is best popularized through the group extension approaches with similar socio-economic and cultures of the lowincome community. it also saves time for development persons to address an easily larger portion of the population (jafry et al., 2014). the other advantage of group extension approaches is generally need-based and employed as the need arises from locals (buyinza et al., 2015). hence, several participatory group extension approaches could be used according to the context of technology for adaptation in the forestry aspect. some are group training, community-based approach (village level), group visits, demonstration training, agroforestry field school, field day, farmer tour, etc. (kabwe, 2010; jafry et al., 2014; buyinza et al., 2015). 3.6. participatory group extension approach 3.6.1. group training and demonstration trials literature review shows in participatory group extension approaches; participants could mobilize resources, labor, and share experiences. among group extension approaches, farmer field days and farmer groups were preferred hence including farmers’ own experience and practices (adolwa et al., 2012). according to jafry et al. (2014), the farmer group is a common extension approach with the benefits like group labor and support for each other mutually around common interests. for instance, they put forward that farmers could share experiences and practices through group training and demonstration on selected lead farmers' farms. group training could also be provided in the form of demonstrations and field days directly on farmer's fields (nguyen et al., 2016). thus, farmers in groups met during demonstrations and field days together to test better practices, but also benefit from mutual learning among themselves. in a typical demonstration, different techniques are compared side by side to show the advantages of the new technology at specific extension events (ibid). consequently, farmers in the village are invited for training purposes while visiting demonstration sites (buyinza et al., 2015). it is argued that the group training approach proved to be effective due to peer influence and competition among 79 members in the group. according to a study conducted by adb (2014a), group extension approaches have a good output in relation to efficiency and cost-effectiveness in pilot projects in asia. 3.6.2. farmer’s field school (ffs) studies show that farmer field school is an effective group participatory extension approach though it required a relatively higher cost. farmer field schools’ concepts using participatory training procedures address farmers’ felt need for advanced extension approaches (martini et al., 2016; egziabher et al., 2013). it enhances farmers’ information and investigative skills through participatory learning in managing their agroforestry farms (martini et al., 2017). it recognizes that farmers’ local knowledge and experience need to be shared. it also acknowledges farmers learn from each other better than from the extensionist ( helvetas vietnam, 2007). moreover, ffs with the common objective of groups of farmers is an appropriate way where stakeholders exchange learned lessons, understandings, practices, and any innovative ideas. it also encourages farmers to practice their ideas in their fields (buyinza et al., 2015). however, jafry et al. (2014) put farmer field schools incur huge costs to train and support several farmers in the basic principles of testing as per the local context. 3.6.3. community-based extension approach studies show community-based extension approach also uses a participatory learning process, which addresses community needs and acknowledges local knowledge as an alternative to other group extension approaches. according to anandajayasekeram et al. (2008), joint learning is the key to community-based extension, in which extension staff plays a facilitation role. it considers the integration of indigenous knowledge taking into account opportunities and challenges in the technological adaption process to the acceptable local context (unfcc, 2014). agbogidi & ofuoku (2009) suggest using the village-level extension approach for it considers optimal forest system and forest users' constraints as well as ways of reducing the constraints for better results in forest community's behavior. they implicate the use of numerous communication methods for introducing new techniques into the forest community. according to cramb (2000), in each step of the community-based extension approach, farmers engage in some degree of the investigation if it applies to adult education. the approach applies in a new context, where extension service was previously not employed by following four steps. the first step is where farmers identify their problems and needs which extensions support with technical options based on the farmer's expressed needs. in the second step, selected farmers trained and implement new technology with the technical information they provided. the third step is following up step for mistakes that arise and provide with additional technical advice. it is also where comparison began with previous practices. in the final step, model farmers appraise their trial output and give feedback about the lessons learned to their respective villages (ibid). 3.7. good practices there are several pieces of evidence in the literature, which show best practices related to the restoration of degraded lands, agroforestry practices, forest conservation, and utilization as a result of the application of participatory extension approaches. according to abdo (2014), several projects in the 20th century in the sahel region succeeded primarily as a result of participatory extension approaches. also, studies have shown that the collaborative innovation model, information sharing, and innovation development based on community acceptability helped successful forestry extension programs in catalonia, slovenia, and italy respectively (ewnetu & bliss, 2010). the forest landscape approach in vietnam, laos, and indonesia had a better outcome in developing appropriate, long-term restoration and sustainable forest management plans as the result of communications and decision-making platforms that better represent the needs of all forest users (nguyen et al., 2017). 3.7.1. participatory training and demonstration trials in terms of participatory training and demonstration trials, there are indications in the literature to look at them to draw some lessons. for instance, in western tanzania, farmer trainers were effective in the dissemination of agroforestry innovations (matata et al., 2013). in malawi, demonstration trials and farmer to farmer extension were effective as it allows women farmers to raise their concerns and respect for indigenous knowledge (jafry et al., 2014). the establishment of a demonstration plot for agroforestry projects enhanced farmers’ knowledge in sulawesi, indonesia (martini et al., 2016). group training was effective in eastern uganda during the implementation of forest conservation through a territorial approach under the different programs (buyinza et al., 2015). agroforestry farmers field school(affs) implementation has also contributed to the development of sustainable landscapes in sulawesi where agroforestry is the primary basis of livelihood of farmers as the result of better practices was supposed to be the most important feature of motivating farmers (martini et al., 2017). 3.7.2. community-based extension approach literature evidence shows that the community-based extension approach could be successful if appropriately apply participatory methods in different projects. the approach has proven in 80 agriculture yield increase at the same time food secured in rural areas of ghana, malawi, and uganda (wellard, 2011). the other example was a successful technological innovation replicated through a community-based extension approach that came from the innovation and expansion of garden floating in bangladesh. it is pointed out that the experience implicated the importance of engaging local government in the promotion of the technique, which ensures access to the resources (unfcc, 2014). according to (adb, 2014b), the approach has also shown sustainability, especially among ethnic minorities of forest users and local people in viet nam, also in different asian countries and the pacific region. key lessons in locally based projects for restoration in the philippines and other developing countries have shown that the need to match the community’s demands through the participatory process during project design, proved the success of the project. moreover, they found financial earnings and ensuring food security are major determinants of smallholder farmers’ involvement in the management of forests (gregorio et al., 2020). 3.8. forestry extension in ethiopia government advocates forestry extension activities for the community to take responsibility for forest restoration and its management. for community support: one of the three das in farmer's training centers(ftc) is responsible to address the conservation of natural resources; which include forests, irrigation at the village level, and bunds for conservation of soil and water purpose (turner & de satge, 2012). however, the challenges in forestry extension like the operation of forestry activities in the longer time frame; publicly owned and common property forest resource nature; mostly as its secondary activity; and forestry ecological consideration seems to have been affecting its extension (anderson & farrington, 2012). after the first growth and transformation plan (gtp), agroforestry and participatory forest management have gained emphasis (ata, 2014). its basis is on ftc with a full extension package by organizing farmers into development groups and social networks. but among the key challenges for the inadequate performance of ftcs were the lack of farmers’ involvement in ftc management and limited farmers’ training as the focus is on model farmers (ata, 2017). studies show there was a notable achievement in natural resource conservation through community mobilization. but lack of genuine participation and a sense of ownership resulted in low adoption of natural resource practices (ata, 2017). it further put low farmers’ participation in technology development attributed to low adoption of new technologies and practices. for instance, according to birhane (2014), one of the reasons for the low adoption of agroforestry technologies was weak farmers’ participation and research-extension linkage. he suggested participatory approaches of farmers in the management of agroforestry practices and technologies for better land management practices and productivity. moreover, the need for coordination among stakeholders involved in natural resource management. according to genanew et al. (2018), public agricultural extension advisory and its system are criticized for being nominal participatory, which is top-down. dufera (2018) further explained participatory extension system in ethiopia was constrained due to the extension staff's lack of knowledge and facilitation skills gaps as well as isolated resource-poor farmers in the planning and implementation process among other factors, which limit stakeholder technology adaption and extension. he put forward the need for farmers’ active participation to develop farmers’ sense of ownership through realistic decentralization at the local level. 5. conclusions and recommendations ethiopia's attention to forest conservation and management as well as utilization should give due consideration to participatory technology development and extension. research on participatory extension approaches has to be given attention to promote afforestation and rehabilitation of degraded land for transferring sufficient knowledge and addressing forest managers’ and users’concerns. experiences in different countries in africa and asia show the application of various participatory forestry extension approaches has been effective in forest-related technology development and extension. for forestry extension to be effective, there should be consideration of different participatory extension approaches. different stakeholders engaged in forestry-related research, technology development and adaption and dissemination need to address social aspects and livelihood through participatory approaches. moreover, the review indicates the need for research on whether institutional factors affect forestry extension from ethiopian perspective. acknowledgment i wish my credit go to all authors for their substantial contribution to the studies reported in this paper. references 1. abab, s. a. 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(nerius, dieter (2004): s. 170). an orthographic reform means the "(...) modification of relatively precisely codified standardlanguage orthography (...). (rahnenführer, ilse (1989): s. 288.) an important milestone was set by konrad duden, "a man of the school 65", in 1880 with the first edition of his work complete orthographic dictionary of german language, an orthography dictionary of prussian school spelling. to understand how standards-based writing is learned at school, what difficulties learners and teachers encounter on a regular basis, and where spelling mistakes are the most common, will be explained in detail in this project. 2. the aim of the work the aim of this thesis is to set out the rules for spelling in order to explain to albanian students learning german as a foreign language the difficulties encountered in spelling lessons. the spelling is attributed great importance in the education sector, especially in german lessons. for this reason, this becomes an indispensable subject of the just mentioned subject. but what should be achieved with spelling lessons? as menzel stated, learners should be "(...) qualified to write essentially (sic!) according to the communicative requirements (...). 1 the requirement to correctly convey orthography in school requires didactic reflections. at this point, are the didactics with their tasks as a fulcrum for the achievement of this goal? it should also examine, among other things, how orthography teaching is done, how spelling support is relevant and achievable, what function parents and school have for teaching spelling skills, what difficulties learners face in spelling lessons. 3. theoretical framework 1 riehme 1981, s. 17 f., nach menzel, wolfgang (1994): s. 296-297. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 147 at the beginning of my work, i will deal with an insight into the gks and gzs. on the one hand, the difficulty for learners to learn these two areas of orthography in accordance with the standards and to apply them later in life, as well as on the other hand for teachers to impart didactically meaningful teaching of all these phenomena. one of the most important names in connection with german orthography is konrad duden with his orthography dictionary. 3.1 corpus for the german part i have included the following literature: • abraham, u., beisbart, o. (u. a.) (2012). praxis des deutschunterrichts. arbeitsfelder, tätigkeiten, methoden. 7. aufl. donauwörth: auer buch und medien gmbh. • becker, t., siekmann, k. (2012). diagnose orthographischer fähigkeiten bei mehrsprachigen kindern. in: grießhaber, wilhelm; kalkavan, zeynep (hgg.) (2012): orthographieund schriftspracherwerb bei mehrsprachigen kindern. freiburg im breisgau: herbert-jürgen welke fillibach verlag. • bredel, g., bredel, u. (hgg.) (2006). orthographietheorie und rechtschreibunterricht. tübingen: niemeyer. • buchholz, o. & fiedler, w. (1987). albanische grammatik. leipzig: veb verlag enzyklopädie. • bucholz, o. & fiedler, w. (2000). wörterbuch albanisch-deutsch. berlin, münchen: langenscheidt verlag enzyklopädie. • duden (2016). die deutsche rechtschreibung. hg. von der dudenredaktion. bd 1, 26. aufl. berlin (u. a.): dudenverlag. • https://www.bmbf.gv.at/schulen/unterricht/lp/ahs7_781.pdf?4dzgm2 (letzter zugriff am 23.märz 2017). for the albanian part, i have included the following literature: • badallaj, i. (1977). vështrim mbi sistemin foljor të hasi. filologji nr.3. prishtinë: rilindja verlag. • beci, b. (2005). gramatika e gjuhës shqipe për të gjithë. shkodër: edfa verlag. • eco, u. (1998). si shkruhet një punim diplome. tiranë: dituria verlag. 4. methods of work prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 148 always in the debate for efficient orthography lessons are various methods to achieve the previously explained objectives of the spelling theory. whether spell-writers are inductive or deductive, particular or embedded in a context, and whether orientation is more likely to be due to individual phenomena or vocabulary in general, is one of the important considerations in spelling didactics. as so often in science, there is not the ideal method. nevertheless, there are pros and cons that must be considered in the selection so that, depending on the situation, the seemingly most efficient method is to be chosen. for example, isolated orthography lessons have the disadvantage of being useless in part due to the lack of life-world situations of the learners. 5. hypotheses the following hypothesis is the starting point of this research: in written works by students who attend a language school, there are more spelling mistakes in the two areas of gks and gzs orthography than in written work by students attending ahs. to answer the hypothesis scientifically, two different spelling tests are performed. influence of social factors into the evaluation becomes parallel. to do so, a survey conducted by means of a questionnaire in which questions about the age and sex, the native language of the subjects and the parents, the occupation of the parents, as well as the reading socialization as well as the own reading interest are listed. this research is an enriching task to get closer to both forms of education with a focus on teaching german and to get an even closer look at the two very complex parts of german orthography. especially for my future work as a teacher, this knowledge is essential, because only those who are themselves in the areas to be taught can and may demand performance from their own students. 6. models of written language acquisition first attempts to transcribe concrete letters are only recognizable in the next moment. the phase in which children first try graphemics becomes very important. among other things, the terms such as logographic phase or logographic strategy are widely used. the strong emphasis on phonology in writing leads to more mistakes. if the pupils are in the subsequent phase, the orthographic ones, the difficulties with regard to spelling can be continuously raised be prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 149 reduced. in the penultimate stage, the morphemic strategy, the child is already focusing on the meaning and meaning of words. although the beneficial treatment of family and acquaintances, as already stated, very valuable for the acquisition of written language of the child, in spite of all, professional pedagogical action is also very important at school entry, especially in the first grade, because there it makes sense once again to draw children's attention to orthographic norms for the first time. consequently, as a teacher and parent, it is important to motivate children to write their own texts, strategically expand their vocabulary horizon, and explore orthographic peculiarities with them. 7. conclusions in the course of this research work is also in the preparation of the spelling performance a possible correlation between the reading socialization and the spelling performance of the questioned volunteers. the focus is on familial reading socialization. one of the most important instances is the parental home. the free access to german materials arouses the interest in children to make first contacts with the german writing. the home and family ambient also play a significant role. an essential influencing factor is the education of the parents or the social origin of the child. families with more favorable social conditions usually arouse their interest in reading very early her adolescent. this happens mainly through regular reading out of books. so the child dives prematurely into the world of language. students make manuals mistakes and they are allowed to. only then can they explore and learn a language. mending mistakes makes sense, but the way is crucial. in other words, we prefer to bother the child with mistakes while we adults write the word or sentence, rather than thwarting everything and possibly even commenting on it. the visited educational institution in addition to the reading socialization within the family, acquaintances and friends, the educational layer often associated with children and other educational institutions such as for example, nursery schools, which are extremely influential during the first phases of writing language acquisition, also occupy a further and equally significant position in the school (see prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 150 bouda, waltraud (2010): p.73). as bouda (2010: 73) says, "(...) school is not the first, but the most important field of prevention", which should be aware of both parents and educators. the way to a spelling before a closer examination of the spelling didactics should by the definition the term spelling standard or orthography and the spelling reform are offered a relevant basis of understanding. list of abbreviations: daf ............................. german as a foreign language dam ............................ german as the first language daz............................. german as a second language gks ............................ large and lower case gs ............................... capitalization gts............................. isolated case gzs............................. separated written ks ............................... lowercase rt ............................... spelling test pgk ............................ phoneme-grapheme correspondence zs................................ together with written prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; 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(1997). grammatik der deutschen sprache. bd. 1, 2, 3. berlin, new york: de gruyter verlag. 30 the impact of sports diplomacy on improving kosovo's international image rinor rexhepi ¹* vigan sahiti 2 ¹ universum college, faculty of diplomacy, rexhepirinor@hotmail.com *correspondent author. 2 universum college, faculty of diplomacy, vigansahiti1@gmail.com article history: submission 29 march 2021 revision 11 june 2021 accepted 25 july 2021 available online 31 august 2021 keywords: public diplomacy, sports diplomacy, kosovo, sports, international image. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.247 a b s t r a c t public diplomacy which is part of soft power is a branch of diplomacy which has recently taken place and importance in the agendas of large and small states. this segment of diplomacy includes a series of methods and maneuvers which bring positive results to the country it uses and promotes for its own interests. sports diplomacy is an important dimension of a country's public diplomacy, which has an important and influential role. different countries aim to use sports diplomacy in the most effective way in favor and profit of their country, and one of these countries is the state of kosovo. during our work we have tried to present the impact of kosovo sports diplomacy and its role in improving the international image. through descriptive, comparative, analytical methods as well as through interviews we have tried to shed light on how much sports diplomacy has influenced the improvement of kosovo's international image. with the method of interviews, we have interviewed 3 experts in sports diplomacy, and we have analyzed these interviews by implementing the comparison with materials and scientific facts which are related to public diplomacy, with an emphasis on sports diplomacy. in conclusion, we can say that sports diplomacy in kosovo should be given great importance in order to achieve greater results. kosovo and its competent institutions need to develop specific strategies and investments for its sports diplomacy. 1. introduction sports diplomacy is an important dimension of a country's public diplomacy, which has an important and influential role. different countries aim to use sports diplomacy in the most effective way for the benefit and profit of their country. through sports diplomacy, states can improve their image in the international arena and reveal the positive aspects that influence the creation of the perception of foreign opinion in relation to the lobbying state. through this paper we have tried to elaborate the impact of sports diplomacy of kosovo in improving the image of the country in the international arena. given that kosovo is considered and is a new state in the international arena, obviously any method of improving the image is welcome. our study aims to elaborate kosovo sports diplomacy and its difficulties to be promoted in the international arena, given the small capacity of the country which often directly affects the lack of further results of sports diplomacy and all areas of diplomacy. despite all the difficulties that accompany the state of kosovo for its appearance through public diplomacy with an emphasis on sports, there are athletes and events which indirectly from other pedestals have represented the state of kosovo. during this study we have tried to present the importance of sports diplomacy of a country with an emphasis on kosovo, and we have tried to show the impact that sports diplomacy has had on improving the image of kosovo in the international arena, we have interconnected elaborated concrete literature regarding sports diplomacy and the case of kosovo. furthermore, we have brought the impact of sports diplomacy on the image of kosovo through interviews of individuals competent for this issue and who have directly and indirectly influenced these developments and the course of events that are in the vortex of public diplomacy, especially sports diplomacy. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:rexhepirinor@hotmail.com mailto:vigansahiti1@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i2.247 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1848-7326 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2668-6632 31 2. literature review public diplomacy is a branch of traditional diplomacy that is part of the soft power which is used more and more every day in certain fields, for certain interests of different states, small or large. soft power is a strong shaper of foreign public opinion and is a cheaper option than force (ikenberry & nye, 2004). many different scholars and theorists define public diplomacy in different forms and consider that the key elements for public diplomacy are: foreign policy, culture, national values and many different actors and different public factors (mekaj, 2020). public diplomacy is not done just for today; it must be planned to yield results that are expected to be seen in the future. it takes time to see its results, and they are not always measurable (olins, 2005) sports diplomacy is the use of sports activities by a state to improve its image, to relax tense relations or any other way to realize foreign interests. the use of the successes of athletes, for the sake of the image and prestige of the state spread after the second world war, initially mainly from the soviet union, from the ‘70s also from developed western countries (macintosh and hawes, 1994). sports activities are followed by a very large number of spectators, either directly in stadiums or through the media. this makes them important forums where states aim to act to improve their image (fazliu. 2015). the case of ping-pong diplomacy is well known, a case that served to improve sino-us relations during 1971. the united states team played friendly matches with the chinese team, visited the great wall and the summer palace outside beijing, met with chinese students and workers. a year later, chinese players traveled to the united states, playing a series of friendly matches in front of enthusiastic audiences (usa department of state, 2006). sports diplomacy is also an important dimension of a country's public diplomacy. the successful ones, the talents, the champions, are the main object of the sports media, but also of the generalist media. when such a talent turns out to be successful, the media further spreads its success to the audience, while the athlete is the representative of a country (salihu, 2013). small states often aim for certain strategies, with low costs as well as the best possible profits (mekaj, 2020). the concrete case of success through sports diplomacy is singapore. the strategy of this state government to strengthen its profile in major international sporting events was supported by a focus on seven priority sports, including table tennis, badminton and sailing, and this strategy brought it great success by winning medals in these sports (houlihan, barrie and zheng, jinming, 2014). kosovo, as a small country, has the potential to achieve its diplomatic objectives through certain sports and arts in which it is more successful. kosovo does not have financial resources available, it must find lower cost ways to present the country in the international arena (haxhimehmeti, 2015). the "diplomatic assets" that kosovo has with its people all over the world, but also within kosovo, enables this new state to develop on a large scale public diplomacy, culture, sports, with figures like majlinda kelmendi, xherdan shaqiri, granit xhaka, vedat muriçi, dua lipa, rita ora, etc. normally, all this can be achieved by drafting state strategies through relevant institutions, which would promote the cultural / artistic and sports values of this country (ngadhnjim brovina, dritero arifi, fjollë nuhiu, 2020). many well-known athletes serve as a role model for world youth, at one point they are seen as a representative of their country’s public diplomacy (sancak, 2015). thus, the republic of kosovo through its athletes who have displayed its image in international arenas have had impacts on improving and creating the image of kosovo. the numerous successes of the talents of the republic of kosovo have influenced the raising of the flag of kosovo in the international arenas. below we will elaborate on some cases of kosovo's diplomatic victories through sport. the focus of this paper will be the two sports that best represented kosovo abroad, judo and football. great success in sports was brought to kosovo by the judo club "ippon" which is led by coach driton kuka, and in its composition has talented judokas such as: majlinda kelmendi, nora gjakova, distria krasniqi and akil gjakova. all these judokas have won various medals in international competitions under the emblem of the state of kosovo, directly affecting the improvement of kosovo's image. majlinda kelmendi can be called the ambassador of kosovo, who has done sports diplomacy continuously. kelmendi in 2009 won the gold medal at the world junior championships in paris, in 2010 he came fifth at the world junior championships in morocco, ninth at the world at the world judo championships in tokyo, majlinda won these medals by competing for albania, kosovo was admitted to the international olympic committee in 2014; while debuting in 2016 with eight athletes. in february 2016, majlinda klmendi won the gold medal at the grand slam paris, making it the third consecutive title after winning in 2014 and 2015 (representing albania at the time). two months later, she won a gold medal at the european judo championships in kazan, russia (www judoinside,2016). while the most important event for kosovo sports diplomacy is the announcement of majlinda's victory in russia. this event is special as kosovo participated in competitions that took place in one of the countries most opposed to kosovo's independence and subjectivity. 32 kosovo in these competitions was represented with all the symbols (flag and anthem) equal to all other countries; marking an extraordinary success in the field of diplomacy through sport. in addition to this success, majlinda kelmendi is a world champion several times in: world championships rio de janeiro 2013, world championships chelyabinsk 2014, world championships budapest 2017, world championships tokyo 2019 (judoinside, 2020). kosovo has some talents who have been successful in football teams across europe. the peculiarity of footballers is that not only do they not hide their albanian identity from kosovo, but at the same time they constantly seek to show it, to talk about kosovo, as is the case of footballer xherdan shaqiri born in gjilan (1991), but emigrated to switzerland. in 2013, he played for the bayern munich team and for the swiss national team (salihu, 2015). in the european champions cup final, on may 25, 2013, world televisions fixed xherdan shaqiri who leads the cup acquired by bayern covered with a tailored flag together, that of switzerland and kosovo. he immediately after the end of the match was on the happy with the flag of kosovo (and switzerland) at the wembley stadium of london where the finals was held (sinani, 2015). in 2016, the mission of the football federation of kosovo was completed. kosovo is the 210th member of fifa. ffk received 141 votes for membership, out of 164 valid votes in the 66th fifa congress. in the same year, kosovo was admitted to uefa. this has influenced the many successes of kosovo footballers representing kosovo in the international arena. since then, kosovo has hosted many football matches as guests in different countries where the state of kosovo was promoted in those countries as well as in international media such as: bbc, cnn, the guardian, etc. the guardian newspaper wrote: kosovo was accepted as a member of uefa, becoming the 55th member of this body of european football, despite strong opposition from serbia (the guardian, 2016). judo started by participating in sports competitions with countries that do not know us, football also continued. in march 2021, the representative of kosovo in football met spain in the qualifications for the world championship "qatar 2022". spain does not recognize kosovo's independence and is one of the main states that opposes kosovo's subjectivity. although spain initially stated that it would not accept kosovo playing against them with its flag, anthem and coat of arms, it was forced by fifa to accept kosovo to play like any other country, represented by flag and anthem. the spanish media considered this decision of fifa as a diplomatic victory of kosovo. (elpedrico.com, 2021). according to the spanish media, all world media wrote about this match, which also considered this match as a diplomatic triumph of kosovo. (euronews.com, 2021). so, the successes of kosovo athletes have had an impact on improving the image of kosovo in the international arena. the use of public diplomacy and its segment of sports diplomacy is very necessary for the state of kosovo. for these successes, all the credit goes to the athletes, while state institutions have contributed little. the state of kosovo has paid attention to sports only through the ministry of culture, youth and sports where it is emphasized that: the department of sports has supported and assisted the development of numerous sports activities, through which it aims to contribute to the substantive organization, staff development, membership and licensing of kosovar sports in international federations, involvement of all in sports activities, regardless of nationality. , race and religious affiliation (republic of kosovo ministry of culture, 2020). regardless of whether the state has given support to these individuals or not, their achievements have served the interest of promoting and building the image of kosovo, much more than any government effort to improve the image (hajdari, 2019). in the case of kosovo, sport can play a special and increasingly important role in the diplomatic efforts of the new state and contested towards full international recognition (brentin & tregoures, 2016). 3. methodology the methodology used to carry out the work is through primary and secondary materials based on scientific facts. also, through interviews conducted with experts in the field and sports professionals, who are directly involved in sports in kosovo. through the interviews it was intended to know as concretely as possible the result of the influence of diplomacy and sports activities in improving the image of kosovo in the international arena. then we described the interviews, as well as made the final interpretation in an attempt to extract the most concrete results, as well as in order to confirm the hypotheses raised. hypotheses 1 h1: sports diplomacy can be an important factor in improving a country's image internationally. h0: sports diplomacy cannot be an important factor in improving the image of a country internationally hypotheses 2 h2: sports diplomacy has improved the image of kosovo in the international arena. h02: sports diplomacy has not improved kosovo's image in the international arena. 33 4. interviews table 1. analysis of interviews with two professors of public diplomacy, and a sports trainer category preliminary interpretation text 1. how much do you think that sports diplomacy has contributed to improving the international image of kosovo? according to the interviewees who are familiar with public diplomacy, we can say that public diplomacy with an emphasis on sports has contributed to improving the image of the country, but not in a satisfactory way. through sports diplomacy, kosovo has penetrated where politics could not penetrate. n.b regarding public diplomacy in general, and sports diplomacy in particular, i think it would have contributed a lot to the international image of the republic of kosovo, if it had been developed as a specific field within state diplomacy. however, in our country this field is not developed at all in institutional terms. f.n sports diplomacy is recognized all over the world as a factor of great importance in promoting a country in the international arena, as sports and music are two elements that influence the public quite quickly and deeply. in the case of kosovo, we can say with full conviction that sports diplomacy has brought positivity to improve the image of the country, although it is more about individual athletes than any sports team, except recently with the kosovo representative in football. when we talk about the individual athlete without discussion, the highlight is the judoka majlinda kelmendi who managed to take the first place and be declared european champions, but that this first place was more valuable because it was won in russia. russia, a country that supports the non-recognition of the state of kosovo, was forced to raise the flag of kosovo and sing the anthem of the state of kosovo. after that, the success of judoka kelmendi reached the culmination of winning a gold medal at the rio 2016 olympic games. it’s around the world, through sport as part of public diplomacy. over the years we have the admission of kosovo in two international organizations with sports character, which are uefa and fifa, where kosovo is being successfully represented with its football teams, with the flag and coat of arms of the state. the successful appearances of the kosovo national team in the football arena, have pushed the most popular international media such as forbes, the telegraph, bbc, espn, etc., to write about this success. this success is evidenced by the appearance in first place in group d-3 in the league of nations. d.k kosovo in building its positive image has had the greatest benefits without any dilemma through sport. to accurately analyze the impact of sport on the diplomacy of our state requires an in-depth analysis. the successes achieved, especially the olympic gold medal and the one since the first olympic games for 34 kosovo, has put its main protagonist majlinda kelmendi at the top of all world media. to assess the impact of sports in diplomacy requires a very serious approach which in the future should be an active part of the diplomacy of our country, because so far no step has been taken to use sports diplomacy to promote the state. 2. have the institutions of the republic of kosovo sufficiently supported sports diplomacy? according to experts in the field who were interviewed, it can be understood that kosovo institutions, knowing the importance of sports diplomacy, have done little in this regard. institutional support in all forms of sports diplomacy has stagnated. n.b as i mentioned in the previous question, sports diplomacy is not developed in our country, although the resources for the development of this field are not lacking, but there is a lack of institutional support and state strategy for the development of public diplomacy in general and sports diplomacy in particular. it was intended to do something in this regard, but there is nothing concrete and specific, referring to the institutions that should lead this field. i think that our institutions should not support this field, but should have part of it, i.e. part of foreign policy. f.n the state institutions of the country, knowing the importance of sports diplomacy, have done almost nothing in this regard. in general, the institutions are not seriously committed to investing and developing diplomacy as a whole, especially sports and culture, so we cannot say that it has had any impact that is worth noting. d.k the only support is that some athletes have already been provided with diplomatic passports, but serious initiative on this issue so far concretely lacks, yet. former minister stublla harradine had started to build something in this direction but it was concretely realized as the cause of the fall of the government. so far no concrete action has taken place for sports diplomacy. 3. what actions should the state of kosovo take to help sports diplomacy? according to the acknowledgments that have been interviewed by the actions that kosovo should have to help sports diplomacy are: kosovo should pay attention to greatly supporting sports diplomacy in order to influence its influence on improving kosovo's international image; kosovo should form a special department within the ministry of foreign affairs, which would deal with sports. this department should be led by an athlete who in coordination with the minister of foreign affairs would draft strategies on how to use the sport as public diplomacy. n.b the republic of kosovo as a new state, without military power and economic capacities that would affect other countries, has diplomacy as its only tool and its main "card", to be more precise, public diplomacy. normally, if this field is developed as the main "weapon" of our country's foreign policy, our image as a country will improve significantly, taking into account the national wealth we have (kosovo representative, majlinda kelmendi, etc.) and that belong to and could help in the development of public diplomacy (sports diplomacy, cultural diplomacy, etc.). eminent figures in the sports aspect, in the international arena, who are of kosovo origin, should become part of the medium-term and long-term strategy of sports diplomacy. 35 f.n in general, the state of kosovo should be taken seriously in all areas related to the representation of the country in the world. kosovo as a new state, ranked among the developing countries, even 20 years after the war faces essential problems due to mismanagement of the state budget and corruption at a very high level, so there is no way to invest in diplomacy. first of all, every government should be careful in allocating the budget for sports and culture, i do not say to have it as a priority because health and education should be a priority, but at least they should take it into account after these priorities, because sports diplomacy does not mean just a sports match, but in fact sport today is a factor with great influence in improving the image of the country. secondly, after allocating the budget, great care must be taken in selecting the professional officials who deal with and manage these issues correctly and distribute the budget in the right channels, so that the investment goes where it should and that our sport and athletes are individual or also teams to have the right working conditions and to have the motivation to do the job at the right level and kosovo to be worthily represented in the international arena. further for more concrete details would need precise consultations with experts in the field. d.k models of what this would look like i think we have enough in many countries. first we need a more serious will and approach, then concretely to build a bridge of cooperation between the ministry of foreign affairs and the federations, especially with the elite athletes and the staff close to them. sports diplomacy should probably be a special department that should be within the ministry, and be led by an elite athlete and that would coordinate actions to work on the image of kosovo in every corner of the world and this as a necessity i consider how much countries like serbia and its allies work against the construction of kosovo. 5. interpretation of interviews 5.1. how much sports diplomacy as contributed to improving the international image of kosovo? kosovo as a small country with limited capacities has achieved profits through public diplomacy in most cases. sports diplomacy all over the world is recognized as a factor of great importance in promoting a country in the international arena, because sports and music are two elements which create quite fast and deep influence in the public. in the case of kosovo, we can say with full conviction that sports diplomacy has brought positivity to improve the image of the country, although it is more about an individual athlete than a sports team, except recently with the representative of kosovo in football. over the years we have the admission of kosovo in two international organizations with sporting characters, which are 36 uefa and fifa, where kosovo is being successfully represented with its football teams, with the flag and coat of arms of the state. the brilliant performances of the kosovo national team in the football arena, have pushed the most popular international media such as forbes, the telegraph, bbc, espn, etc., to write about this success. since the internationalization of sports and kosovo's membership in international sports federations, kosovo has been promoted quite well in the international arena. through sports diplomacy, kosovo has deported where politics could not deport. kosovo sports diplomacy, although not at the right level, has seen positive results from its athletes in international arenas, displaying the image of kosovo in the international arena, as well as directly and indirectly influencing the improvement of kosovo's image. 5.2. kosovo institutional support to sports diplomacy sports diplomacy is not developed in our country, although the resources for the development of this field are not lacking, but there is a lack of institutional support and state strategy for the development of public diplomacy in general, and sports diplomacy in particular. the state institutions of the country, knowing the importance of sports diplomacy, have done almost very little in this regard. kosovo institutions have not done enough for sports and have not helped us to internationalize even more, except for the announcement of athletes as honorary ambassador by the state of kosovo. seeing the impact on improving the image of kosovar athletes is an unforgivable thing how the state of kosovo has paid so little attention to sports diplomacy. 5.3. what action should the state of kosovo take to help sports diplomacy? given the capacities that the republic of kosovo enjoys, it should focus on a certain strategy and field of diplomacy, in order to improve its image in the international arena. seeing the importance of sports diplomacy and the successes it has brought to kosovo, kosovo should invest more in improving the conditions of athletes, in training halls, gyms, where kosovar athletes could be trained at the same level as international athletes. . in order to be better represented through sports, kosovo needs to hire sports diplomacy experts who will draft strategies on how to make better use of sports diplomacy. a public diplomacy department should be activated within the ministry of foreign affairs, which should manage and operate public diplomacy. the allocation of the budget allocated for sports diplomacy as well as for the field of sports should be greater by the state of kosovo. normally, if this field will be developed as an important tool of our country's foreign policy, our image as a country will significantly improve, given the national wealth we have (kosovo representative, majlinda kelmendi, etc.) which are part of, and could help in the development of public diplomacy (sports diplomacy, cultural diplomacy, etc.). so there are a number of challenges and strategies that the state of kosovo must use to benefit from sports diplomacy. 5. conclusions the public diplomacy of a country is of great importance where it includes a series of segments, one of these segments of great importance is sports diplomacy. kosovo sports diplomacy has indirectly contributed to improving kosovo's image in the international arena. in our paper we have presented the importance of sports diplomacy for kosovo, as well as the impact of using this form of diplomacy to achieve the goal of improving the country's image at the international level. the scientific literature used and researched, as well as the three participants in our interviews who are directly and indirectly involved in kosovo sports diplomacy, have guided us on a clear path to conclude that kosovo sports diplomacy does not is properly developed, and not given the proper attention. we can also conclude that athletes and sports diplomacy of kosovo athletes and originally from kosovo has directly and indirectly influenced the improvement of kosovo's image in the international arena, where it is worth mentioning, xherdan shaqiri, majlinda kelmendi and the representative of kosovo in football, etc. also, the verification of the hypotheses raised was done based on facts, scientific arguments and based on the interviews conducted. the hypothesis that: a). '' sports diplomacy can be an important factor in improving the image of a country in the international arena. '' has been proven based on historical cases such as table tennis diplomacy (china-us) and baseball (usa-cuba), as well as in the case of kosovo, where there has clearly been an improvement in the international arena in the image of kosovo as a result of athletes who are from kosovo. since the internationalization of sports and kosovo's membership in international sports federations, kosovo has been promoted quite well in the international arena. through sports diplomacy, kosovo has overcome prejudices and has begun to rebuild its image, damaged by the propaganda of unrecognized states. while the other hypothesis: b). "sports diplomacy has influenced the improvement of kosovo's image at the international level." this hypothesis has also been confirmed based on clear facts and 37 results that kosovo has had. over the years we have the admission of kosovo in two international organizations with sporting characters, which are uefa and fifa, where kosovo is being successfully represented with its football teams, with the flag and coat of arms of the state. the successful appearances of the kosovo national team in the sport of football, have pushed the most popular international media such as: bbc, cnn, new york times, bild, etc., to write about this success. separately, the success of majlinda kelmendi in russia and the football representative in spain, can be considered concrete facts in confirming this hypothesis. based on what we have elaborated throughout this study we can recommend that, given the importance of sports diplomacy and the successes it has brought to kosovo, kosovo should pay special attention to sports by taking examples of countries that successfully have used sport to achieve the objectives of sports diplomacy. for this, kosovo must engage international experts to draft sports strategies that through sport remove the prejudices of international opposition. an example of the success of this strategy is the state of singapore which has drafted concrete plans for the advancement of sports diplomacy, where singapore has set some priority sports such as: ping-pong, badminton and sailing, these sports are given priority in financial support for improving sports conditions as well as athletes who triumph in international championships are given rewards to motivate them to bring new successes. we consider that kosovo should follow the example of singapore by declaring judo a sport with special priority and provide financial support for the improvement of sports conditions, as well as reward athletes in this way. kosovo athletes would be stimulated to rich with many successes. and these successes would even better promote the state of kosovo abroad through sports diplomacy. references 1. brentin, d., & tregoures, l. 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may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 98 train facility public policy as passenger safety guarantee dr. s u w a r d i suwardi dr. rossa ilma silfiah law faculty narotama university law faculty narotama university maswad0634@gmail.com rossailma112@gmail.com heru kuswanto law faculty narotama university kuswantoheru12@gmail.com abstract the train mode is a transportation that is popular one for the people of indonesia, because in addition to the affordable prices by all levels of society beside there are many other advantages. with this paradigm change in relation to the issuance of law number 23 of 2007 concerning railways including its implementing regulations, efforts to advance railways national to better conditions in the future. in social life, railroad transportation is used as a facilitator to move people from one place or area to another place or area. this is very helpful for the community in carrying out relatively large amounts of mobility. another role in economic development is as a facility for production and investment systems so as to have a positive impact on economic conditions at national levels with good economic growth, will help the government in reducing poverty rates that can improve the welfare of the population. keywords: government policy, guarantee of safety, railways, passengers facilities mailto:maswad0634@gmail.com mailto:rossailma112@gmail.com mailto:kuswantoheru12@gmail.com prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 99 1. introduction train mode in daily life is an alternative mode of transportation. one mode of transportation that is chosen by passengers is the train mode. many people choose the mode of train transportation with a variety of reasons for cheap rates and fast travel times which may be the main reason for choosing this train. in these conditions it takes a fast time to get to work, choosing fast transportation is certainly the right choice. moreover, coupled with affordable rates, it will certainly strengthen the reason for using the train. however, low tariffs and fast travel time from rail transportation modes are not accompanied by comfort and safety for users. this is primarily intended for economy class railroad users. also note that the train can be divided into two classes: economy class and commuter line. economy class trains set very affordable rates. the thing that needs attention for the economic train is the security factor. it has become a common sight that every time you leave for work, the economy train looks very crowded with passengers. this is especially for the economy class who are heading in the intended direction where workers who live in urban suburbs go to work in big city cities such as jakarta and surabaya which are crowded because they are hunting for time to get to their destination quickly. with the change in provisions and with the issuance of law number 23 of 2007 concerning railways including its implementing regulations, namely government regulation number 56 of 2009 concerning implementation of railways and government regulation number 72 of 2009 concerning railway traffic and transportation, efforts to advance railways nationally to better conditions in the future this is one aspect of security that needs attention. with crowded passengers, of course, comfort becomes an expensive price that will not be obtained either. for those who are important, they can arrive on time to their destination. passengers who scramble to board a train that is already full can be a normal sight in the morning. these passengers may have no other choice, when other modes of transportation such as city buses or public transportation cannot meet their expectations. stalled road conditions are also another problem. the demand to arrive on time is a strong reason to keep using the train even with very limited conditions. as an alternative, railroad consumers can choose commuter line. the commuter line does set a higher tariff, but provides facilities that are quite better than the economy class. with better and air-conditioned trains and closed doors, it can provide a little better service than economy class. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 100 in the morning when the intensity of passengers is large, the commuter line still doesn't feel more because it is still filled with passengers. in terms of reducing passenger density, it does need proper management. the addition of a train schedule may be one solution but this also raises other problems. with more train schedules, it will certainly increase the closing time of train crossings on several roads and this can cause congestion. luck factors also sometimes appear when riding a train. when lucky, we can get a train that is not too full in the morning. getting a rather tenuous train can indeed be a fortune because the train is usually always crowded at morning. for train users, being able to ride and stand on the train without the need to jostle can be a blessing in itself. moreover, you can get a seat, which is very difficult to obtain. the advantages of railroad transportation can be one of the main driving forces and backbones in encouraging and improving the economy of a nation into an advanced and independent country. in various parts of the world, rail transport has become the backbone of the land transportation system, both for passenger and freight transportation, in cities or between cities, close, medium and even long distances, connecting in a country or between countries. in various countries, reliable modes of land transportation are trains. the contribution of train usage has been so high compared to the use of other modes of transportation. passeng er train shares have reached 60% and goods around 40%. therefore, if a railway system is found in an undeveloped country, it is almost certain that the country concerned will soon be running fast catching up to build a more modern railway system. as for the advantages of rail transportation with other modes of transportation in improving the economy of a country, including large, fast, safe, energy saving and environmentally friendly transport capacity and requires relatively little land. in addition to the increasingly strong environmental issues, the advantages of railways can be used as one of the strong reasons for building railroad transportation, so that effective, efficient and environmentally friendly transportation is realized. alignment in the development of railway transportation means participating in energy saving programs and improving environmental quality. train is the lifeblood of transportation and the main choice of people in various countries because it is reliable, effective and efficient. it is said to be reliable, because the carrying capacity is so much. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 101 no longer a unit, tens and hundreds, but can reach thousands. it is said to be effective and efficient, because trains are able to carry large numbers of passengers. in one trip, a train circuit, (for example consisting of 8 carriages) can carry 1,500 people. another advantage of the train is that it is adaptive to technological developments, free from traffic jams, and capable of being a pioneer in the realization of the integrated transportation system. so that the train is the most appropriate means of transportation to succeed in an environmentally friendly program that is now heavily campaigned both nationally and internationally. therefore, if a railway system that has been developed, efficient, effective and integrated with other modes of transportation in a country has not been implemented, it is believed that the country's economic movement and growth will experience serious obstacles, with various kinds of problems that accompany it, including the national logistics system which does not work effectively and efficiently, the emergence of high costs, slow movement of people and goods, the occurrence of severe congestion, high air pollution, high use of fuel and declining investment interest, which in turn will result in low competitiveness in the global economy. if the condition is not improved properly, it will worsen the economic condition of a country. the construction of the national railway transportation is expected to be the backbone of freight transport and urban passenger transportation so that it can become one of the main drivers of the national economy. the implementation of national railway transportation that is integrated with other modes of transportation can improve the efficiency of the implementation of the national economy. therefore the implementation of national railways in the future must be able to be an important part of the structure of the national economy. for this reason, the role of railroad transportation in indonesia is one of the main prerequisites in supporting the realization of the goal of state as stated in the preamble to the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia, namely the realization of a just and prosperous society. the role of rail transport in indonesia is still very low (marginal). this is indicated by, among others, the limited scope of the use of rail transport, which is only in java, the contribution (share) based on the share of transport produced nationally is still very low compared to other modes of transportation, and the implementation of railways for the public interest is still monopolistic and the number of railway operators is still very limited. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 102 the share of railroad for passenger transportation is only 7.32%, this is still relatively much lower compared to the share of road transportation by 84.13%. whereas freight transportation through railroad transportation is approximately 0.63% of total freight transport, compared to road transport by 91.25% for freight transportation. to that end, efforts to develop passenger and freight transportation by train are increasingly needed in the future, both for long distance, medium and urban (local) transportation such as in large cities as the best alternative solution in solving traffic congestion problems, as implemented and proven by several major cities in the world. thus the role of railroad transportation can encourage the realization of a national logistics system that is good, effective and efficient. along with the increasing economic development of indonesia, the movement of people and goods also increased. the increase in movement must be supported by the availability of adequate, reliable and safe transportation facilities and infrastructure, including the provision of infrastructure in the railway sector. to realize the increasing role of railroad transportation in enhancing national economic growth, it is necessary to have an adequate, reliable, safe, comfortable and integrated railway transportation system with other modes of transportation. whereas to build an adequate and integrated railway transportation system, a large investment fund is needed, either through the mechanism of apbn or apbd financing, private-government cooperation (ppp) or fully private. considering that transportation is a form of public service, the government has a large obligation and responsibility in providing an integrated intra and intermodal transportation system that is good, safe, comfortable and feasible, including rail transportation. the government in the future with a limited budget for infrastructure provision, needs to carry out policies and programs that foster and encourage funding sources from the potential of other stakeholders, especially from the participation of the private sector or business entities so that they are interested in investing in the railroad either individually or with a pattern of cooperation based on transparent, fair / non-discriminatory business principles, accountable to mutual benefits. i. formulation of the problem 1. how is the service for passengers in ensuring safety? ii. research purposes prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 103 1. to find out in solving problems "train facilities policy for public interest in order to ensure the safety of passengers. 2. to create a culture of railroad mass transportation being the choice of the people is more attractive and comfortable so that people are more interested in railroad facilities to be a prima donna facility in activities for everyday vigor in traveling. so that it will suppress private vehicles so that it will reduce the level of congestion because it has switched from private vehicles to train facilities. iii. benefits of research for policy makers as a reference so that in the matter of railroad transportation facilities as a public interest, it is very urgent to take strategic steps so that the safety problems for the railway transportation facilities are immediately resolved because it concerns the public interest. the benefit for the community as a general public is as an additional knowledge so that if utilizing railroad transportation facilities passengers also have equal rights and obligations, thus the government's responsibility is an inseparable part for the sustainability of state assets in the form of railroad transportation facilities. iv. discussion 1. problems with railway transportation facilities. today there are many choices of transportation offered by producers to consumers of transportation users or what we call more often passengers. these options, for example the choice of air travel offered are airplanes. traveling by land, what is offered is bus transportation, public transport or travel cars, and trains. for rail transportation is one of the many facilities needed by individuals to support their smooth activities to deliver them from one place to another according to the objectives of each individual pt. kereta api indonesia as one of the state-owned enterprises has the responsibility in addition to carrying out social functions to be an agent of development that supports government programs in the field of transportation by providing good facilities and services for rail usage, it must also act as a business entity that carries out commercial functions to contribute or income for the country through dividends and prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 104 taxes. pt. kereta api indonesia, one of the state-owned enterprises (soes) engaged in railways, sees this phenomenon as a matter of concern. although pt. kereta api indonesia in its current condition, the nature of its business is a monopoly in the railway sector, but it is necessary to develop a long-term plan for the company so that it will not compete with other competitors in the transportation sector. transportation means according to statistics, contributing 21 percent of the world's total co2 emissions, and 80 percent of that amount comes from motorized vehicles, while the rest are what are called bunker-fuels (emissions from airplanes and ships). a train is a means of transportation in the form of a vehicle with movement power, either walking alone or coupled w ith other vehicles, which will be moving or moving. the train is a mass transportation tool which generally consists of locomotives (vehicles with self-driving motion) and a series of trains or carriages (coupled with other vehicles). the train or carriage range is relatively large so it can load passengers and goods on a large scale. because of its nature as an effective mass transit, several countries are trying to use it to its full potential as the main means of land transportation both in cities, between cities and between countries. according to the international railroad association (uic), railroad transportation is proven to be the lowest in emissions and supports the continuity of human and goods mobility. if it is planned and managed efficiently, all rural, urban, inter-regional and regional traffic will be guaranteed, and people no longer need to argue about reducing or trading emissions. to be able to return or move the transportation load from the highway to the railroad tracks, state policy makers must first change the image of the train as a safe, comfortable, modern, efficient and inexpensive means. a campaign is needed to popularize railways as a trend / modern lifestyle in order to keep up with a strong display culture in the motive of possession of luxury motorized vehicles, emphasis on the general interest of private car ownership visas, in addition to high car taxation and public awareness of transportation facilities. environmentally friendly. railroad transport operators in indonesia are currently carried out by bumn railways, namely pt. train / pt kai (persero). the growth of railroad transportation carried out by pt. kai both passenger and freight trains showed an increase from 2004 to 2008. in fact, for passenger transportation, data shows the realization of the volume being transported exceeds the targeted amount. transportation data shows that the railway transportation business opportunity is still very large. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 105 in addition to the increasing number of users, the realization of passenger transportation that exceeds the target shows that the need for rail services exceeds that targeted. as for goods transportation, the realization has not reached the target. this shows that the train transport operator needs to strengthen itself to aim for freight transport. this great opportunity for railroad transportation is also supported by several advantages that the train has in addition to other modes of transportation. kereta api is known as a mode of transportation that has multiple advantages, including: energy saving; land saving; friendly with the environment; high level of safety; able to transport large & bulk quantities; and adaptive to technological development. associated with current trends, railways are a very relevant mode of transportation to develop. pt kai itself acknowledges that the benefits on a national scale from railway development in indonesia can be mentioned as follows: a. suppressing damage to the road, so as to save the state's funds allocated for road maintenance and pay for the various risks that have arisen so far. b. suppressing traffic congestion, thus minimizing waste of fuel consumption due to traffic congestion, as well as reducing the risk of traffic accidents on the highway. c. minimize national logistics transportation & distribution costs, so that on the one hand it is able to reduce production costs and open up opportunities for export competition, on the other hand suppress the unit price of domestic consumption production in the market. d. optimization of railway transport capacity, which has been largely idle capacity for the goods train. when compared to other land transportation modes, the mode of railroad transportation has more advantages that can be utilized and developed, because it is increasingly relevant to the technological advances of the world today. the advantages of the railway mode include: a. can transport goods and passengers en masse. b. the level of safety is high, this is because the train has its own special road which other vehicles cannot pass for any reason. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 106 c. more energy efficient because it uses secondary energy. d. weather disturbances have little effect on the operation of trains. however, rail transport also has several disadvantages as well as other modes of transportation. the weaknesses of train mode include: a. large operational costs, because the railroad company must maintain the railroad itself and use its own facilities to support passenger safety. b. train mode cannot serve passengers to reach any place, because of the limited road facilities they have. c. because the train mode has a high speed and transports large quantities of goods or human capacity, the implementation is bound by the concession and regulatory requirements. the regulation is both technical and general, but this regulation is to ensure our security and safety together. 2. railway modes for regions train is a means of transportation that is very important in supporting the success of development, especially in supporting the economic activities of the community and the development of the region, both rural areas and other areas. the existing rail system is intended to improve service mobility of the population and other resources that can support the occurrence of economic growth in this area causing a reduction in the concentration of workers who have the expertise and skills in certain regions. in addition, trains also provide opportunities for trade activities between regions and reduce differences between regions so as to encourage development between regions. with the existence of a train, it is hoped that it can eliminate isolation and provide stimulants towards development in all areas of life, both trade, industry and other sectors evenly distributed in all regions. trains are very important for the region, whether rural or semi-urban or urban areas in developing countries, because it provides quick access for the community to meet the needs of daily goods and services, and improve socio-economic life. access to certain information, markets and community services and locations, as well as new prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 107 opportunities are all important needs in the development process. with the construction of train facilities, community economic activities, community empowerment, especially in development in areas that have high economic potential will be more easily developed. this community economic activity will develop if it has good fire infrastructure and facilities for fast accessibility. this accessibility can spur the process of interaction between regions to the most remote areas so as to create equitable development. an article from news-week regarding the construction of a railroad, transcontinental line in the bamboo curtain country reminded us of the importance of the railway line for a country. an effective means of transporting goods and people. also imagine how much development is happening at each station point. a kind of equitable development. european countries are even more experienced with railroad technology. call it britain with its subway, germany and france with its fast trains and russia with its transitional trains. the movement of people and goods becomes more effective, costs can be reduced and very stable. in fact, it is now more desirable because it is environmentally friendly. understandably, the emission level is far less than air transportation. the state of the rising sun also feels the impact of progress when connecting its main islands with the railway that passes through many bridges. not by ferry, not by plane. in fact, the train used is amazing. in the past, the dutch colonial had also built railroad lines in java. the goal is simple, to make the distribution of earth goods can be moved more effectively, the port is then transported to the netherlands. unfortunately, the existing train lines are not treated, in fact many are forgotten. even though these routes can be used for more equitable distribution of development. 3. railroad mode in economic development in the scope of the transportation economy plays an important role in human life in economic development. if viewed in terms of macroeconomics, transportation plays a central role in increasing national gdp. this is because the nature of transportation has the nature of derived demand, that is, if the provision of transportation increases, it will cause an increase in the gdp figure or in other words, transportation can increase demand for other goods. the role of transportation modes, especially the train mode is basically used to fulfill basic human needs prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 108 in facilitating and accommodating all economic and social activities of the community. another role in economic development is as a facility for production and investment systems so as to have a positive impact on economic conditions both at national and regional levels and with good economic growth will help the government in reducing poverty rates that can improve the welfare of the population. the train mode role is basically used to fulfill basic human needs in facilitating and accommodating all economic and social activities of the community. in a certain area depends on other regions. likewise, other regions have dependency on certain regions. among these areas, there are certain areas that have advantages over others, so that the region has several facilities that are able to serve the needs of the population within a wider radius, so that residents at a certain radius will come to the area to obtain the necessary needs. for example, certain areas that have plantation products are often sent to other regions. however, the process of shipping the area is still costly and time consuming. with the existence of this railway line will help to overcome the problem. the construction of railways allows the opening of large areas to go down in economic activities, thus increasing broad welfare as well and will have an impact on economic progress in the region. the regional production which was once very limited in marketing, with the presence of trains can be marketed in a much wider area and in a much larger volume. the regional people are also more free to travel everywhere much easier and cheaper. this continued to develop when the country became an advanced industrial country, as seen in europe and japan. railway transportation has proven its superiority in national logistics, which is now recognized by us people who are willing to think objectively. so the existence of this train will reduce costs and time in the shipping process. with the existence of trains will also open the way for communication between regions will be established well so that there is a flow of goods, services, people, and ideas as capital for an area to progress and develop. the train can be a facilitator for each region to develop and advance the economy in the region because trains increase the accessibility of an area. the construction of trains also provides many employment opportunities. this is very useful for nations that must overcome poverty. there were many job opportunities when building new networks and operating trains. various organizations are needed which all provide employment prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 109 opportunities for many workers. this is clearly important in development in all regions that are still struggling in poverty. train is often associated with the accessibility of an area. in rural development the existence of railway infrastructure and facilities cannot be ignored in a series of economic development programs. another role in economic development of the railroad as a facility for production and investment systems so as to have a positive impact on economic conditions both at the national and regional levels and with good economic growth, will help the government in reducing poverty rates that can improve the welfare of the population. differences in resources in an area with other regions encourage people to mobility so that they can meet their needs. in this mobility process the train has an important role to facilitate and facilitate the mobility process. this mobility process is not only limited by humans, but also goods and services. thus, later with the development of railroads, the interaction between regions will be easier and can reduce the level of disparity between regions. with the existence of the railway line in each area in the long term, it will also be able to reduce road congestion, road damage, exhaust emissions and road accidents. therefore, with the existence of the railroad, it is expected that the general public will switch to railway facilities so that it will reduce the incidence of accidents because fewer and fewer people are using the highway again s o that the incidence of accidents and congestion can be reduced. why is the interest in utilizing railroad facilities more attractive because in addition to cost and more effective time the train is also more efficient in maintenance and does not damage the road? so, being able to save state finances allocated for road maintenance and payment of various risks arising from the highway and money that should be allocated for road maintenance can be allocated for economic development in order to improve the welfare of the people. 4. conclusions the train mode is basically used to meet basic needs as a public means to facilitate and accommodate and guarantee the safety of public passengers. so, the existence of this railway will facilitate distribution and facilitate the transfer of goods, services, people and as capital for one city to another or from one region to another to progress and develop. train can be a facilitator for cities from one city to another to be timelier and safer and comfortable. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 110 in the process of train mobility also has an important role to facilitate and facilitate the mobility process. so later with the development of railroads the interaction between regions will be easier and can reduce the level of disparity between regions so that the realization of economic equality between regions. with the existence of railroad lines in each area will also be able to reduce congestion on the road, road damage, exhaust emissions and road accidents. in addition, using this train will save more energy. so the budget for funds used to repair roads can be reduced and allocated to other government budgets such as the budget for economic development in the region. 5. sugestion regarding the government's policies related to railroad facilities for the public interest to ensure the safety of passengers, it is expected that the service to train services will be improved so that passengers will further increase interest in using the train's advice. because with the increasing number of choices of other land transportation facilities, the train facilities must prioritize more safety, comfort and punctuality as the priority of its services. the train is a mass transportation facility that once departs to transport people and more goods so that many of the benefits derived from the railroad transportation services need to be more mainstream so that weaknesses and shortcomings can be minimized so that there will not be any complaints from passengers. who use railroad services in general. having to show a good image for railroad transportation services is important so that people are more confident and confident that riding train transportation is more secure in terms of security and timeliness which is at stake as a general public trust. comparison table of bbm usage inter transport mode no mode of transportation volume energy consumption / km energy consumption / fuel 1 train 1500 passenger 3 litre 0,002 litre 2 bus 40 passenger 0,5 litre 0,0125 litre prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 111 3 airplane 500 passenger 40 litre 0,08 litre 4 ship 1500 passenger 10 litre 0,00 litre source: pt kai (persero) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 112 references directorate general of railways, (2013). national railroad master plan (ripnas) year 2030. jakarta. directorate general of land transportation, (2012). minister of transportation regulation number pm.10 of (2012) concerning minimum service standards for road-based mass transportation. jakarta. directorate general of land transportation, (2013). minister of transportation regulation number pm.10 of (2013) concerning minimum service standards for road-based mass transportation. jakarta. directorate general of land transportation, (2013). minister of transportation regulation number pm.56 of (2013) concerning cost components. jakarta. directorate general of land transportation, (2011). minister of transportation regulation no. pm.9 of (2011) concerning minimum service standards at the railway station. jakarta. directorate general of land transportation, (2011). minister of transportation's decree concerning railroad minimum service standards in indonesia. jakarta. haryanto, a., (2002). analysis of railroad passenger transport demand in yogyakarta. thesis. yogyakarta: department of civil and environmental engineering, faculty of engineering, gadjah mada university. irawan, p.s., (2013). comparative analysis of ac and railway economy class business services. thesis. yogyakarta: department of civil and environmental engineering, faculty of engineering, gadjah mada university. karissa, c.h., (2011). railway demand services analysis. thesis. yogyakarta: department of civil and environmental engineering, faculty of engineering, gadjah mada university. kumar, r., (1999). research methodology. malaysia: sage publication. masri, dkk., (1989). research methods survey. jakarta: pt. midas surya grafindo. munawar, a., (2005). the basics of transportation engineering. yogyakarta: beta offset. morlok, e.k., (1988). introduction to transportation engineering and planning. (language transfer: ir. john kelana putra hainim). jakarta: erlangga. nasution, h.m.n., (1996). transportation management. jakarta: ghalia indonesia. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 113 government of the republic of indonesia, (2009). law of the republic of indonesia no. 22 of (2009) concerning road traffic and transportation. jakarta: government of the republic of indonesia. government of the republic of indonesia, (2007). law of the republic of indonesia no. 23 of (2007) concerning railways. jakarta: government of the republic of indonesia. government of the republic of indonesia, (2009). law of the republic of indonesia no. 1 of 2009 concerning aviation. jakarta: government of the republic of indonesia. government of the republic of indonesia, (2009). law of the republic of indonesia no. 17 of 2008 concerning shipping. jakarta: government of the republic of indonesia. the government of the republic of indonesia, (2009). government regulation no.72 of 2009 concerning traffic and railways. jakarta: government of the republic of indonesia. 71 challenges and coping strategies of the visually impaired adults: a brief exploratory systematic literature review cherpet tshuma ¹* ngenisiwe henrietta ntombela 2 hester carolina van wijk 3 ¹ north west university, faculty of health sciences, cherpettshuma@gmail.com *correspondent author. 2 north west university, faculty of health sciences, ngenisiwe.ntombela@nwu.ac.za 3 north west university, faculty of health sciences, tessa.vanwijk@nwu.ac.za article history: submission 24 march 2022 revision 05 june 2022 accepted 27 july 2022 available online 31 august 2022 keywords: visual impairment, challenges, coping strategies, adults, vision, disability. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.301 a b s t r a c t people, unlike most animals are born vulnerable, and they need to be nurtured and raised in a safe environment to thrive and survive. human development is holistic and complicated. much of development is dependent on learning through senses such as sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. people need all these senses to learn the world around them. worldwide about 253 million people have visual impairment (vi) problem (who, 2018). depending on the type of visual problem (congenital or adventitious), vi makes life difficult for people infected compared to sighted people. people with vi face challenges such as unemployment, injuries through falling and accidents, lowself-esteem, isolation, depression, and difficulty in mobility within communities. the purpose of this literature study was to congregate relevant information on vi and coping strategies in south africa. articles reviewed were identified through search engines such as jstor, google scholar, boloka-nwu institutional repository (nwuir), proquest, ebscohost, scopus, science direct and web of science were the databases and search engines used in the search. the data collected was then further presented and analyzed using atlasti version 8.4.23 software. the results of this literature study found that people with vi face psychological challenges such as depression, low self-esteem, loss of self-worth and emotional distress. the results further point out that physical challenges are also experienced such as frequent falls, lack of societal resources, inability to perform daily living activities such as cooking, and transportation and mobility. lastly people with vi also experienced social challenges and environmental challenges such unemployment, unable to use technology and poor quality of life. to cope with challenges, people with vi utilize strategies such strategic planning, meaning making, engage in mind stimulating activities, avoidance coping, substance abuse, family acceptance and optimism. 1. introduction people with vi experience many challenges such as a lack of education, inaccessibility to health care, unemployment, poverty, stigmatization and discrimination, and a lack of social support. in south africa, there is a higher number of people with vi than of people of any other disability (south african national council for the blind (sancb), 2010). eide and ingstad (2013) observed that there is a large gap between services offered to people with vi and services offered to sighted people in areas such as education, mental and physical health, employment, socio-economic status, access to information, and social participation. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:cherpettshuma@gmail.com mailto:ngenisiwe.ntombela@nwu.ac.za mailto:tessa.vanwijk@nwu.ac.za https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i2.301 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6293-8243 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2365-2664 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4408-4595 72 people with vi experience psychological challenges in form of depression, agoraphobia, and lack of confidence. they also experience social exclusion in social settings. for example, when sitting with their counterparts in social gatherings, they experience discrimination and poor services. in schools, there are lack of resources (jaws software, advanced braille equipment, and accessible buildings) to accommodate people with vi. people with vi face high unemployment rate and they are the poorest of the poor. vi is caused by many factors, in all causes, cataract (47.9%) remains the leading cause of vi in all areas of the world, except for developed countries (who, 2018). other main causes of vi (who, 2018) are glaucoma (12.3%), age-related macular degeneration (amd) (8.7%), corneal opacities (5.1%), diabetic retinopathy (4.8%), childhood blindness (3.9%), trachoma (3.6%), and onchocerciasis (0.8%). the causes of vi worldwide are all the above except for amd. the predominant causes of blindness in the western industrialized nations in recent years have been age-related macular degeneration (amd), glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy (wolfram et al, 2019). in the least-developed countries, and subsaharan africa, the causes of vi are primarily, cataract (50%), glaucoma (15%), corneal opacities (10%), trachoma (6.8%), childhood blindness (5.3%) and onchocerciasis (4%) (who, 2018). vi is also caused by auto-mobile accidents, injuries that result from falling, and sometimes crime and violence injuries. coping is the process by which one makes use of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and environmental resources to manage a situation that has been deemed to be stressful (yampolsky, wittich, webb, & overbury, 2008). in the intrapersonal, a person with vi believes in themselves and the inner-being to cope. interpersonal involves other people who can be family, friends, and other significant individuals. lastly, to cope, people with vi rely on the resources available in the society such community based organizations, faith based organization, social clubs, stokvels and all available resources at their disposal. in this study, literature from different vi articles were compared and analysed using the atlasti software. the results are summarized in informative diagrams in the study 2. research method 2.1. aim of the study the aim of the study is to explore, describe and summaries existing literature evidence about visual impairment and coping strategies. 2.2. design or approach search procedure challenges and coping strategies of blindness or visual impairment or vision loss was used in a search box of nwu library and about 711-884 results appeared. the same search keywords were used in google scholar, jstor, sa epublications, ebscohost, a to z journals. the researcher reviewed majority of the articles and the articles were selected based on relevance to vi and coping strategies. the following inclusion criteria were used to help identify relevant and recent studies using key words regarding the topic of vi and coping strategies: • chapters in books. • conference proceedings. • full-text journal articles. • higher degree papers. literature that addressed the challenges experienced by visually impaired adults and the coping strategies used by vi adults to deal with the challenges were also included. the studies and research papers were limited to 10 years, from 2015 to 2021, to cover current and past research that could help in addressing the research questions for this study. all the reviewed articles were published in english. the focus of the electronic search was on finding the whole text, and not simply the abstracts or the title, which lessened the possibility of overlooking significant studies. 2.3. data analysis thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. the researchers looked for underlying similarities, differences and deviations from the norm to identify different themes. the atlasti version 8.4.23 software was additionally used to get sufficient insight into the themes gathered in the literature. 3. the themes identified and a discussion thereof theme 1: psychological challenges in the study conducted by stevelink, malcolm and fear (2015) with younger ex-service men suggested that becoming visually impaired had turned participants’ lives upside down. the associated consequences had adverse effects on a variety of life domains and adjusting was experienced as a difficult journey. personnel struggled with an increased level of dependence on others, a loss of freedom, and a lack of confidence and impaired feelings of self-worth. 73 in another study by marmamula, barrenkala, challa, kumbham, modepalli, yellapragada, bhakki, friedman and khanna (2020), the results found that the elderly with vi experience moderate depression. ejiakor, achigbu, onyia, edema, and florence (2019) reported that participants with vi experience negative feelings about life. their study also demonstrated that the mean scores of the psychological domain decreased as the severity of vi increased. this may be due to the psychological trauma that is associated with the uncertainties of visual loss. depression, vision loss and falls can act as a triad with a tremendous negative impact on the elderly. vision loss leading to depression and subsequent falls were considered as a sequel of events. they hypothesized that this sequel can be broken by intervening to prevent or restore vision which in turn will lead to a decline in depression and subsequent falls. the psychological challenges are summarized in figure 1. figure 1. psychological challenges network source: psychological challenges using atlas.ti 8.4.23 theme 2: social challenges according to ejiakor, achigbu, onyia, edema, and florence (2019) the social domain was greatly affected by the respondents’ lack of satisfaction with their sexual life. this may be attributed to the culture as most elderly people in nigeria may find it difficult to have intimate relationships with their spouses as they get older. however, most of them were satisfied with the support they got from their family and friends. while this result highlights the importance of the african culture of family support, there is also a need to develop focal support groups for people with vi and their relations to help reduce the effect of vision loss. health educators and eye caregivers have a role to play in this area. based on schölvinck, pittens, and broerse, (2017) people with vision loss often face incomprehension and even stigmatization due to the lack of obvious visible symptoms of vi and ignorance in the general population about the consequences of ophthalmological disorders. in addition, in social interactions, eye contact and nonverbal communication are partly lost, causing people to have difficulty building up friendships. spontaneity and communication are hindered. for example, it can be hard to recognize people at parties and on the street. schölvinck, pittens, and broerse, (2017) further reported that people with vi experience fatigue because of the difficulties faced in social life, disturbed biorhythms, side-effects of medications, or simply because all daily routines require more attention. moreover, for many participants, the acceptance of their vision loss is hampered in multiple ways by reducing their self-esteem, making it more difficult to find a partner, and causing fatigue. this difficulty in accepting the vision loss reduces the quality of life, directly and indirectly, through social isolation and fear for the future (schölvinck, pittens, & broerse, 2017). several persons with vi find themselves on the lonely island of exclusion because they feel that “they are the only one,” or “they are not as good as others.” this is especially true among people who have just lost their vision due to ailments or injuries (mabalot, 2020). the reason they felt loneliness depended on the company they find themselves in. it could be better if they are surrounded by their loved ones and other people with vi as they can relate and share their survival skills. people in the community do not understand how to communicate with people with vi. the researcher once heard a vi person complaining that people do not maintain eye contact (as it can be sensed in their voice), and when they speak, they do not probe by saying “yes” or “yeah” to show them that they are paying attention. also, when there is a joke, vi 74 people just hear people laughing and they get confused, as sighted people cannot narrate every joke taking place. the social network mechanism and flow is summarized in figure 2. figure 2. social challenges network source: social challenges using atlas.ti 8.4.23 jackson et al. (2019) explained that discrimination as a social challenge was more commonly reported by participants with poor eyesight than those with good eyesight. the most common form of discrimination was being treated with less respect or courtesy reported by participants with poor eyesight, and the least common was being threatened or harassed (jackson et al, 2019). poor eyesight was associated with increased odds of reporting receiving poorer service in restaurants and stores to receiving poorer service or treatment in medical settings (jackson et al, 2019). as for overall ratings of eyesight, participants who reported poor eyesight for seeing things up close had significantly higher odds of perceived discrimination overall (jackson et al, 2019). reports of being treated as if they were not clever were more common among the group with poor eyesight up close than in the group reporting poor overall eyesight. reports of being threatened or harassed were also more common among the group with poor eyesight up close than in the group reporting poor overall eyesight (jackson et al, 2019). in the study by verhaeghe, van der bracht, and van de putte, (2016) that sought to examine the social exclusion that individuals with a vi face when looking for housing. it was found that individuals with a vi who look for housing in the private rental market face substantial levels of discrimination. more than one in three lessors discriminate against individuals with a vi. theme 3: physical challenges ejiakor, achigbu, onyia, edema, and florence (2019) indicate that about the physical domain, that majority of the participants reported dissatisfaction in the ability to perform daily living activities and the capacity to work. individuals are less likely to enjoy their work if they have difficulty doing the work and appreciating a good outcome. the tendency may be to ignore the activities and its frustrations. the physical challenges are indicated in the figure 3 below: 75 figure 3. physical challenges network source: physical challenges using atlas.ti 8.4.23 marmamula, barrenkala, challa, kumbham, modepalli, yellapragada, bhakki, friedman and khanna (2020) evaluated the prevalence of falls and their association with vi in elderly residents in ‘homes for the aged’ in hyderabad, india. they found a very high prevalence of falls in the elderly individuals living in homes for the aged in hyderabad, india. the prevalence of falls was significantly higher among those with low vision. the elderly with uncorrected refractive error had a higher odd of falls even after controlling for all other risk factors. in the study by schölvinck, pittens and broerse (2017) almost all participants in the focus group discussions pointed out that reduction in mobility was caused both by the vi itself and by the norms of a visually oriented society. according to schölvinck, pittens, and broerse, (2017) society provides more complications for people with vi: a chaotic organization of public space, unreadable public transport information, inaudible broadcasting systems, and poorly visible sidewalks are but a few of the hurdles these people face when moving about outside. these factors disturb a person’s ability to orient himor herself, cause fear of losing balance, and cost time for travel preparation, thus hindering mobility. reduced mobility in turn reduces an individual’s independence, causes social isolation, and reduces the overall enjoyment of life. marmamula et al. (2020:) also found that many of the elderly people with vi reported tripping and falling over while walking. a conducive physical environment can help in preventing falls in the elderly. having railings in common places can be of immense help to prevent falls. these measures are expected to help those with irreversible vision loss. this becomes even more vital as the number of homes for the aged in india is set to increase in the coming years. there is a definite need to define the basic minimum infrastructure requirements that should be made mandatory for establishing the homes for the aged or for converting general residences to homes for the aged. theme 4: environmental challenges ejiakor, achigbu, onyia, edema, and florence (2019) assessed the different domains of quality of life in nigeria, the environmental domain was mostly affected. in the study, finance and limited opportunity for leisure were the major problems noted by the participants. they also reported that having an income of <5000 naira (r193.55)/month has been associated with poor qol. with the recent inflation in the country, n5000/month is grossly insufficient to cater for health needs and daily upkeep. worldwide, employment rates of people with disabilities are consistently lower than those of people without disabilities. according to gewurtz, langan and shand 2016 (cited by goertz, houkes, nijhuis & bosma 2017) people with disabilities are confronted with many barriers on their way to finding and keeping jobs (e.g., stigmatization, lack of information among employers). people with vi appear to be highly stigmatized by employers and face many difficulties on the labour market (goertz, houkes, nijhuis & bosma 2017). the environmental challenges are indicated in figure 4 below: 76 figure 4. environmental challenges network source: environmental challenges using atlas.ti 8.4.23 according to wahidin, waycott and baker (2018) assistive technologies such as computer screen readers and enlarging software are commonly used to help overcome employment barriers and enable people with vi to contribute to, and participate in, the workforce. however, recent research suggests it can be difficult for people with vi to effectively adopt and implement assistive devices and technology in the workplace (wahidin, waycott, & baker 2018). for individuals with disabilities, including those with vi, unfair workplace practices may prevent employment or satisfaction with employment (victor et al, 2017). treatment and hiring decisions by an employer should be based on an individual’s merit instead of the existence or consequence of a visual disability or impairment). unfavourable employer treatment of a qualified individual because of vi is disability discrimination (victor et al, 2017). those with vi supposedly must work twice as hard for the same amount of output, recognition, pay equity, or job performance in comparison with their sighted colleagues (outwater-wright 2020). in a time in which assistive technology, changing perceptions, and innovation are so readily available and diverse, it is time to retire the idea that certain segments of the workforce need to do twice as much. there are enough accessible technologies, tools, resources, and changing conceptualization of vi to put this idea to bed and move into a time where blindness does not put the burden on blind people alone to succeed in the workplace (outwater-wright 2020). coping rai, rohatgi, and dhaliwal (2019) found that participants opted for reflective coping and avoidance coping rather than other strategies. they were using reflective coping strategy because this strategy is known to keep people occupied and optimistic. while avoidance coping, on the other hand, is a passive and distanced approach to challenges, it is not always a bad thing. for example, if the problem is too difficult to deal with, as in the case of vi, people may put it aside and deal with it whenever they feel they are ready. this allows them a breather during which time they may be able to build up other networks and means of coping. in figure 5. that follows the coping strategies: 77 figure 5. coping strategies used by visual impaired people a coping behaviour such as avoidance may be positive and helpful in the short run but harmful in the long run if it results in social isolation. thus, avoidance coping for a short time may be acceptable, if it gives way to other, more proactive ways of coping. a very few participants employed strategic planning as a coping strategy suggesting that they do break up their problems into small manageable components. strategic planning has been shown to improve the ability of people with chronic diseases to function effectively and it can be learned through training. emotion‑focused coping results when stressful situations cannot be easily resolved by a person’s action and all the person can do is to reduce the resultant emotional distress. in the proposed model by gonella (2014) after several studies with people with vi, the results show that challenges of people with vi are: changes to physical self (loss of mobility), changes to social relationships (family and friend), changes to lifestyle (loss of employment and financial problems), and changes to emotional stability (depression and suicide ideation and changes to identity). the coping of the vi individuals relied on access to resources and support, financial stability, acceptance in family and society, and connection to religion (gonella, 2014). the latter (religion) is supported by (yampolsky, wittich, webb, & overbury, 2008) in the study that examined the role of spirituality in coping with vi. they found that individuals with higher levels of religion and existential wellbeing engaged in more adaptive coping behaviours. regarding religion in south africa, murray, mckay and nieuwoudt (2011) in the study that observed how people use religion, faith, and god to deal with their loss of sight, they found that half of the participants mentioned god, religious faith or spiritual values as being critical in giving meaning to their lives as visually impaired adults and helping them cope with, and adjust to, their vi. the existing study about religion does not mention how non-religious vi people cope. it is also not clear how does african cultures and indigenous knowledge contribute to the vi people coping strategies. meyer (2006) found that people with vi coped with their situations by talking to someone, seeking information, participating in support groups, and learning to accept their challenges. in the study by skarra (2014) with the rationale of identifying the relationship between age, accommodative coping, meaningmaking, and psychosocial adjustment to vision loss, it was established that age does not predict better coping, but the study showed the significant difference for meaning-making among the middle-aged adults had higher scores for meaning-making. also middle-aged adults utilized more rehabilitation services than older adults and this might have positively impacted meaningmaking for middle-aged adults. study by skarra (2014) suggested that clinicians and professionals who work with clients who are visually impaired might use intervention that increase coping and meaning making and thereby may increase their clients’ healthy psychosocial adjustment to vision loss. in addition, stevelink et al. (bullins, 2018) support the finding of vi adults seeking counselling to cope with their vi. acceptance of the vi person can be defined as agreeing with oneself, and to appreciate, value, accept, and support oneself at a particular moment. acceptance is considered an important factor in someone’s adjustment to and daily functioning with a 78 disability. adjustment is a multi-dimensional construct, referring to the process of behavioural, cognitive, emotional, and social adaptation to positive and negative life changes, as well as to the outcome of this process (sampson, 2000: p253 cited by goertz, houkes, nijhuis & bosma 2017). according to sampson (2000) for instance, acceptance is a very important factor in the process of adjusting to a disability. and adjustment is linked to greater self-efficacy, higher self-esteem, lower levels of depression and a more internal locus of control and is likely to be a necessary factor for adequate functioning in various areas of life, including work. ben-zur and debi (2005) cited by goertz, houkes, nijhuis & bosma 2017 added that in addition to acceptance, optimism is important, and it might be linked to the motivation of people with vi to cope adaptively with their vision loss and may also be associated with psychological and physical well-being. mabalot (2019). laughter and optimism come in handy when facing barriers in the world out there, the biggest of which are cultural and social. acceptance is critical in coping with vi. acceptance depends on factors such as supportive family members and friends. if family members are patient with people with vi, it become easy for self-acceptance. navigation and orientation are crucial activities of human beings which need to be achieved daily. the usual way to perform these tasks involves the visual sense, which is used for example to recognize known places and buildings or signs and structures which are familiar to the person (koutny, & miesenberger, 2014). unfortunately for people with vi, their vision is lost, as a result, they rely on other senses such as hearing and touch. when for example, a vi person goes to kitchen to drink water, they touch everything in their way in the house while moving towards water. while they are walking outside, they use walking canes, and they must listen and pay attention for potential harm. the researcher overheard a vi say if they are walking to a nearby shop, they must pay attention to sound and to the road to a point that if someone meet them and make a conversation, they lose concentration and be disorientated. but with mobility, the challenges become easy as they are trained on how to travel independently. orientation is the ability to process information received through the senses (including vision) to determine the position of a person in space relative to other surrounding objects in the environment when stationary, and then update this information when moving (chang, et al., 2020). chang et al, (2020) added that mobility is the ability of an individual to move through space. guide dogs have also been of great help for vi people. they perform well for important tasks such as avoiding obstacles and basic navigation (jubril et al, 2013). the dog can detect and analyse complex situations: cross walks, stairs, potential danger, know paths and more. most of the information from the animal is passed through tactile feedback of the handle fixed on the animal (jubril et al, 2013). the user can feel the attitude of his dog, analyse the situation, and give him appropriate orders. however, coupled with the fact that guide dogs are expensive and have a limited working time, it is difficult to train them, and they can be challenging and inconvenient for a visually impaired person to look after (jubril et al, 2013). the o&m is an important skill needed to live as independently as possible in relation to traveling independently (chamberlain, 2004). vi people need to be able to use public transportation, to travel and have good cane and orientation skills. but the most important of all the skills people need to know is how to cook. (chamberlain, 2004). taking into consideration that people are unique and different, bullins (2018) holds the view that the problem-solving skills and strategies they use to cope and adjust to significant life events vary. as some use support systems such as religion, family and community at their disposal, some show negative coping ability as observed by stevelink et al (cited by bullins, 2018) in the study that sought to examine the impact of vi and coping strategies. the results showed that people with adventitious vi often felt the need to withdraw from society and develop a reliance on alcohol and mind stimulating substances to make it through their day. furthermore, in another study by stevelink and fear, one out of ten women experienced depressive symptoms, post traumatic stress disorder (ptsd), and resorted to alcohol as a strategy to cope with vi. according to brooks (2002) substance use in people with vi can be categorized into two types which are type a and type b. type a is the person who uses alcohol and has been using it before being affected by vi and the second category, type b, is the person who develops a drinking problem following the onset of a vi (brooks, 2002). type a drinkers have a history of life challenges that tend to cause the drinking behaviour. glass (1981) (cited by brooks, 2002) states that type b drinkers have a limited coping skill, but the pattern of alcohol abuse is not the primary response characteristic such as in type a drinkers. both type a and type b problem drinkers share several principal characteristics, especially a limited range of coping skills and an underlying attitude of cultural tolerance toward alcohol use as a coping technique. also, those who use substances have lack of information about counselling, orientation and mobility, selfcare, and relearning the use of tools necessary to earn a living 79 (brooks, 2002). additionally, stevelink, malcolm and fear (2015) in a study of ex-military vi participants, found that the unavailability of support and resources influenced how younger members coped with their loss. as a result, ex-service personnel tried ‘to escape’ by, for example, substance abuse or made a nonfatal suicide attempt. 5. conclusions the aim of this study was to explore, describe and summarize the existing literature regarding vi and coping strategies. challenges and coping strategies of blindness or visual impairment or vision loss was used in a search box of nwu library. the above mentioned was used as a search strategy and it yielded 711 884 results. the same search keywords were used in google scholar, jstor, sa epublications, ebscohost, a to z journals. the researcher carefully reviewed majority of the articles and the articles were selected based on relevance to vi and coping strategies. the results were then summarized as themes and analysed using the atlas ti software, which is a qualitative data analysis tool. the results were grouped in categories such as psychological, social, environmental, and physical networks. also coping strategies were summarized and explored. the study explored and summarized how these networks affect vi people and was followed by coping strategies used to deal with challenges. the results show that people with vi suffer from depression, low self-esteem, emotional and psychological trauma. socially, they struggle to have friends, face discrimination and experience poor quality of life. the most common form of discrimination was being treated with less respect and courtesy, being threatened, or harassed, and increased odds of receiving poorer service in restaurants and stores to receiving poorer service or treatment in medical settings. as people rely on sight to move around, it is extremely difficult to be mobile without sight. vi people face frequent falls, accidents, lack of inclusive transportation, inability to enjoy daily activities such as cooking, cleaning, and reading newspapers. when discussing frequent falls, literature show that society makes it more complicated for people with vi. they live in a chaotic organization of public space, unreadable public transport information, inaudible broadcasting systems, and poorly visible sidewalks are but a few of the hurdles people with vi face when moving outside. these factors disturb a person’s ability to orient himor herself, cause fear of losing balance, and cost time for travel preparation, thus hindering mobility. reduced mobility in turn reduces an individual’s independence, causes social isolation, and reduces the overall enjoyment of life. unemployment is high among people with vi and if they find employment, they receive bad workplace treatment. the study established that high unemployment causes poverty. lack of assistive technology also makes it difficult for people with vi to cope in the workplace, as the work becomes more difficult for them. additionally, the study found that to cope with such challenges, people with vi utilize skills such as strategic planning, meaning making journey, avoidance coping, acceptance, substance abuse and family support. the study explored both adaptive and maladaptive coping based on literature reviewed, it was deduced that while others use positive coping such as interacting with family, others resort to substance abuse or in the worst cases, attempt suicide. the results show that coping of the vi individuals relied on access to resources, financial stability, acceptance in family and society, and connection to religion. individuals with higher levels of religion and existential wellbeing engaged in more adaptive coping behaviours compared to non-religious counterparts. lastly, optimism, acceptance and laughter played a critical role in coping. acceptance was critical in coping with vi and it depended on factors such as supportive family members and friends. for example, if family members are patient with individuals with vi, it became easy for selfacceptance. references 1. adigun k, 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yampolsky, m.a., wittich, w., webb, g. & overbury, o., (2008). the role of spirituality in coping with visual impairment. journal of visual impairment & blindness, 102(1), 28-39. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2006.10.006 https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.10-7127 79 strategies teachers use to implement positive discipline in schools sindiswa s zondo ¹* vusi s mncube 2 emmanuel o adu 3 ¹ university of forth hare, faculty of education, szondo@ufh.ac.za *correspondent author. 2 university of fort hare, faculty of education, vmncube@ufh.ac.za 3 university of forth hare, faculty of education, eadu@ufh.ac.za article history: submission 23 september 2022 revision 10 december 2022 accepted 14 january 2023 available online 30 april 2023 keywords: positive discipline, negative discipline, implementation, strategy. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.364 a b s t r a c t the use of corporal punishment is still prevalent in south african schools. statistics south africa report about 50 per cent of learners are exposed to corporal punishment in the kwazulu natal region. in comparison, in gauteng, 34 per cent of learners are subjected to corporal punishment and in the eastern cape, it is close to 20 per cent. in essence, corporal punishment has been illegalized, yet it still manifests in schools. the study explored the strategies teachers use to implement positive discipline in schools. the findings revealed a variety of strategies teachers use with the code of conduct as the most important strategy to implement positive discipline. however, the findings also revealed that many participants believed that using a code of conduct (or positive discipline) to enhance positive behavior was a waste of time and ineffective. thus, continued to use negative disciplinary measures to deal with misbehaving learners. 1. introduction corporal has been predominant in south african schools until today. statistics south africa (2017) reported that in 2016, “approximately 14 million learners attended south african public schools and over 1.3 million learners were still exposed to corporal punishment, although its use declared illegitimate”. in 2019, the minister of basic education (dbe) angie motshekga, declared that in kwazulu natal (kzn) over 50 per cent of learners are still endangered to corporal punishment, in gauteng, about 34 per cent and in the eastern cape close to 20 per cent of learners are exposed to corporal punishment, (ana, 2017). the south african council for educators (sace) (2021) has declared that in 2020-2021 they have received 367 complaints about the practice of corporal punishment in schools. following these grievances, sace removed four teachers from the teaching profession for severely assaulting learners and 23 teachers were prosecuted and found guilty and paid the fine. from the, it is quite clear that corporal punishment is still a norm in south african schools. however, maphosa & shumba (2010) and reyneke (2018) indicate that alternatives to corporal punishment have been pronounced ineffectual by many teachers. the literature shows that when corporal punishment was abolished in south african schools, teachers felt frustrated and ineffective in terms of dealing with misbehaving learners. lopes and oliveira (2017) declare that many teachers felt that they were cornered and put in a trying position because there were no alternatives put in place to replace corporal punishment. as such, they felt disempowered and abandoned when it came to the critical task of maintaining classroom discipline. maphosa and shumba (2010) found that teachers encounter challenges in sustaining discipline in schools, in the absence of corporal punishment. to this end, despite its abolishment, cases of using corporal punishment have been reported, for matlou (2020) this is because most teachers focus on eradicating negative behaviour than teaching appropriate behaviour. simón and alonso-tapia (2016) maintain that discipline is not merely a matter of punishment; rather it is a matter of supporting and directly influencing learners for the better. mlalazi (2015) purports that corporal punishment has physical, psychological, behavioural, and developmental consequences for a learner. therefore, teachers must find effective ways of dealing with misbehaving learners. mailto:szondo@ufh.ac.za mailto:vmncube@ufh.ac.za mailto:eadu@ufh.ac.za https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.364 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2345-5430 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2103-2530 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1345-5517 80 a move from corporal punishment and other punitive measures (also known as negative disciplinary measures) is positive discipline (pd) (bilatyi, 2017). durrant (2021) defines pd as an approach used to direct learner behaviour, by focusing on their psychological and emotional needs. the eastern cape dbe (2018) defines pd as an inclusive approach that employs discipline to teach, rather than punish, thereby helping learners to improve academically, and enjoy their time in school. and thus, due to the use of pd in schools, learners can now develop the required social skills to become useful citizens in their communities and beyond, while learning how to manage their behaviour as they acquire the morals, values, and attitudes they will live by as adults (shields, 2018). zingman (as cited in shields, 2018) maintains that when learners experience a sense of belonging, and feel cared for and respected, their behaviour improves, and they strive to always put their best foot forward. park (2014) acknowledges that where a positive relationship exists between teachers and learners, learners are less likely to misbehave because they feel valued, recognised and supported. therefore, the honours remain with the teachers in transforming from their traditional disciplinary strategies to positive disciplinary approaches. most schools have a challenge in dealing with misbehaving learners and that impedes effective teaching and learning. mainly, learner indiscipline emanates from the use of corporal punishment. manning and bear (2017) admit that corporal punishment is still administered in schools. kunene (2020) purports that a lot still needs to be done to move away from the african cultural belief that “beating a child, is part of the process of bringing up that child”. mncube and mthanti (2014), declare that the use of punitive disciplinary measures such as corporal punishment adds to the ongoing cycle of violence in schools. similarly, dbe (2018) agrees that corporal punishment leads to the spread of violent behaviours among learners. and this impacts negatively on learners’ academic achievement and academic growth. on the other hand, reyneke (2018) blames the abolition of corporal punishment to be the contributing factor to the high incidence of indiscipline in schools. despite everything, in the 21st century, the corporal punishment that many educators experienced during their upbringing has no place, therefore turnaround disciplinary strategies must be put in place. this study aims to close the existing gap between negative and positive discipline, thereby exploring what strategies teachers use to implement pd in schools. 2. research questions the research questions that guide this paper are: • what are the participants’ understandings of positive and negative discipline? • what strategies do teachers use to implement positive discipline in schools? 3. theoretical framework underpinning the study is rudolf dreikurs’ (1972) positive discipline theory. driekurs' (1972) theory holds that all behaviours, including misbehavior, are purposeful and directed toward gaining social recognition. dreikurs (1972) further explains that learners misbehave in an attempt: to receive attention, gain power over adults, avenge their feelings of being hurt, and mask feelings of inadequacy by withholding their participation. dreikurs' theory centres on the idea that everyone has the desire to fit in, at that, dreikurs asserts that all inappropriate behaviours which learners exhibit in the classroom (or school) originate from their inability to fit in or belong. this theorist maintains that the key goal of seeking to belong remains the original stimulus of learner behaviour. as such, if a learner fails to achieve this goal of fitting in then s/he turns to seek revenge, attention, and power. and all that manifests as misbehaviour. corroborating driekurs' theory is jones (2015) who confirms that pd is the approach that recognizes that learners seek to fit into a certain group and if that does not happen, negative behaviour arises. dreikurs’ studied children’s behaviour for decades, thereafter, he concluded that misbehaviour always has an intention be it getting attention, seeking power/control, getting revenge, or compensating for feelings of inadequacy. in that regard, this theory in the present study implies that learners’ behaviours (including misbehaviours) are purposeful and directed toward gaining social recognition. therefore, it is going to help teachers understand that learners’ internal goals result in specific external behaviour, which suggests that whatever behaviour they exhibit on the outside emanates from internal processes (joan, 2018). moreover, it will enable teachers to understand childhood developmental stages as involving a young person developing a sense of belonging or being accepted by other children and adults (if this remains unfulfilled, a child will become anxious and unhappy, and thus develop negative behaviour). 4. literature review: positive and negative discipline and strategies used to implement pd 4.1. negative and positive discipline moving from punitive means of maintaining discipline (negative discipline) to a positive disciplinary approach is an inventive strategy to offer positive behavioural (positive discipline) support 81 to learners, (stevens, 2018). according to jones (2015) pd centres on non-punitive methods, and it can be taught to learners. the eastern cape dbe (2018) sees pd as a comprehensive approach that employs discipline “to teach, rather than punish”, thus assisting learners to improve academically while enjoying their schooling days. durrant (2021) sustains that pd focuses on learners' emotional and psychological needs, and that it is used to modify learner behaviour. from the above, pd is about: teaching learners to take responsibility for their actions, making them feel empowered to deal with their problems, and being able to make sound and informed decisions. haruyama (2019) agrees that pd helps learners develop self-discipline through their efforts and in that way, it enhances good behaviour in a school rather than giving rise to conflict which is almost inevitable where there are behavioural problems. dreikurs (2015) declared that learners’ violent and inexcusable behaviours stem from negative disciplinary approaches used by teachers in schools. according to bilatyi (2017), negative discipline is responsive and aims to correct any behaviours that interrupt teaching and learning. in this regard, the teacher attempts to apply corrective measures to such behaviour. thus, negative discipline is disciplinary action the teacher takes to stop learner indiscipline hence re-establish and restoring order. semali and vumilia (2016) sustain that negative discipline spread violence and violent behaviours in schools, the reason being that such discipline does not help learners to perform academically, but rather attacks their dignity and lowers their self-esteem, inflicting pain and causing distress. lopes and oliveira (2017) reasons that negative discipline or punishment brings the worst behaviours and it does not have any constructive enduring outcomes. similarly, mbagala (2019) approves that negative discipline instils fear and intimidates learners instead of encouraging them to practise self-discipline. in this instance, the dbe (2018) maintains that negative punishment violates a child’s rights to education and protection from all forms of aggression while showing little respect for their human dignity. lopes and oliveira (2017) found that beating learners teach them aggression and violent behaviour instead of peace, ignorance instead of respect, and fuels the flames of conflict instead of resolving flashpoints. 4.2. strategies used in the implementation of positive discipline in schools the literature revealed that a good school discipline channels learners toward the attainment of educational goals and these goals includes learners’ academic learning, moral and behavioural development, (khan, asia, iqbal & ghaffar, 2019). despite the above, maintaining pd amongst learners remains a challenge. traditionally, schools vested their trust in punitive disciplinary approaches which the dbe (2018) has found to be ineffective in addressing learners’ behavioural problems. research proves (dbe, 2018) that negative discipline has physical, psychological, behavioural, and developmental consequences for a learner, and it adds to the ongoing cycle of violence in schools (mncube & mthanti, 2014). in curbing these problems, this study aims to explore strategies that teachers use to implement pd in schools, in support of creating a safe educational milieu for all learners. ngubane (2018) opine that schools require a code of conduct to serve as a framework for establishing appropriate standards of learner behaviour, thereby creating an environment which is conducive to good, quality education. graham (2017) sustains that an effective school environment which promotes pd should have rules and regulations such as a code, to lay the foundation for acceptable and appropriate learner behaviour. sasa (1996) aver that a code of conduct for the learners is the basic strategy that can be used to implement pd in schools. sant (2019, p. 657) perceives a code of conduct for learners as “a set of rules targeted at managing learner behaviour to ensure self-discipline, thus allowing schools to remain active, orderly environments where effective teaching and learning can take place”. apart from the code of conduct are positive reinforcement, the modelling of positive behaviour, effective communication, integrated community systems, and the creation of a positive environment (dbe, 2018). these disciplinary strategies were deemed to ensure the safety and dignity of all learners and staff, preserve the integrity of the learning environment, and address the causes of learners’ misbehaviour to improve positive behavioural skills and attain long-term outcomes (national association of school psychologists [nasp], 2002). additionally, durrant (2021) suggests other strategies to be used to implement pd in schools: showing appreciation for and receiving acknowledgement from, superiors and parents; offering concrete feedback and praise for milestone events; being sensitive to signs of difficulty in learners’ lives; listening to providing emotional support and acknowledging learners’ work while appreciating them as individuals. on the other hand, durrant (2021) revealed that most teachers lack an understanding of how pd works, therefore, they resort to what they know, which is physical punishment. arguably, according to kunene (2020), children (learners) accept that being beaten (or receiving corporal punishment) is a way of life and it is short and precise. studies further revealed that pd was ineffective in maintaining discipline in schools and thus was found to be a waste of time, (ngubane, 2018). fluke, olson and peterson (2014) agree that positively reprimanded learners continue to misbehave and become immune to all of the positive disciplinary measures put in place. this nullifies the aim of pd 82 approaches. it is at this juncture that teachers ensure to use corporal punishment to correct bad behaviour. shortly, this proves that negative discipline has not been eradicated from our schools. 5. research methodology underpinning the study was the interpretivism paradigm which was deemed suitable for unearthing the participants’ lived experiences about issues of pd in schools. kivunja and kuyini (2017, p. 13) maintain, the interpretive paradigm attempts to “get into the head of the phenomenon being studied to understand and interpret what the subject is thinking or the meaning s/he is making of the context”. this qualitative study adopted a phenomenological research design, and this allowed the researchers to gain in-depth knowledge and also a better understanding of the strategies teachers use to implement pd in schools. christiansen (2010, p. 43) maintains that qualitative research is subjective, in-depth, probing and interpretive. therefore, it affords the researchers to look at what, why, and how, of the topic under investigation, (ormston, spencer, barnard & snape, 2014). the researchers purposively sampled two schools that professed to use a code of conduct to implement pd and whether the schools used pd approaches to instil pd. consequently, the targeted sample in each school comprised three disciplinary committee members, one school principal, two smt members, two teacher representatives in the sgb, and two rcls were sampled (n=20). semi-structured interviews, observation and document review were used to collect data. the consent of the participants was sought before data collection. 6. data analysis the data were analysed using the thematic approach of coding, sorting, and categorization to analyze the responses from the participants and report writing as suggested by creswell (2013). for data presentation, fictitious names were used for the two sampled schools, namely nativa secondary (ns) and andolex secondary (as). at each school the participants were coded: the three disciplinary committee members were coded dcm1, dcm2 and dcm3; the school principal was sp1, the two smt members smt1 and smt2; the two teacher representatives in the sgb, tr-sgb1 and tr-sgb2, and two rcls, rcl1 and rcl2. 7. results and discussion data were analyzed under the following themes: • participants’ understanding of the positive and negative discipline. • strategies used to implement positive discipline. 7.1. participants’ understandings of positive and negative discipline in determining whether participants were cognizant of the variances between the two concepts, participants were asked: “what is your understanding of the positive and negative discipline?” 7.1.1. positive discipline the participant’s responses revealed that pd is corrective, not punitive, and not associated with inflicting any kind of sociological, mental, physical, or verbal injury, hurt or abuse on another person. it is a type of discipline that teaches a learner how to behave. one participant stated: positive discipline is when you reprimand a child for having done something wrong. for example, if a child has done something wrong, you are aware that what he has done is wrong; it does not mean that you condone the behaviour, but you need to come up with strategies to ensure that the child does not repeat the same offence. in this case, you are not using the stick, but you promise a child something that if s/he does good, you will give him or her something good, like a reward or incentive to ensure that s/he continues to do good. in that way, they behave well, voluntarily. (smt 1, as) according to the participant, pd drives good behaviour in individuals. this implies that when disciplining a learner positively, teachers find the most amicable ways of resolving issues, without resorting to punitive. the rcls paired pd with school rules and issues of detention, which are indeed closely aligned. rcl 1, from andolex secondary, mentioned that pd involved teachers relying on the school rules to enforce discipline. for another learner pd was associated with the absence of corporal punishment: positive discipline is when teachers do not beat you when you break the rules. for example, in our school, we are not allowed to come late. when we come late, teachers on duty make us clean the school before we join classes, or sometimes they make us run before they can open [the] school gates for us […] or a learner is given detention, that is positive because they do not use corporal punishment. (rcl 2, ns) the learners’ utterances indicate that a lot still needs to be done about how teachers discipline learners in schools. giving learners menial tasks to perform or making them run while others are in class learning, amount to a criminal offence, as such acts contravene the bill of human rights, section 29 (1) (rsa, 1996a), which states that everyone has the right to basic 83 education. in this instance, teachers are not protecting the rights of all learners, but are infringing on their right to an education. such actions prevent learners from growing up to become responsible citizens who value themselves and respect others (jones, 2015). instructing learners to run around aimlessly is synonymous with a power game that teachers (as adults) play, in which learners (as minors) are victimized and mistreated (dbe, 2018). in addition, the dbe (2018) maintains that, in a school setting, teachers must always try to create a child-friendly environment or demonstrate and incorporate basic human rights and educational activities when they teach, as schools are active sites of learning. 7.1.2. negative discipline by contrast, the participants viewed negative discipline as any punitive measures which inflict pain on a learner. such discipline does not benefit learners academically but makes them resentful since (in most cases) teachers use it to vent their anger and make the child suffer. one participant stated: negative discipline is the discipline that is enforced, or it is where learners are forced to behave in a good manner, and it is not their choice. they behave in such a manner because they know that if they misbehave, they will be beaten. (sp 1, ns) diametrically opposing positive and negative discipline, one participant stated: negative discipline is the total opposite of positive discipline, as it is characterised by causing pain and abuse – it can be namecalling, physical [ ] or emotional[ ] abuse. (tr-sgb 1, as) the participants emphasized that negative discipline is strongly associated with causing pain or abusing a learner so that s/he is forced to behave in a particular manner. it was worth noting that some learners were not sure what pd involved. but had something to say about negative discipline: caning is negative, but teachers still use it to discipline. but what i have noticed, is that learners who are beaten usually misbehave, and they know that their mistakes will be corrected here and there, but they never [stop] disrupting [the] class. (rcl 2, as) the participants’ responses revealed that teachers continue to use corporal punishment, which is negative. interestingly, a learner participant mentioned that caned learners continued misbehaving, making it difficult for others to follow the lesson. as much as teachers discipline learners by using corporal punishment, the findings suggested that it perpetuates violent or antisocial behaviour. corroborating these findings are semali and vumilia (2016) and mncube and mthanti (2014), who maintain that corporal punishment perpetuates violence in schools. moreover, while punishing one learner, no teaching or learning is taking place, which is to the detriment of the rest of the class. teachers are thereby punishing innocent learners, who have not done anything wrong, by depriving them of valuable learning time and leaving them unattended. such punishment also eats into the time a teacher needs to cover the expected curriculum, as outlined in the annual teaching plan. the findings showed that negative discipline inflicts pain on, and causes physical harm to, a learner, but it can also damage that child physically, emotionally, sociologically, and mentally. negative discipline causes shame. this finding corroborates that of shields (2018), which posits that most teachers still resort to punitive measures, believing that to be part of their role. morrel (2001 in matlou, 2020) declares that, in the past, corporal punishment was thought to assist learners in discovering the “right” way of behaving, with fear being deemed crucial for developing a conscience in them. nelson (2000) declares that beating someone – particularly a defenseless minor– constitutes a cowardly, violent act. matlou (2020) found that abusive/punitive/negative punishment increased aggression in learners. puzzlingly, despite teachers resorting to negative or violent disciplinary measures, learners are expected to demonstrate appropriate and positive behaviour – a scenario which is not fair on any level. 7.2. strategies used in the implementation of positive discipline in schools the study participants were asked: “what strategies do teachers use to implement positive discipline in schools?” the findings revealed that teachers made use of the code of conduct and classroom rules as the main strategies for disciplining misbehaving learners. the findings also revealed that teachers used a research-based, positive classroom management approach; positive reinforcement, and integrated community support services, modelled good behaviour, relied on parental involvement and communication but also used detention, and the withdrawal of privileges. for instance: to implement positive discipline in schools, we use the code of conduct as a strategy to communicate expectations clearly to the learners. by establishing and enforcing clear rules and consequences about learner behaviour, learners know what kind of behaviour is expected from them. they know what behaviour is allowed and what type is not permitted. in addition, the code must 84 be broken down into classroom rules, where learners are situated. (dcm 1, ns) the participant recognized the use of the learners’ code of conduct as a means of relaying educators’ expectations to the learners, and of describing these in a way which the learners will understand. sentiments were echoed by another participant, who stated that they use the code of conduct for learners to implement pd. because it gives direction in terms of what is expected of the learners, in terms of behaviour in the school, (smt 1, as). this participant agreed that the code and classroom rules acted as a guide and communicated what qualified as “expected learner behaviour” during school hours. from the participants' comments, it was clear that the code served to spell out to the learners what constituted desired behaviour. from the data collected on the disciplinary committees’ incident reports, it became evident that the code of conduct for learners was followed in dealing with matters relating to learner behaviour in and out of the classroom. for instance, it was documented that while one learner was found kissing another in full view of other learners, the learner was asked to write a report in the incident book, for record purposes. the data obtained from observations showed that both schools used a code of conduct to deal with misbehaving learners and that learners were aware of the measures that would be taken against them if they were found to have violated the code. from the above it can be deduced that the code of conduct served as a guiding document, to ensure a fair, just, and appropriate sanction for the offender. the research findings further suggest that teachers use researchbased positive strategies, such as planning to interest lessons, focusing on and recognizing the positives and addressing disruptions head-on. thus, in enhancing pd in schools, teachers seek to meet learners’ needs and keep them absorbed while encouraging them to participate in class, to avoid boredom. one participant noted: teachers reprimand their learners for getting out of hand by planning interesting lessons that will keep them busy. for example, a misbehaving learner during a lesson can be asked to read and asked to talk and explain the keywords to other learners. (sp 1, as) this participant emphasized that learners must be given ample work in class, to ensure that they remain occupied with schoolwork, rather than becoming distracted or turning a lesson into leisure time. learners tend to misbehave if they are not involved or engaged. this finding suggests that charging a learner with a task or additional responsibility may motivate him/her to try, or to do well. moreover, a learner learns that by being of service, s/he is responsible, respected, and noticed. worryingly, the researchers’ observations revealed that some teachers do not treat their learners with respect. for instance, one of the teachers was shouting at her learners using harsh words during break time. this showed partly that teachers do not respect their learners. furthermore, the participants were of the view that positive reinforcement, and modelling good behaviour work: positive reinforcement is used to enforce positive discipline in schools. for example, when learners display appropriate behaviour, teachers must applaud and reinforce that through rewards and privileges. [....]. another thing, children are good at copying one’s behaviour [...] therefore, we model appropriate behaviour for learners to follow. (smt 2, as) learner participants confirmed this, “being an rcl feels good, teachers give us the responsibility to monitor learners during assembly and break time. and, once a month, we are called to the principal’s office and given recognition and applauded for doing this job. that recognition makes me feel responsible and motivated to do right, always”, (rcl 2, ns). this proved that learners who behaved positively were recognized for doing well and were encouraged to sustain their positive behaviour. the participants’ responses indicated that good behaviour is often taught and learned unintentionally, without either party noticing it. setting a good example, and always acting professionally, are what one would expect of a role model. the participant posited that learners copy teachers’ behaviour, thus teachers must be conscious of their image, and how they interact with others. durrant (2010) notes that a teacher should always be on time to ensure that everything is in order. importantly, s/he needs to quieten learners, so that they are prepared to be taught. according to dreikurs (2015), learning can take place while observing others, with the observer modelling the sought-after behaviour. this comment serves to confirm that teachers can be positive (or negative!) role models, by demonstrating to their learners what constitutes (in)appropriate behaviour in an educational setting. it is for this reason that dreikurs (2015) refers to positive modelling as facilitating observational learning because learners observe and act according to what they have observed. the research findings further revealed the notion of integrating community support structures such as churches, social workers, the police, etc., to enhance pd amongst that cohort. one principal explained: teachers work hand in hand with community structures like the church, social workers, the police, etc., to help enforce positive 85 discipline in our learners. families’ and learners’ underlying problems like behaviour, health issues, socioeconomic status, status quo, etc., can contribute to learners’ discipline and can be barriers to their success. (sp 1, as) the other participating principal attested: in addressing issues of indiscipline … such as drug usage, violence, and everything … some matters will be beyond the control of the institution and, in that instance, saps [the south african police service] will have to play its role. we call saps, not to arrest, but because we want that learner to see the mistake that has been made, and to assist a learner to be rehabilitated in a way. (sp 1, ns) the participants drew the researchers’ attention to the fact that learner backgrounds contribute to behaviour problems, and some cases relating to learner indiscipline become too big for the school to handle, thus they resort to calling the police and social workers to the school. from the findings, it emerged that the main aim of involving these structures was to maximize the scope of aid received from people with the expertise to deal with learner misbehaviour. maphosa (2011) maintains that experts have the know-how and are well-acquainted. this finding corroborates that of bilatyi (2017), who maintains that the main idea behind involving integrated community support, is to lessen behavioural problems in schools and to develop integrated systems within the school community as well as at the family level. from the participants’ responses, parental involvement and improved two-way communication were among the strategies used to implement pd in schools. the participant detailed: when dealing with misbehaving learners, we call a parent in to discuss the matter. these kids do not want to see [their] parents in school, because parents might be told stories [about the] things they do at school. so, in a way, when a parent leaves whatever that s/he is supposed to be doing – including going to work – just to attend the disciplinary hearing, that alone is a punishment on its own [for both]. now it compels the parent to play their role in terms of calling the child, in order that s/he avoids being in school now and again. (tr-sgb 1, as) as that participant alluded to, discussing matters about learner misbehaviour with a parent who is called to the school is somewhat humiliating for both parties, yet it offers all stakeholders an opportunity to discuss the situation and come up with a viable resolution. jones (2015) confirms that maintaining a healthy relationship with parents is crucial in implementing pd. corroborating this finding, the data gathered from the disciplinary committee’s incident book revealed that a group of learners repeatedly swore at other learners. besides swearing, instances were recorded whereby members of the group were caught selling drugs to other learners at the school. it was evident that the learners in question were suspended for three days and were handed letters requesting their parents to report to the school. from the meeting, it was recorded that the parents were required to sign the incident book, to confirm that they agreed to participate in, and understood the discussions. following this meeting, the learners were referred to counselling and referred to rehabilitation centres. jaiswal (2017) confirmed that parents were perceived as teachers’ collaborators and that their involvement assisted in enhancing pd and served to ensure that the school functioned properly. some would, however, argue that parental involvement is not working, and presents a challenge for township schools. this stems from the fact that most parents in townships cannot read or write. in many cases, learners have no parents (taking responsibility for what is essentially a childheaded household), and often guardians are not too interested in learners’ academic well-being. as smt 2 (as) declared, in terms of the capacity of parents, most were illiterate and therefore did not truly understand the need for a child to go to school – as a result, they were not active in ensuring the success of their children’s education. the study also found that withdrawing privileges, detention, and learner isolation were strategies teachers used to enhance pd in their classrooms. in township schools, misbehaving learners are usually good at sports, and if they do something wrong at school, they are removed from the team or maybe detained. one participant explained: one of the learners in my school had behavioural problems and we tried to help him while disciplining him positively at the same time. we made him the captain of soccer. since then, the learner is better, because he knows that if he misbehaves, he will be removed from being a captain, and banned from playing soccer. and sometimes we detain them. (tr-sgb 2, ns) this participant emphasized the withdrawal of privilege and detention as a technique to guide a learner with disciplinary problems. from the participants’ comments, it emanated that detention and withdrawal of privilege assisted in curbing unwanted behaviour while teaching learners how to behave positively. the findings also revealed that, in most cases, misbehaving learners performed well in sporting activities, and schools used that as leverage to guide learners towards improving their antisocial behaviours. 86 by contrast, one participant declared: detention is not working, sometimes learners misbehave intentionally, so they subscribe to detention, perhaps maybe because they are running away from the duties to perform at home. and some learners use detention as an excuse to create spare time to socialize and spend time with their friends and sometimes engage in wrongdoings within and outside the school. (tr-sgb 1, ns) this participant emphasised that detention was not always effective, because some learners misbehaved on purpose so that they would have to stay behind after school, rather than having to face difficult situations at home once they left the premises. this made it difficult for teachers to eradicate bad behaviour. jones (2015) argues that realistic efforts are difficult to establish since many learners with behavioural difficulties appear resistant to recommended interventions. the dbe (2018) concedes that some learners become immune, reluctant or negligent, and are slow to respond positively to targeted interventions which are put in place to offer them behavioural support. an incident book review contradicted the finding that learner isolation and the withdrawal of privilege helped them to unlearn bad behaviour. it revealed many cases in which learners did not comply with the sanctions imposed on them, in line with their transgressions. for example, learners bunked in detention and left the premises without permission. other reports stated that learners stayed behind when their fellow learners left after school but did not perform the tasks they were assigned to do. such indiscipline made teachers feel helpless and frustrated about the corrective measures proposed for dealing with misbehaving learners. corroborating this finding are fluke et al. (2014), who maintain that detention does not reduce future difficulties in terms of behaviour, but may be seen as rewarding, rather than punishing bad conduct. bunking detention may be a minor issue, but if occurs repeatedly, it becomes a major disciplinary crisis. haruyama (2019) posits that if minor misbehaviours occur, it is vital to deal with them expeditiously yet cautiously so that they do not escalate into fully-fledged disciplinary crises. therefore, teachers must take timeous action in helping the learner to unlearn unwanted behaviour. as the research findings revealed, the schools employed a variety of strategies to enhance positive discipline, with the code of conduct for learners being the most important one. a learners’ code of conduct is a legal entity, as determined by sasa (rsa, 1996b), and it represents a means of controlling the functioning of schools. the emerging findings of this study collaborated with those of sant (2019) and dbe (2018), who posit that the main aim of a learners’ code of conduct, is to communicate the expected behaviour in school, by encouraging positivity and selfdiscipline. the observations and document review showed that the schools under study had rules supplementing/standing in for a code of conduct for learners, but the rules differed from one teacher to the next. furthermore, being underpinned by dreikurs’ (1972) theory, which suggests that a learner’s misbehaviour is directed toward a goal, it was evident that learners misbehaved because they were looking for attention or wanted to establish some power over adults, retaliated when feeling hurt and became aggressive. from the statements reflected here, pd aims to eliminate bad behaviours and teach self-discipline to learners, as well as how to act meaningfully in obeying the school rules. arguably, some findings proved some of these positives [discussed above] to be ineffective in managing learners’ bad behaviours. 8. conclusions the current study acknowledges that positive discipline deals with learners’ state of mind and concedes that they have to be taught how to behave. here, how a learner is “made” to behave, is what is at issue – it should be achieved positively, without resorting to coercion or force. by contrast, as the findings showed, negative discipline is viewed as a traditional way of disciplining, which attempts to deal with the immediate circumstances, rather than teaching lifelong coping skills. and it is closely associated with pain, hurt, suffering, and humiliation (for the recipient), and has a lasting effect on a learner. furthermore, the findings revealed that teachers used a variety of positive disciplinary strategies to enhance discipline in schools, with the code of conduct as the main strategy. on the contrary, the findings further revealed that pd was a waste of time and ineffective to correct misbehaving learners. learners were found to be immune and slow to respond to any recommended pd strategies. the failure of pd strategies to attain their predetermined aim resulted in teachers using negative disciplinary measures, such as corporal punishment. corroborating these findings are semali and vumilia (2016), who attest that negative discipline still exists in schools. based on the findings, 26 years after corporal punishment was outlawed, teachers continue to administer and use it as a strategy to manage learner behaviour although it was prohibited. in south african schools about 14 million learners were found to have received corporal punishment with above 1.3 million learners still vulnerable to corporal punishment. schools in the kzn schools are in the 50 per cent lead in using corporal punishment, (statistics south africa, 2017). a corporal punishment spike has touched even sace which has taken further steps to deal with the teachers reported to have applied physical punishment to the learners. the findings suggest that in most schools in south 87 africa, corporal punishment is still a norm. thus, in south africa, we are still far from attaining pd in schools. sant (2019) blames this on the government and departmental officials for introducing pd without proper planning or a programme of action to indicate how this approach can achieve its predetermined goal of enhancing discipline and eradicating corporal punishment from schools. 9. recommendations based on the findings, the study recommends that the dbe should enhance professional development programmers for teachers, to maximize the scope of the positive disciplinary measures at their disposal. this initiative will not only capacitate teachers but will also enable them to establish a violence-free environment which is conducive to teaching and learning. prominently, the findings note that after the abolition of corporal punishment in south african schools, teachers felt powerless and incapable of maintaining discipline in class. thus, the study recommends advocacy on the part of the dbe. schools should be offered support programmers/workshops/training (i.e., internet-based training) to assist teachers with alternative ways of enhancing pd in schools. acknowledgements the authors acknowledge that this article is from the phd thesis, titled: “code of conduct for learners: a strategy for enhancing positive discipline in selected township schools in durban, kwazulu-natal”. the thesis was submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy to the university of fort hare, faculty of education in 2022. furthermore, the authors wish to acknowledge the participants of the selected schools for the study. references 1. ana. 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[unpublished med thesis], western michigan university, new york. https://doi.org/10.1521/scpq.18.2.140.21851 http://thesisbank.jhia.ac.ke/2557/ https://srhd.org/media/documents/what20is20positive20discipline1.pdf https://srhd.org/media/documents/what20is20positive20discipline1.pdf https://dx.doi.org/10.18820/24150517/jjs43.v1.6 https://doi.org/10.1387/revpsicodidact.13202 https://www.sace.org.za/assets/documents/uploads/sace_24568-2017-10-05-%20sace%20annual%20report%20web.pdf https://www.sace.org.za/assets/documents/uploads/sace_24568-2017-10-05-%20sace%20annual%20report%20web.pdf https://www.sace.org.za/assets/documents/uploads/sace_24568-2017-10-05-%20sace%20annual%20report%20web.pdf http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/p0318/p03182016.pdf http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/p0318/p03182016.pdf 9 new consumers of the digital age: game players asst. prof. erkan bi̇l ¹ asst. prof. hande kandur ² asst. prof. senem ergan ³* ¹ çanakkale onsekiz mart university, faculty of political sciences, erkanbil@comu.edu.tr . 2 çanakkale onsekiz mart university, gökçeada school of applied sciences, handekandur@comu.edu.tr 3 çanakkale onsekiz mart university, gökçeada school of applied sciences, senemergan@comu.edu.tr *correspondent author article history: submission 05 august 2021 revision 19 october 2020 accepted 01 december 2021 available online 31 december 2021 keywords: game, game player behavior, characteristics of game players, time spent playing, gamescom. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.272 a b s t r a c t the game market has become one of the fastest growing industries of the digital age. the availability of internet access from anywhere, the diversification of game platforms, the increase in game options and the increase in application stores especially for mobile devices have accelerated this growth in the sector. the purpose of this study was to determine who the new consumers in the developing game industry are, their various demographics, characteristics and purchasing behaviors. data which were collected by the survey method from 490 game players who participated in gamescom, the world's largest game fair held in cologne, germany between 20-24 august 2019, were analyzed by descriptive statistics, t-test and one-way anova. as a result of the findings, it has been determined that majority of the participants were female, young adults and students. almost half of the participants have more than 12 years of gaming experience, play games for an average of 3.76 hours a day and an average of 5.16 days per week, prefer to play at home and on their personal computers the most, majority were core gamers, and the favorite game category was action. 1. introduction gamescom is the world's largest interactive trade fair, founded in 2009. investors, game developers, distributors and game lovers show great interest in the fair held in cologne, germany every year (electronic arts, 2020). 373,000 people from more than 100 countries visited gamescom 2019. in addition, 31.300 trade visitors and 1.153 companies participated in the fair (pc games insider, 2019). when examined on a global basis, the video game market has an important business volume. today, the value of the global game market has reached 231.6 billion dollars. one of the most important reasons for this result can be shown as the rapid digitalization of the video game industry. it is known that today there are more than 2.4 billion players worldwide, in addition to this, the mobile game market accounts for 47% of the total sales of the game industry. looking at the game preferences, it is seen that mobile games outperform the console (28%) and the computer (25%). today, 2.87 billion people using smartphones worldwide (statista, 2020a). the fact that the distribution speed and volume of online mobile games are higher than offline games causes players to prefer online games more and abandon game consoles and turn to smart phones (san-martin et al., 2020). thanks to the application stores developed for mobile devices, an improved channel was provided for game development companies to easily distribute their games, and as a result, the time to market the games was greatly reduced (lee et al., 2020). according to a study, the time spent by mobile phone users on their phones on a daily basis increased from 152 minutes in 2014 to 215 minutes in 2018. half of the time internet users spent online in 2019 was on mobile devices. however, this period was 27% in 2013. it is known that the largest mobile game region worldwide is the asian continent. revenues from the mobile gaming market in the asian continent in 2018 exceeded us $ 41.5 billion. in 2018, it generated revenue of us $ 33.2 billion and us $ 30.1 billion, respectively, from both apple and google mobile game app stores. candy crush saga, a sugar-based strategy game that first started to be played on mobile phones as a mobile application in 2012, has shown that it is one of the most successful https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:erkanbil@comu.edu.tr mailto:handekandur@comu.edu.tr mailto:senemergan@comu.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.272 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4301-3816 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4538-6299 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2155-2643 10 mobile games of all time, with over one billion us dollars’ player spending worldwide in 2018 (statista, 2020c). according to another study, global mobile gaming revenue is expected to grow from us $ 77.2 billion in 2020 to us $ 102.8 billion in 2023 (statista, 2020a). as can be seen, over the years, changes have been observed in the tools and habits that online users use to access the internet. this situation has also affected the gaming industry and online games have now become available to consumers as mobile games. the development of the gaming industry has created an intriguing field of research, especially for marketing academics and professionals looking for new promotional channels. answers to questions such as who are the new consumers created by the developing game industry, their purchasing behavior, and their purchase frequency have started to be sought. this study, based on these questions, aims to examine the demographic features and purchasing profiles of game players. for this purpose, the concept of game was mentioned first, and then information about the data collected within the scope of the research was given, methods and analyses were explained. in the last section, the results obtained were shared, discussed, and suggestions for future research were given. 2. game the game industry is a sector that is developing day by day. today, game platforms are diversifying depending on the development of technology. thanks to platforms such as consoles, computers, mobile phones, tablets, players can play games online and offline (scharkow et al., 2015). the first examples of computer games are tennis for two, developed in 1958, and spacewar, developed in 1962, which created both commercial and social impact. the first game console, brown box, was released in 1968. pac-man, released by namco in 1980, is the first major game about friendship and humor. it also attracted the attention of girls and young women, creating a growth in the game market. nintendo released the handheld game console gameboy in 1989. in 1994, sony put on sale the game console called playstation. the foundation of mobile games was laid with the snake game that is included in nokia mobile phones. the popularity of social networks has created a new market for daily games (karahisar, 2013). game consoles are needed to play video games. game consoles are computer-based devices that allow games to be played directly by connecting to the tv. the best known are playstation (sony), xbox (microsoft) or nintendo (microsoft) (ankara development agency, 2015). table 1. worldwide sales of video game consoles (2020) video game console number of sales (million) playstation 2 (ps2) 157.68 nintendo ds (ds) 154.90 game boy (gb) 118.69 playstation 4 (ps4) 112.96 playstation (ps) 102.50 nintendo wii (wii) 101.64 playstation 3 (ps3) 87.41 xbox 360 (x360) 85.80 game boy advance (gba) 81.51 playstation portable (psp) 81.09 source: statista (2020b); vgchartz (2020). as seen in table 1, the most popular video game consoles in the world are listed as playstation 2, nintendo ds and game boy. with the digitalization of the society, digital games are becoming widespread and this proliferation continues to increase. digital games have turned into a mass media that reaches millions of people. although the games are generally aimed at young players, they attract players of all ages (terlutter & capella, 2013). digital games are in high demand, and many gamers have turned them into leisure pursuits. mobile devices and social media platforms have become vital platforms for playing popular games in recent years. digital games are multiplayer games that allow users to dream and have fun, despite the fact that they are entertainment-oriented and internet-based information technology. playing digital games in the mobile environment has become more popular, especially with the evolution of smartphones, since it expands the amount of space and time 11 available time for users to play games (rafdinal & qisthi, 2020). digital games are interactive electronic games with a user interface. it can be played in a variety of ways, whether online or offline, single player versus artificial intelligence, or multiplayer versus each other or versus artificial intelligence. there are game types such as network, sports, action, racing, puzzle, role-playing games, simulation, adventure and strategy according to the preferences of the players (güvenli web, 2017). table 2. digital game types and examples game type for example tactics chess, dune 2, tycoon series, warcraft, starcraft, age of empires jigsaw angry birds, diamond crush, tetris, frozen bubble, luxor, sudoku gridmaster adventure the longest journey, indiana jones, myst and riven action pac-man, call of duty: advanced warfare, grand theft auto, far cry, dragon age: inquisition, assassin's creed sport fifa, nba, skating, tennis, championship manager role play dungeons & dragons, ever-quest, diablo, world of warcraft simulation sim city, the sims, airplane simulators, trauma center source: yalçın irmak & erdoğan (2016). with the development of technology, there has been a change in games and mobile games have entered the gaming industry. mobile games are video games played on a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet. the development of smart phones and the existence of mobile internet are changing the conditions of mobile games. touch screens, higher quality graphics resolution, and access to networks everywhere provide users with a better gaming experience. players who play mobile games can download various games from online application stores and access them more easily than games on other platforms. mobile games are also played through social networks. such mobile games are called mobile social games. thanks to mobile social games, a player can meet and socialize with other players (hsiao & chen, 2016:19). according to deloitte's research, most play mobile games countries in the world are turkey (55%), south korea (53%), india (53%) and china (51%). in the research, it ranks first with single-player games (78%) (deloitte, 2019). game playing time determines the level of habit that game players develop about a game. studies show that habit has a significant effect on loyalty and continuity of usage (lin & wang 2006; venkatesh et al., 2012). therefore, playing time of game players are important issues for game developers. when the academic studies about the game are examined, it is seen that the playing time is added to the research model in many of them. in the study conducted by hsiao & chen (2016) with 3309 game players, 44.86% of the participants stated that they played games for 1-3 hours a day. they have found that habit and platform affect in-app purchase intention, whereas the influences of the other demographics (age, gender, income) are not significant. griffiths et al. (2004b) and herodotou et al. (2015) have found that game playing time is inversely proportional to age. in another study, cole & griffiths (2007) have found that game players who play online games waste much more time than the game players who play offline. as a result, they have found that there is a positive relationship between the game playing time and the number of friends in the game. winn & heeter (2009) asked the participants “when was the last time you played a digital game”. the answers indicate that male participants play games more frequently than female participants (for example, the ones who answered as today; female 7.4% male 41.2%, the ones who answered as longer than 6 months; female 32.6% male 3.5%). however, williams et al. (2008) have found that older game players and female game players play more in their research. as it can be seen, game playing time is affected by variables such as gender, age, and style of playing (online-offline). player types have also been classified in different ways over time. one of the first classifications for computer games was made by bartle (1996). bartle (1996) classified the players according to their approach to playing the mud game; achievers, explorers, socializers or killers. achievers aim to follow the rules and reach or win goals. the successful ones like to level up or accumulate points. explorers enjoy interacting with the game's world. they like learning about the game's world and discovering new areas. they are extremely inquisitive and like taking on new challenges. socializers usually look for a social environment where they may meet new people and so they can connect with other players. they have proclivities to be in communication. killers are socially motivated individuals who like dominating and defeating their opponents. they are competitive and also they are eager to seek and learn new ideas and strategies to be successful (lipinski et al., 2017). later, schuurman et al. (2008) made a classification based on players' motivations; the overall convinced gamer or fan 12 boy, the convinced competitive gamer or competitor, the escapist gamer and the pass-time gamer or time killer. in the next classification, the players are classified as casual gamer and hardcore gamer by looking at various parameters such as average playing time, average game session duration, time spent by the players during the game and their attitudes. hardcore gamers, on average, play more than an hour a day, buying their own games. they persistently resist playing the same game with a much higher interest than average. they are active in the gaming communities and the forums they are members of. casual gamers, on the other hand, spend less time playing games and display an ordinary attitude towards the game (poels et al., 2012). core gamers are between casual gamers and hardcore gamers. they are more selective in games than casual gamers. newbie gamers do not know much about the game and they are inexperienced. they consult their environment (family, friends, etc.) when starting a new game or researching a new game. they often play games to relieve their boredom (rogers, 2012). there are many studies on "game" in the literature. while some of these studies are aimed at determining the profile of game players, some of them examine game players from a behavioral perspective. in almost all of these studies, the number of "male game players" is higher than "female game players". table 3 shows results in the gender of game players belonging to previous studies. table 3. gender findings of game players in previous studies source result griffiths et al. (2003) males play online games more than females (84% of participants are male for everlore fan site, 86% of participants are male for allakhazam fan site) griffiths et al. (2004a) males play online games more than females (81% of participants are male players) williams et al. (2008) males play massively multiplayer online games more than females (80.80% of participants are male players) hainey et al. (2011) males play online and offline games more than females (92.6% of participants are male players) herodotou et al. (2015) males play games more than females (53.5% of participants are male players) as can be seen, male game players are more than female game players. the studies are mostly based on online games. for example, grififths et al. (2003) worked on fan sites of two famous online games (everlore & allakhazam). williams et al. (2008) studied with players who played everquest 2. previous studies show that men are more active in the game industry. but, genderbased habits are not at the forefront for the "generation z", the new generation of consumers. for example, according to the study of pew research center, generation z does not see the "gender" factor as important (pew research center, 2018). one of the aims of this study is to find a different result than previous gender-based studies. besides, there is no study in a game fair in the game literature. in this sense, this study is also a first with regards to the research environment. while determining the study questions, the missing details in the literature were determined and the main lines of the study were formed according to these missing details. it is seen that previous studies are generally about game players who play a specific game or only play online or offline games. however, this study does not focus on a specific game and includes game players who play online and offline games. in addition to these, there are deficiencies regarding playing place and game platforms in the literature. despite all these developments mentioned in the game market, academic research’s in this area is relatively scarce. however, most of the research is built on a certain constraint such as video games, console games, mobile games, online games etc. this study is carried out to determine the general characteristics of game players attending the gamescom fair without any restrictions mentioned above. specifically, this paper aims (1) to explore the demographics of game players and (2) to determine the characteristics of game players and (3) to specify whether the amount of time spent playing games differ in terms of various demographics and characteristics of the game players. so, the following research questions and hypotheses are proposed: rq1: what are the demographics of game players? rq2: what are the characteristics of game players such as playing history, playing habits and purchase behavior? rq3: what are the characteristics of game players in terms of gender, age and education? h1: the amount of time spent playing games per day differs depending on gender of the players. h2: the amount of time spent playing games per day differs depending on age of the players. h3: the amount of time spent playing games per day differs depending on education level of the players. h4: the amount of time spent playing games per day differs depending on occupation of the players. h5: the amount of time spent playing games per day differs depending on gamer type of the players. 13 h6: the amount of time spent playing games per day differs depending on game experience of the players. 3. methodology 3.1. participants the sample of the research consists of 490 game players who participated gamescom fair in cologne, germany in 2019. the convenience sampling method, one of the non-probability sampling methods, was followed in the study and face-to-face survey technique was used as a data collection tool (etikan et al., 2016). 3.2. measures basic demographic measures used in the first part of the survey instrument. game players were asked for their gender, age, education, occupation and monthly income. in the second part of the survey data collected relating to characteristics of game players. participants were asked for their playing history (e.g. how many years they had been playing games) and playing frequency (i.e. how many hours they play games in a day, how many days they play games in a week). also data collected relating to playing habits of game players. for this purpose, the questions were asked relating to playing place (e.g. home, cafe, workplace, gaming platform (i.e. xbox, playstation, pc) and lastly participants were asked whether they play online or offline games. participants were also asked for gamer type (e.g. hardcore, core, casual, newbie), favorite game category (e.g. action, adventure, card) and favorite game (open-ended). in the last part of the survey instrument players asked for their purchasing behavior, including purchasing costs of items per a month, purchase items (e.g. currencies, level up items, weaponry) and whether they update their pc, console or tablet (e.g buy a new one) to be able to play new games or the latest version of a game. while creating the survey instrument which consists of 17 questions in total, literature review and expert opinions were used. 3.3. statistical analysis the analysis of data consisted of two stages. first, demographics and characteristics of the game players had been put forward through frequency analyses, graphics and contingency tables to answer the research questions. second, in order to test the hypotheses t-test and anova were used to determine whether the time spent playing games differs according to demographic (age, gender, education, profession) and characteristic (game type, game experience) variables of the game players. for this purpose, t-test and anova were used to determine if significant difference exist among different groups of game players with the use of an appropriate post-hoc test. all analyses were conducted using spss 20. 3.4. findings in order to determine the demographic measures of game players, their gender, age, educational status, occupation, income status was asked. the detailed demographic measures of 490 game players are presented in table 4. table 4. demographics of game players characteristics frequency % gender male 117 23.9 female 373 76.1 age 10-15 43 8.8 16-20 126 25.7 21-25 166 33.9 26-30 81 16.5 >30 74 15.1 education high school and under 328 66.9 bachelor 114 23.3 master and above 48 9.8 occupation student 209 42.7 office worker 115 23.5 self-employed 35 7.1 other 131 26.7 income (monthly) less than min. wage in my country 55 11.2 min. wage in my country 111 22.7 between 2 and 5 times of min. wage in my country 146 29.8 14 between 6 and 10 times of min. in my country wage 30 6.1 over 10 times of min.wage 20 4.1 no monthly income 128 26.1 total 490 100.0 table 4 contains information on the demographic measures of the game players who participated in the survey. 76.1% of the game players were female and 23.9% were male. 33.9% of the participants were in the 21-25 age range, the education level of 66.9% is "high school and under" and 42.7% was student. 29.8% of the participants stated that their monthly income was between 2 and 5 times of min. wage in their country. table 5. playing history and frequency of game players playing history frequency % game experience <1 year 8 1.6 1-3 years 45 9.2 4-6 years 65 13.3 7-9 years 54 11.0 10-12 years 71 14.5 >12 years 247 50.4 game playtime per day 1-3 hours 276 56.3 4-6 hours 155 31.6 7-9 hours 39 8.0 more than 10 hours 20 4.1 playing days per week one day 16 3.3 two days 45 9.2 three days 52 10.6 four days 59 12.0 five days 79 16.1 six days 40 8.2 everyday 199 40.6 total 490 100.0 according to table 5, it is seen that almost half of the participants (50.4%) have more than 12 years of gaming experience. while 56.3% stated that they play 1-3 hours per day, 40.6% stated that they play games every day. table 6. playing habits of game players playing habits frequency % playing place house 481 73.3 cafe 114 17.4 workplace 26 4.0 other 35 5.3 game platform xbox 68 5.9 playstation 268 23.2 nintendo 190 16.5 pc 387 33.6 mobile 177 15.4 tablet 48 4.2 other 15 1.3 playing offline/online online 342 69.8 offline 105 21.4 both 43 8.8 15 total 490 100.0 the majority of game players preferred to play game in their houses (73.3%). game players who participated in the research stated that they mostly prefer pc (33.6%) as a game platform and 69.8% of the game players stated that they play online games. table 7. types, favorite game category’s’ and favorite games’ of players types, favorite game category’s’ and favorite games’ of players frequency % gamer type newbie 26 5.3 casual gamer 163 33.3 core gamer 213 43.5 hardcore gamer 88 18.0 favorite game category action 317 20.4 adventure 268 17.2 card 55 3.5 puzzle 46 3.0 racing 85 5.5 roleplaying 260 16.7 sports 79 5.1 strategy 224 14.4 simulation 126 8.1 other 97 6.2 favorite game league of legends 47 9.6 fortnite 23 4.7 world of warcraft 23 4.7 the witcher 19 3.9 call of duty 16 3.3 counter strike 16 3.3 gta 16 2.4 final fantasy 12 2.4 overwatch 12 2.4 fifa 10 2.0 other 296 61.3 total 490 100.0 when the gamer type of the participants in the study were examined, they defined themselves respectively as core gamer (43.5%), casual gamer (33.3%), hardcore gamer (18.0%) and newbie (5.3%). it is also seen that the most favorite game category was action games (20.4%). when the favorite games of the participants were examined, the names of the top 10 favorite games were given because the favorite games of 61.3% of the participants were different from each other. as seen in the table 6, the most favorite game was "league of legends" with a rate of 9.6%. table 8. purchase behavior of game players purchase behavior frequency % purchasing costs of items per a month less than %1 of my income 219 44.7 over %1 of my income 157 32.0 none 114 23.3 purchase items currencies 110 17.4 level-up items 80 12.6 weaponry 112 17.7 16 decorative accessories 182 28.8 communication tool 52 8.2 other 97 15.3 update pc, console or tablet yes 348 71.0 no 142 29.0 total 490 100.0 as seen in table 8, 44.7% of the participants stated that they allocate less than 1% of their income for purchasing costs of items per a month. the most purchased items were decorative accessories (28.8%), weaponry (17.7%) and currencies (17.4%), respectively. again majority of game players indicated that they update their pc, console or tablet (e.g buy a new one) to be able to play new games or the latest version of a game. table 9. total number and percentage of update (pc, console or tablet) in each income group update total yes no n % n % n % income less than min wage 29 52.7 26 47.3 5 00.0 min wage 76 68.5 35 31.5 111 00.0 between 2 and 5 times of min wage 109 74.7 37 25.3 146 00.0 between 6 and 10 times of min wage 23 76.7 7 23.3 30 00.0 over 10 times of min wage 17 85.0 3 15.0 20 00.0 no monthly income 94 73.4 34 26.6 28 00.0 total 348 71.0 142 29.0 90 00.0 cross tabulation results of update (pc, console or tablet) versus income groups are represented in table 9 and it was explored that most of the players with no monthly income update (73.4%) their game platform (e.g. buy a new one), to access a new game or a new version of the current game. in order to answer rq3, the characteristics of game players in terms of different gender, age groups and education levels, crosstab results were examined through bar charts. with this purpose, average time spent playing game per day by gender, age groups and education level were represented via bar charts. also purchase items, game experience, game platform, gamer type and favorite game categories by gender and age variable are represented in bar charts. figure 1. average time spent playing games per day by gender in figure 1, the distribution of the average time spent playing games per day by gender is given. it is seen that men spend an average of 3.76 hours a day and women spend 3.73 hours a day for playing game. there is nearly no difference in playing time for gender. figure 2. average time spent playing games per day by age group in figure 2, it is seen that the group with the highest average playing time per day (4.38 hours) is the age group of 16-20. players aged 30 and over were determined as the group that spend the least amount of time (3.14 hours per day on average) for playing game. 17 figure 3. average time spent playing games per day by education the distribution of education level and average time spent playing game per day is given in figure 3. the group with the highest average playing time (4.10 hours per day) is at the high school and under education level. figure 4. game experience by gender figure 4 shows the game experience of players by gender. more than half (55.5%) of the male game players have more than 12 years of experience. while 34.2% of the female game players stated that they have played games for more than 12 years and 20.5% have 4-6 years of gaming experience. figure 5. game platform by gender figure 5 shows the distribution of game platforms by gender and it is determined that pc is the most preferred game platform for both women (28.7%) and men (36%). the playstation console is also the second most preferred game platform for both women (21.5%) and men (24.5%). figure 6. game platform by age group when the figure 6 that gives the distribution of game platforms according to age groups is examined, it is seen that pc is the most used platform in all age groups except the 10-15 age group. players between the ages of 10-15 mostly prefer playstation (31.5%) as a game platform. figure 7. gamer type by gender gamer types according to gender are given in figure 7. while most of the men define themselves as core gamers (48.5%), women define themselves as casual gamers (48.7%). the rate of those who define themselves as newbie among men is quite low compared to women. figure 8. favorite game category by gender figure 8 gives the distribution of favorite game categories by gender. while men mostly prefer to play action (22.8%) games, women mostly play adventure (22.1%) games. the least preferred 18 type of game for men is puzzle (2.3%). the least preferred game category by women is card (2.5%) and sports (2.5%). figure 9. purchase items by gender when the distribution of purchased items according to gender is analyzed in figure 8, it is seen that both female (44.3%) and male (30.9%) players buy mostly accessories. women prefer to buy currencies (19.7%) secondly, while men buy weaponry (22%). in the last stage of the study, t-test and anova were performed to test the research hypotheses. it was examined if average time spent playing games per day differs significantly in terms of demographic variables such as gender, age, education level and occupation status of game players. according to t-test results, there was no significant difference between average time spent playing games per day and gender (t=.146, p=.884), so hypothesis 1 was not supported. table 10. anova results of average time spent playing games by age, education and occupation average time spent playing games (hour/day) n means sd f p tamhane age 10-15 (1) 43 4.00 2.34 4.33 0.002** (2-4)* 16-20 (2) 126 4.38 2.54 (2-5)* 21-25 (3) 166 3.73 2.50 26-30 (4) 81 3.26 2.16 >30 (5) 74 3.15 2.17 education high school and under (1) 328 4.10 2.37 12.11 0.000** (1-2)* bachelor (2) 114 3.27 2.53 (1-3)* master and above (3) 48 2.54 1.94 occupation student (1) 209 4.00 2.55 6.75 0.000** (1-2)* office worker (2) 115 2.90 1.84 self-employed (3) 35 3.74 2.66 other (4) 131 4.12 2.45 there was a significant difference for the amount of time spent playing games per day in terms of different groups of ages (f=4.33, p=0.002), therefore hypothesis 2 was supported. tamhane’s multiple comparison tests were performed to identify which particular differences between pairs of means were significant. as a result of the post-hoc test, it was seen that game players aged 16-20 spend more time on playing game than 26-30 age and over 30 age group. in other words, as the age increases, the time allocated to playing games decreases. statistically significant differences were found in average game play time between different education level of game players (f=12.11, p=0.000), so hypothesis 3 was supported. game players with high school under education level spend more time in playing game than the players with bachelor and master and above education level. there was also a significant difference for the amount of time spent playing games according to education levels (f=6.75, p=0.000), so hypothesis 4 was supported. students spend more time on playing game than office workers. table 11. anova results average time spent playing games by gamer player type and game experience average time spent playing games (hour/day) n means sd f p tamhane gamer type newbie (1) 26 3.19 3.17 39.57 0.000** (1-4)* casual gamer (2) 163 2.63 1.60 (2-4)* core gamer (3) 213 3.87 2.04 (3-4)* hardcore gamer (4) 88 5.74 2.96 game experience (year) <1 (1) 8 2.63 2.26 3.16 0.008** (2-4)* 1-3 (2) 45 2.64 1.47 (2-5)* 19 4-6 (3) 65 4.23 2.82 (2-6)* 7-9 (4) 54 3.61 2.30 10-12 (5) 71 4.11 2.63 >12 (6) 247 3.80 2.40 * the mean difference is significant at 0.05 level. ** statistically significant at the 0.05 level. according to the results of the anova test, it was determined that average time spent playing games differs related to the players’ gamer type (f=39.57, p=0.000), so hypothesis 5 was supported. looking at the results of the post-hoc analysis, it was seen that hardcore players spend more time on playing games than all other types of players. there was also a significant difference for playing time per day in terms of game experience (f=3.16, p=0.008), so hypothesis 6 was supported. game players who have 1-3-year experience spend less time on playing game than the players who have 4-6 year, 7-9 year and above 12 years’ experience. it was seen that as the experience increases, the time allocated to playing games also increases. 5. conclusions, discussion and suggestions this research is one of the rare academic studies conducted to reveal the detailed profile of game users and their buying habits. while most of the studies have a certain limitation such as online games, mobile games, video games etc., the most obvious difference of this research from the others is that it deals with the game users from a broader perspective. in addition, the study is a first in terms of being conducted at the gamescom fair which is the world's largest trade fair for video games. when the literature is examined, a face to face study with game players in a game fair hasn't been found. it is very important for marketers, game developers and the industry to recognize potential and existing game users in the developing and growing game world. as a result of the literature review, the main lines of the study were determined based on the missing details. for example, unlike many previous studies, this study was conducted for game players who play both online and offline games without specifying a specific game. another missing found in the literature was the playing place preferences such as home, cafe and workplace and it was seen that any information wasn't given in previous studies on this subject. it has been determined that game platforms (e.g pc, xbox, playstation) are also not examined in detail. for the reasons explained above, this paper aims to determine the demographics and characteristics of game players, and to specify whether or not there is a relationship between different characteristics of game players and time spent on game playing. according to the results regarding the demographics of the game players, it has been determined that the gamers are primarily women. the gender difference in gaming has been studied by many researchers. there’s a long-held stereotype that game users are mostly men and spend more time on playing games. however, there has been a significant increase in the number of female gamers recently and the perception that games are mostly an activity for men has started to change. in this study it was seen that participants are mostly female gamers. in addition to this, independent t-tests revealed no gender differences in terms of time spent on game playing. this result supports the recent studies that the stereotype of the gamer as a male no longer exists and also shows that there will be a significant change in the marketing literature. generation z has started to exist not only in the game market but also in all markets. thus it is necessary to update studies on common gender-based purchasing habits. when we look at the age distribution of gamers, the excess of young adults draw attention. in contrast to stereotype, most of the players were not adolescents. majority of gamers have a low education qualification and many of them continue their education. according to the results regarding the characteristics of the game players, it was determined that the participants had a game experience of more than 12 years. the number of players with less than 1 year of experience was quite low and these were mostly newbies and casual players. participants play games for an average of 3.76 hours a day and an average of 5.16 days per week. the fact that 40.6% of the participants play games every day is a significant result about game addiction and should be studied in future studies related to the game. examining game addiction in future studies on the game will be significant for the literature. as mentioned above there was no gender differences in terms of time spent on game playing, both male and female spend nearly same time on playing. players aged between 16-20 years spend much time on playing game. significant difference was found between playing time and age, and in accordance with the stereotype younger players play more than older players. this result supports previous studies. for example, griffiths et al. (2003), stated that individuals under the age of 30 play more games. herodotou & kambouri (2015), also stated that there is an inverse proportion between age and the duration of playing games. according to herodotou & kambouri (2015), the duration of playing games decreases as age increases. on the other hand, there are also studies with different results in the literature. for example, williams et al. (2008) found that the time to play games 20 is directly proportional to age, and they found that the time to play games increases with age. according to the authors, today's adults play more than previous generations. it was also found that high school and under students spend more time on playing games than those of other education levels. there was a significant difference between the occupational groups in terms of average time spent on playing gam and it was determined that the students play longer than the office workers. it can be said that the reason for all these consequences is that young people have more free time and less responsibility than adults. experience also makes a difference in terms of time spent on game playing. as experience increases, the time allocated to playing games increases. participants mostly prefer to play games at home and on their personal computers (pcs). pc and consoles in total (xbox/ps/nintendo) were found to be the dominant gaming platforms. according to a study conducted in 2019, pc is the most important gaming platform for developers (statista, 2020d). however, this is not the case for mobile and tablet. despite the rapid increase in mobile games in recent years, these are among the least preferred gaming platforms. when the game platform preference was evaluated in terms of gender, men mostly prefer pc and playstation as a gaming platform. while women prefer to play on pc and playstation the most, nintendo was added to this. women also play mobile games more than men. pc was the most preferred game platform in all age groups except the 10-15 age group. the majority of the 10-15 age group were playing on playstation. it was revealed that the participants preferred to play online games. because the gaming industry is one of the sectors most affected by the digital age and the average age of the participants is low in this research, it is an expected result that online games will be preferred more. considering the types of players, it was seen that there was more core and casual gamers among the participants. newbies who have just started the game and have lower game experience are the least in number. gamer type make difference in terms of time spent on game playing. hardcore gamers play longer than all gamer types. almost half of the male participants were core gamers, while female participants are casual gamers. the number of newbies in women was higher than in men. newbie gamers are game players who do not have much information about the game, who are inexperienced and usually play games to relieve their boredom (rogers, 2012). however, the participation of female newbie game players to the world's most known game fair such as gamescom contradicts this definition. this result shows that the definition of game player types needs to renew according to the new generation of game players. action, adventure, role playing and strategy were the most preferred game categories. while men mostly play action games, women play adventure games. the least played game type for men was puzzle, while for women it was determined as card and sports. according to bonanno and kommers (2005), a large number of women prefer puzzle, adventure, fighting, and management games. males prefer first-person shooters, roleplaying games, sports, and strategy games, according to the study. in a study by romrell (2014) that looked at game type preferences by gender, it was discovered that men prefer games with a lot of action and competitiveness, while women prefer logic, puzzle, or skill training games. in this study, unlike the others mentioned above, it was observed that most preferred top three game types (action, adventure, role playing) were the same for both male and female players. players were finally asked about their favorite games, and league of legends, fortnite, and world of warcraft were identified as their favorite games. the majority of players spend less than 1% of their monthly income on purchasing items, and mostly buy decorative accessories, weaponry and currencies. men spend more money on items than women. however, both women and men mostly prefer to buy accessories. majority of game players update their pc, console or tablet (e.g buy a new one) to be able to play new games or the latest version of a game. as an unexpected result, a large proportion of those with no monthly income stated that they update their game platform (eg buy a new one) when necessary (to access a new game or to access a new version of an existing game). almost all of this group consists of game players who were students and between the ages of 10-20. this situation shows that even if game players do not have income, they continue their game play habits. as a conclusion, this study is important to put forward who are these potential consumers in terms of demographic variables such as age, gender, education, occupation and income. besides knowing who these people are, it is essential to know 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victor h mlambo ¹* xolani thusi 2 sbonelo gift ndlovuand 3 ¹ university of johannesburg, school of public management, governance, and public policy, halavico@yahoo.com *correspondent author. 2 university of zululand, department of politics and international studies, xolanithusi@yahoo.com 3 north-west university, school of management sciences, 43274250@nwu.ac.za article history: submission 19 august 2022 revision 15 october 2022 accepted 07 december 2022 available online 31 december 2022 keywords: development, africa, cooperation, support, unity, governance, resources, politics. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.358 a b s t r a c t when africa emerged from the chains of colonialism, there was great hope for post-colonial african leaders to consolidate the spirit of pan-africanism and use africa's vast resources to spur inclusive socioeconomic development. the organization of african unity also supported this vision, as did the lagos plan of action and the new partnership for africa's development. great emphasis was placed on continental integration and african unity. however, post-colonialism, africa has been engulfed by never conflict, fragmentation of governance, political instability, and unstable relations between african countries, thus defeating the need for unity and collective development. the african union agenda 2063 is africa's blueprint for achieving inclusive and sustainable socioeconomic development. it seeks to ensure, amongst others, peace and economic and political stability. however, there have been questions about whether the au can achieve this. this doubt has been driven by the plethora of socioeconomic and political problems currently consuming africa. this paper reviews current literature to examine the practicality of au agenda 2063. it seeks to understand whether this agenda can be a possibility or just another plan with little if no substance. the following question will guide this paper: to what extent can the au's agenda 2063 become realizable, considering the current socioeconomic and political challenges engulfing africa? 1. introduction africa, since independence, has been touted to be the next fortress of economic development (considering its vast resources) (leshoele, 2019). however, political instability and the breakdown in governance have consolidated the assertion that it will take time for africa to realize its true developmental potential. literature has, over the years, widely pointed out that challenges such as lack of transparency, accountability, and independence of key state institutions have stalled the development of african states (pasara, 2020). as a result, inadequate infrastructure, unemployment, conflict, inadequate water, healthcare, and education, and a lack of decent housing are challenges that have come to hinder inclusive development (kalonda & govender, 2021). the poor provisioning of the above services is a setback in achieving some of the sdgs within the african context, notably improved health and access to clean water and sanitation (chigonda & chazireni, 2018; odaro, 2012). regrettably, corruption and the lack of leadership were pertinent issues affecting african states from meeting essential services and the needs of their citizens (abuki, 2014; kalonda & govender, 2021). over the years, this has hindered the development of african countries. hence, adopting strategic frameworks such as the african continental free trade area (afcfta) for the continent's sustainability, development, and economic prosperity has become paramount if africa dreams of inclusive development https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:halavico@yahoo.com mailto:xolanithusi@yahoo.com mailto:43274250@nwu.ac.za https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.358 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7705-8863 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7316-6165 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0596-1065 65 (morsy et al., 2021). if the afcfta is implemented efficiently, africa is set to benefit from a $1.7 billion consumer market and $6.7 trillion in consumer and commercial spending across the continent, respectively (fofack, 2020). local markets are said to be flooded mainly by imported international products. collier and gunning (1999) suggest that africa intrinsically manufactures the challenges in economic and trade policies. similarly, brautigam et al. (2010) argue that the continent remains stagnant due to a heavy reliance on raw materials exports, unstable policies, inadequate infrastructure, and the high cost of doing business. however, implementing the afcfta will ensure that the intended structural reformations achieve and foster rapid development in infrastructure, communications, energy, and economic diversification (african union, 2015). therefore, appreciating africa's unfortunate development and growth postcolonialism, the african union agenda 2063 seeks to remedy past misfortunes. despite the positive objectives of the au's agenda 2063, this paper examines if this agenda can be achieved or is just a pipe dream. it seeks to understand how africa should achieve such and what challenges will hinder its realization. a qualitative research approach was employed where a literature review (data collection from secondary sources) was undertaken to engage this highly politicized issue. data was collected at international, regional, and local levels. this approach was sufficient as it permitted the paper to go deeper into the current debates, arguments, and discussions around the understanding african union's agenda 2063 for africa's development. 2. developmental initiatives in a postcolonial africa the au agenda 2063 is a mechanism for bolstering the abuja treaty and the lagos plan of action. the agenda allows africa to adjust its development strategy for structural changes, economic growth, and social improvement. to address issues, the continent is facing in the short, medium, and long term, agenda 2063 relies on previous initiatives, including the abuja treaty, lagos plan of action, and new partnership for africa's development (nepad). it draws lessons from them (tshiyoyo, 2017). agenda 2063 seeks to establish an integrated, wealthy, and peaceful africa led by its inhabitants and a dynamic force internationally. this implies that africans must drive and take ownership of their growth (viswanathan, 2018). the africa agenda 2063 advocates for and ensures a united africa through a series of frameworks. while many challenges continue to impede african integration efforts, the au's agenda 2063 should develop an integrated continent that is politically unified and founded on pan-africanist principles and the concept of african renaissance. the abuja treaty paved the way for forming eight regional economic communities (recs), which remain today's bedrock for africa's integration efforts. ever since african states achieved their independence, the abuja treaty argued for the need to consolidate cooperation and unity in the continent (babić, 2020). the africa agenda 2063 must prioritize constructive collaboration between african governments since its success depends on collaborative efforts among african states. the african union commission (2020) expanded targets for its regional integration program, unveiled the flagship projects that make up agenda 2063, and refocused its efforts on achieving the objectives of the abuja treaty via establishing the african continental free trade area (afcfta). african leaders have understood the necessity of developing a unified african economic community since independence. it has been one of africans' most persistent concerns and a rallying cry. in this spirit, the au agenda 2063, which integrates the abuja treaty, is planned to be implemented within the context of integration, boosting trade, capital flows, and continental integration. according to the african union commission, prior continental agendas such as the lagos plan of action illustrate that for agenda 2063 to succeed, african people must control the process and influence the conclusion. as a result, the ownership problem must be addressed since it has significant consequences for buyin, commitment, funding, monitoring, and long-term execution of the agenda (addaney, 2018). one of the critical goals of the afcfta is to increase economic prospects for young people, which will result in job creation. this is significant since most african youths are unemployed, contributing to political insecurity, high crime rates, and a heavier public debt burden for african countries (thusi, mlambo, adetiba, 2022). the lpa did not produce the desired results. its outcomes fell short of what continental leaders envisioned, owing primarily to the rise of neoliberal ideas and their ramifications for africa throughout the 1980s and 1990s (oliveira & otavio, 2021). neoliberal ideas called for lowering trade barriers, which are crucial in africa's integration of the regional economy. the africa agenda 2063 stated that the continent's economy must change. adopting neoliberal ideas will help by promoting free trade zones, lowering trade barriers, removing price controls, and cutting trade costs (africa union, 2022). the african union (au) adopted agenda 2063 to promote sustainable development in africa. despite acknowledging earlier attempts and frameworks to reform the continent, the au says nothing about why they failed. for the au's agenda 2063 to succeed, it is critical to revisit the lagos plan of action and examine implementation procedures to guarantee african ownership and leadership (rukato, 2017). it is essential to emphasize that the lagos plan of action did not include an adequate monitoring and follow-up system for its execution, which may explain why governments 66 did not have it in their national development plans (yong, 2020). to guarantee the achievement of the africa agenda 2063, the au must ensure that monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are in place to evaluate progress and address obstacles. kimaro & fourie (2017) expound that agenda 2063 must incorporate lessons from past african plans to overcome developmental issues and impediments. the availability of finance, according to nepad, is a fundamental requirement for the effective implementation of agenda 2063. apart from this, governance and political stability are essential if africa wants to realize its agenda 2063. without peace and harmony in the continent, developmental initiatives are bound to fail. 3. public debt burden in africa one of au's agenda 2063's objectives is for the continent to assume full financial responsibility for its development. this seems improbable because of africa's enormous debt, which grows yearly. as a result, the sustainability of the au's agenda 2063 strongly depends on stable financial and monetary institutions. soko (2022) indicated that african governments' rapid accumulation of public debt in recent years raises concerns about debt sustainability, which may jeopardize the continent's capacity to accomplish agenda 2063 objectives. africa's total foreign debt was 775 billion usd in 2020, up from 300 billion usd in 2010. ademola (2022) alluded that the problem of debt overhang is one of the most critical barriers to poverty reduction in african nations today. the debt issue is fundamental, as indicated by the vast sums of money paid to foreign creditors to cover loan interest rates. chikowore (2021) noted that although agenda 2063 has been in effect for six years, several african nations are still dependent on external sources of funding, which are notorious for driving them deeper into debt due to ineffective public financial management (pfm) policies on loan contraction, among other things. adebayo (2013) states that africa remains the world's poorest, most africans live in poverty, and the continent is heavily in debt. due to unmanageable debt, the overall development of african countries will continue to be fiction. instead, money that could be used to provide social welfare services goes to servicing debt (ademola, 2022). table 1. african countries public debts captured in the first half of 2021 country country total public debt ($) nigeria $79.5 billion ghana $21.9 billion ivory coast $19.5 billion senegal $13.7 billion mali $5.1 billion guinea $4.8 billion niger $4.2 billion benin $3.8 billion burkina faso $3.7 billion cape verde $1.9 billion sierra leone $1.8 billion togo $1.4 billion liberia $1.3 billion gambia $823 million guinea-bissau $382 million source: benson, 2021 there are increasing worries about africa's soaring debt levels. most nations have debt levels higher than the benchmark of 60% of gdp (ndoricimpa, 2020). africa's national debt is increasing, raising additional questions about its sustainability. it has emerged as one of the most significant constraints to africa's growth (owusu-nantwi, 2021). despite debt forgiveness and cancellation by the paris club creditor nations in 2005, it is noteworthy that african countries have accumulated further debt and are again pleading for debt forgiveness (ademola, 2022). without adequate and stable governance, african governments will find it impossible to make positive use of the continent's vast natural resources to spur development. potential benefits from additional assistance and debt reduction are unlikely to be as effective as one may assume (nwebo, 2018). most african nations have on paper sound public debt management strategies. these strategies, however, are neither incomprehensive nor well applied. debt sustainability levels have also deteriorated noticeably as more and more nations approach critical debt levels. the number of countries at high risk of financial distress climbed from 9 to 23 between 2012 and 2022 (soko, 2022). 4. reflecting on the challenges of au agenda 2063 4.1. lack of infrastructure, regional and trade integration the african union reflects that the need for robust, modern, and well-functioning infrastructure is driven by the need for africa to consolidate trade integration and increase africa's global offering regarding trade. building on these insights, coulibaly (2020) and ishikawa (2021) argue that the countries in the (association of southeast asian nations) asean region have become key manufacturing hubs for multinational companies because the region was able to leverage the need for unity and to work together to ensure the availability of modern infrastructure needed to attract international companies. however, austin (2020) & hirsch and lopes (2020) question why african leaders 67 in a post-colonial era have failed to consolidate this unity and invest in infrastructure development, especially considering the continent's vast availability of natural resources. for decades, it has been argued that inadequate infrastructure remains a significant obstacle to africa's economic growth potential. the infrastructural crisis is the bane of africans doing business throughout the continent (dovi, 2018). not all hope is gone, however. over the past fifteen years, although africa has lagged behind the rest of the world in the coverage of essential infrastructure classes such as energy, road and rail transportation, and water infrastructure, infrastructure investment in africa has been increasing steadily. this has been made possible by the rise in new role players (lakmeeharan, manji, nyairo, and poeltne, 2020). while this may be seen as beneficial, the problem is that africa has a terrible track record of bringing projects to a financial close: 80% of infrastructure projects fail in the feasibility and business plan stage. the expected cost of upgrading the infrastructure in sub-saharan africa for the next ten years is us$93 billion yearly (the world bank, 2010). a total of $60 billion is required for entirely new infrastructure, while an additional $30 billion is required to upkeep the current infrastructure (smith, 2020). according to the african development bank, the continent's lack of infrastructure development is due to the sharp cuts in infrastructure funding made by african governments and their development partners in the 1980s and 1990s due to the structural adjustment programs most african nations adopted under the so-called washington consensus. as a result, the continent's infrastructure deficit has persisted ever since (african development bank, 2018). apart from this infrastructure, africa must accelerate growth and "structural transformation" to take the bulk of its population out of poverty, and at the center of this process should be regional economic communities (recs). there are eight recs in africa, and while one assumes that their existence should contribute towards a deeper level of integration, because of internal issues, cooperation and integration between recs policies and that of the au have at times not worked in tandem (nathan, 2010, & mlambo and mlambo, 2018). for example, multiple and overlapping memberships of africa's recs are common, especially in east and southern africa. such arrangements are costly and cumbersome, and compliance requirements are duplicated by belonging to several recs simultaneously (nagar & nganje, 2016). recs were developed and formed outside of the oau/au. however, there have been ongoing attempts at the continental level to improve their performance due to their importance to the african regional integration initiative (nagar & nganje, 2016). the growth of regional economic communities (recs) as tools for sub-regional integration has been uneven in the setting of significant disparities in regional political dynamics, even though recs have been recognized as crucial participants. long-standing rivalries among regional powers have often fueled tensions between the recs. they had hindered the ability of recs' and the au to coordinate effectively, especially regarding peace and security (mlambo, 2020; nagar & nganje, 2016). moreover, recs are autonomous legal persons whom the abuja treaty governs. as a result, the strong national interests that steer africa's sub-regional institutions have sometimes compromised their obligations and devotion to continental integration. because of the dispersion of recs, trade integration will be difficult, if not impossible, to accomplish. most people believe that intraafrican commerce is modest when compared to other areas. intraafrican commerce has remained modest over the last ten years; the greatest levels were seen in 2015 and 2016, when it accounted for 19 percent and 20 percent of all trade, respectively (khadiagala, 2018 & mlambo et al., 2022). while the recently established african continental free trade area has the potential to lift 30 million people out of extreme poverty by 2030 and increase intra-african trade from 18% of total trade to 50% by 2030, this will require significant policy reforms, trade facilitation measures, and infrastructure investment (world economic forum 2022). therefore, the effective implementation of agenda 2063 would be jeopardized in the absence of the required infrastructure, rec mobilization, and the need to ensure their policies are consistent with the au. 4.2. corruption and governance instability africa loses billions of dollars annually due to corruption, contributing to the continent's rising poverty and underdevelopment. according to the global corruption barometer — africa 2019, most respondents said corruption has risen in their country. however, the majority (53%) believed that civilians might make a difference in the battle against corruption, although 67% believed it might result in punishment or reprisal (jones, 2021). corruption has increased poverty and unemployment in africa and cemented neo-patrimonialism, nepotism, and political patronage. according to tella (2013), corruption in africa impedes economic, political, and social growth. it is a substantial impediment to economic progress, effective governance, and fundamental freedoms such as free expression and the ability of individuals to hold governments accountable (transparency international, 2019). corruption and governance instability has been driven by the political and economic structures inherited from colonial masters. according to parashar and schulz (2021), postcolonial african nations, like most other locations, are little more than a carbon copy of colonial states. fagbadebo (2019) stated that african politicians are more political predators than liberation warriors fighting colonial legacies. instead of using the state's authority to advance the 68 public interest, african leaders are more concerned with their well-being, taking advantage of people's vulnerabilities. this has resulted in stagnant growth, growing marginalization, and public despair. low levels of economic development, poor governance, weak constitutions, political instability, high levels of poverty and increasing levels of unemployment encourage corruption in africa (mlambo et al., 2019). from the never-ending oil-driven war in the niger delta to blood diamond-driven hostilities in sierra leone and liberia to oil and ethnoreligious conflicts in sudan and the central african republic, all concerns are tainted by corruption tentacles. governance deficiencies are a significant contributor to the situation. they undermine state legitimacy and make post-conflict democratic transitions challenging. according to diatta et al. (2021), some of the continent's governance challenges stem from poor state management, where leaders cannot manage economies, diversity, and political inclusion efficiently. this results in a lack of faith in government institutions and their ability to carry out critical duties. governance has failed to address political exclusion and economic marginalization concerns, and the continent's rising inequality and population growth will become more unsustainable, thus giving rise to instability. 4.3. poverty, poor education, and health systems the african union agenda 2063 aspires to achieve sustainable development to foster equitable socioeconomic growth on the african continent. poverty and a lack of access to education and healthcare, on the other hand, impede africa's desire for inclusive progress in the post-colonial age. higher levels of economic disparity, inflation, conflict, and a growing population (without economic opportunities) exacerbate poverty in africa. they are detrimental to inclusive development on the continent (anyanwu, kayizzi-mugerwa, and john, 2013). according to the world bank, although the poverty rate has reduced from 56% in 1990 to 40% in 2018, the number of impoverished people continues to climb. in summary, although measures have been implemented to reduce poverty, the rate at which poverty has been reduced on the continent has not kept pace with population increase. (schoch & lakner, 2020). the desire to eliminate poverty in africa is based on increasing access to education and youth development opportunities. however, access to education in african nations remains unequal. according to the un, sub-saharan africa has the world's highest percentage of educational exclusion. almost 60% of youth aged 15 to 17 are not enrolled in school (kaledzi, 2022). furthermore, education in sub-saharan africa has grown considerably during the last half-century. between 1970 and 2010, the proportion of pupils who finished elementary education increased by about 50% (from 46% to 68%) (evans & acosta, 2021). however, african nations continue to confront enormous educational hurdles. low-quality teaching and learning, as well as inequality and exclusion at all levels, plague africa's education, and training programs. despite a significant rise in the number of children receiving a basic education, many stay out of school (musau, 2018). given the above, it is difficult to see how the united struggle against poverty would succeed if there were still hurdles to education access on the continent. poor access to healthcare services has become another impediment to long-term growth. africa's healthcare systems are severely neglected, with underfunding, brain drain, and decaying infrastructure. this implies that african nations could not achieve the basic criterion for good healthcare systems (oleribe et al., 2019). the failure to expand healthcare access and infrastructure imply that africans will continue to be vulnerable to the continent's three major killer diseases: malaria, tb, and hiv/aids. furthermore, according to clausen (2015), less than half of africans have access to contemporary healthcare facilities. in many african nations, health care accounts for less than 10% of gdp. likewise, there is a scarcity of skilled healthcare professionals from africa since many opt to live and work in countries such as the united states and european countries. these obstacles, put together, have significantly hampered africa's drive for inclusive development. 4.4 youth rural-urban migration globally, youth are seen as the backbone of future progress. in 2020, africa's under-35 populations was about a billion people (540.8 million 0-14-year-olds and 454.5 million 15-34-yearolds), accounting for 22.7% of the world's total young population, second only to asia (58.0%) (rocca & schultes, 2020). ruralurban migration creates fast population growth in secondary cities in low-income nations, resulting in significant urban development, albeit considerable challenges. unfortunately, people who leave rural areas deprive them of creativity, skills, and innovation. however, one cannot examine rural-urban migration in isolation without considering the socioeconomic factors that drive it. youth suffer widespread poverty, limited educational opportunities, lack of job prospects, limited gains from globalization, water shortages, peace and security difficulties, violent extremism, sexual violence, corruption, and forced migration (monyae, 2020). as a result, relocation becomes the only option. aspiration 6 of agenda 2063 mentions youth as the cornerstone of the plan's success. furthermore, african adolescents have expressed dissatisfaction with their perceived lack of involvement in decision-making forums and a lack of financing for their developmental initiatives (monyae, 2020). because their approaches to issues and solutions may vary from the widely used and accepted approaches, african youth have the economic potential to contribute to development. some of the concepts advocated in agenda 2063 and the sdgs have been present for a long time, only to be repackaged and rebranded. 69 youth may recognize and oppose ingrained conventions and ideas that keep them out of socioeconomic activities and existing power systems (monyae, 2020). as a result, there is an urgent need to engage the concept of rural development via youth-led initiatives such as entrepreneurial enterprises, agricultural development, and assistance in establishing the necessary infrastructure to discourage rural-urban migration. the au recognizes that if the young are ignored, the 2063 agenda is unlikely to see the light of day; hence, member states should implement steps to boost rural development. 4.5. climatic change africa's quest for stability, sustainability, and inclusive development cannot be achieved if the threat that comes with climate change is not collectively managed. unfortunately, the rapid change in the climate means countries with limited resources and a lack of technological know-how will find it difficult to protect themselves, and climatic changes will not only reduce africa's growth potential but will lead to conflict and governance instability. according to osano (2022), the african union's peace and security council produced a paper in november 2021 that emphasized the threat of climate change to the continent's future peace and security. according to the paper, climate change is a threat multiplier for africa. climate change causes food and water insecurity, job loss, increased demand for natural resources, increasing water shortages, and more climaterelated people displacements (ofori, cobbina, and obiri, 2021 & osano, 2022). climate change has worsened existing vulnerabilities and heightened tensions and violent conflicts. food insecurity, crop farmer-herder disputes, and displacement and migration are all likely to become more common. climate change's destabilizing impacts are already being felt in west africa, where farmers and herders have become involved in violent battles fueled by climate change. while yanda and bronkhorst (2011) argue that for thousands of years, people in africa have adapted to climate change through migration and mobility and by following pastoral/nomadic livelihoods, mulhern (2020) believes that climate change may influence many current ongoing conflicts in africa. for example, the darfur crisis is the first wholly caused by climate change; rainfall scarcity has led to strife. mali, burkina faso, and niger have very high proportions of poor people who rely on agriculture. droughts have uprooted millions of people who have also become endangered by ongoing jihadist violence in burkina faso or massive community tensions caused by a paucity of resources (mulhern, 2020). climate change will likely be a significant source of conflict, and agenda 2063 must consider climate change issues. 4.6. democratization and human rights after decolonization, africa grappled with another fundamental issue: protecting human rights and consolidating democratic rule. for fye (2015), the issue of a democratized africa remains highly controversial. some states can be regarded as democracies as they guarantee some form of civil liberties and participation of citizens in governance processes; however, some are still ruled by leaders who came into power during independence. in some cases, this power was attained through political instability, which led to military coups. as a result, in these countries, there is an absence of freedom of speech and civil liberties (mcgowan, 2003). the au 2063 agenda envisions a continent with a universal culture of good governance, democratic values, gender equality, and respect for human rights, justice, and the rule of law. however, this paper argues that the au understands that ensuring all countries become fully democratized is a mammoth task as african leaders have become obsessed with power. this paper contends that instead of pushing for democracy, the au should ensure that leaders support continental integration efforts and the protection of human rights. however, in africa, where culture and traditional values reign supreme, it is unlikely that all aspects associated with human rights will be accepted. somervill (2011) contends that while democracy as a system cannot be regarded as perfect, nevertheless, it is the closest form of system that allows people to have a say in the governance process. the economist intelligence unit (eiu) released its 2019 democracy index. except for seychelles, south sudan, somalia, and sao tome & principe, it included 50 african countries (the economist intelligence unit, 2019). according to the index, democracy fell internationally in 2019, mainly on the african continent, particularly in sub-saharan africa. indeed, the region's average score declined from 4.36 in 2018 to 4.26 in 2019, the lowest since 2010 (the economist intelligence unit, 2019). military coups, religious and ethnic conflicts, the obsession with power by leaders, political patronage, and, to some extent, external meddling in african affairs are all factors impeding africa's development. concerning human rights, this paper argues that minority religious and ethnic groups, the lgbtqi community, and critical media are likely to face discrimination and unlawful jail sentences. this was especially evident during the covid-19 epidemic, when various african countries imposed significant restrictions on mobility and freedom of assembly and, in some cases, complete lockdowns that stifled people's freedoms and led to human rights violations (amnesty international, 2021). during this time, arbitrary arrests, beatings, torture, and reports of extrajudicial executions committed by government troops in kenya, nigeria, rwanda, and south africa became the order of the day. while comprehensive democratization of africa may prove to be a difficult, if not 70 impossible, inclusive and sustainable development as envisioned by agenda 2063 will be difficult, if not impossible, to attain. 5. the quest for a politically stable africa: possibility or ruse? it is imperative to understand and highlight that africa is in a race against time to consolidate unity and promote the collective development of its people. while this paper argues for the au agenda 2063, it reflects that africa has many challenges which may derail the au's plan for collectively developing africa. this paper acknowledges that without addressing challenges such as the lack of infrastructure (energy, rail and road, and water), human capital development, improvement in the standards of living, governance, and conflict-related issues, increasing threat of cross-border terrorism and the marginalization of the youth, women, and girls, the realization african union agenda 2063 remains in great jeopardy. isaac (2019) notes that advanced infrastructure systems allow easy integration in conducting business, multiplying productivity, and deepening economic and social integration. these are essential in the context and aspirations of an integrated african economy. the calamity many african states face is a lack of good governance which is most cases is a result of corruption. as a result, this has contributed to the multiplier effect in challenges such as reducing living standards, contributing to continued poverty, widening inequality (azeez, 2018), and in the process, stagnating african countries from actively playing being at the forefront of their development and growth. however, the implications and effects of poor governance and corruption are felt by marginalized groups who continue to be deprived of service delivery. marchetta and dilly (2019) reveal that another stumbling block in africa's developmental path is poor education and inefficient school infrastructure. for example, some parts of africa, burkina faso, ivory coast, ghana, and madagascar, lack the adequate infrastructure needed for educational development. hence this becomes worrisome in the quest for collective and human capital development. it is imperative to understand and highlight that africa is in a race against time to consolidate unity and promote the collective development of its people. while this paper supports au's agenda 2063, it reflects that africa has many challenges that may derail the au's plan for collectively developing africa. this paper acknowledges that without addressing challenges such as the lack of infrastructure (energy, rail and road, and water), human capital development, improvement in the standards of living, governance and conflict-related issues, increasing threat of cross-border terrorism and the marginalization of the youth, women, and girls, the realization african union agenda 2063 remains in great jeopardy. isaac (2019) notes that advanced infrastructure systems allow easy integration in conducting business, multiplying productivity, and deepening economic and social integration. these are essential in the context and aspirations of an integrated african economy. considering this, it is also worth noting the success of integration among the existing african recs. the calamity many african states face is a lack of good governance due to corruption. as a result, this has had and contributed to the multiplier effect in challenges such as reducing living standards, contributing to continued poverty, widening inequality (azeez, 2018), and in the process, stagnating the african nations from actively playing a leading role in their development and growth. however, the implications and effects of poor governance and corruption are felt by marginalized groups who continue to be deprived of service delivery. marchetta and dilly (2019) reveal another stumbling block in africa's development path: poor education and inefficient school infrastructure in some parts of africa; burkina faso, ivory coast, ghana, and madagascar are worrisome in the quest for collective and human capital development. it is imperative to understand and highlight that africa is in a race against time to consolidate unity and promote the collaborative development of its people. while this paper argues for the au agenda 2063, it reflects that africa has many challenges which may derail the au's plan for collectively developing africa. this paper acknowledges that without addressing challenges such as the lack of infrastructure (energy, rail and road, and water), human capital development, improvement in the standards of living, governance and conflict-related issues, increasing threat of cross-border terrorism and the marginalization of the youth, women, and girls, the realization african union agenda 2063 remains in great jeopardy. isaac (2019) notes that advanced infrastructure systems allow easy integration in conducting business, multiplying productivity, and deepening economic and social integration. these are essential in the context and aspirations of an integrated african economy. considering this, it is also worth noting the success of integration among the existing african recs. the calamity many african states face is a lack of good governance due to corruption. as a result, this has had and contributed to the multiplier effect in challenges such as reducing living standards, contributing to continued poverty, widening inequality (azeez, 2018), and in the process, stagnating the african nations from actively playing a forefront role in their development and growth. however, the implications and effects of poor governance and corruption are felt by marginalized groups who continue to be deprived of service delivery. marchetta and dilly (2019) reveal another stumbling block in africa's development path: poor education and inefficient school infrastructure in some parts of africa; burkina faso, ivory coast, ghana, madagascar, and morocco, are worrisome in the quest for 71 collective and human capital development. the aspirations of the african union, if adequately implemented, stand to be successful as that of the european union's multilateralism kind of community-based regional integration model, which has been a success in contributing to regional development despite its associated challenges (omolo, 2019). with the above, this paper concludes that while 2063 is possible, its eventual implementation and success depend on whether african states can work together to address the abovementioned challenges. we locate our argument in the notion that having a peaceful and stable africa is possible only if governance is stabilized. we argue that the 2063 agenda will remain a pipe dream without political unity. 5. conclusions and recommendations undeniably, africa is going through many governmental developmental issues. nevertheless, african leaders must unite to consolidate good governance, coordination, and political unity. the 2063 agenda of the au is significant in ensuring that africa can be self-sustainable and use its natural resources for selfdevelopment and change the lives of its people. one cannot help but observe that africa has failed to consolidate collective economic development in a post-colonial era. while strategies such as the lagos plan of action, nepad, and the abuja treaty outline the route africa should undertake to ensure economic growth, they did not result in an effective developmental platform where africa can play a role in ensuring collective development. political instability, military coups, and a poor record of human rights continue to hinder africa's quest for unity. even though recs exist, they are fragmented and have not been effective as one might have expected. there is greater awareness of the need for sustainable natural resource management, with almost all african countries placing it as one of the priority areas in their development plans. the solidarity and unity of purpose seen in the development of africa's common position on climate change that enabled africa to speak with one voice were unprecedented. this unity of purpose could form the platform for managing africa's crossboundary natural resources for the benefit of her citizens. as such, we also argue that resources in africa can be used to spur growth and integration. still, because of instability in the continent, resources continue to be plundered by multinational corporations and the name of investment and creating job opportunities. leaders need to work together to ensure the continent's development and improve the people's lives; otherwise, the 2063 agenda for africa's development will remain a pipedream. the need for proper natural resource management has re-emerged as an issue of global importance following the 1992 earth summit and recognizing the mismanagement of natural resources as a security factor. this makes it imperative for africa to manage its resources sustainably. references 1. abuki, b. j. 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https://www.weforum.org/reports/growing-intra-africa-trade-through-digital-transformation-of-customs-and-borders/#:~:text=the%20african%20continental%20free%20trade,reforms%20and%20trade%20facilitation%20measures 23 consistency of sustainable consumption with values and lifestyle in post-modern tourists kader kizil erol tekirdağ namık kemal university, çorlu vocational school, kkizilerol@nku.edu.tr article history: submission 07 august 2021 revision 10 november 2021 accepted 05 december 2021 available online 31 december 2021 keywords: postmodern tourism, sustainable tourism, sustainable consumption, values and lifestyle, vals scale. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.275 a b s t r a c t the concepts of sustainable consumption and sustainable tourism are studied separately within the scope of sustainability. in this study, it has been examined whether individuals' understanding of values and lifestyle are consistent with sustainable consumption behaviors in post-modern tourism by considering both concepts together. today, post-modern consumers have a more individual and liberal perception and reflect the consumption behaviors shaped in this direction more intensely and more clearly in the tourism sector. especially in the turkish tourism literature, it has been found that there are few studies to measure the consistency between post-modern tourism perception, individual's lifestyle and values and sustainable consumption behavior. the main question of this study is whether individuals' understanding of lifestyle and value are consistent with the tendency to display sustainable tourism behavior when manipulated with post-modern tourism perception. in this context; consumers' values, lifestyles and consumption trends were measured through the data obtained through the survey method using the vals scale and the sustainable tourism scale. the findings of the study revealed that post-modern tourism preferences are related to individuals with principled motivation and individuals with spatial mobility, depending on their sustainable consumption trends. the data obtained from this study are also expected to give an idea about how post-modern tourism perception is related with lifestyle and values and whether there is consistency between the tendency to display sustainable tourism behavior and help further studies. 1. introduction today, as a result of the rapidly increasing population, there is a versatile and very rapid resource consumption. sustainable production and consumption, which emerged from the environmental effects of this intense resource consumption, has become a widely accepted social goal around the world. bringing a vital understanding of sustainable consumption to us, the consumers, is extremely important in order to offer a more livable world to future generations. considering the interaction between people's preferences, that is, their consumption patterns and ecological balance around the world, it is not difficult to imagine how frightening the result can be. therefore, sustainable consumption, whose importance is increasing day by day due to the effects of intensive resource consumption, especially on the environment, focuses largely on conscious consumer behaviors. on the other hand, the concept of sustainable tourism and postmodern tourism are gaining more and more importance in the tourism sector, which is affected by all social events due to the fact that it is human (richards and khovanova rubicondo, 2011). the most important feature of post-modern tourism is that it brings the individual to the fore and the services are shaped according to customer needs and expectations. because the need of post-modern people is no longer about the struggle for life, but about satisfaction (nuryanti, 1996: 258). in this study, primarily focusing on the concepts of post-modern tourism, sustainable consumption and sustainable tourism, it is investigated whether the lifestyle and values of individuals and their tendency to display sustainable tourism behavior are consistent when they are stimulated with the perception of postmodern tourism. values and lifestyle (vals) scale and sustainable tourism scale were used in the research. in addition, post-modern tourism perception was stimulated by means of photographs related to post-modern tourism added to the https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:kkizilerol@nku.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.275 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7217-6457 24 questionnaire. in the selection of the photographs, importance was given to the selection of photographs reflecting the phenomena such as security, cleanliness, ostentatiousness and modernity in order to define the perception of post-modern tourism. the scales and photographs of post-modern tourism were presented to the participants in the experimental and control groups in different ways, before and after the questionnaire form. thus, it was tried to determine whether the lifestyle and values of the participants and their tendency to show sustainable tourism behavior were consistent when they were stimulated with the perception of post-modern tourism. as a result, the participants, who first saw the photographs prepared to create a post-modern tourism perception, were really manipulated as the research aimed. in the vals scale, the fact that the group who saw the scale first got higher scores once again revealed the tendency of people to give socially desirable answers. in addition, although the relationship between people who tend to consume sustainable due to environmental concerns and the perception of post-modern tourism is significant, the negative correlation between the two variables is remarkable. 2. post-modern tourism concept within the concepts of developing technology and globalizing world, businesses should have a flexible structure in order to adapt to rapid and continuous change. every day, new concepts and rising trends appear in front of all sectors and businesses in this rapid movement (tekin, 2014). considering this situation; it can be said that changing social patterns have created new supplies in the field of tourism within the framework of expectations and needs and have changed in the direction of consumer orientation. in other words, the major changes in people's needs, preferences and expectations have brought the concept of "post-modern tourism" to the field of tourism. the most important feature of post-modern tourism is that the individual comes to the fore instead of the mass. as in modernism, it is difficult to make a general definition for post-modernism. there are many definitions of post-modernism with emphasis on a certain aspect (armağan, 1995, 53). postmodernism is a break with modernism for some, and a refined, advanced state of modernism for others. according to another definition, it is expressed as a period in which the mind goes bankrupt, ideologies are exhausted, and our understanding of space and time is shaken (yıldız, 2015). according to giddens (2018), what separates modernism from the concept of postmodernism is the effective use of transportation and communication tools, which are among the biggest changes of today. in addition, post-modernism differs from modernism in that it allows the social process to go beyond local spatial and temporal limitations with these technological developments (johnson, 2008). one of the most important features of post-modernism is individualism. postmodernity emphasizes differences rather than similarities; it is an approach based on the differences of values, cultures, traditions and lifestyles (spicer, 1997). therefore, in this period, consumers demand and buy products or services in a way that highlights their differences. the post-modern consumer wants to be a producer of experience and a part of consumption, and this is based on participation and interaction (sönmez and karataş, 2010). in the post-modern tourism understanding, it is seen that the motives of the consumers differ from the traditional tourist motives. as the needs and expectations that drive classical service consumers have changed, naturally, there has been a change in the preferences of tourists. therefore, with the concept of post-modern tourism, it is observed that services are shaped according to customer needs and expectations, different trends and new destinations have emerged. preferences such as observing different cultures, having nostalgic experiences, and taking part in the production of local products are some of the changing expectations of tourists and the demand for them is increasing day by day. according to natan uriely (1997), post-modern tourism; the simulation is divided into two as tourism and other tourism. simulation tourism, which offers the opportunity to experience a certain period, makes tourists experience a different concept as if it were real. tourists who demand the other, on the other hand, want to experience the natural things with all their authenticity because of their desire to have nostalgic experiences. as a result, the reflections of this period on tourism; nature-sensitive structures, individualized tour organizations that appeal to special interests, and an increase in the diversity of touristic experiences. 3. values and lifestyle (vals) consumers' product or service preferences allow us to have a general idea about them. because consumers make choices in line with their own values and lifestyles. from a wide range of products and services, they often buy products and services that fit or reflect their lifestyle. therefore, values and lifestyles can be defined as an internal preference system that shapes both consumption and all activities of individuals (özgül, 2010: 120). according to rokeach (1973), values are; a person's guiding standards or important life goals in life. values that encompass much more than this are defined as decisive and permanent beliefs that guide human behavior and make some behaviors and goals more preferable than others (odabaşı, 2002: 212). in other words; values are our abstract ideas that tell us what is right and what is wrong in determining our goals and behavior. on the other 25 hand, the concept of lifestyle, first discussed by weber, is defined as the differences and status between social groups (kesiç and rajh, 2003: 162). lifestyle is a concept that separates people from each other and embraces different behavior patterns (uztuğ, 2003: 103). in other words, some behaviors and perceptual reactions of individuals such as eating, drinking and mental abilities are regulated according to their lifestyles (gençtan, 1990: 136). one of the most used methods in lifestyle research is rokeach value research. rokeach discussed value in the context of the intended behavior or situation of individuals in life (thompson and troester, 2002: 552). the concept of vals, which is used to determine the lifestyle of individuals, was first developed by social scientist arnold mitchell in 1978. the vals scale was later developed by the stanford research institute (sri). values and lifestyle vals2 was also used in this study. vals tried to understand and associate people's personalities with their attitudes by addressing the concept of changing values and lifestyles. in other words, vals, people; it is a way of examining attitudes, needs, wishes, beliefs and demographic characteristics (anandan et al. 2006: 98; mohan raj and sait a. k. 2015: 96). consisting of the initials of the english words value attitute and lifestyle, the “vals” scale is a scale used to identify different consumer typologies in the marketing world. developed by mitchell, vals was first used to analyze the shopping habits of adults in american society. the vals scale has 8 lifestyle typologies according to consumers' motivations, purchasing power and living standards. these lifestyle typologies are based on the way consumers spend their money and time. in other words, these typologies, which can be expressed as orientations, are generally classified under 3 headings, and these classifications actually reflect the motivation sources of individuals. motivational resources of individuals are evaluated by dividing them into groups as they vary according to personality, values, opinions, attitudes and lifestyles. according to the scale, individuals with principled motivation are divided into “thinkers” and “believers”. in the second place are the achievement or positional motivations, and these are called “achievers” and “striving”. finally, individuals who are motivated by movement or self-expression are classified as "builders" and "experimenters". the vals scale is based on maslow's hierarchy of needs theory̧ and is a two-dimensional analysis in terms of its structure and content. according to vals, the ability to access and control resources is associated with individuals' motivation values. the main features of dividing individuals into 8 different typologies according to their motivation and access to resources in the vals scale can be explained as follows: innovators; they are successful and sophisticated, selfdeveloped and self-confident people who take on other people's responsibilities. they have high self-respect. they are highly motivated in terms of success, personal development and selfconfidence. they are change leaders and open to change. they are the most open to new ideas and technologies. they are individuals who like to develop and produce. they are consumers with high shopping volumes. they often prefer to purchase highend and expensive services that reflect their tastes. for innovators, image is very important. for them, the image is the image of their taste and personality. they love to push themselves, and for this reason, they constantly look for areas of interest that will challenge them. they come to the fore with their leadership qualities in business and political life as well as in their own lives. thinkers: thinkers are motivated by their ideals. for them, the greatest motivation is their ideal. they value knowledge and responsibility. they are mature, satisfied, relaxed individuals and give importance to order. they can express their opinions openly. they value education and are generally well-educated people. in any decision-making process, information search tendencies are high. they always want to be knowledgeable. general culture is very important to these individuals. they want to have all kinds of information about events in the world and in their country. they are respectful of authority and common social views adopted by the society. they take a moderate approach to social issues and controversial views. they are not critical. they are simple and practical consumers, although their income allows them to purchase many products. however, they give importance to durability and functionality in the products they buy. achievers: they are motivated by the desire for success. they have a goal-oriented lifestyle. they act in line with their goals and objectives. they have a deep commitment to their career and family. this is also reflected in their social life. they are individuals with a high concept of value. they lead a focused life around their family and work. they live a traditional life and are respectful to social values. they respect and attach great importance to authority and status. shared values of successes; risk avoidance, stability, compromise, sincerity, close friendship and self-discovery. since image is very important to them, they prefer to buy products and services that will reveal their image. for this reason, the achievers take place as active people in the consumer market with their many wants and needs. they prefer prestigious products and services to show their success to the people around them. because they usually have a busy work life, they are interested in practical products that save them time. 26 expiricist: their biggest motivation is to be able to express themselves in public. they are young, enthusiastic, enthusiastic, dynamic and quick decision makers. when it comes to new possibilities, they can get excited and get started, but they can also quickly become cold and lose interest. they seek change and excitement. they want to try new, unusual and risky things. apart from doing sports, they are energetic enough for recreational and social activities. experiencers; being enthusiastic and enthusiastic, they spend most of their earnings on fashion, entertainment or social events. their desire to look good, energetic and dynamic is also reflected in their shopping. for this reason, experiencers are consumers who are eager to buy. believers: like thinkers, believers are motivated by their ideals. they are conservative individuals with strong beliefs based on social and nation norms. they are people with traditions and high beliefs based on family, religion, society and nation. they lead a life in accordance with customs and norms. their lives are shaped within the framework of family, society and nation. spiritual and religious elements are a source of inspiration for believers. they have no tolerance for ambiguity and ambiguity. they want every concept to be precise and clear. they do not want society to change and are not open to change. they are motivated by their ideals, but unlike thinkers, they represent the low-income group. because of all these features, as a consumer; are loyal customers who prefer well-known, local products and brands. strivers: strivers follow fashion and love to have fun. because they are successfully motivated, they are concerned and care about the opinions and approval of others. they are low-income individuals. although they have the same character as the achievers, they represent a group that has difficulties in accessing resources. for employees who often do not have enough income to meet their wants, money symbolizes success. they buy products that are fashionable and considered a sign of wealth. individuals with high earnings prefer imitations of the products they buy. many find it more important to have a job than to have a career. their lack of focus on skills and careers hinders their advancement. they usually have low level and street culture. these are consumers who love to spend. they can spend all of their income on their looks. shopping is both a social activity for them and an opportunity to show their purchasing abilities to those around them. employees are active consumers as far as their financial means allow. as much as their financial strength allows, they make unplanned, impulsive and sudden purchases. makers: like experimenters, makers are motivated by expressing themselves. they describe themselves as people who build houses, own a car, grow vegetables and fruit, canned food, and work on issues such as raising children. they are defined as people who have sufficient skills and energy to realize this success. they are practical individuals who value selfsufficiency. they live in a traditional, circumscribed environment of family, work, and physical environments and have little interest in life outside of this environment. makers display skeptical attitudes towards new ideas and big business. they are people sensitive to human rights. tangible assets, other than those that do not have a practical or functional purpose, do not affect them. because they prefer things with functional value to luxury. for this reason, they buy basic products. survivors: they lead their lives in a narrow space. they believe that the world is changing rapidly due to the lack of available resources. they aim to meet their basic needs. they watch too much tv and live a shallow-minded life. their security-related requests come first because they need it more than any other request. this group of people does not show a very obvious source of motivation. as consumers, they are stable and cautious. they are modest consumers when it comes to purchasing many products and services. they have favorite brands, they show loyalty to those brands and products. if their favorite products or brands are on sale, their loyalty characteristics are more prominent. 4. sustainable consumption and sustainable tourism today, as a result of the rapidly increasing population all over the world, there is a rapid consumption of resources. sustainable production and consumption, which emerged from the environmental effects of this intense resource consumption, has become a widely accepted social goal around the world. bringing a vital understanding of sustainable consumption to us, the consumers, is extremely important in order to offer a more livable world to future generations. in this direction, sustainability; it is defined as an element that avoids being a consumer society without changing the life quality standards, protects the environment and reveals social responsibilities (özoran, 2019). therefore, sustainable consumption largely focuses on conscious consumer behavior. considering the interaction between people's preferences, that is, their consumption patterns and ecological balance around the world, it is not difficult to imagine how frightening a wrong choice can lead to. since its existence, human beings have continued their lives by constantly consuming things and changing the environments in their favor. as a result of economic development, which started with industrialization in the 18th century and continued until today, people increased both production and consumption levels by using natural resources thoughtlessly. the rapid population growth, especially after the second half of the 20th century, 27 increased the use of foodstuffs and energy resources, and accordingly, total consumption increased rapidly. in this process, countries aimed to increase their welfare level and develop faster. in addition, in parallel with globalization, as a result of the increase in the purchasing power of consumers, as well as the business activities that have developed under the leadership of multinational enterprises and resulted in a continuous increase in consumption, negative environmental effects have started to emerge and the concept of sustainability of consumption has been brought to the agenda. because, while the world population is increasing rapidly every year, the resources used by people have started to decrease in direct proportion to this increase and become insufficient. meanwhile, it is not possible to ignore the interaction between the changing consumption pattern of human beings and the ecological balance of the world in other words, the balances that have been disrupted by people's consumption can be protected, increased and sustainable depending on the way people consume. according to the organization for economic co-operation and development-oecd(1997), sustainable consumption is defined as “products and services that meet basic needs and provide a better quality of life, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs and minimizing the use of natural resources, toxic substances and wastes. is to be used”. accordingly, in order for consumption to be sustainable, natural resources must be protected and wastes must be re-evaluated and recovered. however, if we can turn our attention not to consumption but to the need for sustainable consumption, the lives of present and future generations will not be endangered. therefore, it is meaningful in terms of examining the values and lifestyles (grunert & juhl, 1995; kahle, 1996; arnold & reynol, 2003; fraj & martinez, 2006), which are stated to be an important determinant on consumers' purchasing habits, and understanding in which direction changes should occur in the future. will be. people's preferences affect their values and lifestyles, as well as their consumption patterns (özgül, 2010). on the other hand, while people's lifestyles determine how they spend their time and money, consumption preferences express how people reflect their values and tastes. values and lifestyles are an internal choice system that shapes both consumption and all activities of individuals (özgül, 2010:120). according to rokeach (1973), who worked on this subject, values are important life goals or standards that guide one's life. according to this definition, we can think of values as criteria that determine the individual's purpose in life and how he will make his choices in this process. on the other hand, kahle (1996) states that an individual's values are shaped by the meanings they derive from their experiences and learning processes. for example, it is a natural result that an individual who grows up in a sensitive and careful environment in environmental and consumption issues and reinforces this through experience, establishes his relationship with society and the environment according to this value system. from this point of view, many studies have been conducted to determine what individuals' values and lifestyles affect, or whether they are consistent with their behaviors on any subject. for example, in a study on the environment, it was revealed that the intrinsic values of the individual are positively related to some desirable behaviors related to environmental consumption, while the external values are negatively related (fraj and martinez, 2006). tourism, which continues to gain momentum every year and is the sector that uses environmental resources the most compared to other economic sectors (tuna, 2007), both damages the environment and suffers from its share of negativities and troubles intensely. tourism sector; in addition to being an important element of environmental, social and economic development, it creates negative effects that cannot be recycled if not controlled (can, 2013). in a country, tourism must have a sustainable feature so that it can always exist and be transferred to future generations. the importance of sustainability for tourism started with the brundland report of the world commission on environment and development in 1987. after the report, a widespread discussion started about the definition, feasibility and results of sustainability (cater and lowman, 1994; hunter and green, 1995; erdoğan; 2003). sustainable tourism, which is expressed as a balanced development model (angelevska, najdeska, & rakicevik, 2012) that includes economic, social and cultural development without harming the environment, is defined by scharpf (1998) as the long-term beautification, preservation and economic development of natural, social and cultural resources. defined as supporting development. at this point, sustainable tourism includes social responsibility, economic efficiency and ecological sensitivity at every stage. in the context of what needs to be done and responsibilities in order to better understand the concept of sustainable tourism and to ensure a tourism development without disturbing the ecology;  recognizing the needs to take action,  supporting weak members, places, communities,  to establish the goals of development in a regular way,  to control the area and the asset, to follow an active policy towards the development of the area and the owner of the area,  creating the material policy,  to protect nature,  strengthening the use of agriculture and forest areas,  to expand the order of economic activities, 28  helping to preserve local architecture, traditions and cultural and folklore heritage,  ten principles have been determined, including tourism marketing and promotion (buhalis and flether, 1996). the mass tourism movements, which became widespread after the second world war, had many economic, social and environmental effects all over the world. one of the most important effects of mass tourism is that it causes environmental degradation. the fact that mass tourism, which consists of natural, historical and cultural assets, has begun to damage values over time has brought concepts such as the protection, conservation and sustainability of resources to the agenda (gülbahar, 2009: 152). in our country, mass tourism, the effect of which was most intense in the 1980s, was not at the desired level and had negative effects on the environment, bringing the concept of sustainable tourism and the policies of diversification of tourism in this direction (altıparmak, 2002). at the point reached today; the change in the tourism sector within the scope of being sensitive to the environment and ecology has brought along new searches. in this research, it has been tried to reveal the tendency of vals groups to show sustainable tourism behavior, which divides consumers into groups according to their value orientations. 5. methodology 5.1. scales and sample the main question addressed within the scope of the research is whether the lifestyle and values of individuals and their tendency to display sustainable tourism behavior are consistent when they are stimulated by the perception of post-modern tourism. for this purpose, two different groups of participants were studied. sample selection was made by random sampling method. the participants, reached by mail, were divided into two as the experimental and control groups, and the same questions were asked to both groups in different order. post-modern tourism perception stimulation was made through photographs related to post-modern tourism. while the participants in the experimental group were asked about the photographs first, the vals scale and the sustainable tourism scale were added to the end of the questionnaire. in the control group, priority was given to the scales in the questionnaire, and the photographs used to stimulate the perception of post-modern tourism were added to the end of the form. in addition, both groups were first asked a "confirmation question" stating that they agreed to participate in the study voluntarily. all 352 individuals who participated in the study approved to participate in the study. therefore, the analyzes were continued with 352 individuals. 163 people in the experimental group and 189 people in the control group answered the questionnaire. finally, demographic questions on education, gender and age were asked to all of the participants. the descriptive statistics of the demographic characteristics of the participants by group distinction are as follows: table 1. participant profile descriptive statistics experimental group control group age 18-25 years old 58 156 26-40 years old 33 24 41-50 years old 41 7 51 years and older 31 2 gender female 107 111 male 56 78 education statius elementary school 1 1 high school 18 3 bachelor (university student) 93 176 postgraduate 51 9 according to the frequency analysis results for descriptive statistics, it can be seen that the participants in both groups are mostly between the ages of 18-25, the weight of the participation rate of women is felt in both groups, and the number of individuals who are university students or graduates is also high among the participants. analyzes were continued with factor, validity and reliability analyzes of the scales used in the study. 29 5.1.1. research question, hypotheses and research model the questions addressed within the scope of the research are as follows:  are the values and lifestyles of individuals consistent with their sustainable consumption behaviors?  what is the post-modern tourism preference of individuals?  are individuals' adoption of post-modern tourism preferences consistent with sustainable consumption behavior and values and lifestyles? the hypotheses to be tested within the scope of these main research results are as follows: h1= the scores obtained from the vals dimensions between the experimental and control groups are statistically significantly different in terms of mean. h2= the scores obtained from the sustainable consumption scale are statistically significantly different between the experimental and control groups in terms of mean. h3= post-modern tourism choices between the experimental and control groups are statistically significantly different in terms of mean. h4= the scores obtained from the vals dimensions are statistically significantly different between male and female participants in terms of mean. h5= the scores obtained from the vals dimensions in terms of educational status are statistically significantly different from the mean. h6= age scores obtained from the vals dimensions are statistically significantly different from the mean. h7= the scores obtained from the sustainable consumption scale among female and male participants are statistically significantly different in terms of mean. h8= the scores obtained from the sustainable consumption scale in terms of educational status are statistically significantly different from the mean. h9= post-modern tourism choices in terms of age are statistically significantly different in terms of average scores. h10= there is a statistically significant difference between male and female participants in terms of post-modern tourism choice. h11= there is a statistically significant difference in terms of education level in terms of post-modern tourism choice. h12= post-modern tourism choice is statistically different in terms of age. h13= there is a significant relationship between vals dimensions between the experimental and control groups. h14= there is a significant relationship between the sustainable consumption tendency between the experimental and control groups. h15= there is a significant relationship between the choice of post-modern tourism between the experimental and control groups. h16= there is a significant relationship between participants who prefer post-modern tourism and those who do not, and vals dimensions. h17= there is a significant relationship between participants who prefer post-modern tourism and those who do not, and their sustainable consumption tendency. 5.1.2. results before starting the hypothesis tests, validity and reliability analyzes of the vals and sustainable consumption scales used in the study were performed. regarding sustainable consumption, based on the scales developed by şener and hazer (2007) and fraj and martinez (2006), a five-point likert scale consisting of 14 items (1strongly disagree, 5-strongly agree) was used after a detailed review of the relevant literature. the cronbach alpha value for these items was determined as 0.760. the second scale is the vals 2 scale, which is a psychographic market segmentation scale developed by arnold mitchell at sri (stanford research institute) to identify lifestyle groups. the cronbach alpha value for these items was determined as 0.750. as a result of the confirmatory factor analyzes carried out in the sustainable consumption scale, 7 of the 14 items were included in the environment factor and 7 in the savings factor. a total of 8 factors were determined in the vals scale. in addition, some items were excluded from the analysis due to factor loading problems. the questions in the questionnaire about the postmodern tourism perception were asked through photographs. in the selection of photographs, in order to define the post-modern tourism perception, importance was given to the selection of photographs reflecting the phenomena such as security, cleanliness, ostentatiousness and modernity. in these cases, participants who marked the option reflecting post-modern tourism were given 1 point, while those who chose the other option were given 0 points. as a result of the arrangements made, the descriptive statistical results of the factors are as follows: table 2. descriptive statistics of factors participatory group n mean standart deviation expiricits experimental group 163 21,9141 4,16392 30 control group 189 24,0159 2,80667 makers experimental group 163 12,9448 2,91495 control group 189 14,2751 2,58442 thinkers experimental group 163 10,0920 1,67704 control group 189 10,4497 1,61570 believers experimental group 163 6,7362 2,36703 control group 189 7,7672 2,35850 strivers experimental group 163 9,7239 3,11168 control group 189 9,8201 3,01052 survivors experimental group 163 5,9448 1,64524 control group 189 6,4233 1,55765 achivers experimental group 163 5,0429 1,38042 control group 189 4,9630 1,32235 innovators experimental group 163 5,1595 1,12176 control group 189 4,6138 1,15040 saving experimental group 163 16,9632 3,02844 control group 189 16,5238 3,02573 environment experimental group 163 14,8834 3,56664 control group 189 14,3968 3,35112 before starting the hypothesis tests, the normality of the data was finally tested and it was determined that they did not have a normal distribution. therefore, the analyzes were continued with non-parametric analyzes. first of all, the level of differentiation of the scores obtained from the value and lifestyle in terms of gender and the sustainable consumption scale was examined. the results are as follows: table 3. the level of differentiation of the scores obtained from the value and lifestyle in terms of gender and the sustainable consumption scale u z p r gender n mean rank expiricits 11647,5 -3,213 0,00 0,1712 female 218 162,93 male 134 198,58 makers 9913,5 -5,093 0,00 0,2715 female 218 154,97 male 134 211,52 thinkers 14522 -0,093 0,93 0,0050 female 218 176,11 male 134 177,13 strivers 11178,0 -3,717 0,00 0,1981 female 218 192,22 male 134 150,92 survivors 12469,5 -2,36 0,02 0,1258 female 218 186,30 male 134 160,56 believers 12431,0 -2,366 0,02 0,1261 female 218 166,52 male 134 192,73 achievers 13687,5 -1,096 0,27 0,0584 female 218 172,29 male 134 183,35 innovators 13830 -0,877 0,38 0,0467 female 218 172,94 male 134 182,29 saving 13877,5 -1,618 0,11 0,0862 female 218 185,86 31 male 134 168,43 environment 14211,5 -1,257 0,21 0,0670 female 218 183,81 male 134 170,19 post-modern tourism preference 13268,5 -2,333 0,02 0,1244 female 218 189,6 male 134 165,2 according to the results, it is seen that men are mostly in the group that is characterized as experiential and their motivation is to express themselves (u = 11647.5, p = .000, r = .17). considering that people with this motivation have a motivation level that requires more energy and more physical strength, it is not surprising that men score high on this factor. in addition, individuals in this group spend most of their income on social activities such as entertainment, music, cinema and food. similarly, in the group of constructors who are motivated by selfexpression, it is seen that males are concentrated (u = 9913.5, p = .000, r = .27). people in this group, on the other hand, make purchases by giving importance to value rather than purchasing luxury goods and services, and they often like jobs that require more energy and more physical strength. in the group of those who strive, women have higher scores (u = 11178.5, p = .000, r = .20). individuals in this group, who have an achievement-oriented motivation source, attach great importance to the approval of others and their thoughts about themselves. that's why they shop for fashion. from this perspective, it is not surprising that women score higher in this group. another important issue in this regard is this: for those who strive to be seen as active customers, shopping is a social activity and it is very important for them to show the things they buy to the people around them. therefore, according to this result, when the party making the purchasing decision is a woman, the thing to be purchased may change significantly. in terms of the vals scale, another group that differs in terms of gender is the survivors group (u = 12469.5, p = .02, r = .13). individuals in the survivor group have a relatively low income and focus primarily on their basic physiological needs such as safety and security. the market they represent is modest and they represent the cautious consumer. from this point of view, it can be said that women make more cautious and safe purchasing decisions. finally, a significant gender difference was found between the scores obtained from the believer’s dimension (u = 12431.0, p = .02, r = .13). it was determined that male participants got more points in this group. accordingly, it should be taken into account that the individuals in this group, who are motivated by their ideals, have more established and stable brand preferences, are more likely to be loyal customers, and prefer less to more in meeting their needs, and it can be said that it would be more appropriate to offer products and services to male individuals in this direction. regarding the sustainable consumption trend, no significant difference was found in terms of gender (p>.05). the kruskal wallis test results in terms of age groups are as follows: table 4. the kruskal wallis test results in terms of age groups age n mean rank chi-square df p expiricts 18-25 years old 214 190,70 27,810 3 0,000 26-40 years old 57 147,87 41-50 years old 48 121,17 51 years and older 33 214,38 makers 18-25 years old 214 176,70 3,216 3 0,359 26-40 years old 57 184,75 41-50 years old 48 155,38 51 years and older 33 191,67 thinkers 18-25 years old 214 171,32 25,502 3 0,000 26-40 years old 57 228,05 41-50 years old 48 174,90 51 years and older 33 123,36 strivers 18-25 years old 214 187,09 13,446 3 0,004 26-40 years old 57 187,57 32 41-50 years old 48 135,53 51 years and older 33 148,29 survivors 18-25 years old 214 194,70 20,643 3 0,000 26-40 years old 57 133,42 41-50 years old 48 162,39 51 years and older 33 153,41 believers 18-25 years old 214 167,31 10,099 3 0,018 26-40 years old 57 174,83 41-50 years old 48 218,47 51 years and older 33 177,91 achievers 18-25 years old 214 173,50 5,078 3 0,166 26-40 years old 57 190,54 41-50 years old 48 190,38 51 years and older 33 151,55 innovators 18-25 years old 214 151,46 40,682 3 0,000 26-40 years old 57 230,20 41-50 years old 48 217,98 51 years and older 33 185,79 saving 18-25 years old 214 161,59 42,945 3 0,000 26-40 years old 57 143,43 41-50 years old 48 230,65 51 years and older 33 251,55 environment 18-25 years old 214 158,23 34,691 3 0,000 26-40 years old 57 162,52 41-50 years old 48 232,74 51 years and older 33 237,30 post-modern tourism preferences 18-25 years old 214 183,74 13,187 3 0,004 26-40 years old 57 196,95 41-50 years old 48 142,09 51 years and older 33 144,26 according to the results, the participant group who got the highest score from the experiencer dimension was the individuals aged 51 and over (h (3) =27.81, p=.000). this result, which contradicts the information in the literature that people in this dimension are relatively younger, active, rebellious and quick to make decisions, shows that experiencers can be individuals who contradict the literature in the perception of post-modern tourism. another significant difference was observed in the thinker’s dimension, and the highest scorers in this dimension were participants in the 26-40 age range (h (3) =25.50, p=.000). people in this group, who are motivated by their ideals, are individuals who attach importance to order, knowledge and responsibility and have many economic opportunities. from this point of view, we can talk about the 26-40 age group of participants who motivate themselves with their ideals. it is observed that people in the same age group got the highest score in the struggling dimension (h (3) =13.45, p=.004). their motivation is success. for those in the struggling group, a status-oriented group that needs the approval of others, shopping is like a social activity. considering that people in this age group are kneaded with popular culture, it can be said that he obtained a result that can be used to explain the buying behaviors made in order to gain social status. it is observed that people in the 18-24 age group got the highest score from the survivor’s dimension (h (3) =20.64, p=.000). people in this group, who are not economically lucky, can also be called cautious consumers. in the believers group, it is observed that the participants with the highest scores are between the ages of 41-50 (h (3) =10.00, p=.018). people in this group, who are greedy for their needs and prefer a routine life, have fixed brand preferences and difficult decisions to change. finally, in the innovators group, individuals aged 26-40 got the highest score (h (3) =40.68, p=.000). innovators are known as individuals who are versatile, sophisticated, self-confident and have sufficient economic 33 resources. they have developed tastes and are constantly looking for new interests. they are also open to new experiences. in the sustainable consumption scale, it has been determined that individuals with a focus on savings are mostly 51 years old and over (h (3) =42.95, p=.000), while environmentally focused individuals are mostly between the ages of 26-40. on the subject of post-modern tourism preference, which is the main subject of the study, it was found that people between the ages of 26-40 preferred post-modern tourism more (h (3) =13.18, p=.004). the results of the kruskal wallis test regarding education are as follows: table 5. the results of the kruskal wallis test regarding education education statius n mean rank chi-square df p expricits elementary school 2 39,75 19,908 3 0,000 high school 21 124,02 bachelor (university student) 269 189,01 postgraduate 60 143,32 makers elementary school 2 102,50 9,798 3 0,020 high school 21 163,60 bachelor (university student) 269 185,38 postgraduate 60 143,69 thinkers elementary school 2 170,50 2,346 3 0,504 high school 21 144,64 bachelor (university student) 269 178,15 postgraduate 60 180,43 strivers elementary school 2 154,50 2,182 3 0,536 high school 21 166,69 bachelor (university student) 269 180,87 postgraduate 60 161,09 survivors elementary school 2 311,25 17,483 3 0,001 high school 21 198,02 bachelor (university student) 269 183,51 postgraduate 60 133,03 believers elementary school 2 190,25 8,803 3 0,032 high school 21 224,67 bachelor (university student) 269 178,37 postgraduate 60 150,81 achievers elementary school 2 88,50 3,557 3 0,313 high school 21 194,71 bachelor (university student) 269 178,13 postgraduate 60 165,76 innovators elementary school 2 147,25 6,140 3 0,105 high school 21 141,33 bachelor (university student) 269 174,54 postgraduate 60 198,58 saving elementary school 2 265,00 7,303 3 0,063 high school 21 222,93 34 bachelor (university student) 269 170,49 postgraduate 60 184,23 environment elementary school 2 105,50 12,037 3 0,007 high school 21 221,81 bachelor (university student) 269 167,23 postgraduate 60 204,58 post-modern tourism preference elementary school 2 164,00 0,159 3 0,984 high school 21 174,26 bachelor (university student) 269 175,86 postgraduate 60 180,58 according to the results of the analysis, it was determined that university graduates or university students got the highest scores in the experimentalists and constructors groups (respectively; h(3)=19.91, p=.000; h(3)=9.80, p=.020). the motivation for both groups is self-expression. the most important conclusion to be drawn from this will be that university graduates or students are motivated by self-expression and will make decisions in which they can express themselves in their purchasing decisions. in the survivors group, it was observed that primary school graduates got the highest scores (h(3)=17.48, p=.001). the purchasing behavior of people in this economically impossible group will be more directed towards their physiological and safety needs. in the believers group, high scores of high school graduates draw attention (h(3)=8.80, p=.032). it should be taken into account that the individuals in this group, whose ideals are motivational elements, are individuals who adhere to traditions, like to settle for less, and have a fixed brand preference. finally, it is noteworthy that the high school graduates got the highest score from the environmental dimension of the sustainable consumption scale (h(3)=12.04, p=.007). in terms of postmodern tourism perception, education levels did not differ in any way (p>.05). mann whitney u test was used to test the other hypotheses established within the scope of the study. the main purpose of establishing these hypotheses is to compare the scores of the experimental group, who was manipulated by seeing the photographs used to measure the perception of post-modern tourism in the questionnaire form, and the control group, who saw the photographs in question at the end of the questionnaire, from the values and lifestyles and sustainable consumption scale. accordingly, there is a statistically significant difference between the groups in terms of the scores obtained from the experiencers, makers, thinkers, survivors, believers and innovators in the vals scale [respectively; (u=10.97, p=.00, r=.25), (u=11.39, p=.00, r=.23), (u=13.20, p=.02, r=.13), (u =12.86, p=.01, r=.15), (u=11.57, p=.00, r=.22), (u=10.88, p=.00, r=.27)]. table 6. mann whitney u test results between experimental group and control group in vals scale u z p r participatory group n mean rank expiricits 10969 -4,689 0,000 -0,2500 experimental group 163 149,29 control group 189 199,96 makers 11387 -4,245 0,000 -0,2265 experimental group 163 151,86 control group 189 197,75 thinkers 13203 -2,374 0,018 -0,1263 experimental group 163 163,00 control group 189 188,15 strivers 15091 -,330 0,741 -0,0176 experimental group 163 174,58 control group 189 178,15 survivers 12856 -2,741 0,006 -0,1460 experimental group 163 160,87 control group 189 189,98 believers 11570 -4,061 0,000 -0,2164 experimental group 163 152,98 35 control group 189 196,79 achievers 14525 -1,021 0,307 -0,0544 experimental group 163 181,89 control group 189 171,85 innovators 10880 -4,977 0,000 -0,2654 experimental group 163 204,25 control group 189 152,56 saving 13878 -1,618 0,106 -0,0864 experimental group 163 185,86 control group 189 168,43 enviroment 14212 -1,257 0,209 -0,0672 experimental group 163 183,81 control group 189 170,19 post-modern preference 13269 -2,333 0,020 -0,1242 deney grubu 163 189,60 kontrol grubu 189 165,20 when the results are examined in detail, it is observed that the participants in the control group got higher scores in the scores obtained from the experiencer scale. according to this result, the participants in the control group, in other words, the participants in the group that were not manipulated about the perception of post-modern tourism, were more experienced. likewise, it can be said that this group is more constructive, more thinker, more surviving, more believing and more innovative. the important point here is that the experimental group got a higher score in post-modern tourism preference. the participants, called the experimental group, who first saw the photographs prepared to create a post-modern tourism perception, were really manipulated as the research aimed. the fact that the control group, rather than the experimental group, had higher scores in the vals scale dimensions, once again revealed the tendency of people to give socially desirable answers. the results of the vals dimensions, sustainable consumption trend and post-modern tourism preference and the participant groups' relationship and correlation analysis to test this fact are as follows: table 7. chi-square analysis between experimental group and control group in vals scale experimental group control group chi-square relation analysis correlation analysis expiricits value df p spearman correlation p those with lower than average 78 44 23,334 1 0,000 0,257 0,000 those with higher than average 85 145 makers 15,466 1 ,000 0,210 0,000 those with lower than average 69 43 those with higher than average 94 146 thinkers 1,658 1 ,198 0,069 0,199 those with lower than average 45 41 those with higher than average 118 148 strivers 0,895 1 ,344 0,050 0,346 those with lower than average 64 65 those with higher than average 99 124 survivers 2,7 1 ,100 0,088 0,101 those with lower than average 78 74 those with higher than average 85 115 believers 20,801 1 ,000 0,243 0,000 those with lower than average 92 61 those with higher than average 71 128 achievers 0,459 1 ,498 -0,036 0,500 36 those with lower than average 48 62 those with higher than average 115 127 innovators 9,919 1 ,002 -0,168 0,002 those with lower than average 11 34 those with higher than average 152 155 saving 1,384 1 ,239 -0,063 0,241 those with lower than average 40 57 those with higher than average 123 132 environmnt 0,391 1 ,532 -0,033 0,533 those with lower than average 56 71 those with higher than average 107 118 post-modern tourism preference 1,617 1 ,203 -0,068 0,205 those with lower than average 19 31 those with higher than average 144 158 considering the results, the status of individuals in the valsexperiencers dimension is associated with post-modern tourism choices (χ2(1, n=352)=23.33, p=.000 and n(352)=.26, p=.000). this result supports the mann whitney u test result between the participant groups and the experiencer dimension. in addition, in the constructors dimension, the correlation and correlation results with the participant group classification were significant (χ2(1, n=352)=15.47, p=.000 and n(352)=.21, p=.000). this result also supports the previous analysis result. although no relationship was found to support the results of previous analyzes in the dimensions of thinkers and survivors (p>.05), the analysis of the believers and innovators with the participant groups gave significant results (respectively χ2(1, n=352)=20.80, p=.000 and n(352)=.24, p=.000; (χ2(1, n=352)=9.92, p=.002 and n(352)=.17, p=.002). as it is known, the motivation way of individuals in the dimensions of vals experimenters and constructors is realized in self-expression. as a result of the high scores of the participants in the control group in the dimensions of experiential and constructive and the significant relationship analysis, it can be said that the individuals in the control group were motivated by self-expression and they achieved their self-expression through relatively socially desirable answers. after all, the participants in this group are individuals with a relatively low perception of postmodern tourism. in terms of sustainable consumption, no significant relationship was found between the experimental and control groups (p>.05). the final analyzes made within the scope of the study, on the other hand, are directed to the main research question of the study, whether there is a relationship between post-modern tourism preference and vals and sustainable consumption tendency. the results of chi-square and correlation analysis for this purpose are as follows: table 8. the results of chi-square and correlation analysis those who don’t prefer post-modern tourism those who prefer postmodern tourism chi-square relation analysis correlation analysis expiricts value df p spearman correlation p those with lower than average 23 99 3,31 1 ,069 0,097 0,069 those with higher than average 27 203 37 makers 2,59 1 ,108 -,0860 0,108 those with lower than average 11 101 those with higher than average 39 201 thinkers 0,62 1 ,431 -,0420 0,432 those with lower than average 10 76 those with higher than average 40 226 strivers 2,195 1 ,138 ,0790 0,139 those with lower than average 23 106 those with higher than average 27 196 survivors 2,003 1 ,157 -,0750 0,158 those with lower than average 17 135 those with higher than average 33 167 believers 2,125 1 ,145 -,0780 0,146 those with lower than average 17 136 those with higher than average 33 166 achievers 4,410 1 ,036 ,112 0,036 those with lower than average 22 88 those with higher than average 28 214 innovators 12,101 1 ,001 ,185 0.000 those with lower than average 14 31 those with higher than average 36 271 saving 1,667 1 ,197 -,069 0,198 those with lower than average 10 87 those with higher than average 40 215 environment 8,26 1 ,004 -,153 0,004 those with lower than average 9 118 those with higher than average 41 184 according to the results, there is a significant relationship between post-modern tourism preferences and innovators who have sufficient economic resources, are active and intellectual, and have developed tastes (χ2(1, n=352)=12.10, p=.000 and n(352)=. 19, p=.000). there is also a significant relationship between the post-modern preferences of the successful consumers in the active consumer group, who are motivated by the desire to achieve, have a purposeful lifestyle, have many needs and desires and prefer prestigious products (χ2(1, n=352)=4.41, p. =.036 and n(352)=.11, p=.000). according to this result, potential customers of post-modern tourism investments are likely to consist of people with these two lifestyles and values. in addition, although the relationship between people who tend to consume sustainable due to environmental concerns and the perception of post-modern tourism is significant, the negative correlation between the two variables is striking in the correlation analysis. accordingly, people who will prefer sustainable consumption due to environmental concerns will have weak post-modern tourism preferences (χ2(1, n=352)=8.26, p=.004 and n(352)=-.15, p=.004). this result is not surprising, but it is clear that in postmodern tourism, tourism enterprises need to launch their marketing activities in the direction of producing an environmentally friendly service. 6. conclusions considering the results of the study, results consistent with the literature are found. the significant relationships between the vals scale and gender are consistent with the study by urbonavičius and kasnauskienė (2005). accordingly, women and men differ significantly in the sub-dimensions of the vals scale, which aims to measure value and lifestyle. similarly, the scores obtained from the vals scale differ between age groups and educational levels. it is thought that these results are compatible with the literature, adding value to the study. the differentiation of the experimental groups participating in the study and the control groups in terms of vals dimensions is one of the primary research questions. according to this result, the 38 participants in the control group are more experienced. likewise, it can be said that this group is more constructive, more thinker, more surviving, more believing and more innovative. the important point here is that the experimental group got a higher score in post-modern tourism preference. the participants, called the experimental group, who first saw the photographs prepared to create a post-modern tourism perception, were really manipulated as the research aimed. the fact that the control group, rather than the experimental group, had higher scores in the vals scale dimensions, once again revealed the tendency of people to give socially desirable answers. on the other hand, being in the dimensions of experiencers, makers, believers and innovators is associated with post-modern tourism choices. when the answer to the question of whether there is a relationship between post-modern tourism preference and vals and sustainable consumption tendency, which is the main research question of the study, is investigated, innovators who have sufficient economic resources, who are active and intellectual, with advanced tastes, and a purposeful life motivated by the desire to succeed. a significant relationship was also found between the post-modern preferences of the successful consumers in the active consumer group, who have many needs and desires and prefer prestigious products. in addition, although the relationship between people who tend to consume sustainable due to environmental concerns and the perception of post-modern tourism is significant, the negative correlation between the two variables is striking in the correlation analysis. accordingly, people who will prefer sustainable consumption due to 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administration master student, jusufisamra@gmail.com *correspondent author. 2 university “ukshin hoti” prizren, faculty of economics, business administration master student, edisakoro2@gmail.com article history: submission 24 november 2022 revision 30 february 2023 accepted 05 april 2023 available online 30 april 2023 keywords: students, behaviour, social media. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.406 a b s t r a c t the purpose of this article is to examine how students use social media based on six factors: field of study, level of study, year of study, gender, age, and income. to collect the data for this study, we conducted an online survey with an appropriate sample. in this study, a single construct was used to assess students' social media usage habits. we investigated the link between students' social media behaviors and their academic orientation, degree of study, year of study, gender, age, and income. according to the results of this study, students' social media use varies by field of study, does not differ by level of study, differs by year of study, differs by gender, differs by age, and does not differ by income. the sample was restricted to survey respondents due to time and financial limitations. consequently, the study findings cannot be generalized to the entire population. 1. introduction websites and applications that stress conversation, communitybased posts, engagement, content sharing, and cooperation are referred to as social media. people use social media to remain in contact with peers, family, and community members (lutkevich, 2021). youth people have a plethora of options for interacting with social media. this enables them to interact with the broader universe around them virtually. students use social media in various ways depending on their hobbies, communities, peers, and family. because of the environment that allows us to communicate quickly, sharing information has become extremely easy, and the flow of information between individuals through social media is very intense. in a brief amount of time, information can spread to a very large extent. the purpose of this study is to examine how students who use social media differ by age, gender, level of study, field of study, year of study, and student income. in this study, we focused on the following social media platforms: facebook, youtube, dailymotion, vimeo, instagram, linkedin, myspace, twitter, wikis (wikipedia), google, pinterest, flickr, and others (reachout.com, nd). studying the students’ social media usage by income is an important area of research due to its significant implications for educational equity, digital divide, mental health, and consumer behavior. according to a study by pew research center, individuals with higher incomes are more likely to use social media than those with lower incomes, which highlights the importance of examining this issue further (perrin, 2019). studying the behavior of students in the use of social networks is important for several reasons. firstly, social media has become an integral part of the daily lives of many young people, and studying their behavior in using these platforms can provide valuable insights into their attitudes, values, and behaviors. additionally, social media can have both positive and negative effects on mental health, academic performance, and social relationships, so understanding how students use social media can help identify potential risks and opportunities for intervention (rosen et al., 2013). 2. literature review when social media sites like facebook, youtube, and twitter first appeared, our world was still split into online and offline realms. social media is an online technology tool that connects individuals from all over the world. they are used to foster mailto:jusufisamra@gmail.com mailto:edisakoro2@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.406 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5763-1327 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7732-5661 15 interpersonal connections. we can speak with each other across countries, listen to music, read books, view pictures, and do a variety of other things thanks to their assistance. social media has greatly streamlined our lives and strengthened our bonds with others. they enter into various relationships and have the opportunity to talk to a relatively unlimited number of people, participate in premium meetings with a variety of identities, hear a significant number of stories, share assumptions, and discuss issues that are important to them during the time they spend getting to know people. as a result, most social network users are members of the younger age (talaue et al., 2018). social media is used to improve contact by utilizing media tools and webpages known as "social networking sites." online blogs, wikis, social bookmarks, media sharing spaces, rss feeds, microblogging sites, facebook, and linkedin are examples of social networking sites with auditory and visual elements that can encourage engagement and simultaneous or asynchronous communication (armstrong & franklin, 2008). social media has become ubiquitous and essential for information exchange in recent years (sitaram & huberman 2010). according to mushtaq and benraghda (2018), social media use among the younger population worldwide is quickly growing. college students make significant use of social media. as a result, they have an effect on the emotional and professional lives of students. social media is a popular way for students to communicate with each other (alwagait et al., 2014). they have infiltrated the lives of many young people. their use among american adults ages 18-29 has increased from 12% in 2005 to 90% in 2015. (pew research center, 2015). however, excessive use of social media may raise concerns about whether academic performance is being affected (alwagait et al., 2014). as college students participate in a variety of social media activities daily, there is growing concern about the potential harmful effects of social media on students' social well-being (lau, 2007). social media has developed into a type of online discourse in which people on an unprecedented scale produce, share, tag, and network material. facebook, myspace, digg, twitter, and the jisc list-serves are noteworthy in academics. social media is changing public dialogue in society due to its ease of use, speed, and size, generating trends and goals on issues spanning from the environment and politics to technology and amusement (sitaram & huberman, 2010). they are seen as an important way to provide health information to students. but how successfully are colleges and universities using social media in the sense in which it is intended—to be truly social, not just promotional? students can only benefit from social media if they follow, interact with, and share content (perrault et al., 2019). certainly, the internet has taken on an important role in people's lives. it is hard to imagine that there is a young person who does not visit social media and follow the news at least once a day. modern life requires us to stay in touch and up to date with the latest news and trends (talaue et al., 2018). twitter and facebook are two of the most popular social media platforms where students spend the majority of their time (alwagait et al., 2014). according to ukwishaka and aghaee (2020), facebook is rapidly spreading across a variety of industries, including education. according to most research, today's students use facebook to interact, collaborate, and find answers. what we know today is less important than our ability to learn what we will need tomorrow. smartphones, social media, and the internet are part of the daily lives of today's generation. the experience of undergraduate and graduate students in business has undoubtedly improved with the use of social media techniques in learning (bharucha, 2018). they are seen as an important way to deliver health information to students. but how successfully are colleges and universities using social media in the sense in which it is intended—to be truly social, not just promotional? students can only benefit from social media if they follow, interact with, and share content (perrault et al., 2019). to be sure, the internet has become increasingly essential in people's lives. it's difficult to envision a young person who doesn't look. the idea of social software has developed greatly in recent years, whether for sharing videos like youtube, photos like flickr, community building like facebook, or social bookmarking like del.icio.us (al-khalifa, 2008). zhao (2021) found that social media use has a minor effect on students' mental wellbeing. using social media for enjoyment is more likely to lead to addiction than it is to improve psychological well-being. the internet's popularity and application in higher education have altered the worldwide environment. recent advancements in its powers have opened up new channels of contact for the exchange of knowledge and experience. innovative applications have produced new chances for internationally known experts to share their academic experiences and study methodologies. it appears to be changing the norms and influencing encounters. the internet has facilitated virtual interaction for sharing search results. the term "social media" refers to such enhanced online connections for communication. it is an internet-based tool that promotes social interaction among users. studying differences in social media usage by students' demographics is important because social media has become an 16 increasingly important part of students' lives and is often used to facilitate communication, learning, and socialization. understanding how different demographic groups use social media can provide valuable insights into how these platforms shape and are shaped by broader social and cultural trends. for example, studies have shown that students from lower-income backgrounds are more likely to use social media as a source of news and information than students from higher-income backgrounds, who are more likely to use traditional news sources such as newspapers and television (pew research center, 2018). six hypotheses have been proposed based on the examined literature: h1: students' use of social media varies by field of study. h2: students' use of social media depends on the level of study. h3: students' use of social media depends on the year of study. h4: students' use of social media varies by gender. h5: students' use of social media varies by age. h6: student use of social media varies by income. 3. methodology participants the research included 204 candidates of the bachelor, master and doctoral levels. data collection was done online and only those who had access to the shared link participated in the research. instruments the social media behavior meter, developed by özlü and kalyoncuolu (2017), which includes 37 questions, was used to assess the review of activities (statements) performed on social media platforms. from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree on a likert measure. the survey was translated into albanian and the spss application was used to analyze the data obtained. 4. data analysis descriptive statistics the spss 26 software was used to evaluate the data. statistical tests were carried out using reliability, factor analysis, anova, and the t-test. table 1. descriptive sample statistics (n = 204) variables frequency percent study department economics 72 35.3% education 58 28.4% medicine 16 7.8% law 12 5.9% philology 9 4.4% computer science 9 4.4% mathematics and natural sciences 6 2.9% architecture 4 2.0% other 18 8.8% studying level bachelor 138 67.6% master 54 26.5% doctorate 12 5.9% year of studying first year 75 36.8% the second year 59 28.9% third year 46 22.5% fourth year 15 7.4% sixth year 7 3.4% fifth year 2 1.0% gender women 147 72.1% men 57 27.9% age 21-29 years old 106 52.0% under 20 years old 74 36.3% 30-39 years old 17 8.3% 40-49 years old 5 2.5% 50-59 years old 2 1.0% income 0-300 € 121 59.3% 301–600 € 45 22.1% 601-900 € 24 11.8% 901-1200 € 8 3.9% over 1,200 € 6 2.9% descriptive statistics for the sample are shown in table 1. department of study: the largest number of participants who responded to the survey were from the economics direction major with 72, followed by students from the education direction major with 58 individuals. level of studies: this poll had the most participants at the bachelor's degree 67.6%, followed by the master's level 26.5%, and finally the phd level 5.9%. year of study: first-year students accounted for the largest proportion 36.8 percent, followed by second-year students with 59 people. gender: in terms of participants by gender, women were 72.1 percent, while men were 27.9 percent. age: the most frequently repeated age category of respondents is 21-29 with 52 percent, followed by under 20 36.3 percent, and then other groups. income: 121 people from the respondents have an income of 0300 euros and only 6 people have an income of over 1200 euros. 17 4.1. validity analysis validity and reliability of instruments the findings of the preliminary factor analysis are shown in table 2. using the varimax approach, a total of eight factors were formed from 33 statements. our measure consisted of 37 statements; however, due to the low weights (below 0.50), four statements were dropped from the factor analysis (ism10, ism20, ism32, ism37) and the factor analysis was repeated. the first factor is composed of eight statements. "i generally write comments on videos, photos, and other multimedia content on various social media platforms." "i generally comment on content (photos, videos, texts) on other users' social media profiles." "i generally tag various messages or pages on social media platforms." "i generally tag news or pages on social media platforms." "i generally tag images or websites." "i often share my comments and views on various social media platforms, such as question and answer pages and dictionary pages." based on this information, this aspect is called "commenting and tagging behavior". the second factor is composed of five statements. "i regularly publish posts on my website." "i regularly publish posts on my blog." "i frequently update/edit my profile on social networking sites such as facebook, instagram, linkedin, myspace, and so on." "i clearly share my reviews for various goods and services on social media platforms (electronic shopping sites)." and "i mostly share my posts on my profile on a social network (facebook, instagram, linkedin, myspace, etc.)." based on these statements, this component can be referred to as "posting behavior." the third factor consists of four statements. these are the statements: "i usually play various single-player games in the virtual world (farmville, mafia wars, angry birds, candy crush, etc.);" "i usually play multiplayer games in the virtual world (warcraft, second life, league of legends, etc.);" and "i usually listen to music/podcasts on social media platforms such as fizzy, grooveshark, and ttnetmusic." and "i usually perform tagging on websites such as delicious and pinterest." according to these words, this component can be referred to as "fun behavior." the fourth factor is composed of four assertions. these assertions are, "i usually post audio/music files that i have created on social media platforms," "i frequently upload videos that i have created on video sharing sites such as youtube, dailymotion, vimeo, etc." "i regularly post my latest posts/updates on my personal twitter account," and "i post essays/articles/stories that i have written online on various social media platforms." according to these statements, this component can be referred to as "music/script uploading behavior." the fifth factor is composed of four statements. "i generally read different news on social media platforms." "i join various groups (facebook groups, brand communities, etc.) on social media platforms." i read posts from other users on social media (facebook, linkedin, myspace, google+, etc.) daily and i like the brand's social media pages. based on these statements, this component can be referred to as "social media reading behavior." table 2. results of exploratory factor analysis factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ism24 .712 ism23 .639 ism9 .613 ism28 .597 ism36 .596 ism14 .580 ism22 .523 ism21 .465 ism1 .827 ism2 .788 ism6 .693 ism8 .555 ism27 .552 ism34 .785 ism35 .694 ism16 .654 ism33 .505 ism5 .757 ism4 .695 ism7 .536 ism3 .505 ism30 .789 ism29 .745 ism31 .565 ism26 .544 ism18 .789 ism17 .650 ism15 .462 ism12 .724 ism13 .536 ism11 .514 ism25 .733 ism19 .623 kmo .875 barlett test .000 total explained variance 63.054 18 the sixth factor is composed of three statements. "i generally read forum posts" and "i watch videos posted by other users on social media platforms." "i regularly read and follow other users' blogs." based on these statements, this component can be referred to as "following behavior." the seventh factor is composed of four statements. these statements are, "i frequently follow news content, etc., of which i want to be notified of updates using news aggregators such as rss, atom, and googlereaders." "i generally vote/rate various websites" and "i generally write/contribute to wikis (wikipedia, etc.)." based on these comments, we can call this factor "voting/contributing behavior." the eighth factor is composed of four statements. these are the statements, "i generally use social media platforms to learn about companies' products (goods and services)" and "i participate in numerous social media networks (facebook groups, brand communities, etc.)." based on these statements, this factor can be referred to as "information gathering behavior." 4.2. reliability analysis table 3. results of exploratory factor analysis factors alpha reliability coefficient number of statements commenting and tagging behavior .866 8 posting behavior .822 5 fun behavior .739 4 uploading music/writing behavior .762 4 reading behavior .710 4 following behavior .593 3 voting/contributing behavior .547 3 information gathering behavior .493 2 the factor "commenting and tagging behavior" has a reliability of 86.6%, “posting behavior” has a reliability of 82.2%, “fun behavior” has a reliability of 73.9%, “uploading music/writing behavior” has a reliability of 76.2%, “reading behavior” has a reliability of 71.0%, “following behavior” has a reliability of 59.3%, “voting/contributing behavior”” has a reliability of 54.7%, “information gathering behavior” ” has a reliability of 49.3%. the analysis was performed with the first 5 factors: "commenting and labeling behavior," "posting behavior," "fun behavior," "music/writing upload behavior," and "social media reading behavior," because they have high values and show that the measurement tool used is very reliable. while the last 3 factors ("following behavior", "voting/contributing behavior" and "information gathering behavior") are not included in the analysis because their reliability coefficient is low (alpha reliability coefficient below 0.700). 4.3. hypothesis testing h1: students' use of social media varies by field of study. table 4 summarizes the results of the anova analysis regarding the difference in social media use according to the direction of the study. the f and sig values show that there is no significant difference in the factors ctb, fb, ub and rb (f = 1.781, p > 0.05; f = 1.273, p > 0.05; f = 1.077, p > 0.05; f = 1.335, p > 0.05, respectively). however, there is a significant difference in the second factor, pb based on the values (f = 2.685, p = .008 < 0.05). to see these differences, the multiple comparison table was used using tukey's test. table 4. results of the anova analysis regarding differences in social media use according to the direction of the study. sum of squares df mean square f sig. ctb between groups 10.028 8 1.254 1.781 .083 within groups 137.221 195 .704 total 147.249 203 pb between groups 16.791 8 2.099 2.685 .008 within groups 152.416 195 .782 19 total 169.207 203 fb between groups 8.645 8 1.081 1.273 .259 within groups 165.498 195 .849 total 174.143 203 ub between groups 6.729 8 .841 1.077 .381 within groups 152.266 195 .781 total 158.995 203 rb between groups 5.992 8 .749 1.335 .228 within groups 109.394 195 .561 total 115.386 203 ctb commenting and tagging behavior, pb posting behavior, fb fun behavior, ub uploading music/writing behavior, rb reading behavior. table 5. results of the multiple comparisons regarding the difference in social media use according to the direction of the studies using tukey's results. (i) direction in which you are studying? (j) direction in which you are studying? the average difference (ij) mistake std. sig. economics education .53199* .15599 .022 table 5 shows the results of numerous comparisons based on the direction of the studies in terms of differences in social media use. there is a significant difference between students at the economic faculty and students at the education faculty. the average difference is 0.53199. this difference shows that students in the faculty of economics utilize social media more than education faculty students to publish and post on social media. based on these results, hypothesis h1: students' use of social media changes according to their field of study has been successfully accepted. h2: students' use of social media depends on the level of study. table 6 summarizes the results of the anova analysis regarding differences in social media use by study level. the f and sig values show that there is no significant difference in the factors ctb, pb, fb, ub and rb (f = 2.619, p > 0.05; f = 1.968, p > 0.05; f =.714, p > 0.05; f = 1.322, p > 0.05; f =.748, p > 0.05, respectively). table 6. results of anova analysis regarding differences in social media use by study level. sum of squares df mean square f sig. ctb between groups 3.739 2 1.870 2.619 .075 within groups 143.510 201 .714 total 147.249 203 pb between groups 3.250 2 1.625 1.968 .142 within groups 165.957 201 .826 total 169.207 203 ft between groups 1.228 2 .614 .714 .491 within groups 172.916 201 .860 total 174.143 203 ub between groups 2.065 2 1.032 1.322 .269 within groups 156.930 201 .781 total 158.995 203 rb between groups .853 2 .426 .748 .475 within groups 114.534 201 .570 20 total 115.386 203 ctb commenting and tagging behavior, pb posting behavior, fb fun behavior, ub uploading music/writing behavior, rb reading behavior. based on these results, the h2 hypothesis that students' use of social media varies by level of study is not accepted. h3: students' use of social media depends on the year of study. table 7 summarizes the results of the anova analysis on differences in social media use by year of study. results f and sig show that there is no significant difference in factors ctb, pb, ub, and rb (f = 1.022, p > 0.05; f =.857, p > 0.05; f = 2.249, p > 0.05; and f = 1.872, p > 0.05). based on the data, (f = 2.279, p =.048 0.05), there is a significant difference in the third component, ft. table 7. results of anova analysis regarding differences in social media use by year of study. sum of squares df mean square f sig. ctb between groups 3.705 5 .741 1.022 .406 within groups 143.544 198 .725 total 147.249 203 pb between groups 3.583 5 .717 .857 .511 within groups 165.624 198 .836 total 169.207 203 ft between groups 9.478 5 1.896 2.279 .048 within groups 164.666 198 .832 total 174.143 203 ub between groups 8.545 5 1.709 2.249 .051 within groups 150.450 198 .760 total 158.995 203 rb between groups 5.210 5 1.042 1.872 .101 within groups 110.176 198 .556 total 115.386 203 ctb commenting and tagging behavior, pb posting behavior, fb fun behavior, ub uploading music/writing behavior, rb reading behavior. based on these findings, hypothesis h3: student social media use varies by academic year was accepted. h4: students' use of social media varies by gender. table 8. t-test results regarding the difference in social media use by gender gender? n mean std. deviation t sig ctb male 57 2.6952 .78952 1.143 .254 female 147 2.5434 .87349 pb male 57 2.9018 1.02408 .867 .387 female 147 2.7782 .86741 ft male 57 2.3465 .94698 -.132 .895 female 147 2.3656 .92124 ub male 57 2.2807 .95088 1.097 .274 female 147 2.1293 .85776 rb male 57 3.4693 .75307 .2.204 .029 female 147 3.7262 .74446 21 ctb commenting and tagging behavior, pb posting behavior, fb fun behavior, ub uploading music/writing behavior, rb reading behavior. table 8 summarizes the results of the t-test related to the difference in social media use by year of study. the f and sig values show that there is no significant difference in the factors ctb, pb, ft, and ub (f = 1.143, p > 0.05; f =.867, p > 0.05; f = -.132, p > 0.05; f = 1.097, p > 0.05, respectively). however, based on the values (f = 2.204, p =.029 0.05), there is a significant difference in the fifth factor, rb. based on these results, hypothesis h4: student use of social media varies by gender, was successfully accepted. h5: students' use of social media varies by age. table 9 summarizes the results of the anova analysis regarding differences in social media use by year of study. the f and sig values show that there is no significant difference in the factors ctb, ft, ub, and rb (f = 1.205, p > 0.05; f =.053, p > 0.05; f = -2.099, p > 0.05; f = 0.507, p > 0.05, respectively). there is a significant difference in the second factor, pb, based on the values (f = 3.065, p =.018, 0.05). based on these results, hypothesis h5 is stated: student use of social media varies by age and was successfully accepted. table 9. results of anova analysis regarding differences in social media use by age. sum of squares df mean square f sig. ctb between groups 3.483 4 .871 1.205 .310 within groups 143.766 199 .722 total 147.249 203 pb between groups 9.820 4 2.455 3.065 .018 within groups 159.386 199 .801 total 169.207 203 ft between groups .186 4 .047 .053 .995 within groups 173.957 199 .874 total 174.143 203 ub between groups 6.436 4 1.609 2.099 .082 within groups 152.559 199 .767 total 158.995 203 rb between groups 1.164 4 .291 .507 .731 within groups 114.222 199 .574 total 115.386 203 ctb commenting and tagging behavior, pb posting behavior, fb fun behavior, ub uploading music/writing behavior, rb reading behavior. h6: student use of social media varies by income. table 10. results of anova analysis regarding differences in social media use by income. sum of squares df mean square f sig. ctb between groups 3.851 4 .963 1.336 .258 within groups 143.398 199 .721 total 147.249 203 pb between groups 4.094 4 1.024 1.234 .298 within groups 165.112 199 .830 total 169.207 203 ft between groups 2.593 4 .648 .752 .558 within groups 171.550 199 .862 total 174.143 203 ub between groups 4.177 4 1.044 1.342 .256 22 within groups 154.818 199 .778 total 158.995 203 rb between groups 2.158 4 .540 .948 .437 within groups 113.228 199 .569 total 115.386 203 ctb commenting and tagging behavior, pb posting behavior, fb fun behavior, ub uploading music/writing behavior, rb reading behavior. table 10 summarizes the results of the anova analysis regarding differences in social media use by study level. the f and sig values show that there is no significant difference in the factors ctb, pb, ft, ub, and rb (f = 1.336, p > 0.05; f = 1.234, p > 0.05; f =.752, p > 0.05; f = 1.342, p > 0.05; f =.948, p > 0.05). based on these results, hypothesis h6: student use of social media varies by income, is not accepted. 5. conclusions the purpose of this study was to explore the social media usage habits of students studying in kosovo and to determine if different groups emerge depending on the actions and goals of the users. as a result of the data obtained using the social media user behavior assessment scale, eight types of user behaviors were identified in this study. examples of these behaviors include commenting and tagging, posting, fun behavior, uploading music and writing, reading social media, following behaviors, voting and contributing, and gathering information. the last three behaviors were not included in the next study due to their low agreement (less than 70%). from the collected data, we found that there is a substantial difference in the usage of social media between students from the faculty of economics and students from the faculty of education, and there is a significant difference in the third component. in terms of the difference in students' usage of social media by year of study, there is a substantial difference in the fifth element. reading behavior based on value p =.029 0.05, women utilize social media for reading more than males, and there is also a significant difference between students of different ages. the following suggestions are made based on the findings: given that the research group, university students, uses social media to learn about almost everything, it is unavoidable that they will make the best use of the information tools accessible on social media platforms when making buying choices. considering this situation, it has become essential for businesses that target students to begin their marketing efforts on social media sites. furthermore, the research suggests that businesses consider the fact that young people use social media for more than just knowledge. companies must conduct a comprehensive study of social media problems that are of interest to university students in kosovo, as well as be conscious of the importance of marketing; 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https://schools.au.reachout.com/articles/students-and-social-media https://schools.au.reachout.com/articles/students-and-social-media https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.06.006 53 the role of dimensions of job engagement in organizational performance chukuakadibia eresia-eke ¹* olippa ndlovu 2 taguma nyanga 3 ¹ university of pretoria, department of business management, chuks.eresia-eke@up.ac.za *correspondent author. 2 university of pretoria, department of business management, u18255002@tuks.co.za 3 university of pretoria, department of business management, tagumanyanga@gmail.com article history: submission 10 december 2022 revision 22 february 2023 accepted 15 march 2023 available online 30 april 2023 keywords: job engagement, employees, organizational performance, public sector, municipalities. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.397 a b s t r a c t job engagement is about the degree of connection employees have with their work. engagement theories suggest that employees experience engagement cognitively, emotionally, and physically. if and the extent to which this is the case, specifically within south african municipalities, remains largely indeterminate. this study therefore investigates the relationship between dimensions of job engagement and perceived organizational performance in south african municipalities. a quantitative research approach was followed, and data was collected through an online survey administered to a nonprobability sample of municipal employees. the study reveals that of the three dimensions of job engagement, emotional and physical engagement demonstrated statistically significant relationships with perceived organizational performance although physical engagement turned out as a stronger predictor. surprisingly, the relationship between cognitive engagement and perceived organizational performance was not statistically significant. consequently, it is imperative for jobs in municipalities to be better designed with a clear intention to foster job engagement. 1. introduction job engagement (je) refers to the level of enthusiasm and involvement that specific employees have in their job. this involvement typically stems from their awareness of the organization’s business and a resolve to work with others to improve performance (saratun, 2016). remarkably, research on je shows that while employees feel engaged when they start a new job, the proportion of engaged employees drops drastically, afterwards (marrelli, 2011). this may be attributable to unpalatable episodes at the workplace, such as workplace aggression (ford, myrden & kelloway, 2016), perceptions of job insecurity (jung, jung & yoon, 2021), work-family conflict (labrague & obeidat, 2022) and decreasing resources (hu, schaufeli & taris, 2017). in effect, it is possible that many organizations harbour disengaged employees. for instance, a 2018 gallup study reported that while 34% of employees in the united states of america (usa) are actively engaged, only 13% of the world’s employees fall in a similar category (orlowski, bufquin & nalley, 2020). disturbingly, in the specific case of south africa, the cohort of actively engaged employees constitutes only a paltry 9% of the entire workforce (staff hire, 2018), which is below the global average, and this is unlikely to augur well for organizational performance. mailto:chuks.eresia-eke@up.ac.za mailto:u18255002@tuks.co.za mailto:tagumanyanga@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v7i1.397 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4008-474x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4171-3256 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1942-1473 54 according to johnson (2020), je can benefit organizations and so it is worth to invest efforts in human resource practices that support the chosen strategy and fundamental values to develop a competitive workforce. maylett and nielsen (2012) observe that there is a connection between je and return on investment in profit-seeking organizations. this is further supported by kumar (2019) who declared that je stimulates organizational effectiveness by improving performance metrics related to profitability and productivity. findings of a study on the united arab emirates’ (uae) public sector by ibrahim and al falasi (2014) showed that je was positively linked to employees’ organizational commitment. similarly, jaharuddin and zainol (2019) found that je and employee turnover intention were significantly but inversely correlated. on a different note, frontline employees working in a politically charged environment displayed negative emotions which was possibly consequent upon low je levels (karatepe osman, 2013). this resonates with the assertion of jain and ansari (2018) that toxic organizational politics can endanger je among employees. while these observations related to je are based on empirical evidence, the contextual nature of the construct of je means that inaccurate deductions concerning the nature of je and its relationship with organizational performance may be made, if findings from other countries or contexts are relied upon to infer what the situation in south african municipalities could possibly be. besides, the absence of congruence in research findings focused on je and its role in organizations, is a pointer to the fact that organizational outcomes that pivot around je are likely to be subject to specific organizational or environmental nuances. this makes each case, not only limited to south african municipalities, unique and worthy of empirical investigation. despite some evidence that je enhances business practices, according to taneja, sewell and odom (2015) there is no clear link between je and perceived organizational performance. this position is not necessarily in alignment with the positions advanced in the studies of chen (2015) and bin shmailan (2015). the absence of a consensus as it pertains to the relationship between je and organizational performance in extant literature is indicative of the effect of context on such relationships. in other words, the contextual nature of the constructs and their projected relationships mean that results in different environments cannot be relied upon to determine what might be the case in south african municipalities. to lend credence to this assertion, bin shmailan (2015), posits that employee engagement can vary from country to country. interestingly, a comparative study conducted in ghana by agyemang and ofei (2013), found that private sector employees had a higher level of je than employees from the public sector. to highlight the gulf between je among employees in the private sector and those in the public sector, martins and ledimo (2016) drew parallels between poor service delivery characterising municipalities and the world class performance by the private sector in south africa. similarly, pepra-mensah and kyeremeh (2018) assert that generally, public sector employees are less engaged when compared to private sector employees. this is partly because according to borst, kruyen and lako (2019), public sector employees are motivated by work characteristics instead of organizational characteristics and resultantly, they tend to be more engaged when satisfied by work-related resources. on this score, byrne and macdonagh (2017) opine that employee engagement in the public sector can be dictated by their perceptions of organizational support, the premium placed on employee voice and the ability to participate in the decisionmaking process. this notwithstanding, byrne and macdonagh (2017) also highlighted that studies on je have mostly been conducted within the private sector thereby leaving a gap for similar studies to be carried out in the public sector. the current study therefore complements previous research on je by filling some of the gaps in extant literature. notably as well, most studies tend to consider je as a consolidated construct and so how its component dimensions specifically relate with selected organizational outcomes, remains largely unknown. consequently, the primary purpose of this quantitative study is to determine if there is a relationship between dimensions of je, as a disaggregated construct and perceived organizational performance (pop) in south african municipalities. the significance of this study cannot be over-emphasized because municipalities in south africa’s public sector are primarily responsible for the delivery of basic services to the citizenry. furthermore, the value of this study is amplified by the reality that several studies on je (see hodges & howieson, 2017; vincent‐höper, muser & janneck, 2012) tend to be conducted in the developed world and so according to anne sambrook, jones and doloriert (2014), an examination of the je concept in different contexts is apposite. in addition, research on je in south africa has largely concentrated on the private sector (martins & ledimo, 2016). therefore, a study of south african municipalities contributes to the scholarly discourse on je by providing a public sector perspective on the nexus of dimensions of je and pop in municipalities. 2. literature review je refers to a psychological and motivational state where employees are devoted to their work and therefore contribute 55 meaningfully to the attainment of organizational goals (hansen, byrne & kiersch, 2014). schaufeli et al. (2002) defined je as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption. kahn’s (1990) je theory outlined the psychological conditions and dimensions of engagement, whereas saks' (2006) social exchange theory (set) highlighted the importance of social aspects of work that enable engagement. in a complementary manner, zinger’s (2009) model introduces the key elements that must be satisfied for engagement to happen. it is noteworthy that there is a level of connectedness amongst these extant theories in their attempt to explain je. kahn’s (1990) theory of je implies that psychological conditions shape how people inhabit their roles and according to soane et al., (2012), it is founded on the tenets of maslow’s hierarchy of needs. kahn’s theory of je proposes that there are three psychological conditions that must be met for individuals to be engaged: meaningfulness, safety, and availability. an employee’s work characteristics contribute to meaningfulness which then results in enhanced engagement. positive interpersonal relationships make it possible for an employee to experience psychological safety which then leads to improved engagement. therefore, a study of south african municipalities contributes to the scholarly discourse on je by providing a public sector perspective on the nexus of dimensions of je and pop in municipalities. in accordance with the theory, individuals can be engaged to various degrees along physical, emotional and cognitive dimensions (zaidi et al., 2013). these dimensions mirror the je dimensions of vigour, dedication, and absorption, respectively as identified by schaufeli et al. (2002). saks’ (2006) set mainly discussed reasons why employees feel engaged with their work. the set views je as a multidimensional construct that has cognitive, behavioural, and emotional aspects (rich, lepine & crawford, 2010) and this aligns with the three dimensions in kahn’s theory of je. the set draws attention to the role of the relationship between employees and their organizations (yin, 2018) and its ramifications for je. it is against this background that saks (2006) contends that je has a positive impact on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behaviour while it negatively affects the intention to quit. according to saks (2006), a strong theoretical rationale for explaining je can be found in the set as it asserts that individuals make social conclusions that are grounded on supposed costs and benefits. in essence, the set advocates the existence of a give-and-take relationship between employers and employees (jose, 2012) and delivers a hypothetical justification for why individuals may or may not be engaged in their work or organization. zinger’s (2009) model of je introduces keys that a manager must follow to achieve significant results. for instance, the model indicates that je is predicated on the employee having a connection with the job and the organization, that must be authentic (nasution & absah, 2019). this manifests when employees feel served by the organization such that they, in turn, feel obligated to invest in the pursuit of organizational goals. the zinger model also suggests that employees must experience both personal and specialized development through work by learning to enhance their own strengths, value, visibility, and engagement (kaur, 2017). remarkably, the zinger (2009) model attempts to balance the effort from organizations, management, and employees in establishing and nurturing je. in this regard, it is important for employees and managers to have roles that fully satisfy obligations while engaging to become star performers (zinger, 2012). in accordance with the model, for this to happen, the engagement must span the cognitive, emotional, and spiritual dimensions so that employees feel engaged enough to perform optimally. 2.1. job engagement and organizational performance according to darvishmotevali and ali (2020), job performance is a collection of individual behaviours in relation to the given job. job performance significantly influences the organization’s success (swanson et al., 2020) which then makes it an important element for organizations striving for success. in the light of this, to achieve efficient and sustainable service delivery in municipalities in south africa, employee job performance is a critical dependency (mhlanga, mjoli & chamisa, 2019). this is a proposition which further highlights the importance of job engagement in the context of municipalities of south africa. there is considerable interest in the connection between organizational financial results and je (bedarkar & pandita, 2014), considered as a consolidated construct. the reference to financial results could be indicative of the difference in context between the private sector and public sector, as most public sector entities like the municipalities, are driven by objectives other than financial gains. nonetheless, in a study of employees in a higher education institution in south africa, bhana and suknunan (2021) found that high levels of disengagement led to increased employee stress and high job turnover. this certainly lends itself to poor organizational performance, an unsatisfactory situation which munzhedzi (2021) observes is rife in municipalities in south africa. the poor performance of municipalities in south africa is further exacerbated by poor corporate governance (chirau & blaser-mapitsa, 2020) which is likely to affect the extent of je among employees. 56 as an antidote to poor performance, sundaray (2011) asserts that when efforts are invested in strategies to improve je, organizations tend to reap the rewards of high productivity and profits. congruent with this assertion, kaushik and guleria (2019) declare that an organization’s performance and productivity are linked to je. similarly, je, which is at the heart of workplace relationships between employers and employees has been identified as the key that unlocks productivity (myilswamy & gayatri, 2014). rameshkumar (2020) also argues that je is critical for organizational success because it stimulates organizational effectiveness, innovation, and competitive advantage. it is important to note that these positions as reflected in extant literature are based on the perspective of je as a consolidated construct. the current study takes a different approach and adopts a disaggregated view so that it can specifically examine the three dimensions of cognitive, emotional, and physical engagement and how they relate to organizational performance in south african municipalities. invariably, je, despite the pluralism of its dimensions, is associated with organizational success (pham-thai et al., 2018). the cognitive engagement (ce) dimension of je is based on employees’ beliefs about organizational factors and conditions (pepra-mensah & kyeremeh, 2018). employees who are cognitively engaged tend to have positive thoughts and attitude towards their work (kuok & taormina, 2017). in affirmation, hernandez and guarana (2018) state that je is not only determined by employees’ understanding of their job requirements but is also influenced by their anticipation of opportunities within the work environment. this suggests that different work environments and scenarios can influence je differently. in a study involving medical practitioners, van mol et al., (2018) note that cognitive demands of work have a negative relationship with je. on the other hand, employee work cognition has a positive relationship with ce (joo et al., 2017). zehir et al., (2017) argue that ce has a positive effect on performance. in addition to that, knoll and redman (2016) submit that employees who are cognitively engaged tend to focus more on their work tasks contrary to their disengaged counterparts. in a study involving teachers, adil and khan (2020) found that ce had a positive relationship with teacher performance but that the relationship is weakened by occupational stress. comparably, while investigating the role of employee engagement in organizational effectiveness, singh and singh (2021) found that ce was a strong predictor of productivity. recognizing the value of these favorable dispositions in literature with respect to employees that are cognitively engaged, this study hypothesizes that in the context of south african municipalities: h1: there is a positive association between employees’ cognitive engagement with their jobs and perceived organizational performance. je also finds expression in the emotional engagement (ee) that employees have with their organization and its goals (imandin, bisschoff & botha, 2015). ee directly affects the health of the association that employees have with their jobs and the people they interact with at work (rich et al., 2010). it is, therefore, possible that when individual employees feel emotionally engaged at their organizations, they may become more involved with their work, and this could lead to increased performance. ee as a dimension of je is defined as the willing attachment to organizational tasks and activities (kuok & taormina, 2017). this view aligns with jha, sareen and potnuru’s (2019) view that ee reflects the employee’s attitude towards the supervisor and the organization, and it can be enhanced by various factors including upward employee voice (ruck, welch & menara, 2017). instructively, organizations with emotionally engaged employees tend to experience low employee turnover (kuok & taormina, 2017), a scenario which could engender organizational performance. walden, jung and westerman (2017) echo the same sentiment by stating that emotionally engaged employees tend to be committed to the organization thereby reducing their chances of leaving. furthermore, reina et al., (2018) argue that inspirational appeals by management to employees can breed employee loyalty because they enhance ee. it is therefore unsurprising that singh and karki (2015) found a positive correlation between ee and performance. nguyen et al., (2021) also found that ee has a significant positive influence on job performance. these positions gleaned from extant literature encourage the projection that in the specific case of south african municipalities: h2: there is a positive association between employees’ emotional engagement with their jobs and perceived organizational performance. although je is highly regarded as a key aspect of organizational sustainability (vila-vázquez et al., 2018), its dimensions can have different impacts on organizational performance. physical engagement (pe) is the most obvious form of je (shuck & reio, 2014) as it causes workers to dedicate a lot of energy to work execution. pe fosters the employees’ willingness to exert full effort, resulting in added value to the organization (furst, 2018) which in turn, culminates in improved organizational performance. in a study investigating je and work outcomes among expatriate academics, lauring and selmer (2015) found 57 that pe had a positive relationship with work performance and this finding is corroborated by chhajer, rose and joseph (2018) who also found that higher levels of pe typically led to improved work performance. furthermore, physically engaged employees tend to accept higher volumes of work and strive to fulfil designated tasks (knoll & redman, 2016) which could drive organizational performance. in harmony with this opinion, zhong, wayne and liden (2016) declare that pe is positively correlated with performance and negatively related to an employee’s intention-to-quit. similarly, bakker (2017) argues that employee pe stimulates work performance as engaged employees tend to put extra effort into their work. against this backdrop but in the specific context of municipalities in south africa, this study elects to hypothesize that: h3: there is a positive association between employees’ physical engagement with their jobs and perceived organizational performance. the formulated hypotheses which are deductively derived from positions in extant literature constitute the conceptual framework for the study, as presented in figure 1. this conceptual framework theorizes that cognitive, physical, and emotional engagement are all associated, albeit positively, with perceived organizational performance. figure 1. conceptual framework 3. research methodology this is a quantitative study and so it was executed from the philosophical position of positivism. the target population of the study comprised employees currently working in south african municipalities. knowing that it was impractical to reach all respondents in the target population, the study resorted to the use of a sample. a non-probability sampling method was considered appropriate for the study because the researchers could not access a comprehensive sampling frame of municipal employees in south africa. specifically, snowball sampling was utilized as it permitted the researchers to ask for assistance in identifying potential respondents. an online self-administered questionnaire hosted on qualtrics was used for data collection and invitations to fill out the questionnaire were sent out by email. in some cases, the questionnaire was directly emailed to respondents in a bid to improve the response rate for the study. this approach was deemed appropriate because of the covid-19 pandemic and the fact that respondents were vastly geographically dispersed. it is worth highlighting that the covid-19 pandemic posed challenges to the quest to reach potential respondents because social restrictions dissuaded them from being physically present at their offices. nonetheless, while approximately 1000 were contacted with the questionnaires, only 226 responses were received, though 17 were excluded as they were incomplete. primarily, the questionnaire contained two scales to measure je and pop, respectively. for the dependent variable of pop, a likert type scale was employed. the scale which was adapted from the study of delaney and huselid (1996) sought to determine how employees rated their organization’s performance relative to other municipalities. the pop scale comprised six items in the form of statements with six associated answer options ranging from ‘much worse’ to ‘much better’. it is noteworthy that the questions in the original scale were converted to statements so that respondents were able to use a 6-point rating scale to reflect their responses. the decision to use the pop scale was partly because, as observed by sinclair, wang and tetrick (2012), it has an excellent internal consistency reliability of 0.88. the job engagement scale (jes) developed by rich et al. (2010), was utilized to measure the cognitive, emotional, and physical 58 dimensions of je. the jes is a measuring instrument that fully echoes kahn’s (1990) conceptualization of je as the extent to which people invest cognitive, emotional, and physical energy into job performance (rich et al., 2010). internal consistency reliabilities for the three dimensions in the scale are typically from 0.89 to 0.94 (rich et al., 2010). the scale had 18 items, and each was accompanied by six answer options ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’. 4. presentation of results 4.1. demographic profile of respondents table 1 illustrates the demographic profile of the respondents. the gender question was used to check the balance in the data collected. the sample was well balanced in terms of employee gender. table 1. demographic profile of respondents gender n % male 97 46 female 96 46 other 7 3 prefer not to answer 9 5 4.2. assessment of measuring scales the reliability analysis assessed the precision of the pop scale in measuring perceived organizational performance and the jes in measuring job engagement. a cronbach’s alpha (ca) of 0.750 was attained for the seven items on the pop scale. the je scale had three constructs (pe, ee, and ce), all with six items each. as shown in table 2, the ca results obtained for the ee and pe dimensions of je are 0.857 and 0.829 respectively. an item (2.16) in the ce sub-dimension had a low loading of 0.443 and was removed. the removal improved the ca of the ce scale from 0.766 to 0.781. the ca results for the pop scale and the scales for the three dimensions of je indicate acceptable levels of scale reliability. table 2. confirmatory factor analysis and scale reliabilities scale item loadings alpha if item deleted cronbach alpha for scale organisational performance 0.750 q1.1 0.726 0.698 q1.2 0.618 0.722 q1.3 0.649 0.716 q1.4 0.601 0.727 q1.5 0.653 0.717 q1.6 0.572 0.733 q1.7 0.614 0.724 physical engagement 0.829 q2.1 0.723 0.804 q2.2 0.750 0.798 q2.3 0.738 0.800 q2.4 0.745 0.799 q2.5 0.696 0.811 q2.6 0.759 0.796 emotional engagement 0.857 q2.7 0.769 0.832 q2.8 0.694 0.847 q2.9 0.787 0.828 q2.10 0.745 0.837 q2.11 0.765 0.833 q2.12 0.817 0.820 cognitive engagement 0.781 q2.13 0.768 0.726 q2.14 0.747 0.735 q2.15 0.774 0.729 q2.17 0.724 0.745 59 q2.18 0.656 0.770 4.3. descriptive statistics mean scores were used to gauge the sample’s mean perception on a given questionnaire item. results as presented in table 3 show that for the items in the pop scale, the mean scores associated with scale items were in the range of 3.66 to 4.35. these results show that respondents considered their municipalities’ performance ‘slightly better’ or indeed ‘better’ than those of other municipalities. for the pe dimension of je, item means ranged from 4.42 to 4.74. the lowest mean score for items in the ee dimension of je was 3.73 while the highest was 4.15. with respect to the ce dimension of je, the lowest and highest means scores associated with scale items were 3.92 and 4.56 respectively. at a composite level, the means for pop, pe, ee, and ce were 3.96, 4.54, 3.98 and 4.33 respectively. table 3. descriptive statistics of questionnaire items no. items n mean std. dev. perceived organizational performance 3.96 1.105 1.1 quality of training and development programs 203 3.98 1.355 1.2 development of new employee involvement programs 205 3.66 1.432 1.3 ability to attract essential employees 205 4.01 1.281 1.4 ability to retain essential employees 204 3.85 1.446 1.5 satisfaction of customers or clients 204 4.11 1.521 1.6 relations between management and employees 208 3.79 1.418 1.7 relations among employees in general 203 4.35 1.336 physical engagement 4.54 1.181 2.2 i work with intensity on my job 207 4.42 1.348 2.2 i exert my full effort to my job 203 4.43 1.424 2.3 i devote a lot of energy to my job 206 4.51 1.353 2.4 i try my hardest to perform well on my job 206 4.74 1.241 2.5 i strive as much as i can to complete my job 206 4.59 1.448 2.6 i exert a lot of energy on my job 205 4.60 1.275 emotional engagement 3.98 1.348 2.7 i am enthusiastic in my job 206 4.15 1.432 2.8 i feel energetic at my job 206 3.98 1.390 2.9 i am interested in my job 206 3.97 1.498 2.10 i am proud of my job 205 4.13 1.494 2.11 i feel positive about my job 207 3.97 1.494 2.12 i am excited about my job 205 3.73 1.503 cognitive engagement 4.33 1.100 2.13 at work, my mind is focused on my job 207 4.18 1.29 2.14 at work, i pay a lot of attention to what is expected of me 205 4.56 1.42 2.15 at work, i concentrate on my job 205 4.42 1.18 2.16 i am captivated by my job 202 3.92 1.34 2.17 at work, i focus on my tasks 204 4.50 1.24 2.18 i am dedicated to my job 204 4.38 1.47 4.4. inferential statistics prior to undertaking tests of the study’s hypotheses, it was necessary to determine if multiple linear regression assumptions were met by the data. the scatter graph in figure 2 shows that standardized residuals have a linear relationship with the dependent variable. this indicates that the linearity assumption was met (rivera, 2020) which then makes it permissible to examine the hypothesized relationships in the study with the use of multiple regression analysis. 60 figure 2. scatter plot-test for linearity the scatter plot also depicts the consistency of the independent variables’ standardized residuals across all levels of pop. this indicates that the variance of residuals was the same for all values of the independent variable. the implication is that the assumption of homoscedasticity was therefore met. furthermore, for multiple regressions, observations ought to be normally distributed. normality of the observations is confirmed by skewness and kurtosis scores of the dataset that were within a 2.58 to 2.58 range (see loerts et al., 2020). this is reflective of a data distribution pattern that is close to normal albeit with minor variations. table 4 presents the results of the multiple regression analysis that was undertaken to examine the study’s hypothesized relationships. the results show that statistically significant relationships exist between pe and pop as well as between ee and pop given that the p-values associated with these hypothesized relationships are less than 0.05. conversely, the relationship between ce and pop is not statistically significant (p>0.05). on the strength of these results, it can be concluded that h1 is not statistically supported while the reverse is the case for h2 and h3. table 4. multiple regression results dependent variable: pop independent variables std. coeff. std. error t-stat p-value physical engagement (pe) 0.286 0.093 3.082 0.002 emotional engagement (ee) 0.238 0.076 3.136 0.002 cognitive engagement (ce) 0.110 0.104 1.060 0.290 r2 0.303 f statistic 29.666*** number of obs. 208 the beta values in table 4 are standardized. a one-standarddeviation increase in pe will result in an expected increase of 0.286 standard deviations in pop, holding ee and ce constant. similarly, a one-standard-deviation increase in ee will result in an increase of 0.238 standard deviations in pop, holding pe and ce constant. although a one-standard-deviation increase in ce will result in an increase of 0.110 standard deviations in pop, the impact is not significant or may be due to chance. from table 4, though both pe and ee are positively and significantly related to pop, an increase in pe increases organizational performance relatively more than would be the case for ee. in other words, based on the sample of the study, both pe and ee significantly improve pop, but pe is relatively more important for pop than ee. the regression model in its entirety shows that the predictors in the model can explain 30.3% of the variation in the dependent variable – pop. the model, therefore, has considerable power given the existence of many other factors outside this relationship. 4. discussion the study investigated the associations between je dimensions (pe, ee, and ce) and pop. results of hypotheses tests indicate that statistically significant positive relationships exist between pe and pop as well as between ee and pop. notably though, pe is a stronger predictor of pop relative to ee. with respect to pe, this finding resonates with the opinion of furst (2018) who argues that the physical aspect of engagement fosters employees’ willingness to exert full effort, resulting in added value and 61 performance to the organization. the study’s finding of a significant positive correlation between ee and pop corroborates the view of rich et al., (2010) that employees that are emotionally engaged contribute substantially to effectiveness and improved organizational performance. notably, ce did not display any statistically significant association with pop. it is curious why this has been the case and it may be because much of the work undertaken in municipalities is largely routine in nature and is guided by standard operating procedures. such jobs are therefore generally not cognitively tasking. furthermore, it is possible that employees in top management positions, who would ordinarily place substantial premium on ce may not have participated sufficiently in the study. these notwithstanding, the result of the study as it concerns the relationship between ce and pop is in contrast with the finding of adil and khan (2020) that, among teachers, cognitive engagement is associated with improved performance. this contrast draws into focus the reality that context can influence the nature of the relationships between je dimensions and performance. the implication of this is that caution must be exercised in generalizing results across contexts or relying on results of prior studies to make inferences about the situation in specific work environments like south african municipalities. 5. recommendation and conclusion the study focused on municipal employees rather than all government employees to explore a specific portion of the public sector, that is supposedly the critical vehicle for the delivery of services to the local population. the respondents attested to their physical, emotional, and cognitive engagements but judging by the mean scores obtained through descriptive statistical analysis, the respondents were mostly physically engaged with their work. the lowest level of engagement, identified in the studied sample of municipal employees, was associated with ee. against this backdrop, management should strive to improve their relationships with employees in a bid to increase je across all dimensions. in practical terms, there is a need for management to show a higher level of interest in the well-being and development of their employees if engagement is to increase at all levels. additionally, the need for the creation of incentives that engender je by making work at municipalities more interesting, challenging and fulfilling cannot be over-emphasized. cognizant of the 30.3% predictive strength of the regression model in the study, it is necessary for management at the municipalities to invest in the improvement of the three dimensions of engagement among their employees. more specifically though, with the empirical evidence of an association between the predictor variables of pe, ee and the dependent variable of pop, higher levels of investment should be made in enhancing pe and ee in the studied population of employees in south african municipalities as a means of bolstering organizational performance. 6. limitations and future research the main limitation of the study was the use of a non-probability sampling method which made the results impossible to be generalized to a larger population. the study exclusively focused on municipal employees and excluded other public service workers. this meant that the sample was limited to the lowest stratum of the public sector governance structure in south africa and results thereof are not generalizable. additionally, there was limited access to data, and this was exacerbated by the covid-19 pandemic as organizations were operating with minimum staff. it is recommended that future research should prioritize the use of actual performance scores in measuring organizational performance rather than doing so based on perceptions. an extensive focus on je across different strata in the public sector is still needed if research gaps, particularly from the context of a developing economy, are to be addressed. given the contextual influence on the relationships between je dimensions and organizational performance, the body of knowledge would be enriched by research conducted in different industrial sectors in the developing world, owing to the dearth of research emanating from such parts of the world. funding information this research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. declaration of interests the authors declare that they 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http://dx.doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2017.12.02.25 https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2076 http://www.davidzinger.com/zinger-model/ 58 secondary english teaching programs in turkey and kosovo: a comparison in terms of the items of the curriculum1 adile osmani shehu ¹* h. şenay şen 2 ¹ university of gazi, faculty of education, educational sciences, division of curriculum and instruction, adileosmani91@gmail.com *correspondent author. 2 university of gazi, faculty of education, educational sciences, division of curriculum and instruction, senay@gazi.edu.tr article history: submission 16 december 2021 revision 11 february 2022 accepted 20 april 2022 available online 30 april 2022 keywords: curriculum, items of the curriculum, kosovo, turkey. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.312 a b s t r a c t the study was carried out in order to compare the sixth grade english curriculum in turkey and kosovo in terms of similar and different aspects. the research is a case study from qualitative research designs. the english course curriculum taken from the web pages of the ministries of national education of turkey and kosovo were analyzed in detail and interpreted by comparing the objectives, content, teaching learning process and evaluation. according to the findings obtained; it has been seen that most of the objectives in the curriculum of both countries are cognitive whereas affective objectives are limited in number. on the other hand, there are more practical objectives in the curriculum implemented in kosovo. when the teaching programs of both countries are considered according to the units, it is noteworthy that the selected topics are similar in that they contain information that can be used in daily life and are chosen to develop the imagination of the students. when the curriculum is analyzed in the context of teaching-learning process; it can be said that teaching methods such as student-centered and fun learning through games, motivating students and active use of audio-visual media tools are similar for both countries. it is also similar to the fact that there are activities and alternative evaluation methods that encourage formative assessment instead of summative evaluation in case of testing in the curriculum. on the other hand, different from kosovo, it has been observed that detailed information about the testing situation is given to teachers in the english language curriculum in turkey, and there are some recommendations in this context with effective assessment and evaluation techniques. 1. introduction the learning process for human beings needs to be planned, organized and monitored very well. because human is an entity that can think, assign meaning to what they think and organize what they learn. in addition, continues to learn at every stage of her life, voluntarily or involuntarily, throughout her life (author & karataş, 2018, 3). in fact, learning is the occurrence of some changes in behavior as a result of interaction with the 1 the article was produced from adile osmani shehu's master's thesis titled "comparison of the 6th grade english curriculum applied in turkey and kosovo", conducted under the supervision of h. şenay şen. environment (senemoğlu, 2012, 4), and therefore learning is the accumulation of our own lives and past experiences. the need for learning begins with life and continues in different dimensions. in our age, the social and economic conditions surrounding the individual are changing rapidly and create the need for more learning. therefore, the search for formulas for lifelong learning has begun. along with environmental factors, rapid changes in the global scale are effective on the increase in the need for https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:adileosmani91@gmail.com mailto:senay@gazi.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.312 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7711-3343 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0951-1216 59 learning. in order to keep up with the developing technology and to follow the current information and developments, intercommunal communication and interaction has increased, and this process has brought 'global communication' with it. english, which is the global communication language of our age, has thus gained a universal dimension and learning this language has become one of the important needs today. the english language appears in all areas of life. for example; technological devices we use, cars, movies we watch, music we listen to, social media, etc., it is used in every field. in addition, english has become the universal language of publication and science. according to ammon, english is the most widely learned foreign language in the world. in addition, the english language is spoken in more than a hundred countries and spread over a wide geography. the fact that english is the first language in the list of the most learned foreign language clearly shows the global dimension this language has reached (noack & gamio, 2015). therefore, the way and success of countries in teaching english to children is important both in terms of competition and sustainable development. communicating with other people from past to present, getting to know them, trading etc. for many reasons, getting together has been both a necessity and a matter of great desire and curiosity. therefore, the need to learn the other person's language arose and these were sometimes local and sometimes international languages. learning and teaching the languages of communication used globally has also gained importance (altan, 2017). even today, learning a foreign language has naturally become a necessity rather than a need. the desire to learn a foreign language is increasing day by day. especially in recent years, english lessons in public and private institutions are among the courses that are given great importance by both students and parents. with the changes in the education system from the past to the present, innovations have been made in english education. for example, since the 1997-1998 academic year, foreign language courses have been made compulsory starting from the fourth grade of primary education. with the english curriculum introduced in turkey in 2006, it is aimed to build english teaching on more contemporary foundations. with the changes made with the transition to the (4+4+4) education system in 2012, english lessons have been made compulsory since the second grade of primary school. with the emergence of new, contemporary approaches and techniques in foreign language education, the english course curriculum was updated in this direction in 2013 (demirtaş & erdem, 2015). in addition, the english course curriculum was updated again in 2017 and 2018, taking into account the opinions, suggestions and contributions of the stakeholders and the public. on the other hand, changes in curriculum continue by focusing on social studies, mathematics, science and modern languages. however, all countries are now making radical changes in their secondary education programs (türkoğlu, 2012, 3). because the curriculum includes all the activities related to the teaching of a lesson that are thought to be taught to students inside or outside the school (demirel, 2015, 6). on the other hand, education systems are undoubtedly affected by changes in politics, economy, culture and social areas. at the same time, in this age where science and technology are changing rapidly, with the effect of social demands, countries seek solutions to their problems in their education systems and conduct many researches. especially after the second world war, the changes in the international dimension brought some new problems with it. some organizations have been established for the solution of similar and different problems in countries, international cooperation, consensus of views and ideas, and planning of the common future. in this context, the united nations and its subsidiaries unesco, unicef, who, council of europe, geneva international education office, oecd and many other organizations have started to work together to find solutions to economic and social problems in the world. through international congresses and conferences held every year, scientists and teachers go to different countries to exchange ideas and participate in various discussions to find solutions to common problems. in addition, international organizations prepare and publish documents that analyze the differences and similarities between countries in detail. for this reason, studies based on comparison between countries have great importance. of course, it is seen that comparative education studies will help to produce solutions for national education systems by focusing on the international dimensions of education (türkoğlu, 2012, 4). comparative education facilitates the comparison of education systems in a particular society and region or within different regions and societies in terms of specific focal points. it also enables the evaluation of education systems in terms of common criteria, and the determination of similar and different elements, strengths and weaknesses between them (ergün, 1985). for example, according to the "english proficiency index" report published by "education first" in 2019, when we look at the studies in the field of english language, turkey ranks 79th among 100 countries participating in the research. in addition, turkey ranks 32nd among 33 european countries. in the first five of the research, respectively; netherlands, sweden, norway, denmark and singapore. the last country in the index is libya. estonia, latvia, kosovo, moldova and armenia are not included in the research index (education first, 2019). cause-effect relationships and solution-oriented studies to be established based on this can make a difference. in addition, it is observed that comparisons of english proficiency levels between countries are rare and young countries such as kosovo are still not sufficiently included in the 60 studies. in this study, the curricula of both turkey and kosovo were compared, taking into account the elements. it is thought that the obtained results will be a source for similar researches to be done in the field and also be an example for new studies to be done with different countries. 2. aim the research was carried out in order to compare the similar and different aspects of the 6th grade english curriculum elements (objectives, content, teaching learning process and evaluation) in turkey and kosovo. 1. what are the features of the 6th grade english curriculum elements (objectives, content, teaching learning process and evaluation) in turkey? 2. what are the characteristics of the 6th grade english curriculum elements (objectives, content, teaching learning process and evaluation) applied in kosovo? 3. what are the similarities and differences of the 6th grade english curriculum elements applied in turkey and kosovo in terms of their general characteristics? 3. method the research is a qualitative study and document analysis has been done. in qualitative research, different data collection methods such as interview, observation and document analysis are used for the solution of a problem (seale, 1999). in comparative education studies, the horizontal approach technique is mostly preferred (erdoğan, 2015, 38) and it was also used in this study. because in the horizontal approach, the elements of different education systems are examined separately but in parallel and at the same time holistically. in the horizontal approach, all parameters are brought side by side and the differences are tried to be determined (aynal, 2012, 217). in this context, the curricula of both countries were analyzed and interpreted with their general characteristics. 4. data collection the document analysis method, which is frequently used in qualitative research, is also used as a stand-alone data collection method in cases where direct use of data collection methods such as observation and interview is not possible. document analysis includes a detailed examination of written documents containing information about the event or phenomena discussed in the research and the creation of a new integrity from the information obtained (creswell, 2002, 180). in the research, turkey and kosovo were examined in terms of 6th grade english course curriculum elements and findings were created. the steps followed in this process are as follows: 1. accessing documents, 2. checking the originality of documents, 3. making sense of documents, 4. analyzing data, 5. use of data (yıldırım & şimşek, 2018, 194). the documents examined in the research are the sixth grade english language teaching programs implemented in turkey and kosovo and taken from the official web pages of the ministries of national education of both countries. 5. analysis of data content analysis was performed for the data obtained in the research. because it is desired to classify the document content by placing it in appropriate categories, to analyze the data obtained objectively, and to create concepts and connections that will explain these data. while performing content analysis, first data sets are created and codes created from frequently repeated and emphasized facts and events are processed here. categories are created from these codes and themes are created from categories. then, the codes created from the data determined to be similar and related are combined and interpreted within the framework of certain categories and themes (bengtsson, 2016). the same steps were followed for the analysis of this research data. for the created data set, first a literature review was made and then expert opinion was taken. research reliability is related to the fact that the research gives the same or similar results when it is repeated in the same way by a different researcher (yıldırım & şimşek, 2018, 272). in this context, the analyzes were controlled separately by two researchers and compared again at different times. 5.1. findings the findings of the research conducted in order to compare the features of the sixth grade english curriculum elements in turkey and kosovo with respect to similar and different aspects are given below, respectively. 1. ‘what are the characteristics of the 6th grade english curriculum elements (objectives, content, teaching learning process and evaluation) in turkey?’ findings for the question are shared in table 1 and table 2. 61 table 1. objectives and topics in the turkish sixth grade english curriculum units objectives content 1life students will be able to recognize phrases, words, and expressions related to repeated actions. students will be able to talk about repeated actions. students will be able to use a series of phrases and simple expressions to express their repeated actions. students will be able to tell the time and dates. students will be able to understand short and simple texts, such as personal narratives about repeated actions. (5 cognitive objectives) describing what people do regularly (making simple inquiries),telling the time and dates 2yummy breakfast students will be able to identify the names of different food in an oral text. students will be able to ask people about their food preferences. students will be able to express their opinions about the food they like and don’t like. students will be able to understand short and simple texts about food and preferences. (4 cognitive and 1 affective objective) accepting and refusing, describing what people do regularly, expressing likes and dislikes 3downtown students will be able to identify expressions and phrases related to present events. students will be able to pick up the expressions in a dialogue comparing things. students will be able to ask people questions about what they are doing at the moment. students will be able to ask people to compare things. students will be able to describe people doing different actions. students will be able to make comparisons between two things. students will be able to understand visually supported, short and simple texts. (5 cognitive and 2 affective objectives) describing places, describing what people are doing now (making simple inquiries) 4weather and emotions students will be able to pick up specific information from short oral texts about weather conditions and emotions. students will be able to ask people about the weather. students will be able to talk about the weather and their emotions in a simple way. students will be able to understand short and simple texts about the weather, weather conditions and emotions. (3 cognitive and 1 affective objective) describing the weather, making simple inquiries expressing emotions 5at the fair students will be able to recognize the words related to the expression of emotions. students will be able to talk about and express the feelings and personal opinions about places and things. students will be able to use various simple expressions to state the feelings and personal opinions about places and things. students will be able to understand general meaning in simple texts related to the feelings and personal opinions about places and things. students will be able to read specific information on a poster about a certain place. (5 cognitive objectives) describing places, expressing feelings, expressing likes and dislikes stating personal opinions 6occupations students will be able to understand familiar words and simple phrases concerning people’s occupations in clear oral texts. students will be able to understand the time, days and dates. students will be able to talk about occupations. students will be able to ask personal questions. students will be able to state the dates. students will be able to understand familiar words and simple sentences about occupations and the dates. students will talking about occupations, asking personal questions, telling the time, days and dates 62 be able to produce a piece of writing about occupations and the dates.( 6 cognitive and 1 affective objective) 7holidays students will be able to spot the activities about holidays in oral texts. students will be able to talk about their holidays. students will be able to describe past activities and personal experiences. students will be able to understand short, simple sentences and expressions related to past activities. students will be able to write short and simple pieces in various forms about holidays. (5 cognitive objective) talking about past events (making simple inquiries) 8bookworms students will be able to listen to the instructions and locate things. students will be able to understand past events in oral texts. students will be able to talk about the locations of people and things. students will be able to talk about past events with definite time. students will be able to describe the locations of people and things. students will be able to describe past events with definite time. students will be able to understand short, simple sentences and expressions about past events with definite time. students will be able to write about past events with definite time. students will be able to write about the locations of people and things. (9 cognitive objective) talking about locations of things and people talking about past events 9saving the planet students will be able to recognize appropriate attitudes to save energy and to protect the environment. students will be able to understand suggestions related to the protection of the environment in simple oral texts. students will be able to give each other suggestions about the protection of the environment. students will be able to talk to people about the protection of the environment. students will be able to understand the texts about the protection of the environment. students will be able to follow short, simple written instructions. students will be able to write simple pieces about the protection of the environment. (6 cognitive and 1 affective objective) giving and responding to simple suggestions 10democracy students will be able to recognize some key features related to the concept of democracy. students will be able to talk about the stages of classroom president polls. students will be able to give short descriptions of past and present events. students will be able to talk about the concept of democracy. students will be able to recognize familiar words and simple phrases related to the concept of democracy. students will be able to write simple pieces about concepts related to democracy. (5 cognitive 1 affective objective) talking about stages of a procedure making simple inquiries talking about past events when the english course curriculum is examined; it is seen that there are six objectives in bookworms 9, occupations, saving the planet and democracy units. there are five objectives in life, downtown, at the fair, holiday, 4 in yummy breakfast, and 3 in weather and emotions. accordingly, it is seen that there are a total of 60 objectives in the units, the majority of which are cognitive and six of them are affective. when the curriculum is examined in terms of content, there are 10 units in total. topics; daily activities, delicious breakfast, food and drink, life, fair, emotions, holidays, protecting the planet, democracy, etc. dispersed in the form. these include information that students can use in their daily lives and draw attention in terms of improving their imagination. 63 table 2. teaching learning process and evaluation of the sixth grade english curriculum in turkey units teaching learning process evaluation 1life chants and songs, drama (role play, simulation, pantomime), games, information transfer, labeling, matching, questions and answers, reordering, true/false/no information self-assessment (self evaluation), group assessment (group evaluation), individual assessment (evaluation), combination of group and individual assessment, the use of work samples, portfolios and projects. rubric, peer assessment, performance task 2yummy breakfast games, drama (role play, simulation, pantomime), information transfer, labeling, questions and answers, true/false/no information it repeats with the first unit. 3downtown drama (role play, simulation, pantomime), information/opinion gap, information transfer, games, labeling, matching, question and answers, true/false/no information it repeats with the first unit. 4weather and emotions drama (role play, simulation, pantomime), find someone who …, games, information/ opinion gap, information transfer, labeling, matching, question and answers, true/false/no information it repeats with the first unit. 5at the fair chants and songs, drama (role play, simulation, pantomime), find someone who… games, information/ opinion gap, information transfer, labeling, matching, question and answers, true/false/no information it repeats with the first unit. 6occupations drama (role play, simulation, pantomime), find someone who. games, information/opinion gap, information transfer, matching, labeling, questions and answers, reordering, storytelling true/false/ no information it repeats with the first unit. 7holidays it repeats the same with the sixth unit.*making puppets (different) it repeats with the first unit. 8bookworms drama (role play, simulation, pantomime) find someone who… games, information/ opinion gap, information transfer, matching, labeling, questions and answers, reordering, storytelling, true/false/no information it repeats with the first unit. 9saving the planet it repeats the same with the eighth unit. it repeats with the first unit. 10democracy it repeats the same with the ninth unit. it repeats with the first unit. when table 2 is examined, it is seen that there are many methods and techniques in the curriculum and these are repeated in each unit. differently, there are 'chants and songs' in the life and at the fair units, and 'making puppets' in the holidays unit; except for the first three units, the game 'find someone who?' is seen in the program. in general, many methods such as songs, drama, games, information transfer, matching, labeling, questionanswer, rearrangement and true-false are suggested and thus many alternatives are offered to teachers. in addition, it is noteworthy that more students are tried to be kept active in these methods and techniques. on the other hand, there are stories, paintings, short poems, nursery rhymes, posters, dialogues, songs, cartoons, cartoons, postcards, short messages and notes etc. in the curriculum. when the evaluation of the english lesson curriculum is examined; it was found that assessment methods such as summative and formative assessment techniques, selfassessment, group assessment, peer assessment, portfolio, performance task, rubric, and written exams were predominant. 64 2. what are the features of the 6th grade english curriculum elements (objectives, content, teaching learning process and evaluation) implemented in kosovo? findings related to the question are shown in table 3 and table 4. table 3. objectives and topics in the kosovo sixth grade english curriculum units objectives content 1-all about me understands simple yes/no and wh-questions and responds to simple yes/no wh-questions with a simple response. explores structures and vocabulary used in describing people (present simple tense, adjectives) and practices their use in context. produces short texts of description of a person’s appearance and character using appropriate vocabulary and structures. expresses present activities and notes the difference between present simple and continuous. express likes and dislikes on a variety of everyday topics. (5 cognitive objectives) asking for and giving personal information vocab. field-countries food and cooking in, on, at how do you live? positives and negatives 2-having fun asks and answers about the way they live including clothes, activities, free time and people. identifies and uses count and non-count nouns and common quantifiers. gives and receives information about quantities, numbers, prices etc. identifies the types of foods found in grocery stores. identifies and classifies foods in each group. listens about food and discusses information regarding health, diet, recipe and countries. (6 cognitive objectives) countable and uncountable expressions of quantity offering food and drink food around the world being healthy 3-past times produces short texts of description of a person’s physical appearance and character’s using appropriate vocabulary and structures. demonstrates awareness of connections, similarities and differences between people and reacts in positive ways. discusses with peers and teacher regarding travel and transport. understands short simple descriptions of known people including how they met, place and time. gets information about things around them. uses words that signal differences between present and past in simple statements related to common activities. identifies the correct form of a verb to convey the meaning of a completed past event. applies the pronunciation rules for (-ed) endings in past forms of regular verbs in aural discrimination activities. (8 cognitive objectives) a famous movie star hobbies and interests an exciting journey a famous inventor past actions 4-it’s a musical world express likes and dislikes on a variety of everyday topics. completes most forms related to personal information on daily routines. asks questions to clarify when information is not making sense. composes clear and coherent sentences using appropriate grammatical structures: aspects of verbs. asks questions to clarify or provide further understanding on the topic. makes suggestions about places to go. understands short simple descriptions of people and places and reflect on them. recognizes basic prepositions in contextualized speech. composes clear and coherent sentences using appropriate grammatical structures: prepositions. (7 cognitive and 2 affective objectives) at home at school question words travelling in, on, at responds to simple conversation in familiar contexts with familiar vocabulary. gives purposes about activities. completes sports and equipment giving a purpose travelling around the world 65 5-things i like most forms related to people’s personal information. uses speaking to explore and refine their own ideas and opinions, and begin to respond to the ideas of others. uses a particular kind of sentence for a specific purpose and audience expressing opinions, emotions, preferences. writes short, simple informal notes or messages about themselves, stores, eating, shopping, preferences, likes and dislikes. explores structures and vocabulary used in describing people (present simple, adjectives) and practices their use in context. identify adjectives and use correctly in their writing. discuss family members using a variety of adjectives to describe personality. (9 cognitive objectives) an exciting journey awonderful world the place where i live where i would like to go describing words 6-day by day uses quantifying expressions (much / many, a lot of, too, not enough) to talk about quantity. expresses obligations and responsibilities using have to. asks and answers about obligations and responsibilities at home and school. asks and answers about the way they live including clothes, activities, free time and people. describes activities using adjectives. understands short simple descriptions of people and places and the relationship with them. gets information about things and buy something in a shop. (5 cognitive and 2 affective objectives) expressions of quantity expressing obligation (have to) how do you live positives and negatives describing activities working together shopping 7-out and about asks and answers questions using the present, past and future tenses. uses going to/present continuous to express future plans and fixed future arrangements. takes part in discussions to express inevitable events in the future. (2 cognitive and 1 affective objective) future plans expresing voluntary actions will relaxing activities 8-happy holidays uses going to/present continuous to express future plans and fixed future arrangements. explores differences in words that represent people, places and things (nouns including pronouns), happenings and states (verbs) qualities (adjectives) and details such as when, where and how (adverbs). explores structures and vocabulary used in describing people (present simple tense, adjectives and possessive nouns) and practices their use in context. express likes and dislikes on a variety of everyday topics. expresses ideas and feelings and understands and respects the perspectives of others. uses vocabulary related to holiday and vacation. (6 cognitive objectives) future plans expressing possession opposites (big-small) describing people and their relations describing feelings and things vocabulary field holidays and travelling feelings table 3 shows that there are 8 units in the sixth grade english curriculum in kosovo. in the distribution of the objectives according to the units; there are nine objectives in the units 'things i like and it's a musical world'. there are 8 objectives in the 'past times' unit. there are 7 objectives in the 'day by day' and 'happy holidays' units. there are 6 objectives in the 'having fun' unit and 5 in the 'all about me' unit. the least objective is in the 'out and about' unit. it was found that there are 53 objectives in total in the english curriculum units, and only 6 of them are affective and the remaining majority are cognitive objectives, and the practical objectives are noteworthy. 66 table 4. teaching learning process and evaluation in kosovo sixth grade english curriculum units teaching learning process evaluation 1-all about me matching, memory games, filling in crosswords, grids, and diagrams. problems and puzzles, drilling, open dialogues, substitution tables, guided writing. drama activities, projects, quizzes self-assessment (self – evaluation), group assessment (group evaluation), individual assessment (evaluation), combination of group and individual assessment, the use of work samples, portfolios and projects, checklist 2-having fun * it repeats with the first unit. it repeats with the first unit. 3-past times it repeats with the first unit. it repeats with the first unit. 4-it’s a musical world it repeats with the first unit. it repeats with the first unit. 5-things i like it repeats with the first unit. it repeats with the first unit. 6-day by day it repeats with the first unit. it repeats with the first unit. 7-out and about it repeats with the first unit. it repeats with the first unit. 8-happy holidays it repeats with the first unit. it repeats with the first unit. there are 8 units in the 6th grade english curriculum in kosovo and when the distribution is considered according to the topics; students learn about communication skills such as interpreting, expressing, negotiating meaning, and patterns of ideas, behaviors, cultural artifacts and symbols, sounds, vocabulary, grammar, cognitive, socio-emotional and meta-cognitive etc. acquire skills such as in the case of testing the curriculum; it is seen that there are techniques and methods such as matching, memory games, puzzles, repetition, dialogue, writing, drama, project and quiz in the units. in addition, it is seen that alternative evaluation methods such as self-assessment and process evaluation are emphasized. self-assessment, group evaluation, portfolio, project and checklist etc. evaluation methods such as these are applied for all units. 3. what are the similarities and differences of the 6th grade english curriculum elements applied in turkey and kosovo in terms of their general characteristics? findings for the question are presented below. it is seen that cognitive objectives are predominant and affective objectives are limited in 6th grade english curriculums in turkey and kosovo. achievements determined according to an actionoriented teaching model; it aims to enable students to express themselves and their thoughts with the necessary simple and useful language functions in everyday language. while the objectives in the english curriculum in turkey are given by emphasizing the four basic language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing); separate chapters have not been opened in kosovo. in addition, listening and speaking skills are defined as primary skills in turkey. table 5. units in the english curriculum of the countries of turkey and kosovo turkey (units) kosovo (units) unit 1 – life unit 1 – all about me unit 2 – yummy breakfast unit 2 – having fun unit 3 – downtown unit 3 – past times unit 4 – weather and emotions unit 4 – it’s a musical world unit 5 – at the fair unit 5 – things i like unit 6 – occupations unit 6 – day by day unit 7 – holidays unit 7 – out and about unit 8 – bookworms unit 8 – happy holidays unit 9 – saving the planet unit 10 – democracy when table 5 is examined, it is seen that there are 10 units in the 6th grade english curriculum in turkey and 8 units in the kosovo curriculum, and the unit names are similar. for example, there is a 'holidays' unit in turkey's curriculum and a 'happy holidays' in kosovo. looking at the topics in the units; students are expected to learn about the past and present, such as occupations, food, personal tastes, daily life, emotions, telling the time, dates, ordinals and weather. in addition to all these, it is aimed to raise 67 students as responsible individuals towards the environment and society in which they live, with the themes of environment and democracy. in addition, a short word list is given at the end of each unit/theme in turkey. in kosovo, similarly, there are topics such as food, personal tastes, daily lives, emotions. different from the curriculum of the two countries; in kosovo, there are antonyms, future tense, prepositions of time, countable and uncountable nouns. table 6. comparison of turkey and kosovo english curriculum teaching learning process turkey (units 1-10) kosovo (units 1-8) chants and songs; drama; (role play, simulation, pantomime); find someone who; games; information/opinion gap; information transfer; matching; labeling; questions and answers; reordering; storytelling; true/false/no information; making puppets. matching; memory games; filling in crosswords, grids, and diagram; problems and puzzles; drilling; open dialogues; substitution tables; guided writing; drama activities; projects; quizzes. when table 6 is examined, it is seen that there are similar methods related to english language teaching in the curriculum of both countries and very similar techniques are used. however, there are more listening and speaking activities in the curriculum in turkey. table 7. comparison of turkey and kosovo english curriculum evaluation process turkey (units 1-10) kosovo (units 1-8) * which is different rubric checklist peer assessment performance task * similar to self-assessment (self – evaluation) group assessment (group evaluation) individual assessment (evaluation) combination of group and individual assessment the use of work samples, portfolios and projects self-assessment (self – evaluation) group assessment (group evaluation) individual assessment (evaluation) combination of group and individual assessment the use of work samples, portfolios and projects there are evaluation methods such as product and process evaluation, self-assessment, group evaluation, portfolio and written exams in the curricula of the two countries. differently, performance task, rubric and peer assessment are applied in the english curriculum in turkey. there is also a checklist in the kosovo english curriculum. 6. conclusion, discussion and suggestions 1. results regarding the objectives of turkish and kosovo english curriculum: in both countries, it is seen that the curriculum objectives are predominantly in the cognitive field. according to bloom (1956), cognitive steps are classified as high-level analysis, evaluation and creation, and low-level recall, understanding and application (p.35). the main difference between high-level and low-level cognitive stages is that high-level cognitive stages are more generalizable cognitive processes and include all types of knowledge. therefore, high-level cognitive steps can be used to facilitate learning in low-level cognitive steps (anderson et al. 2001) and structuring information is possible with the acquisition of higher-order thinking skills (çiftçi, 2010). in order for learning to take place effectively, the objectives should vary according to grade levels and subject areas. the fact that the achievements in the curricula are at low level also causes teachers to provide education at a low level cognitive level (gökler, aypay, & arı, 2012). according to demir (2008)'s research, it is necessary to make significant changes in the content of english textbooks taught in primary education classes to improve high-level thinking skills. when the two countries are considered in terms of affective objective steps, it is seen that there are a total of 6 affective objectives. in addition, the objectives in the 6th grade english curriculum applied in kosovo include more than one action. this is thought to be due to time constraints. çıray, küçükyılmaz, and güven (2015) state that there are teachers' opinions in their studies that the objectives contain uncertainties. the objectives of the turkish english curriculum are presented by emphasizing four basic language skills. the affective objectives of the turkish and kosovo english curriculum have been limited. because it is difficult to evaluate affective goals at 68 the end of teaching (tahiroğlu & çetin, 2019). listening and speaking skills are defined as primary skills in the curriculum in turkey, and there is no such definition in kosovo. however, researches show that the main purpose of language learning is communication skills; emphasizes that verbal communication skills such as listening and speaking are at the core of communication (efe, demiröz, & akdemir, 2011). the listener can understand and speak long and complex sentences spoken. all these constitute the relationship between speaking and listening (aldyab, 2017). haznedar and uysal (2010) emphasize that priority should be given to listening and speaking skills and that the main focus in teaching should be on meaning rather than form. in addition, they draw attention to the importance of exemplifying the use of language by using visual sources, objects, movements or mimics, and that it is necessary to try as much as possible to carry out the lessons in a foreign language (p.7). in his study, yılmaz (2005) reveals the necessity of giving importance to communicative skills such as speaking and listening in english learning and teaching planning. speech as a means of communication is very important in terms of communication. kaçar and zengin (2009) also reveal that speaking skill should be the primary target skill in language learning. in line with this information, it is possible to deduce that speaking skill is a very important part in english education. yıldırım and doğan (2010) state that speaking a language is the biggest indicator of mastery of that language. one of the points to be considered while learning the mother tongue is to ensure the development of listening, in other words, the production, that is, speaking, along with comprehension in the first place. because this process is also a normal function of the human brain and this order must be preserved in the language teaching process (taşer, 1996, p.61). i̇şisağ and demirel (2010) emphasize the importance of learning language and developing speaking skills in order to communicate. rosio (2012) states that speaking and listening skills in a language different from the mother tongue are complex and need to be specially developed. according to robertson (2008), the connection between listening skill and degree of success is stronger than the connection between the degree of success and intelligence level of a person (p.51). students who have developed their listening skills facilitate their learning and can keep the information they have learned in their memories for a long time. the duration of the course is equal to at least three course hours and may vary according to the content of the course (uluğ, 1996, p.70). most of the educator’s state that listening skill is of critical importance in foreign language learning, especially for children (rost, 2014). it is stated that it is important for students to acquire speaking skills at an early age, as well as listening skills, so that they can acquire the pronunciation of the language more effectively and easily (flege, munro, & mackay, 1995). therefore, it is supported by related studies that defining listening and speaking skills as primary skills in the 6th grade english curriculum implemented in turkey contributes to language learning at an early age. 2. results regarding the content of turkish and kosovo english course curriculum: there are a total of 10 units in the english curriculum in turkey, and the topics are covered as themes to develop students' imaginations. cameron (2001) states that theme-oriented teaching is suitable for students' natural learning process and also contributes to students' meaningful learning and motivation (p.191). scott and ytreberg (1990) state that theme-based instruction improves students' critical thinking skills. in addition, they state that theme-oriented teaching helps to establish a relationship between the learned words, structures and situations and the learned theme, and therefore enables students to store and recall information more easily (p.85). there are 8 units in the english curriculum in kosovo. the kosovo english curriculum combines topics such as culture, art, history, geography, media literacy, personal education and topics directly related to them (ebtb, 2018). in language teaching, determining the most used and necessary words of the language to be taught is an important factor in the success of language teaching. in order to determine the most necessary words for the learner, studies based on frequency counts are carried out (aksan, 2009, p.17). in the curriculum, plans are made to enable students to communicate using their language skills on subjects such as daily life, emotions, personal tastes, professions, weather, dates, time information, food, numbers. in addition, with the themes of environment and democracy, it is aimed to educate students as individuals who are responsible for their environment and society (meb, 2018). similar to turkey, also in kosovo there are topics such as food, personal tastes, daily life, emotions. different from turkey is that, in kosovo there are antonyms, future tense, prepositions of time, countable and uncountable nouns. units related to the environment and democracy are not included. the programs implemented in both countries are prepared in a way that allows for a spiral content arrangement approach and are used separately for each class and together with the theme-subject heading. 3. results regarding the teaching learning process of turkish and kosovo english curriculum: in the turkish english course curriculum, texts that children in this age group can come across frequently in daily life are suggested, such as stories, paintings, short poems, nursery rhymes, posters, dialogues, songs, cartoons, postcards, text messages and notes. there are activities in which students actively participate, share their ideas and participate actively in the learning process. mayer and harris (2010) state that the use 69 of activities such as playing games while learning a foreign language contributes positively to the classroom environment, and that games also provide significant benefits in teaching the subject in terms of enriching the subject content (p.11). in the kosovo english course curriculum, it is aimed to provide students with the necessary qualifications and equipment, and to achieve the planned goals and achievements, by encouraging new approaches and improvements in language teaching and learning. the reason why the learning-centered approach is preferred over traditional approaches is that it encourages goal-oriented and project-based learning, adopts communicative approaches to develop student creativity and autonomy, and most importantly facilitates student cooperation and interaction (ebtb, 2018). kosovo 6th grade english curriculum includes methods such as matching, memory games, puzzles, repetition, dialogue, writing, drama, projects and quizzes. the curricula of the two countries are similar in terms of student-centered learning through play, high motivation, and the use of audio-visual media tools. however, seçkin (2011) concluded from his study that teachers are not sufficiently informed and guided about teaching techniques and methods, when, where and how to use them. however, in order to be successful in language teaching, there is a need for methods that not only provide information about the language, but also aim to provide understandable and rich input to the student, and adopt the language as a learning and communication tool (krashen, 2000). therefore, the most important aspect of the program is its targeting of active participation of students in learning and teaching processes (seçkin, 2011). 4. results regarding the evaluation process of turkish and kosovo english curriculum: the explicit philosophy of the turkish english curriculum for testing includes the implicit evaluation of both product-oriented and process-oriented assessment tests and all other test methods, as well as four language skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening) and language components (meb, 2018). however, it is important to diversify the teaching methods in the curriculum as much as possible and to offer various and multiple assessment opportunities in which students can present their knowledge and skills within the scope of measurement and evaluation (meb, 2006). evaluation methods such as self-assessment, group evaluation, peer evaluation, portfolio, performance task, rubric, written exams are applied in turkey. evaluation methods such as self-assessment, group evaluation, portfolio and project are applied in kosovo. curriculum include activities and alternative evaluation methods that encourage process evaluation rather than product-oriented evaluation. differently, performance task, rubric and peer assessment are applied in the 6th grade english curriculum applied in turkey. the most widely used measurement tool in performance evaluation is the rubric assessment. with its structure consisting of performance levels and criteria, rubric assessment provides the opportunity to provide more accurate and detailed information about students' performance by minimizing the biases that may occur in the scoring process. an effectively defined rubric assessment can prevent reliability problems that may occur in scoring (parlak & doğan, 2014). with peer and group evaluations, active participation of students in the evaluation process can be ensured and students can be informed that their opinions are considered important. in addition, peer and group assessments allow students to interact with their peers and contribute to the development of students' cognitive skills as well as their social aspects (öztürk & şahin, 2014). knowing students' thoughts, experiences, attitudes and answers about assessment is important for understanding students (brown & wang, 2011). a checklist is used in the assessment field in the kosovo curriculum. while it is seen that turkey includes very detailed measurement techniques and recommendations on evaluation, it has not been seen in kosovo. in addition, alternative evaluation is also included in both programs as well as classical evaluation approaches. according to wiggins (1993), alternative assessment does not aim to reach a conclusion at the end of the teaching process, but to provide versatile and rapid feedback for the development of the stakeholders of the system within the learning process (p.11). with this aspect, it is stated that alternative assessment completes learning, which is one of the main purposes of education, and contributes to learning action (broadfoot & black, 2004). alternative assessment practice is characterized by studentcentered educational approaches. because it provides feedback to the system by addressing students' previous knowledge, experiences, individual differences and needs, different learning styles, cultural and language differences (hammond, 1994). examples of alternative assessment techniques are performanceoriented assessment, self-assessment, peer and group assessment practices, as well as portfolios and diaries. in the alternative assessment technique, it is aimed that the learners feel the responsibility of learning by ensuring that they take an active role in the learning process. in line with this purpose, active participation of students is ensured in areas such as creating rubrics, selfand peer-assessment, and in reaching the goals of measurement and evaluation practices and determining their characteristics (smith, 2000, p.59). özdemir (2010) states that the alternative assessment technique highlights the high-level cognitive skills, problem-solving skills and creativity of the learners, and also draws attention to the evaluation of the process along with the result. in a study conducted on teachers, it is seen that the majority of teachers rate their own levels as partially 70 sufficient in planning, preparing and applying alternative assessment and evaluation techniques (kanatlı, 2008). in a study conducted in turkey, it is seen that most of the active teachers have not reached the desired level and equipment regarding alternative assessment and evaluation techniques (çakan, 2004). the elements that show similarities in the assessment and evaluation approaches of the curricula of the two countries are the use of evaluation methods such as product evaluation, process evaluation, self and group evaluation, portfolio and written exams. fer (2015) states that process assessment, known as formative assessment, facilitates, improves and makes teaching more effective, and also contributes to taking necessary precautions (p.240). the recommendations developed in line with the research findings are as follows:  the english course curriculum of turkey and kosovo countries can be updated by considering both the higher levels of the cognitive domain and 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d_diedon@hotmail.com article history: submission 03 december 2021 revision 29 january 2022 accepted 03 march 2022 available online 30 april 2022 keywords: catlm, instructional humor, ihcalm. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.282 a b s t r a c t while background music and interesting yet irrelevant to the topic adjuncts were found to harm learning (and were classified as seductive detail) in the cognitive-affective theory of learning with media model (catlm), emotionally appealing shapes and color were found to foster learning (and were classified as multimedia with emotional design). however, although humour is used in education during class and has both psychological and physiological benefits, there is no published research about instructional humour (ih) in catlm to date. the purpose of the current research was to clarify whether ih in catlm fosters learning, or if it is yet another type of seductive detail. total of 96 young undergraduate student participants were randomly assigned to watch a stimuli depicting 3d animations of brain cells either with ih (named as ihcalm) or without it (named as nh). all student data regarding mirth duration were measured with cameras, while how funny they found the stimuli, as well as their cognitive load, emotions, motivation, knowledge, and metacognition were all measured with opensesame. to test if the ihcalm harms learning, similarity between conditions was analyzed with both bayesian factor analysis and null hypothesis testing, which jointly reveal 3 outcomes. outcome results show that ihcalm does not harms learning, due to being similar with the non-humorous condition. implications of these findings for education are considered. 1. introduction humor involves both the cognitive and reward components (franklin & adams, 2011; vrticka et al., 2013), as well as intelligence and creativity (greengross et al., 2012). as such, the use of humor in education is believed to have a significant history (wilkins & eisenbraun, 2009). when humor is used in education, the learning process becomes a joint educational growth-inciting venture for both the teacher and the learner (hackathorn et al., 2012; morrison & quest, 2012). however, although the cognitive affective theory of learning with media (catlm, moreno & mayer, 2007) is evolving to include various new emotion inciting elements (um et al., 2011), there is no published research to date that includes instructional humor (ih) as an iv in catlm. largely due to concerns related to working memory limitations, introducing a new type of instruction (e.g., ih) as an iv to test the catlm dvs remains a challenge with multimedia designers to date (mayer & estrella, 2014). for instance, when the iv is instruction and emotionally appealing adjuncts, spectacular videos, or soothing background music, then the incited emotions impeded learning with the “seductive detail” effect. the seductive detail effect harms learning because it unnecessarily extrinsically cognitively loads the learners’ limited working memory units with non-intrinsic instruction (harp & mayer, 1998; park et al., 2015). as such, it is not clear if ih as an iv would also needlessly overload the learners’ limited cognitive resources (i.e., result in yet another type of “seductive detail”), or would it foster learning genuinely instead. if ih does not harms learning (i.e., is not another type of seductive detail), then the results of tests after watching a multimedia presentation with ih should be similar to the one without it. however, since absent of evidence does not means evidence of absence, then in addition to null hypothesis testing, bayesian analysis was also used to measure the degree the two conditions https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:d_diedon@hotmail.com https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i1.282 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7531-1039 19 would be similar. in this study, the results between the two conditions was found to be similar on most of the catlm dv’s. 2. objective thereby, the study aimed to test if humor aids or harms learning in catlm. to do so, humor will be used as an iv to incite most of the dvs mentioned in the catlm model, such as cognitive load, academic emotion, motivation, learning, and (for the first time in cognitive multimedia learning) metacognition. the importance of these dvs and their relationship are depicted in figure 1. figure 1. the cognitive-affective theory of kerning with media source: moreno and mayer (2007). 3. method the ih will be designed by having the benign violation (mcgraw & warren, 2010) and catlm (moreno & mayer, 2007) theories in mind. designing ih by the previously mentioned theories meant that the participants’ both medium, as well as topic-related mental representations (mrs) had to be violated so as to provide a narration that aids learning in catlm. thus, the author had to initially know the participants’ mrs. this study used the mind-map method to gain access to the participants mrs (ludden et al., 2012). in this study, the bigger circle in the middle of the paper had the words “brain cells” written within it, while the smaller circles that surrounded it were left empty. the participants were asked to free associate whatever comes to their mind related to “brain cells,” thus revealing both medium as well as close mrs related to the chosen instructional topic. the generated similar mrs of the participants related to the “brain cells” topic were grouped into four categories, such as: a) accurate and relevant, b) accurate and irrelevant, c) inaccurate and relevant, and d) inaccurate and irrelevant. of the above, inaccurate and relevant/misconceptions were chosen to be benignly violated because they are related to the topic, which would result in adaptive and educationally “appropriate” humor (suzuki & heath, 2014; wanzer et al., 2010). lastly, the benefits of loading the learners limited working memory capacities with topic-related adaptive humor may outweigh the risks, since it could result in intrinsic (and not extrinsic) load, which in turn may not harm learning with the seductive detail effect (park et al., 2015). one example of ih is presented in figure 2. figure 2. the multimedia stimuli for both nonhumorous and humorous conditions. source: dorambari (2018). this image is a sample of a cropped screenshot depicting neural activity during the multimedia video presentations. the nonhumorous (nh) condition had 21 video sequences, while the humorous (ihcalm) condition had 30 video sequences (to account for both instruction and humor). the ihcalm condition narration during this video sequence was: “anyway, the ‘beauty’ of brain cells while they communicate by receiving, processing, and transmitting signals is so enormous, that they say that it has even inspired leonardo da vinci to paint mona lisa!” the nh condition narration was: “brain cells communicate by receiving, processing, and transmitting signals.” stimuli were computer generated 3d video imageries designed by me that depicted neural activity. this image is a sample of a cropped screenshot depicting neural activity during the multimedia video presentations. finally, the ih narration was added a high pitched tone for two reasons. firstly, it was important (as per catlm principles) to have shorter video sequences so as not to cognitively overload the participants limited working memory units (mayer, 2008). secondly, the high pitched tone of the ih narration helped avoid potential patronizing multimedia voice-related perceptions from the participants. 3.1. design alas, there were two study conditions: 1) the experimental condition that had ih narration in a 3d video depicting brain cells (the ihcalm condition), and 2) the control condition that had just instruction narration about brain cells (without ih) in the same 3d video depicting brain cells (the nh condition). this 20 produced two forms of multimedia—ihcalm and nh—that were compared for differences with catlm dvs (see example narration in figure 2). if ih is a seductive detail, then the mean should significantly be different in favor of the nh condition for all the catlm dvs. since there was only one iv of ih, while there were many catlm dvs, then a classic experiment with two independent samples was designed in opensesame (mathôt et al., 2012). the participants choose to go through all of cognitive load (n = 5), humor (n = 2), academic emotions (n = 20), motivation (n = 1), learning (n = 2), and metacognition (n = 2) catlm dvs (n = 30). 3.2. procedure the participants were approached in the university cafes or when they were found standing idle, relaxing, inside unused classrooms. after being orally briefed about the study, the interested participants went together with the author to the computer hall, which was a walking distance from the university. the computers had cameras and (sound interfering) headsets installed. those same headsets now also came to be useful for blocking potential audible interferences from other participants during the experiment. in addition, the hall had cubicles that separated each other participants physically. the cubicles helped block potential tactile or visual interferences from other participants. lastly, other than this study’s participants, no one else entered during the exclusive reservation hours of the hall booked for this experiment. when the participants came to the experiment, the computers were mostly ready for use in the experiment. the participants were randomly assigned to a computer, which had opensesame with either the ihcalm or the nh conditions. after being seated, the ethical procedures followed. upon issuing the briefing sheets and quickly orally re-briefing the participants, opensesame presented a consent form to each participant. the consent form in opensesame asked the participants whether they understood the information in the previously issued briefing form, which was related to voluntary participation and data confidentiality (participants could choose to click “ok”). opensesame would only start the experiment after participants consented to the experiment by clicking the “ok” button on the screen. after providing consent, the webcam began recording the participant’s potential mirth. while the camera recorded, the participants were informed through opensesame that they will take part in an initial practice session before engaging with the real experiment. the practice session included the appearance of the four random digits on a black screen. the four random digits were presented to preload the participants’ working memory before issuing a multimedia video sequence. the participants were instructed to remember the numbers and press any button to watch the practice session video sequence. there were five video sequences in total (duration of up to 1 min and 30 s approximately) for the practice session of the experiment for both the ihcalm and the nh conditions. the video sequences were the same, while the narration differed between the stimuli conditions. the ihcalm condition consisted of humor unrelated to the topic, while the narration for the nh multimedia condition consisted of abstract concepts related to brain cell activity. after viewing the corresponding video sequence, the participants were asked to type the four preloaded random digits. thus, participants practiced preloading their working memories with random numbers that measured cognitive load. after they typed the random numbers, a page appeared that asked the participants to either repeat the same video sequence or to move on to the next one. intrinsic cognitive load was measured at this point. the practice session ended after five such video sequences. the practice session of the experiment lasted up to 2 min (approximately) per participant. after the practice session, opensesame informed the participants that the experimental session would now commence. during the experimental session, the participants were informed that (unlike during the practice session) the content of the video now mattered, as they would be tested on the content at a later stage. they were again preloaded with four random digits, watched a video sequence, typed the preloaded random digits, and clicked whether they wished to repeat the same video sequence again or not (just like in the practice session). the experimental multimedia video sequences were presented to the participants in an order that depended on their randomly assigned condition (experimental/ihcalm or control/nh) groups. after all the video sequences ended, the experiment was briefly stopped to shut down the camera recorder (post-multimedia potential mirth was not important for this research). upon stopping the camera recorder, the video recording application camtasia processed the recording material and 21 formatted it into a viewable video format for later coding. while camtasia was working in parallel, the participants were placed back to their assigned experimental conditions. at this point, the experiment moved on to its subsequent sessions. in the next session, opensesame briefed the participants that questions regarding humor, academic emotions, and motivation were to follow. the monotonic humorous scale, which asked the participants to rate the humor in the multimedia content, was issued. following the humor scale, the twenty panas questions related to how the participants felt at the current moment followed. lastly, the four bas questions (which measured drive) were issued to participants, and at this point, the experiment moved on to its last session (duration of this session lasted 10–20 min approximately). during the last session, opensesame informed the participants that the tests would now commence. the test consisted of questions (n = 30) that measured retention with five multiplechoice answers, followed by a binary question that asked whether the student was certain of their previously chosen answer or not. the participants were informed that they had 2 min to answer each question; the test could technically possibly last only up to 120 min (although most of them took anywhere between 10 and 40 min approximately). after they completed the test, the participants were thanked and debriefed. at the same time, the camtasia application (that was working in parallel all along) processed the recordings into videos. the videos together with the opensesame data were copied and deleted away from the computers. the entire experiment lasted from 20 to 50 min approximately. 3.3. participants the sample was taken during the beginning of the winter semester 2016/2017. concurrent with the previous catlm research, the study population consisted of higher education students (aged 18 – 25 approximately). therefore, the study population consisted of undergraduate students who either had (or were going to have) a class related to the biological basis of behavior in a psychology (or otherwise a brain activity-related) course. as such, the population consists of a convenience sample made up of young students mostly from the psychology department, followed by students from the childcare, nursing, and criminology departments. students from the psychology department comprised the largest representation from a single school of study (n = 48, ihcalm = 24, nh = 24). second largest was followed by students from the school of nursing (n = 25, ihcalm = 12, nh = 13), while the third was from the school of criminology (n = 26, ihcalm = 15, nh = 11). after dropout, the total number of participants resulted to 96 (ihcalm = 48, nh = 48), where 66 participants were female and 28 were male. 3.4. measures 3.4.1. stimuli the 3d animations about “brain cells” depicted sub-topics related to action potentials, myelin versus non-myelin neural cells, and neurotransmitter spatial summation. since the subtopics differed in narration (ihcalm had both ih and instruction, while nh had only instruction), then this resulted in a difference in terms of the quantity of the video sequences. particularly, the ihcalm (n = 30) and the nh (n = 21) conditions differed by nine additional video sequences for the former. lastly, there was also a small difference of 36 s in duration between ihcalm (7 min and 19 s) and nh (6 min and 43 s) conditions. 3.4.2. cognitive load the cognitive load of multimedia instruction was measured with preload (brunken et al., 2002). the preload method issues random digits to participants prior to watching stimuli. the digits reliably load the phonological loop of participants’ working memory (pearson’s r = 0.80–0.91 [schuler et al., 2011]). a similar approach was used in the cocchini et al. (2002) and kruley et al. (1994) studies. the preload instrument generated four variables that measured cognitive load (with values of zero and above), such as: 1) error (when students typed the wrong digits), 2) misplaced digits (when students wrote the correct numbers, yet placed them in the wrong places), 3) missing values (when students recalled no [or only partial] numbers from the four random digits), and 4) repeated similar values (when students wrote the correct four digits; however, the written digits were from a previous video sequence preload). 3.4.3. video sequence repeats since the ihcalm condition had both ih and instruction, then this amounted to more video sequences and duration, which also should result in more intrinsic cognitive load. sequencing is proposed as a solution to multimedia instruction that may have a high intrinsic cognitive load (mayer, 2008). therefore, depending on their pace, opensesame was programmed to make the option available for participants to review the same multimedia video sequence as many times as they required to ease intrinsic load. this programming generated the video sequence repeats variable, which was a one-item instrument that measured how many times 22 (i.e., zero and above) the participants had viewed a particular video sequence, which indicated intrinsic load. 3.4.4. humorous scale a one-item monotonic scale with four responses measured the participants’ self-reported degree of humor that they might have experienced during the experiment. the question was, “how funny did you find the previously viewed multimedia presentation?” to which the participants could answer from “not funny at all,” “somewhat funny,” “funny,” and “funny to a great extent.” this variable generated values ranging from zero (“not funny at all”) to three (“funny to a great extent”). 3.4.5. mirth one method to measure mirth is by recording the participants’ responses to humor and making use of the facial activation coding system expert (facs, ruch et al., 2009). however, since there were imposed limitations in resources, the researcher had to rely on the non-facs expertise of the former students that volunteered to take the role of independent coders. it was assumed that the student coders would code the participants’ mirth naturally just like non-facs coders did in previous research (falk & hill, 1992). the independent coders were instructed to observe and code participant responses based on findings of ruch (1993), such as: a) if no mirth is observed, then move on, b) if there is a smile (with or without laughter) shorter than 2/3 of a second, then ignore and move on, c) if there is a smile (with or without laughter) longer than 2/3 of a second, then measure the entire response duration as a “mirth.” 3.4.6. academic emotions academic emotions were measured with the positive affect and negative affect scale (panas; watson et al., 1988). considering that both paes and naes help with motivation and learning (pekrun & stephens, 2012: ch. 1), as well as considering that both might be incited with ih in the ihcalm condition, then the author decided to use all academic emotions for the first time in catlm research. the reliability of the paes is somewhat higher (cronbach’s α = 0.89) than for the naes (cronbach’s α = 0.85, watson et al., 1988). the panas points could range from 0 to 80. 3.4.7. behavioral activation system the behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation scales (carver & white, 1994) were used to measure the dissonance reduction motivation, which is innately found in any humour (harmon-jones and harmon-jones, 2007). in addition, both the mirth reward motivation, as well as learning motivation was also of interest to be measured. although the instrument was useful to measure motivation from various angles, it also incorporated various scales. as the purpose of this study was to measure various types of attraction (rather than inhibition), then, only the bas scale (and not the bis scale) was used. the bas element of the instrument was further divided into bas reward responsiveness (cronbach’s α = 0.73), bas drive (cronbach’s α = 0.76), and bas fun seeking (cronbach’s α = 0.66). of the three, the bas drive instrument alone was selected for use in this study because of its highest degree of reliability (carver & white, 1994), as well as to lessen the number overall variables in the study following academic emotions. 3.4.8. learning retention was measured with 30 questions in total, which were related to the multimedia video presentations viewed earlier. each question had five multiple answers and was presented in a page named “a”. the participants could earn a point if they selected the correct answer (among the five) within 2 min. the duration was set to 2 min (rather than unlimited time) to control for the possibility that prolonged duration (rather than the stimuli conditions) may influence the participant’ responses. therefore, if the participant did not answer (or when the time was up), the question was left unanswered (measured with missing answers) and a new question was issued; this produced two variables of correct answers and missing answers. the total score of these variables could range from 0 to 30 (a similar instrument was used to measure learning in previous catlm studies, e.g., um et al., 2011). there was no baseline as priorknowledge was not measured in this study (unlike in mayer & estrella, 2014), and the inter-item reliability measured with cronbach’s alpha was low (α = 0.46). 3.4.9. metacognition lastly, metacognition was measured for the first time in catlm research by how confident the participants were of their previously chosen answer. for each retention question on page “a,” a metacognitive question followed and was placed on page “b.” the metacognitive question simply asked, “do you think that your answer to the previous question a was correct?” – to which the participants had to answer with a binary “yes” or “no.” the interaction between retention on page “a” (“correct” or “incorrect”) and metacognition on page “b” (“yes” or “no”) produced four outcomes of true positive, true negative, false positive, and false negative (dienes & seth, 2010; fleming & lau, 2014; maniscalco & lau, 2012). 23 the true positive and negative scores were summed and then divided by the total number of questions to reveal a metacognitive confidence accuracy ratio. the metacognitive confidence accuracy ratio was multiplied with 100 to reveal a metacognitive confidence percent (dienes & seth, 2010). this measurement produced two variables of metacognitive percent and (since this variable also had a time duration of two minutes) missing metacognitive values that had values from zero to hundred. the reliability of these metacognitive measures was accounted for with the receiver operator characteristic (roc) analysis that produced the area under the curve (auc) value. the nh condition was slightly more reliable in detecting overall sensitivity (auc = .98, p < .01) compared to the ihcalm condition (auc = .96, p < .01). 3.5. data analysis the null-hypothesis significance testing (nhst) was analysed with spss, while the bayesian factor (bf) test was analysed in jasp. if the ihcalm condition is not another type of seductive detail, then the mean of the ihcalm condition should not be significantly different from the nh condition (i.e., p > .05). however, since absence of evidence is not evidence of absence, then only the nhst analysis would not suffice. therefore, to find the evidence that the nh condition is similar to the ihcalm condition the bayesian analysis was also included, which should also tell how much there is evidence that the two outcomes yield similar results (i.e., “evidence for the h0” outcome). using both analyses could also better inform the reader of the outcomes of the results, which is why it is proposed that the two values should be placed side by side in a table (quintana & williams, 2018; wagenmakers et al., 2018). since for the nhst analysis what matters by convention is whether the p value is less than .05, while for the bf analysis what matters is a higher ratio number (e.g., >3), then both analyses could reveal four general combinations of outcomes. those outcomes are presented below in table 1. table 1. four general outcomes between the null hypothesis testing (nhst) and the bayesian factor (bf) test nhst (p < .05) nhst (p > .05) bf (<3) evidence for the h1 no power, or insensitive instrument bf (>3) humorous or n/a evidence for the h0 the first in the upper left corner on the table could be called the “evidence for the h1” outcome. this applies when both the means are significantly different in favour of the alternative hypothesis and there is no evidence for the null hypothesis (nhst: p < .05, bf01 = 0 – 1). this is the best result if the alternative hypothesis is the desired outcome, since both analyses point to the same direction that the results are in favor of the alternative (and not the null) hypothesis. the second in the lower right could be called the “evidence for the h0” outcome. this applies when both the means are not significantly different in favor of the alternative hypothesis and there is evidence for the null hypothesis (nhst: p > .05, bf01 > 3). since the absence of evidence does not mean evidence of absence, then just because nhst results came up as nonsignificant does not automatically mean that there is evidence for the null hypothesis. rather than leave it at that, in such cases, the bf analyses could be used as evidence in favor of the null (and not the alternative) hypothesis. the third in the upper right corner could be called the “insensitive instrument,” or the “no power” outcome. this outcome applies when both the means are not significantly different in favour of the alternative hypothesis and there is no evidence for the null hypothesis neither (nhst: p > .05, bf01 = 0 – 1). since the outcome is neither, then the reader may conclude that the instrument was not sensitive enough to measure anything outstanding or worthy to see for that dv. the fourth in the lower left is mentioned here largely to complement the combinations of the outcomes mentioned above. this last one could be called as the “n/a” or “humorous” outcome, and it would apply when both the means are significantly different in favor of the alternative hypothesis and there is evidence for the null hypothesis just as well (nhst: p < .05, bf01 > 3). this outcome may leave the researcher initially in a dissonant state as to why did these results occur, only to realize that it was probably a miscalculation, whereupon the previous dissonance tension is then released in exhilaration. as entertaining as this outcome may be, it was not found in this, or any other study that i have read thus far. 4. results all participants were randomly assigned to either the ihcalm or the nh condition and their data were gathered with the opensesame program. there are no side or adverse effects to report. lastly, since this was a preliminary study about ih in catlm, then the two conditions were just analyzed for similarities and differences based on outcomes mentioned in table 1. 24 the table 2 below presents descriptive statistics and parametric tests for the catlm dependent variables. standard deviations are shown below the means in brackets. the distribution was normal for most dependent variables (k-s, p > .05). table 2. the mean, standard deviation, f-values, bayesian factors, and effect sizes for humor, cognitive load, academic emotions, motivation, learning, and metacognition variables. dependent nh ihcalm variables m (sd) m (sd) f bf01a cohen's d mirth 2.92 8.63 4.75*b 0.58 0.45 (6.26) (17.03) humorous scale 0.17 1.52 70.54***b 0.01 1.51 (0.6) (0.95) cognitive load error 13.85 18.33 1.61 2.29 0.21 (7.01) (17.6) cognitive load misplaced digits 4.06 6.54 4.97* 0.53 0.4 (4.32) (6.37) cognitive load missing values 3.69 3.81 0.01 4.65 0.01 (9.39) (6.04) cognitive load similar repeating values 0.52 0.94 0.74 3.36 0.15 (1.94) (2.75) video sequence repeats 1.9 1.65 0.09 4.47 0.05 (4.22) (3.8) interest 2.15 2.44 0.90 3.13 0.16 (1.5) (1.52) excitement 3.42 3.4 0.01 4.65 0.01 (1.33) (1.38) strong 3 2.71 1.30 2.63 0.19 (1.27) (1.24) enthusiasm 2.83 2.81 0.01 4.65 0.01 (1.31) (1.42) proud 2.6 2.67 0.06 4.54 0.05 (1.28) (1.24) alert 3.38 3.6 0.89 3.14 0.15 (1.1) (1.27) inspired 3.23 3.06 0.33 4 0.1 (1.33) (1.52) determined 2.83 2.85 0.01 4.64 0.01 (1.21) (1.2) attentive 3.73 3.6 0.26 4.15 0.09 (1.04) (1.33) active 3.27 3.46 0.54 3.67 0.12 (1.28) (1.22) 25 ashamed 1.42 1.71 2.24b 1.73 0.27 (0.74) (1.13) nervous 1.46 1.79 1.87b 2 0.25 (0.87) (1.44) distress 1.75 2.15 2.34 1.66 0.26 (1.23) (1.3) upset 1.9 1.81 0.17 4.42 0.06 (1.15) (1.21) guilty 1.25 1.52 2.21 1.76 0.25 (0.86) (0.92) scared 1.4 1.46 0.12 4.42 0.06 (0.82) (0.94) hostile 1.48 1.65 0.56 3.63 0.13 (1.03) (1.14) irritated 1.52 1.88 2.64 1.46 0.28 (1.01) (1.12) jittery 2.02 2.23 0.91 3.11 0.16 (1) (1.13) afraid 1.44 1.33 0.33 4.03 0.1 (0.92) (0.86) bas 0.07 0.89 2.28 1.32 0.31 (2.54) (3.5) correct answers 12.08 11.35 1.19 2.76 0.18 (3.2) (3.35) missing answers 0.25 0.27 0.02 4.62 0.02 (0.56) (0.94) metacognitive percent 51.73 44.44 8.60** 0.11 0.5 (11.4) (12.91) metacognitive missing values 0.23 0.52 3.07b 1.21 0.31 (0.69) (0.92) a bf01 bayesian factor analysis results. b the variances were nonhomogeneous (p < .05), thereby robust welch analysis of variance was used for these dependent variables. *p = < .05. ** p = < .01. *** p = < .001. since the humour variables did not meet the parametric assumptions, the robust welch analysis of variance (anova) was used. the analysis revealed that the variable humourous scale as well as mirth favoured the “evidence for the h1” outcome. this was so because firstly, the means for both humour variables were significantly different and in favor of the ihcalm condition. secondly, the bayesian factor (bf) analysis provides near-zero evidence that the conditions are similar (see tables 1 & 2). following the manipulation check, the first hypothesis to be tested was whether there was any difference in cognitive load. as there was only one iv of the stimulus conditions and there were 5 dvs of cognitive load that met the parametric assumptions (see table 2), then the manova was used. however, the multivariate statistic revealed no significant differences in the cognitive load variables, f (5, 90) = 1.178, p = .326. in the follow up anova and bf analysis, it was revealed that the data favoured the “evidence for the h0” outcome. to reiterate, the “evidence for the h0” outcome applies when the author both fails to reject the null hypothesis and bf analysis indicates similarity between conditions with a high ratio number, which was the case for most of the cognitive load dvs. thus, 26 participants did not experience higher cognitive load, despite larger narration in the ihcalm condition. the next hypothesis to be tested was for academic emotions. initially, all academic emotions (n = 20) were halved into pae (n = 10) and nae (n = 10) subgroups. preliminary analysis revealed the variables ashamed and nervous did not meet the parametric tests (table 2). thereby, the pae and most nae subgroups were analyzed with manova; ashamed and nervous variables were analyzed with the robust welch anova. finally, all academic emotions also underwent bf analysis. the analysis again favoured the “evidence for the h0” outcome for the majority of academic emotions. the manova was neither significant for pae, f (10, 85) = 0.623, p = .790, nor for nae f (8, 87) = 0.930, p = .496 subgroups (see table 2 for ashamed and nervous naes analyzed in welch anova). based on the data from the follow up anova and bf analysis, the author both fails to reject the null hypothesis and finds evidence that the conditions are similar for academic emotions also, indicating that the data favor the “evidence for the h0” outcome. the next hypothesis to be tested was about motivation. however, the anova again favoured the “evidence for the h0” outcome (see table 2). with this outcome, the author both fails to reject the null hypothesis and finds evidence that the conditions are similar for motivation. the remaining critical (apart from the manipulation) variables that were going to be tested relate to learning. as the correct and missing answers variables met the parametric assumptions, then anova and bf analysis was carried out. the analysis was again in favour of the “evidence for the h0” outcome for both correct answers and missing answers dvs (see table 2). again, with this outcome the author both fails to reject the null hypothesis and finds evidence that the conditions are similar for learning as well the last remaining variable to be tested was the metacognitive percent variable, which measured the certainty of the participants’ previously chosen answer. as the variable metacognitive percent met the requirements of the parametric tests, it was analyzed with anova. since the metacognitive missing values had nonhomogeneous variances, then the robust welch anova was used instead (see table 2). lastly, and similarly to the previous analysis, both dvs were also analyzed with bf to check for similarities between conditions. this time, the one-way anova and bf analysis for metacognitive percent favoured the “evidence for the h1” outcome for a change, but (ironically, and contrary to expectations) the outcome was found to be in favour for the nh condition instead. although the missing metacognitive values variable was near significantly higher for the ihcalm condition (p = .08), it was conventionally non-significant. thereby, the author both rejects the null hypothesis and finds evidence that the conditions are not similar for metacognition; the data favour “evidence for the h1” where metacognition values were both significantly different and higher in the nh condition, compared to the ihcalm condition. 5. discussion since the data point to the “evidence for h1” outcome for the humorous scale and mirth variables, then this meant that the manipulation was successful and that students did found the ihcalm condition to be more humorous than the nh condition. thus, the findings in this study demonstrated that benignly violating the students’ misconceptions resulted in ih, which caused significantly different multimedia experiences with more exhilaration for the ihcalm condition. despite ih, the data point of to the “evidence for the h0” outcome for academic emotions, motivation, as well as most learning variables. if ih harmed learning via seductive detail, then the “evidence for the h1” would have resulted in favor of the nh condition. since this is not the case, then the data indicate that ih in the ihcalm condition does not harm learning and is not a seductive detail type for most measured catlm dvs in this research, except metacognition. a contrary to expectation outcome was found for the other learning variable, metacognitive percent. the data analysis favoured the “evidence for the h1” outcome in favour of the nh condition, despite the condition only coding pure instruction without humour (i.e., lesser sources to gather data from ltm during retrieval). however, the participants under the ihcalm condition (17 out of 48, 35.42%) did not report their certainty of the previously chosen answers compared to the nh condition (7 out of 48, 14.58%) to a considerable degree. since more data in the metacognitive missing values variable means fewer data in the metacognitive percent variable, then the lack of enough data for the metacognitive percent variable may have shadowed the true difference between the stimuli conditions. 5.1. empirical contributions the data presented in this paper challenge previous findings on intrinsic cognitive load, the effect of academic emotion on motivation and their effect in turn on learning outcomes. perhaps a future study with a larger sample may shed more light into this matter. 27 5.2. practical and theoretical implications even so, this study demonstrated that the mind-map method could be used to design a class specific ih and present a catlm video that does not harm learning. as such, the study also presents a new theory of learning with ihcalm, which is found not to be another seductive detail effect. as such, ihcalm can be used in education. 5.3. limitations and future directions a future study may do better by increasing the sensitivity and specificity of the instrument that measured academic emotions. since the nhst was always non-significant for these variables, while the bf analysis ranged from 1.46 – 4.65, then the outcome also ranged from “insensitive instrument” (or “no power”) to “evidence for h0” outcomes per individual academic emotion variables (tables 1 and 2). since there is evidence that the instrument was insensitive for some academic emotions in this study, then a more sensitive and specific measurement may be sought in future studies. individual differences that should be attended in future studies are cognitive covariates such as prior knowledge, working memory capacity (lusk et al., 2009), or even humor predisposition. without accounting for the covariates, it could be stated that it may be the contribution of the covariates that have resulted in the “evidence for the h1” outcome in favour of the ihcalm condition during the manipulation check. for example, the participants in the ihcalm condition may have had personalities with order needs (ruch & hehl, 1993), were tough/tender-minded, or were the sensation-seeking type (ruch, 1988), which renders them more sensitive to humor. thereby, it could be stated that in such an instance that the “evidence for the h1” outcome in favour of the ihcalm condition may have been due to the participants and not the iv (hence, covariates should be controlled in future research). 6. conclusion based on the data gathered above, some conclusions can now be drawn. since the majority of catlm dvs were both not significant and the bayesian factor analysis ratio was around 3 approximately, then this demonstrates that the results are similar between the ihcalm and nh conditions (i.e., “evidence for the h0” outcome). thereby, this study indicates that ihcalm is not harmful in catlm because otherwise most of the dvs would be both statistically significant and in favor of the nh condition (i.e., the “evidence for h1” outcome). thus, it can be concluded that ihcalm is not another type of seductive detail that harms learning, unlike emotionally appealing adjuncts, spectacular videos, or soothing background music (harp & mayer, 1998; park et al., 2015). when an ihcalm multimedia presentation is designed to target the average misconceptions of participants, then the participants were rewarded with humorous mirth, which helped students learn much like in the nh condition despite having more words, video duration, and more video sequences. it can be further added that ihcalm should be used in multimedia presentations because both it is not another type of a seductive detail effect and (being similar with the nh condition) makes the former a priori more advantageous because of humour, which is linked with added psychological, physiological, and social benefits (morrison & quest, 2012; wilkins & eisenbraun, 2009). references 1. brunken, r., steinbacher, s., plass, j. l., & leutner, d. 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(1993). exhilaration and humour. handbook of emotions, 1, 605-616. https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-77841 29. ruch, w., & hehl, f. j. (1993). humour appreciation and needs: evidence from questionnaire, self-, and peer-rating data. personality and individual differences, 15(4), 433-445. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90071-a 30. ruch, w., bänninger-huber, e., & peham, d. (2009). unresolved issues in research on humour and laughter: the need for facs-studies (pp. 42-46). innsbruck university press. 31. schuler, a., scheiter, k., & van genuchten, e. (2011). the role of working memory in multimedia instruction: is working memory working during learning from text and pictures? educational psychology review, 23, 389-411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9168-5 32. suzuki, h., & heath, l. (2014). impacts of humour and relevance on the remembering of lecture details. humour, 27(1), 87-101. https://doi.org/10.1515/humour-2013-0051 33. um, e., plass, j. l., hayward, e. o., & homer, b. d. (2011). emotional design in multimedia. journal of educational psychology, 104(2), 485–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.009 34. vrticka, p., black, j. m., & reiss, a. l. (2013). the neural basis of humour processing. nature reviews neuroscience, 14(12), 860-868. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3566 35. wagenmakers, e. j., marsman, m., jamil, t., ly, a., verhagen, j., love, j., selker, r., gronau, q.f., šmíra, m., epskamp, s. and matzke, d. (2018). bayesian inference for psychology. part ii: example applications with jasp. psychonomic bulletin & review, 25(1), 58-76. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-017-1323-7 36. wanzer, m. b., frymier, a. b., & irwin, j. (2010). an explanation of the relationship between instructor humour and student learning: instructional humour processing theory. communication education, 59(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520903367238 37. watson, d., clark, l. a., & tellegen, a. (1988). development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the panas scales. journal of personality and social psychology, 54(6), 1063. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063 38. wilkins, j., & eisenbraun, a. j. (2009). humour theories and the physiological benefits of laughter. holistic nursing practice, 23(6), 349-354. https://doi.org/10.1097/hnp.0b013e3181bf37ad https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-77841 https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90071-a https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9168-5 https://doi.org/10.1515/humour-2013-0051 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.009 https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3566 https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-017-1323-7 https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520903367238 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063 https://doi.org/10.1097/hnp.0b013e3181bf37ad 62 creating prototype virus destroying files and texts on any computer prof. ass. naim baftiu*, prof. asoc. samedin krrabaj** *prizren university “ukshin hoti, faculty of computer science, naim.baftiu@uni-prizren.com **prizren university “ukshin hoti, faculty of computer science, samedin.krrabaj@uni-prizren.com article history: accepted 21 april 2019 available online 30 april 2019 keywords: component, virus, file, c# programming, visual studio. a b s t r a c t problem description -when we study how viruses work and prevent them, we've developed a very simple application where we can see a prototype of a virus and virus function, as well as neutralizing a file if we want to break it down its structure at the level of the bits purpose-understand how a virus works by programming it in a high programming language in our case, the c # programming language with the visual studio program that uses the .net framework. with the windows form application module, the same application we are creating can also use it to neutralize a sentence if we know it is infected by interfering with the file we set up itself and by disrupting the system his binary. introduction since computer science is a wider and more sub-direction, viruses and defense play a very important role in science's development. every day we are confronted with viruses, and their prevention is essential, because every day more and more virulent, so destructive, viruses develop. 1. research methodology the research methods will be based on prior virus research and their understanding by renowned international authors in this regard and a lot of transcript input, and also based on the literature on the basics of programming where we will write a key method for our application. 2. content of the work viruses as we know are all other applications, but the purpose of which is badly intended. from the early virus and programming knowledge, the following application is programmed very simple and very short but relatively effective and a very good picture of how viruses work. we know that c # programming language is object-oriented, so programming will also be based on objects, by visualizing them with the windows form application module. c# (pronounced "see sharp") is a simple, modern, objectoriented, and type-safe programming language. c# has its roots in the c family of languages and will be immediately familiar to c, c++, and java programmers. c# is standardized by ecma international as the ecma-334 standard and by iso/iec as the iso/iec 23270 standard. microsoft's c# compiler for the .net framework is a conforming implementation of both of these standards. c# is an object-oriented language, but c# further includes support for component-oriented programming. contemporary software design increasingly relies on software components in the form of self-contained and self-describing packages of functionality. key to such components is that they present a programming model with properties, methods, and events; they have attributes that provide declarative information about the component; and they incorporate their own documentation. c# provides language constructs to directly support these concepts, making c# a very natural language in which to create and use software components. 63 several c# features aid in the construction of robust and durable applications: garbage collection automatically reclaims memory occupied by unused objects; exception handling provides a structured and extensible approach to error detection and recovery; and the type-safe design of the language makes it impossible to read from uninitialized variables, to index arrays beyond their bounds, or to perform unchecked type casts. c# has a unified type system. all c# types, including primitive types such as int and double, inherit from a single root object type. thus, all types share a set of common operations, and values of any type can be stored, transported, and operated upon in a consistent manner. furthermore, c# supports both user-defined reference types and value types, allowing dynamic allocation of objects as well as in-line storage of lightweight structures. to ensure that c# programs and libraries can evolve over time in a compatible manner, much emphasis has been placed on versioning in c#'s design. many programming languages pay little attention to this issue, and, as a result, programs written in those languages break more often than necessary when newer versions of dependent libraries are introduced. aspects of c#'s design that were directly influenced by versioning considerations include the separate virtual and override modifiers, the rules for method overload resolution, and support for explicit interface member declarations. the rest of this chapter describes the essential features of the c# language. although later chapters describe rules and exceptions in a detail-oriented and sometimes mathematical manner, this chapter strives for clarity and brevity at the expense of completeness. the intent is to provide the reader with an introduction to the language that will facilitate the writing of early programs and the reading of later chapters. in our case we have: ♣ first, we will create the function for selecting the desired file so that it can be processed, so the best method is to select a button and a text box. (fig.1) figure 1. text box fig.1. button “assign file” in program we called “btnassign” ethier textbox “txtassign” ♣in the background will be inserted the openfiledialog module that will be used as openfiledialog1 which will help you as the file selection window. (fig2). figure 2. file dialog we will also add a "checkbox" which we will call "checkbox1" in the program and in the "location" interface only to verify the location selection, whether it is automatic through the module that we will create or the manual written text. figure 3. text box location ♣ in the program we will have a major variable that we will manipulate and we will call it the "filename" of string type (text). the following code will be the file selection mechanism where the "event" code will be modified if you press the button: 3. program structure the key organizational concepts in c# are programs, namespaces, types, members, and assemblies. c# programs consist of one or more source files. programs declare types, which contain members and can be organized into namespaces. classes and interfaces are examples of types. fields, methods, properties, and events are examples of members. when c# programs are compiled, they are physically packaged into assemblies. assemblies typically have the file extension .exe or .dll, depending on whether they implement applications or libraries. 4. types and variables there are two kinds of types in c#: value types and reference types. variables of value types directly contain their data whereas variables of reference types store references to their data, the latter being known as objects. with reference types, it is possible for two variables to reference the same object and thus possible 64 for operations on one variable to affect the object referenced by the other variable. with value types, the variables each have their own copy of the data, and it is not possible for operations on one to affect the other (except in the case of ref and out parameter variables). c#'s value types are further divided into simple types, enum types, struct types, and nullable types, and c#'s reference types are further divided into class types, interface types, array types, and delegate types. in our case we have: private void btnassign_click(object sender, eventargs e) { dialogresult result = openfiledialog1.showdialog(); if (result == dialogresult.ok) { filename = openfiledialog1.filename; txtassign.text = filename; } } what happens if we click the button, then we will develop the selection mechanism where the window will be displayed as a result, and we have a conditional if we finish the selection, variably earlier in the filenames declaration, will get the value of the window for selection, at the same time textboxi txtassign will get the value of the file name. at the same time, we also develop the code for the location confirmation checkbox private void checkbox1_checkedchanged(object sender, eventargs e) { if (checkbox1.checked) txtassign.readonly = true; else checkbox1.checked = txtassign.readonly = false; } from the following code we can notice that we have the conditionality if we have done the tick checkbox, the textbox attribute will go to readonly, respectively unchanged, and if we did not tick, the textbox would stay the same as before unchanging. we have now developed the selection mechanism, and the next file destruction process will occur in the main variable of filename. void destroyfile(string filename) { byte[] bytes = system.io.file.readallbytes(filename); byte[] oldbytes = bytes; random rnd = new random(); int num = rnd.next(0, 255); for (int i = 0; i < bytes.length; i++) { if (bytes[i] % 2 == 0) { bytes[i] = (byte)rnd.next(0, (int)(bytes[i] * 1.618 < 256.0 ? bytes[i] * 1.618 : 255)); } } file.writeallbytes(filename, bytes); } we will have a method which as input parameter will have the filename variable void destroyfile(string filename) then we will create a variable byte bytes where all of the file bytes will be scanned by the syste.io.file.readallbytes () method; byte[] bytes = system.io.file.readallbytes(filename); then a generic number will be generated, in the variable called "rnd". int num = rnd.next(0, 255); we will have a loop (rewrite) where we will use it to insert random numbers into the desired file for decay. the length of the loop will be up to the end of the file. the data will be entered through the kite ordering conditionality (proportional to two) and will be entered through the loop control. 65 once the process is completed, "filewriteallbytes" will write to the file those generated numbers (bytes), where as input parameters will have the filename, and generated bytes. file.writeallbytes(filename, bytes); figure 4. timer figure 5. progress bar then we will create a "timer" (fig4) that we will use to display the "progressbar" and the main button (btndestroy) to activate the previous method created for the demolition (fig5). timer code: private void timer1_tick(object sender, eventargs e) { progressbar1.increment(10); if (progressbar1.value == progressbar1.maximum) { timer1.stop(); messagebox.show("the file is damaged successfully!"); } } from the previous code we see how the progressbar changes during each timer beep, where the progress bar will increase to the value of 10, and by conditioning we check that if the progressbar is filled, then the timer will stop and display a window that will confirm the process. the main button for breaking code: private void btndestroy_click(object sender, eventargs e) { timer1.start(); destroyfile(filename); } where will start the previous timer process, and will be called "destroyfile" where as input parameter will have the filename variable that we have previously assigned. completed program: figure 6. the completed code is found in the other document findings and contribution of the work in this paper my main hypothesis is the idea of how easy it is to create a computer virus, but to destroy it. they can be used for educational purposes but also for other purposes whatever they are in the digital world. through this project i will try to demonstrate how computer viruses are working through programming that will impact on expanding awareness of computer viruses awareness and prevention, which can lead to enormous destruction of very important data, be they personal, up to government levels. references 1. einführung in das programmieren mit c# 4.0 2011 (rev. 121022) achtung: es ist ein zimk 66 manuskript zu c# 6.0 verfügbar: https://www.unitrier.de/index.php?id=22777 2. serazzi, giuseppe; zanero, stefano (2004). "computer virus propagation models". in calzarossa, maria carla; gelenbe, erol. performance tools and applications to networked systems(pdf). lecture notes in computer science. vol. 2965. pp. 26– 50. archived (pdf) from the original on 2013-08-18. 3. pro .net 4 parallel programming in c# january 2010, doi: 10.1007/978-1-4302-2968-1 adam freeman 4. jason andress, steve winterfeld, cyber warfare usa, 2014 978-0-12-416672-1. 5. lance hayden, ph.d. it security metrice, usa, 2010, isbn: 978-0-07-171340-5. 6. alfred j. menezes, paul c. van oorschot, scott a. vanstone, handbook of applied gryptography. usa, 1997. isbn: 978-0-8493-8523-0 7. stallings, william (2012). computer security : principles and practice. boston: pearson. p. 182. isbn 978-0-13-277506-9. 8. aycock, john (2006). computer viruses and malware. springer. p. 14. isbn 978-0-387-30236-2. 9. cohen, fred (1984), computer viruses – theory and experiments, archived from the original on 2007-0218 10. bell, david j.; et al., eds. (2004). "virus". cyberculture: the key concepts. routledge. p. 154. isbn 9780203647059. archived from the original on 2017-03-16. 11. mark ciampa, security+ guide to network security fundamentals 12. usa, 2012, isbn: 978-1-111-64017-0. https://www.uni-trier.de/index.php?id=22777 https://www.uni-trier.de/index.php?id=22777 http://home.deib.polimi.it/zanero/papers/zanero-serazzi-virus.pdf http://home.deib.polimi.it/zanero/papers/zanero-serazzi-virus.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20130818152730/http:/home.deib.polimi.it/zanero/papers/zanero-serazzi-virus.pdf https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/2135986681_adam_freeman?_sg=-sqdp_jmmji7jvpex8lkdi5v_wcztl_fov81wzh1i08vavgytaep-ozvsfe4-ddbnebgqbk.0wqvcvn08m3dnkkje7nbgmdfdcoppafzgftgpmq2nnulgq36q3yt_8zaz9lyqyuprc4-xmbipchb13ympteupw https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/international_standard_book_number https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/978-0-13-277506-9 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/international_standard_book_number https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/978-0-387-30236-2 http://all.net/books/virus/index.html http://all.net/books/virus/index.html https://web.archive.org/web/20070218125016/http:/www.all.net/books/virus/index.html https://books.google.com/books?id=5mfwzk0csoqc&pg=pa154 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/international_standard_book_number https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/9780203647059 https://web.archive.org/web/20170316230037/https:/books.google.com/books?id=5mfwzk0csoqc&pg=pa154 introduction 1. research methodology 2. content of the work 3. program structure 4. types and variables findings and contribution of the work references prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 127 di̇fferent leadershi̇p style choi̇ces, di̇fferent generati̇ons merve bako yıldız technical university mcizgen@yildiz.edu.tr abstract in the past, a generation covered a larger span of time, having more members. however, today, thanks to the developments in technology and many other factors generations change frequently having less members and covering a few years. what matters now is the workforce itself and how these different generations work together. the current workforce has 3 generations working together while waiting for the fourth one. soon, it is inevitable that 5 or 6 generations will be working at the same workplace. as a result, it is crucial to understand the type of leadership a generation prefers in business and academic life. the aim of this study was to find out how leadership style choice differs among four generations (baby boomers, generations x, generation y, and generation z) of academics and prospective academics in turkey. in the study, 265 participants from different generation rated the leadership attributes that contribute or impede effective leadership. the global leadership and organizational behavior effectiveness (globe) project research survey by house et al. (2004) was used to find out the leadership style choice of different generations. the statistical relationships were determined between the generation variable and the 16 primary leadership subscales through manovas and anovas. the results of the tests showed that significant differences exist among the four different generations in 3 of the 16 leadership subscales. these subscales are charismatic 3: self-sacrifice, conflict-inducer, and face saver. keywords: leadership, generation, baby boomers, generation x, generation y, generation z prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 128 1. introduction today, a leader in the business life should get used to the idea that the workforce consists of at least three different generations (guzman, stanton, & stam, 2008). the current workforce is basically comprised of baby boomers, generation x’ers, and generation y’ers. all these generations have their own share of values and preferences that they bring into the workplace (arsenault, 2004; lancaster & stillman, 2009). morris massey (as cited in twenge, 2006) states that “the gut-level value systems are, in fact, dramatically different between the generations.” this sentence occurs as a support to validate the necessaity of the research on the values between the generations. it is obvious that “a culture that has been shaped by the values, standards, and policies of one generation isn’t necessarily going to be compatible with the next generation that comes through the door.” (lancaster & stillman, 2009). it is heavily reported by the press, media, and many researchers that there has been an increased conflict between the generations who are working at the same workplace right now and this situation leads to organizational and management problems (arsenault, 2004). retention problems, turnover, productivity problems, mobbing, not having a peaceful work environment, not being positive towards the job and the colleagues can be counted among these problems. that’s why, it is important to understand how each generation wants to be led and their understanding of an effective leader. the study conducted here aims to find out the leadership style choice of each generation of academics in turkey and how they want to be led in their workplace. 1.1.generations ryder (1965) defines a generational cohort as a group of individuals who have gone through the same sort of events during the same time period. similarly, carlsson and karlsson (1970) explain cohort as people who take some important steps at the same time like being born at the same time interval, having the first employment and getting married almost at the same time. in the light of these definitions, the categorization of the generational cohorts was made and adapted according to lancaster & stillman (2009) and kotler & keller (2006): • baby boomers (born between 1946 – 1964) • generation x (born between 1965 – 1980) • generation y (born between 1981 – 1994) • generation z (born between 1995 – 2002) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 129 table 1: profiling generational cohorts baby boomers born 1946-1964 great acquisitors, they are value-and causedriven despite indulgences and hedonism. generation x born 1965-1977 cynical and media-savvy, they are more alienated and individualistic. generation y born 1978-1994 edgy, focused on urban style, they are more idealistic than generation x. millennial born 1995-2002 multicultural, they will be tech-savvy, educated, grow up in affluent society, and have big spending power. original source from generation next (pp.14-16), by b tsui, january 15, 2001. advertising age. taken from marketing management (p.252), by p kotler, and k l keller, 2006, upper saddle river, new jersey, pearson education inc., copyright 2006 by pearson education inc. table 2: generation theoretical descriptions boomers gen xers millennials much heralded but failing to meet expectations, smug, self-absorbed, intellectually arrogant, socially mature, culturally wise, critical thinkers, spiritual, religious, having an inner fervor, radical, controversial, nonconformist, self-confident, self-indulgent cynical, distrusting, bearing the weight of the world, fearful, lost, wasted, incorrigible, in-your-face, frenetic, shocking, uneducated, shallow, uncivil, mature for their age, pragmatic, apathetic and disengaged politically, independent, self reliant, fatalistic, mocking, under-achieving optimists, cooperative, team players, trusting, accepting of authority, rulefollowers, smart, civic-minded, special, sheltered, confident, achieving, pressured, conventional adapted from generations: the history of america’s future, 1584 to 2069, by w strauss, and n howe, 19991, new york, quill/william/morrow, copyright 1991 by quill/william/morrow. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 130 1.1.1. baby boomers according to lancaster and stillman (2009), baby boomers were born between the years of 1946–1964 and are the largest population ever born in us and number about eighty million. 1.1.2. generation x the generation xers who were born between 1965–1980 according to lancaster and stillman (2009) and are a smaller group when compared to boomers but a very influential population with a number of forty-six million. “generation “x” might well have been called generation “i” for “invisible” or “l” for “lost.” “it’s a generation that no one ever really noticed, that didn’t exactly register, until recently. xers grew up in the shadow of the boomers and, like the middle child, passively resisted anything the elder sibling embraced” (zemke et al., 2000, p.93). contrary to what older generations say or think about themslackers, cynics, drifters and sullen, contemptous, naive, arrogant, unfocused, materialistic (tulgan, 1995) and slacker, lazy, grungy, unmotivated, and skeptic (lancaster & stillman, 2009) thirteeners (generation x) see themselves “as pragmatic, quick, sharp-eyed, able to step outside themselves to understand the game of life as it really gets played” (strauss & howe, 1991, p. 320). there is no economic future for generation x with the rising costs of setting out in life and falling amount of salaries and they learned to survive with money. besides, “thirteeners were told to be self-reliant, independent, self-actualizing individuals” (strauss & howe, 1991, p. 321). as a result they started life much earlier than boomers. this generation has always had to survive in an area that boomers left behind. this situation caused generation x’ers to become distrusting and pragmatic (strauss & howe,1991), bringing about trust issues among the members of generation x. most of them do not prefer to define themselves by their organizational affiliation, but they put more emphasis on personal growth and happiness. the values that matter for generation x in the work place are sense of belonging, ability to learn new things, autonomy, entrepreneurship, security, flexibility and short-term rewards (tulgan, 1995).the loyalty to the organizations they have been working for is quite low, as they witnessed their parents’ loyalty was rewarded with downsizings, layoffs, forced turnover, mergers and pension improprieties (jurkiewicz, 2000). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 131 1.1.3. generation y “the next baby boom (seventy-six million in number) has been known as the echo boom, generation y, the baby busters, or generation next” (lancaster & stillman, 2009, p.27) and they were born between the years 1981 – 1999. according to lancaster and stillman (2009) the millennials (1981–1999) are a smart, practical, techno-savvy, confident and pragmatic generation. generation y is “among the smartest, cleverest, healthiest, most-wanted homo sapiens to have ever walked the face of the earth” (zemke et al., 2000, p.23). in their 2000 book “millennials rising” howe and strauss describe millennials as “numerous, more affluent, better educated and more ethnically diverse with positive social habits, teamwork, achievement, modesty, and good conduct overwhelming the cynics and pessimists” (howe & strauss, 2000, p.4). according to twenge (2006) generation y rarely hides behind the courtesy as a result, they are too direct and blunt. they always try to be open, true and uncomplicated. though the whole american nation expects the new generation to be worse than themselves, the quite opposite is true for generation y as they are the “corrective” generation. with generation y, there are less teen suicide, less teen pregnanacy, less drug abuse, more education, better scores at the tests, more helpful, more socially committed etc. (howe & strauss, 2000). they are compliant team players, they respect authority, they are rule followers, they are smart, they believe in future and change, and they welcome established values of home, family life, community, and education (howe & strauss, 2000). it can be said that this generation is the most educated workforce ever and thanks to their parents they have already started building portfolios including hobbies, sports, voluntary activities and various work experience for college admission and business life (lancaster & stillman, 2009). however, this situation causes some problems related to job satisfaction. as these people expect a fulfilling job according to their level of education and they are more prone to changing jobs if they are not happy with the current one (“perception vs. reality:”, n.d.). what millennials count as reward at work are the things they can cash in now and enjoy boasting about to their peers. what’s more, they can be rewarded via “a fun environment, the ability to work in teams prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 132 with peers, having bosses they can relate to, and being allowed to participate in work decisions” (jurkiewicz, 2000, p.87). what’s more, generation y prefers to be in teams and a leader who consults frequently and gives autonomy to his/her employees would be the best type of leader for generation y.(alch, 2000; kehrli & sopp, 2006). 1.1.4. generation z generation z is commonly referred to those who were born after 1996 and are the offspring of 1965-1985 born generation x (korea times, november 13, 2007). in their book “the app generation” gardner and davis (2013) called generation z as “the app generation” because they identify them with the new technology – mobile phones, tablets, computers and applications installed on these devices and the social media. they also call this generation digital natives as this generation have been born into a digital world and they cannot think of a world where technological devices they have now do not exist. according to levine and dean (2012), the youth of today focus more on career and behave more pragmatically, besides they concentrate on issues rather than ideologies. education is regarded as a number of tasks to complete to get the desired job by the youth. as the young generation becomes more pragmatic and career-focused, they move toward being more individualistic and less community-minded. together with individualim, isolation and more passivity occurs among the members of generation z (gardner & davis, 2013; twenge & foster, 2010). the youth today are more comfortable and accepting towards people who are different from them. less kids are ostracized because of being "geek” or they are cool in their relationships with their homosexual friends or there are more interracial dates/marriages among today’s young. altough they are more accepting in those issues, they are less aware of global problems when compared to the previous generations. their cultural knowledge is generally limited to entertainment figures instead of public figures (gardner & davis, 2013). 2. methodology a quantitative research design has been used in this study. the globe questionnaire was added to a website – surveey.com – for its ease of use and the link to the survey was sent to the participants via e-mail. the survey included likert-type items to collect the data on leadership preference. the data were put together to create numerical scales that are used in analysis that prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 133 was run to test the hypotheses. central tendencies and frequency distribution of responses to the questionnaire items were identified using descriptive statistics. the hypotheses of the study were tested using multivariate analysis of variance (manova). necessary post hoc tests applied to see the difference between the generational cohorts. the hypotheses in the following sections were developed to see the differences between baby boomers, generation x’ers, generation y’ers and generation z’ers in their preference of leadership, if there are any. 2.1. dependent variables the dependent variables are 16 of 21 basic culturally endorsed implicit leadership – clt – subscales of globe study. the reason why the globe questionnaire was preferred for this study is that it has been used by many researchers all over the world and it has proved its validity and reliability through many researches. these 16 subscales were explained with the attributes allocated for each subscale in the leadership effectiveness parts of globe alpha survey. charismatic 1: visionary: foresight, prepared, anticipatory, plans ahead; charismatic 2: inspirational: enthusiastic, positive, morale booster, motive arouser; charismatic 3: selfsacrifice: risk taker, self-sacrificial, convincing; integrity: honest, sincere, just, trustworthy; decisive: willful, decisive, logical, intuitive; performance oriented: improvement-oriented, excellence-oriented, performance-oriented; team 1: collaborative team orientation: group-oriented, collaborative, loyal, consultative; team 2: team integrator: communicative, team builder, informed, integrator; diplomatic: diplomatic, worldly, win-win problem solver, effective bargainer; malevolent: hostile, dishonest, vindictive, irritable; administratively competent: orderly, administratively skilled, organized, good administrator; self-centered: self-centered, nonparticipative, loner, asocial; status conscious: status-conscious, class-conscious; conflict inducer: normative, secretive, intragroup competitor; face saver: indirect, avoids negatives, evasive; procedural: ritualistic, formal, habitual, procedural (house et al., p.131). 2.2. independent variables 2.2.1. generational cohorts only independent variable that was included in the hypotheses was “generation”. • baby boomers (born between 1946 – 1964) • generation x (born between 1965 – 1980) • generation y (born between 1981 – 1994) • generation z (born between 1995 – 2002) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 134 the hypotheses of this study were determined to test first, if four generations differ significantly in their leadership preference and styles based on 16 primary leadership subscales of globe study (h1). • h1: there is a difference in leadership preference and styles between the generations classified as baby boomers, generation x, generation y and generation z for the 16 globe basic culturally endorsed implicit leadership (clt) subscales (table 3). table 3: global culturally endorsed implicit leadership (clt) dimensions 1 charismatic/value-based h1a charismatic 1:visionary h1b charismatic 2: inspirational h1c charismatic 3: self-sacrifice h1d integrity h1e decisive h1f performance oriented 2 team oriented h1g team 1: collaborative team orientation h1h team 2: team integrator h1i diplomatic h1j malevolent (reverse scored) h1k administratively competent 3 self-protective h1l self-centered h1m status conscious h1n conflict inducer h1o face saver h1p procedural from culture, leadership, and organizations: the globe study of 62 societies (p.137), by r j house, p j hanges, m javidan, p w dorfman, and v gupta, 2004, thousand oaks, ca sage publications, copyright 2004 by sage publications. manova was used to test the 16 hypotheses of this study. after tests of between-subjects effects were controlled for any significance, post hoc analysis was conducted for the identification of the group comparisons that yield statistically significant values. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 135 3. sample for this study, 265 participants from five different universities in i̇stanbul completed the survey. however, the students who do not plan to become an academician were excluded from the data, leaving us 228 participants. the desired number of participants was 40 for each generation in the beginning of the study – a total of 160. though the total desired number was reached and exceeded, the number of baby boomer participants was 24. but it is still enough to reveal meaningful results in manova tests. the number of followers that falls into a specific generation category is as follows • baby boomers (born between 1946 – 1964) n = 24 • generation x (born between 1965 – 1980) n = 46 • generation y (born between 1981 – 1994) n = 77 • generation z (born between 1995 – 2002) n = 81 the participants were between the ages of 18 and 72 (m = 31,26, sd = 12,832) while being equally represented in terms of gender. 4. analyses the descriptive statistics were calculated for the dependent variables and for each of the generations. the constructs that are highly rated (5 and above) by all the generational cohorts are charismatic 1: visionary, charismatic 2: inspirational, charismatic 3:self-sacrifice, integrity, decisive, performance-oriented, team 1: collaborative, team 2: team integrator, diplomatic, and administratively competent. the constructs that were rated low (less than 3) are malevolent, self-centered, and face-saver. by looking at the means of the dependent variables, it is possible to see the differences between the generations before conducting manova and post hoc tests for hypothesis testing. in some constructs such as charismatic 1: visionary, performance-oriented, team 2 integrator, diplomatic, procedural, integrity, decisive, and status-conscious there are very small differences in the mean rank scores of each generation. to start with, there is a difference in mean rank scores of generation x and generation z in “charismatic 2: inspirational, charismatic 3: self-sacrifice, and face saver” constructs. in charismatic 3: self-sacrifice, and face saver constructs generation z thinks that these factors contributes highly to effective leadership. interestingly, for team 1: collaborative prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 136 construct, while baby boomers rate it quite high as contributing to effective leadership, generation z rates it lowest. similarly, for malevolent construct, while boomers think it inhibits effective leadership by providing the lowest score, generation z provides a higher score for this construct. other construct that reveals a noticeable difference between boomers and generation z are selfcentered. this result shows that while the negative attributes are definitely negative for baby boomers, they are tolerable for generation z. conflict-inducer construct was rated highest by generation z while it is rated lowest by generation y. 5. results there is a difference in leadership preference and styles between the generations classified as baby boomers, generation x, generation y and generation z for the 16 globe basic culturally endorsed implicit leadership (clt) subscales (h1a-h1p). to test hypothesis 1 (h1a-h1p) a one-way between-groups multivariate analysis of variance was performed to investigate generational differences in leadership attributes. 16 dependent variables were used as mentioned before. the independent variable was generation. there was a statistically significant difference between the generations, in the manova test (see table 4), when the test of pillai’s trace was checked, it is observed that the pillai’s trace value is ,442 and the sig. value is ,001 and when the sig. value is less than ,05, it can be concluded that there is a difference among different generations and the h1 was accepted. the reason why the test of pillai’s trace was used is that it is more robust and it is used in cases where some of the assumptions were violated, in this case, it is normality. the value provided in the “partial eta squared” column tells us the importance of generation on the leadership attribute constructs. the value in this case is ,147 which means it explains 15% of the variance leadership attributes constructs. table error! no text of specified style in document.: multivariate tests prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 137 effect value f hypothesis df error df sig. partial eta squared intercep t pillai's trace ,997 2859,252 b 21,000 204,000 ,000 ,997 wilks' lambda ,003 2859,252 b 21,000 204,000 ,000 ,997 hotelling's trace 294,335 2859,252 b 21,000 204,000 ,000 ,997 roy's largest root 294,335 2859,252 b 21,000 204,000 ,000 ,997 v163 pillai's trace ,442 1,694 63,000 618,000 ,001 ,147 wilks' lambda ,613 1,724 63,000 609,778 ,001 ,151 hotelling's trace ,545 1,754 63,000 608,000 ,001 ,154 roy's largest root ,321 3,148c 21,000 206,000 ,000 ,243 a. design: intercept + v163 b. exact statistic c. the statistic is an upper bound on f that yields a lower bound on the significance level. now that our data have a significant value as a result of manova test, we can go further to investigate the relationship between all the dependent variables when controlling for the independent variable: generation by conducting an additional univariate analysis (anova). according to table 5, three of the dependent variables are significant at .05 alpha level. these variables are charismatic3: self-sacrifice, conflict-inducer, and face-saver. in this study, there was a significant difference between the generations in these three dependent variables. it is important to note here; the multivariate and univariate values are different from each other. when the multivariate values are checked, it is observed that there is a difference between the generations. however, when the univariate values (see table 5) are checked, separately for each dependent variable, it is seen that only 3 of 16 variables have a significant value. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 138 table 5: tests of between-subjects effects v163 charismatic1:visionar y ,466 3 ,155 ,640 ,590 ,008 charismatic2:inspiratio nal 3,017 3 1,006 2,164 ,093 ,028 charismatic3:selfsacrifice 7,822 3 2,607 3,146 ,026 ,040 integrity ,906 3 ,302 ,545 ,652 ,007 decisive 2,101 3 ,700 2,286 ,080 ,030 performance oriented ,298 3 ,099 ,146 ,932 ,002 team1:collaborative 1,850 3 ,617 1,020 ,385 ,013 team2:team integrator ,289 3 ,096 ,266 ,850 ,004 diplomatic ,121 3 ,040 ,087 ,967 ,001 malevolent (r) 6,140 3 2,047 2,167 ,093 ,028 administratively competent 1,704 3 ,568 1,529 ,208 ,020 self-centered 6,216 3 2,072 1,935 ,125 ,025 status-conscious 1,383 3 ,461 ,247 ,864 ,003 conflict-inducer 18,803 3 6,268 4,919 ,002 ,062 face-saver 18,627 3 6,209 4,711 ,003 ,059 procedural 1,043 3 ,348 ,307 ,820 ,004 multivariate tests of this data yielded significant results, giving us the authority to investigate further. tests of between subjects’ effects showed which dependent variables differed in terms of generation. post hoc tests of manova further show us between which generations these dependent variables are significantly different. there is a difference between generation x and generation z in charismatic3: self-sacrifice subscale with a sig. value of ,015 at ,05 confidence interval. generation z rated the items in this subscale higher than generation x with a mean difference of ,51. in the light of this evidence, h1c was accepted. there is a difference between generation x and generation z in conflict-inducer subscale with a sig. value of ,031 at ,05 confidence interval. generation z rated the items in this subscale higher than generation x with a mean difference of ,56. in the same subscale conflict-inducer – there is also a difference prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 139 between generation y and generation z with a sig. value of ,001 at ,05 confidence interval. generation z rated the items in this subscale higher than generation y with a mean difference of ,65. in the light of this evidence, h1n was accepted. there is a difference between generation x and generation z in face-saver subscale with a sig. value of ,009 at ,05 confidence interval. generation z rated the items in this subscale higher than generation x with a mean difference of ,67. in the same subscale – face-saver – there is also a difference between generation y and generation z with a sig. value of ,024 at ,05 confidence interval. generation z rated the items in this subscale higher than generation y with a mean difference of ,52. in the light of this evidence, h1o was accepted. the rest of the hypothesis (h1a, h1b, h1d, h1e, h1f, h1g, h1h, h1i, h1j, h1k, h1l, h1m, h1p) were rejected as the test of between-subjects effects did not reveal any significant values for these leadership subscales (dependent variables). as a result of multivariate analyses, univariate analyses, and post-hoc tests, 3 of 16 subscales yielded significant results. the subscales, the items that comprise these subscales and the differences between the generations are summarized in table 6. table 6: summary of the results the subscales that yielded significant results the items that comprise the subscales differences between the generations high low charismatic 3: self-sacrifice risk-taker generation z generation x self-sacrificial convincing conflict inducer normative generation z generation z generation x generation y secretive intra-group competitor face saver indirect generation z generation z generation x generation y avoids negatives evasive prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 140 6. discussion there is a difference between generation x and generation z in charismatic3: self-sacrifice subscale. generation z rated the items in this subscale higher than generation x. we see that for generation z, attributes of risk-taking, self-sacrificing, and being convincing contributes to effective leadership while these attributes do not mean much to generation x. the reason why generation x rated these items lower may be they are self-reliant (strauss & howe, 1991) and they do not require their leaders take any risks or sacrifice themselves because they do not care and their loyalty to the organization is quite low (tulgan, 1995). on the other hand, generation z requires these attributes in a leader because they are more career-oriented and individualistic (levine & dean, 2012) and they might like the idea that a leader should be risk taking and selfsacrificing and convincing to help them with their career advancement. the comments that were made for generation z are not sufficient as the literature is not through on this topic and generation z has not experienced the business life yet (bako, 2016). furthermore, there is a difference between generation x and generation z in conflict-inducer subscale. generation z rated the items in this subscale higher than generation x. in the same subscale conflict-inducer – there is also a difference between generation y and generation z. generation z rated the items in this subscale higher than generation y. we see that for generation z, attributes of being normative, secretive, and intragroup competitor contributes to effective leadership while generation x and y think that these attributes impede effective leadership. generation z rated these leadership attributes higher because they are accepting towards all kinds of people (gardner & davis, 2013) and if their manager abides by the rules and keeps secrets from them, they are cool with that and they accept this situation as it is. generation y rated these attributes lower because according to alch (2000), generation y prefers collaborative leaders so a secretive leader is not an effective one for generation y. moreover, as generation y prefers genuine connections and more autonomy at work (kehrli & sopp, 2006), a normative leader would not be preferred and as team work is preferred by generation y (howe & strauss, 2000) an intragroup competitor type of leader would not be rated high. for generation x, flexibility matters at the work place (tulgan, 1995) so a normative leader is not preferred. moreover, as generation x is a symbol of skepticism (lancaster & stillman, 2009), they retain this behavior at the workplace, too, plus they prefer leaders who are honest and fair (arsenault, 2004). as a result, a secretive leader would not be preferred by them. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 141 there is a difference between generation x and generation z in face-saver subscale. generation z rated the items in this subscale higher than generation x. in the same subscale – face-saver – there is also a difference between generation y and generation z. generation z rated the items in this subscale higher than generation y. we see that for generation z, attributes of being indirect and evasive and avoiding negatives contributes to effective leadership while generation x and y think that these attributes impede effective leadership. the reason why generation z rated these items higher can be explained through their growing passivity (gardner & davis, 2013) and isolation (twenge & foster, 2010). being indirect, evasive and avoiding negatives are behaviors that result from being passive and isolated so generation z might regard a leader as effective when they share some similar behaviors. generation y rated these items low as they do not feel the need to hide behind the courtesy, they are too direct and blunt. they need to be open, true and uncomplicated (twenge, 2006). as a result, an indirect and evasive leader is not preferred by generation y. generation x is described as distrusting and pragmatic by strauss & howe (1991) and while generation x is distrusting by default, a leader’s qualifications of being indirect and evasive does not contribute much to generation x’s trust issues. moreover, according to arsenault (2004), generation x prefers straightforward leaders, so evasive leaders would not be preferred by generation x. 7. conclusion the problem that different generations are actually different from each other and this situation may cause serious problems in a workplace has not got the attention it deserves, especially in turkey. as this study proved, there are differences between the generations in their leadership preferences. although each generation agrees on most of the leadership subscales (13 of 16), they disagree in 3 of them and this situation may cause problems in the workplace. it is hoped that this study paves the path for other researchers to study on the differences of generations and the preferred leadership style. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 142 references alch, m. 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(2000). generations at work: managing the clash of veterans, boomers, xers, and nexters in your workplace. new york: amacom. 2.1. dependent variables 2.2. independent variables 2.2.1. generational cohorts 1 language inequality and the use of standard language prof. ass. flamur shala prizren university “ukshin hoti, faculty of philology, flamur.shala@uni-prizren.com article history: accepted 15 february 2019 available online 30 april 2019 keywords: language competence, standard language, language inequality, language deficit, restricted code, elaborated code. a b s t r a c t this paper deals with linguistic inequality and the use of standard language. language inequality has a wide and multifaceted meaning with several interpretations. it should be noted that the habits of informal use of the language do not define all inequality because the same user in another circumstance may use the language standard and manage to indicate a certain degree of use of the language. from the research with students of albanian language, it turns out that these students, starting from the first year of the studies, show the efforts, the ability and the skills of using the linguistic standard despite a linguistic conformism. linguistic individuality highlights the linguistic inequality. language inequality has linguistic or limited language deficits on written and speech discourse. meanwhile, the text sublimates the individual skills of writing, brainstorming, text planning, linguistic coherence and cohesion, according to an elaborate linguistic code. furthermore, we see that language inequality is relative, because everyone who writes or speaks, under certain conditions, has his / her linguistic competence and individuality. in my research on students` texts are noticed some elements dealing with linguistic inequality and use standard language. 1. language inequality and the use of standard language the question being raised. language competence, linguistic conformism and the use of standard language by speakers and writers are different. the degree of linguistic conformation (shala perla, 2018) and the use of the standard language of albanian language students, based on their written and interpreted texts, is also different. in this context, one of the issues for study is language inequality. the students of the first year of the albanian language and literature department were set an assignment in the subject of language culture: to read, to learn and to write about the topic "the use of standard albanian language on albanian tv shows". as i rely on the data of this research to elaborate and draw conclusions about linguistic conformism in relation to the use of standard language, i have also relied on the same data source for language inequality. on the topic "using standard albanian language on albanian tv shows", students read and learned for a week, from one weeks` exercises class to the next week, a week later. they who had studied managed to write about the topic within one lesson class. the following week, the assessment was made on the use of the language standard in their texts, linguistic coherence and cohesion. in the third and fourth classes, after a week, the same texts were read and interpreted aloud. each student read and interpreted their own text. the debate on the use of standard language in written lectures and speech discourse was focused on linguistic competence (memushaj 2008, p. 86.), language conformism (shkurtaj 2009, p. 197), linguistic individualism (shkurtaj 2008, 194, p. 195) and linguistic inequality (hadson 2002, p. 226). these indicators are interdependent. this research is more about language inequality. language competence and inequality. language competence refers more to noam chomsky. (hadson 2002, p. 244.). performance is not a direct reflection of language competence, because in the spoken discourse (sosyr 1977, p. 58.), the 2 registration marks deviations from the rules and from the performance data derives the "subordinate" system of the rules that are owned by the speaker-listener. unlike sosyr, where langue (sosyr 1977, p. 44.) is the language in its system. the competence, always according to chomsky, is the ability of the ideal speaker-listener to master the language, as well as its system. the answer to language competence and performance (memushaj, 2008, p. 86.), referring to the concept itself, raises even more the question of what is not covered from the language competence. lack of language is out of competence. to this extent linguistic absence can be called the first step of language inequality. being the first step, language absence is a kind of linguistic inequality. language inequality has a wide and multifaceted meaning, with several interpretations. insufficient reading in new social contexts and the lack of speaking activity of individual speakers increases language inequality in relation to those who read, write and speak (explain, elaborate, interpret). language competence as the ability to master the language in its system is not enough to read nor speak the individual's activity, without relating to normative language learning and language learning in the entirety of its variations. the habit of informal language use do not define all inequality because the same speaker in another circumstance can use the language standard and reach a high degree of linguistic competence. according to this measure, students of albanian language who in the first year, besides a certain degree of language possession in its written and spoken system, also exhibit linguistic inequality. language inequality and the use of standard language are related to: normative language learning; spelling, reading, and righteousness; normative language learning, the massiveness of variations and language inequality; language culture and language inequality; rate of use of language standard and language inequality; limited and elaborate language code; language individuality and language inequality; context (contextualization) and linguistic inequality; linguistic conformation and inequality. language conformity and language inequality in written texts. normative language learning: the correct spelling, reading and pronunciation. normative language instruction is the study of language system, is the study of the use of standard written and spoken albanian norms. regarding these two fundamental realizations, r. ismajli has raised the question that the differences between written and spoken albanian are two codes or realizations of a more general code? (ismajli 2003, p. 155.). the written language of the students, based on the normative and systemic language learning, expresses a degree of language competence, the use of spelling with differences from text to text. the use of the standard language spelling represents only a degree of linguistic culture, which is not realized in the same way. the difference between linguistic accomplishments is also noticeable when using the spoken language according to normative teaching. the standard (spoken) language of a student, with the utmost care for the implementation of language norms, in most cases, achieves a degree of expression according to normative teaching, distinguishing from the other, according to the pronunciation and the prosody (metrics). in these cases, when using the spoken language is noticed a degree of language competence, according to pronunciation, but the differences are evident. although linguistic conformism (shkurtaj 2009, p. 197.) on the one hand and the standard rate of albanian language learning have worked, on the other hand, the differences remain. the basis of these differences is the different spoken language from the point of view of dialectal nuances and from the sociolinguistic aspect of linguistic individualism. normative language learning, the massiveness of variations and language inequality. using dialect of language and linguistic individuality are some of the factors that affect the differences between spoken language. neither normative language learning nor linguistic conformism completely distorts the differences. normative language learning and the massiveness of variations point to language inequality in relation to the degree of standard language use of each student. variations are expressions of the linguistic individualism of the speaker, which imply the personal character of individual human speech (shkurtaj 2009, p. 194.). the linguistic individuality in the totality of variations cannot function without a minimum of consonance and linguistic conformism with the social environment (shkurtaj 2009, p. 194). this minimum of conformism would imply a minimum of normative language instruction and the entirety of variations that uncover and remain linguistically unequal. language culture and language inequality. issues related to language inequality are also related to crystallization of literary norms, "not as dialectical problems but as problems of language culture" (lafe 1983, p. 101.). language-related issues have 3 attracted and still attract the attention of albanian linguistics to their solution in the development of language and literary crystallization (lafe 1983, p. 101.). in this context, the differences appear in the application of the morphological principle of the words of the albanian language such as the use of the undefined ë, the use of plural names and irregular plurality. also, the use of polysemistic words (baylon & mignot, 2004, p. 17.), where the meaning of a word, being used unnecessarily in certain contexts, reveals language lack, thus revealing language inequality. missing normative language lesson, its system and the use of standard albanian, written and spoken norms, highlight the differences that mark language inequality. the absence of normative language instruction, on its system and on the standard albanian language use, in the spoken and written form, reveals the differences which mark linguistic inequality. rate of use of language standard and language inequality. the use of language standard by students is an effort to apply spelling alongside the daily language learning. in addition to the differences in text and style planning, linguistic inequality in standard use also occurs in some grammatical terms of words as well as in syntactic connections. in the 33 evaluated texts, for the same topic, the introductory paragraph is different and in some cases the text begins with a finding or analytical elaboration of the topic in question. standard deviations point to certain forms of words and improper links of words in sentences. inequality also results from language learning, with unequal dedication. thus, deviations from the norm on the one hand and the correct use of the linguistic standard, on the other hand, reveal the limited and elaborate linguistic code. limited and elaborate language code. the text written with concentration sublimates the individual ability and skills of writing, linguistic coherence and cohesion, the degree of language learning. on the contrary, through it appear the stagnation, the lack of language skills. so, the limited code or linguistic deficit emerges (hadson 2002, p. 246.). in spite of the idea of "using standard language in albanian tv shows", the texts are conceived, more or less, they differ from the use of the language ( the form) and the way of explication (the content). based on the above parameters, such as normative learning, language learning, the massiveness of variations and the degree of use of the language standard, reading and evaluating the texts is a limited and elaborate language code, according to the texts. here, the limited code relates to the unequal recognition of particular units (hadson 2002, p. 246.), relevant to the text. thus, the limited code refers to a kind of linguistic deficit of language use according to normative and stylistic learning. the limited code is the lack of language tools needed for a text with a certain topic and content. in student texts, language use shows the degree of normative language learning that discovers restricted and elaborate language code. this is the linguistic inequality associated with the normative level of language learning. language individuality and language inequality. as stated above, hadson says that different language units can be used to express more or less the same meaning in different instances of language use. in the textbooks of the same pre-arranged subject we find a different linguistic arrangement, essentially with almost the same meaning. we find texts activated differently from one another, to the contextualization process, so to reconstruct the recipient's goals identical to the target recipients. language inequality here, however, is concerned with the linguistic individuality and degree of linguistic conformity, as well as with the individual language competence and culture in written discourse and speech discourse. the use of "different" language units to express the same meaning is in the nature of linguistic communication. the different use of language units is more common in spoken discourse, generally. anyway, it also comes down to the written discourse. different use of language units for the same meaning does not escape the use of units according to language standard. the measurement in each of the texts gives the language-related results for the standard, the elaborated language code, the language, the language deficit, and the lack of language tools, in the limited language code. in the texts used for standard measurements of the standard language of the students, we find that the same subject can be written differently, can be written with standard language of a certain level. fulfilling the use of standard language is a continuous requirement. it is not unnatural to attempt and therefore it is possible to use the language standard of the level of learning that the student has achieved. it is not just a standard language learning factor, though it is the main factor. another factor is the textual planning on the subject and the stylistic fulfillment of the text. in these texts there is generally an "elaborate code" dependent by the situation, by the type of text. the situation is that the student writes the text of the argumentative type and gives his opinion using the standard language. each has an elaborate code with its own linguistic individuality, different dependent from the text. students come from language circles, not a school, with different interests, with different background preparation and with different linguistic individualities. they associate "linguistic conformism" with the use of standard language. during this use, their language individualities are modeled and adapted. language modeling (shkurtaj 2009, p. 199.) occurs from standard language learning, requirements and school needs for "linguistic 4 conformism" (shkurtaj 2009, p. 201.) based on the use of standard language. language modeling and adaptation or conformism does not avoid linguistic inequality. linguistic inequality has its own linguistic, sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic side, in spoken and written discourse. the appearance of linguistic individuality and language inequality in written discourse is not the same as the language inequality in speech discourse. measurement of language inequality in these relationships is derived from the texts, on the one hand and from reading and interpreting them, on the other hand developed in a process within exercises classes. the results derive from the measurement of the use of the linguistic standard as a part of linguistic culture and the emergence of language inequality in written discourse and speech discourse. the measurement is not supposed to be completed. measurement has started with the firstyear students with tangible indicators and measurements of language inequality in the discourse of written texts and speech discourse, according to the correct pronunciation of the languageword units and the use of proxies. context, contextualization and language inequality. the linguistic context (rugova & sejdiu rugova 2015, p. 39-40.), as an implicit quote of the text, is new in a social communication context (islamaj, 2014, p. 117-126.). hence, linguistic change occurs with social change to reflect new social-linguistic contexts within language communication. in other words, the standard word of the standard language was not used at the time of the albanian language scripting congress and many years after the congress, when in some other languages it had long stood; at least it was not used with the meaning that is used today. thus, the standard word, standard language, standard norm, linguistic standard, in textbooks are written with the meaning of the literary language, the term that was used, is used and there are linguists who prefer it today. contextualization is reconstruction by the sender's target recipient and it results from the text activation process by linking it to a context of use. this activation of text associated with a context of use would now be called discourse. language inequality results from the different activation of the text on the same topic of each student. activating the text reveals the degree of language competence, coherence and language cohesion and the elaborated language code (hadson 2002, pp. 245.) and the same as the lack of language tools (hadson 2002, p. 245.), the limited code and the linguistic deficit (hadson 2002, p. 246.). language conformity and language inequality in written texts. language inequality, as mentioned above, appears in the written discourse and speech discourse. the text sublimates the ability and individual skills of writing, brainstorming, textual planning, coherence and linguistic cohesion, the degree of language learning, and vice versa, through which it shows latencies, lack of language skills, limited code a linguistic deficit (hadson 2002, p. 246.). through the written discourse, more than anything else comes up with the language culture of the individual. generally, depending on education as a requirement of the education system and individual sentiment, the desire to master the language better, the students reveal the level of use of standard language including the measured linguistic inequality. even when language use by students is within the "linguistic conformism" and conditionally accurate, even then there is a language inequality. as in other cases, the inequality results from linguistic individualism to express the same meaning. hadson (2002, p. 57.) mentions language inequality even when "the same person can use very different linguistic units to express more or less the same meaning in different instances" and adds that "the concept of dialect logically cannot be extended as far as to include such a variation "(hadson 2002, p. 57.). the linguistic, morphological, syntax and stylistic aspect, the individual language processing code, and the standard rate teaching of the language planning in education (holmes 2015, 138.) on the one hand, and the sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic aspect, individuality and degree of conformity to conformism language, on the other hand, constitute the elements (indicators) of measuring language inequality. language inequality is relative. it is relative, because everyone who writes or speaks, under certain conditions has his own linguistic individuality, has a customized (lexicon) word "confirmed" by others. we always talk to those who have normal language communication conditions. conclusion when talking about language competence we refer more to noam chomsky (hadson 2002, p. 244.). what is the language competence, referring to the word itself, raises even more the question of what is not the language competence? lack of language is out of the question. lack of language may be language inequality. lack of language is a kind of language inequality. language inequality has a wider and multifaceted meaning, with few interpretations. insufficient reading and lack of speaking activity of individual speaker increases language inequality in relation to those who read, write and speak (interpret and elaborate). the habit of informal language use do not define all inequality because the same speaker in another circumstance can use the language standard and reach a high degree of linguistic competence. according to this measure, students of albanian language who in the first year, besides a certain degree of 5 language possession in its written and spoken system, also exhibit linguistic inequality. language inequality is distinguished both in written discourse and speech discourse. the text sublimates the individual ability and versatility of writing, brainstorming, planning, coherence, and linguistic cohesion. through the written discourse emerges the language culture of the individual, it is known, depending on the education as a requirement of the education system, dedication and individual sensitivity to the desire to know the language better. "the same person can use very different linguistic units to express more or less the same meaning in different cases and the concept of dialectically cannot be extended to include such variation" (hadson, 2002, p. 57.). language inequality is relative. it is relative, because everyone who speaks, under certain conditions, has a linguistic individuality of its own. we always talk to those who have normal communication conditions. the results of this paper reveal student language inequality and the use of standard language in written discourse and speech discourse. they are summarized in these measuring indicators on the written text, reading and interpreting the text on the subject. references 1. baylon ch. & mignot, x., 2004. komunikimi, shkup. 2. dë sosyr, f., 1977. kurs i gjuhëssë së përgjithshme, prishtinë. 3. grup autorësh, 2002. gamatika e gjuhës shqipe i, tiranë. 4. holmes, j., 2015. hyrje në sociolinguistikë, tiranë. 5. hudson, r. a., 2002. sociolinguistika, tiranë. 6. islamaj, sh., 2014. gjuha teksti dhe konteksti, prishtinë. 7. ismajli, r., 2003. standarde dhe identitete, pejë. 8. kostallari, a., 1973. gjuha e sotme letrare shqipe dhe disa problem themelore të drejtshkrimit të saj, tiranë. 9. lafe, e., 1983. rreth normës së sotme në formimin e shumësit të emrave, probleme aktuale të kulturës së gjuhës shqipe, prishtinë. 10. lloshi, xh., 2012. stilistika e gjuhës shqipe, tiranë. 11. martine, a., 1983. elemente të gjuhësisë së përgjithshme, prishtinë. 12. memushaj, r., 2008. gjuhësia gjenerative, tiranë. 13. ndreca, m., 1986. fjalor fjalësh e shprehjesh të huaja, prishtinë. 14. nuhiu, v., 1990. ndikimet ndërgjuhësore, prishtinë. 15. paҫarizi, rr., 2011. shqipja standarde në parametrat sociolinguistikë, prishtinë. 16. ronald, b., 2008. aventuara semiologjike, pejë, 2008. 17. shala, f., 2018. konformizmi gjuhësor dhe përdorimi i gjuhës standarde, perla, tiranë. 18. shkurtaj, gj., 2009. sociolinguistikë e shqipes, tiranë. 1. language inequality and the use of standard language conclusion references algorithmic financial trading with deep convolutional neural networks: time series to image conversion approach 79 social and historic contextuality of contemporary albanian literature (albania, macedonia and montenegro) prof. ass. vjolca dibra prizren “ukshin hoti” university, faculty of philology , vjollca.dibra@uni-prizren.com article info a b s t r a c t article history: accepted 16 december 2018 available online 31 december 2018 keywords: 1. introduction these two names, contemporary albanian literature, as well as modern albanian literature, are also encountered in public universities at the faculty of philology in tirana, korça, durrës, gjirokastra, and in private colleges there. but these names, for those who do not know, are quite different. they are different, but we have seen that the professors of literary science do not distinguish them. we are commencing this presentation of contemporary albanian authors and literature moving to albania, macedonia, montenegro, to give a summary of its situation today. in order to clarify it, we shall emphasize that arbëresh authors of italy, since they have been left marginalized for a long time by all albanian scholars, we will leave them out of this treatise too, with the intention of making a special treatise for their conditions of publication and creation of literary works over the years, which have remained silent and unfamiliar because the criticism did not deal with their work and with them. and, having knowledge of their works and the expectations that criticism and studies have had over the years, we will highlight one for analysis, and another that is less mentioned in contemporary albanian literature will be mentioned only for the statistics matter. a presentation of authors and works of contemporary albanian literature in the monograph contemporary albanian literature: the interplay of poetics and the decoding of metaphysical realities in contemporary novel has been done by the scholar arben prendi. the author continues this same study activity with the publication of the book problems, authors and works from contemporary albanian literature. in albania, writers petro marko, jakov xoxa, ismail kadare, bilall xhaferi, kasem trebeshina, dritëro agolli, fatos arapi, fatos kongoli and few others were trying to show their creative individuality, but some of them were impeded by the party from expressing their opinion freely, as it checked their works before the publication and gave them strict criticism even on the handing over of the manuscript for publication, even on the occasion of their publication, thus they would be returned for rewriting by the literature, history, world war ii, writer, contemporary, education, publisher to reach the reader of 2018, contemporary albanian literature has overcome many obstacles and politics ideology. she felt violated by a certain, imposing and savage ideology. the method of socialist realism by some writers was embraced with delight and conviction, and from some others it was used for compromise to bring to light their works, which, in case of incompatibility with the relevant ideology, was banned from publishing. however, given that literature is the creation of the human spirit, it is unnatural to think that all this literature of this period has not expressed their feelings, sorrows, dreams and their love. perhaps we can argue with conviction, which has been a memory for the past and also a dream for the future. this literature overwhelmed the content imposed in 1945 and continued to be the most rebellious. the national liberation war was not the subject of the 1960s literature, which was more stubborn than what was written fifteen years ago, even by the same authors. here, summed up as a great deal in the history of contemporary literature, find the first and the foremost authors of this literature, their best works, publishers, and their echoes in the language of translation. 80 authorities of enver hoxha's party, people who served politically and culturally. 2. contemporary albanian literature, authors, editions and publishers the case of macedonia authors of contemporary albanian literature, like those of the previous periods, presented their poetical, prosaic, dramatic, critical, and essayistic talent first in journals. for example, in macedonia at the beginning of the ‘50s, albanian authors “started publishing poems, stories, essays, critics, story fragments, novels and other types of literature on the pages of the weekly flaka e vëllazërimit, the only journal published in albanian in skopje. the authors of these writings were mainly from macedonia, very rarely there would be one from kosovo” and albania (aliu, 2008). these genres of writing in this literary journal were written by writers from macedonia: adem gajtani, murteza peza, fejzi bojko, nexhat pustina, sabaudin ajdini, sabedin gjura, murat isaku, lutfi rusi, and some others less frequently, then adem gajtani more often, who went from podujeva, kosovo, to skopje and started living there and working as an editor of flaka e vëllazërimit, and also started publishing his texts on this journal, but also those of murat isaku, abdylaziz islami and others whose profession was to create. in the sixties, the essayist with family origin from pogradec, luan starova, joined this period of literature quite emphatically, followed by other creators from pollog, such as mustafa laçi, xhabir ahmeti, ibrahim veliu, nijazi saliu, halit basha (in dibra), nexhat mustafa, ali aliu, nuhi and agim vinca (in struga), who, along with the first one, had moved to live and work in kosovo, keeping both citizenships to this day. in addition to them, other writers and researchers came to study, live and work in kosovo, such as: ali aliu, eqrem basha who had presented the beginnings and promises of their authorship for the first time in the albanian press of macedonia. some of these writers, one or two years after being introduced on this journal, also started publishing books on the enterprise with the same name, flaka e vëllazërimit, under the care of the editorial office members of this publishing enterprise. meanwhile, the same started publishing books of the writers from kosovo who would send their writings to this publishing body for their publication. through the journal flaka e vëllazërimit and this same enterprise, contemporary albanian literature of macedonia began to penetrate even outside the macedonian land; old and new writings began to be written and come to light, whose authors were looking forward to seeing them on the hands of albanian readers. thus, these albanian creators, until late ‘80s, were the most popular authors in macedonia. nonetheless, contemporary albanian literature in macedonia continues its journey with other writers, some of whom have become famous for quite a long time now; some others have started to be acknowledged and become famous for their publications and republications of their works outside macedonia but also due to their literary works being translated in english, french, and german. today there are some albanian writers in macedonia who are famous even beyond their country for their serious literature which has been published by six or seven albanian publishers of macedonia in total (skopje, logos, sira, rezna, ars-zz, fokus) who, in the annual competitions of the ministry of culture of macedonia for publication of works, deposit writings of authors and receive considerable financial support, but they publish the books rapidly, without anyone swallowing their content seriously, even without being edited. therefore, albeit older and less modern than the ones that are still alive and writing, the works of murat isaku and abdylaziz ismaili are still read and appreciated. particularly requested by readers and awarded by cultural state institutions, inside and outside macedonia, are the works of kim mehmeti (in kosovo), of luan starova (in albania), and of eqrem basha (in kosovo), while great honor continues to be paid to resul shabani for his prosaic contribution, nehas sopaj for his studies, and nebi islami (for drama), and mexhid mehmeti for children’s literature. this caravan of writers, by reading and interpreting the literary works of the ones mentioned above, were joined by shkëlzen halimi, avni halimi, rexhep zllatku, halil zendeli, ilir ajdini, hajri shaqiri, luljeta isaku, lindita aliu, followed by the young creators, whose work and study approach towards literature is distinguished by that of the former ones and by us as well. here we mention fatmir sulejmani, lulzim haziri, shazim mehmeti, teuta arifi, salajdin salihu, berton sulejmani, halil zendeli, ahmet selmani, zejnepe rexhepi, lindita ahmeti. “the latter, with her three poetry volumes published until now, can be convincingly listed among the most famous names of contemporary albanian literature. we are talking about an extraordinary talent, a cultural molding, particularly from the antique literary and philosophical era, also unique and rare. the metaphysical reflection and the high degree of emotion, of creative concern in the poetry of lindita ahmeti, result in a perfect lyrical synthesis similar to the most contemporary trends 81 in worldwide poetry” (aliu, 2008). however, contemporary albanian literature in macedonia, due to the lack of support from the state institutions which it should receive just as the macedonian literature does, in particular from the ministry of culture of macedonia, and due to the lack of support for publication and lack of attention for the works of albanian writers by the two biggest albanian publishers in this country, namely “logos a” and “sira”, the expectations of this contemporary literature, including other reasons as well, have started to decrease because of the volume of publications, number of authors, value, and circulation. we really hope that the contemporary albanian literature, especially that of macedonia, will be discussed not only in the international seminar of albanology in tetovo which has been organized by the rector of state university of tetova in cooperation with the faculty of philology of this university once a year in october, for 12 years now, but we also hope that it will be written and talked about during every year of the age of literature. 3. contemporary albanian literature, authors, editions, and publishers the case of montenegro the contemporary albanian literature of montenegro has very few names of creators. it is a very poor literature in relation to the number of albanian inhabitants. even the few writers who come from that area have reached their fame through the literary works they created in kosovo at a very young age. yet, these few persons are not scarce to our literature because they are great names. they are rexhep qosja, mehmet kraja, and late basri çapriqi, who have occupied a meritorious place in the albanian literature: the first with monographic studies, with a rigorous critical approach, with publicist writings, with dramas containing mythical elements, and postmodern novels; the second with novels, essays, and opinions; the third with poetry and studies. however, none of them, regardless of their considerably serious writings, penetrated into the international literature as much as some others did who became writers “by force”. qosja’s works were translated into serbian, slovenian, croatian, they reached mainly the balkans’ nations, very few of them were translated into french, dutch, swedish, and arabic. but the works of kraja and çapriqi have not been translated in all these languages. had these three writers not existed, we would have presented this literature only with anton and nikollë berisha, who are much less known because, for their age, around 60 years old, they have worked very little in both science and literary composition. they have only published two books each. qosja, kraja, çapriqi and anton write and publish in kosovo, whereas nikolla in montenegro. the first ones publish their works with public and private publishers in kosovo, serbia, albania and macedonia, whereas the latter only in his home country, in montenegro. qosja published his first literary and scientific writings in the journal jeta e re, whereas his works and books were initially published by the editorial office, rilindja, by flaka e vëllazërimit in skopje, then by the institute of albanology, and the publishing house, toena, in tirana. kraja published his first literary writings in the journal jeta e re, whereas his works and books were first published by the editorial office, rilindja, then by the kosovo academy of arts and sciences, and recently by the publishing house, onufri. the poet and researcher çapriqi started his opus in these two fields in the journal jeta e re, in the newspaper rilindja, zëri i rinisë, etc., whereas his poetry and study books were first published by the editorial office, rilindja, then by the pen centre of kosovo which he himself used to lead, by rozafa which was led by his friend, sali bashota, and by faik konica. the two berishas, anton and nikolla, write rarely and publish even more rarely than they write. the first one has published two study works in kosovo by the publishing house buzuku, the second in montenegro illyricumi, and in albania by toena. there are also some young albanian writers in montenegro who, if they follow the path of the work of the first three, could occupy a place in the contemporary albanian literature. 4. contemporary albanian literature, authors, publications, and publishers the case of albania scrutinizing the space of contemporary albanian literature, we can see that each albanian country already has some “greater”, better, more awarded writers, and who are more famous than others even outside albanian territories, who started making their literary opus public in the literary periodical press and daily newspapers of albania, such as demokratia, përpjekja shqiptare, neoshqiptarizma, hylli i dritës, leka, minerva, koha, etc. after making accounts of their data, it turns out there is only one albanian author, that of the general of the dead army, of broken april, of chronicle in stone and a wide range of other works which have brought him national awards in the albanian 82 lands and abroad for the literary works he has written and published over the years, for sixty years, whose name continues to be mentioned for twenty years now every time the days of nobel prize award in literature approach. this writer has sent the albanian literature, his works – and through them – the albanian history, culture, anthropology, and ethnology to 40 countries and thousands of cities around the world. this writer, but also his contemporaries, started writing and publishing under communist political and historical conditions. in contrast to him who did not suffer physically, those writers who started protecting the party suffered worse (because their work is considered worthless today) and others who started opposing enver hoxha (who called on behalf of the persecution and censure that they faced with, and which, undoubtedly, was actually done to some of them). therefore, “what happened from 1973 to at least 1975 was a dominion of terror against albanians and albanian intellectuals, which can be compared to stalinist cleansing of the 1930s. those years were a huge step behind for the development of the albanian literature and culture. in the spring of 1973, one hundred and thirty writers and artists announced that they were leaving the cities to work in the fields and construction sites with the aim of strengthening their connections to the working class. poets and prose writers entered into a competition with one another by demonstrating revolutionary zeal and by refusing foreign, liberal influences. those who were less convincing and had less publications touched by the influence of liberalism were sent to remote places or were imprisoned. the most fortunate ones only lost the right of publication. almost all major writers had at least one work removed from circulation and “turned into cardboard”. learning foreign languages was strictly forbidden, whereas those who had the bad luck of speaking french or italian found themselves in an uncomfortable position” (elsie, 1997). after world war ii, many albanian writers and intellectuals of albania were arrested and imprisoned, such as: playwrights kristo floqi (1873-1951) and etëhem haxhiademi (1902-1952), writer and muslim publisher, hafiz ibrahim dalliu (1878-1952), the minister of education, mirash avanaj (1891-1953), who died in prison, and the poet dionis gjergj bubani (1926); short story writer mitrush kuteli (1907-1967), romanticist petro marko (1913-1991), poet sejfulla malëshova (1900-1971), writer musine kokalari (1917-1983), poet and researcher arshi pipa (1921-1997), bektashi poet ibrahim hasnaj (1912-1995), poet nexhat hakiu (1917-1978), poet andrea varfi (1914-1992), translators jusuf vrioni (1916-2001) and pashko gjeci (19182010), romanticist mustafa greblleshi (1922-1986), publicist dionis miçaço (1908-), poet kudret kokoshi (1907-1991), romanticist and publisher anton s. frashëri (1892-1965), comedian and relentless translator mid’hat araniti (1912-1992), linguist selman riza (1909-1988), critic filip fishta (19011973), folklorists father donat kurti (1903-1969) and stavro frashëri from kavaja, and writer lazër radi (1916-1998), and many other writers who did not write by the orders of the party, therefore they suffered punishments of the most various forms by the communist regime of enver hoxha, who despised each writer, young and old. however, neither the above mentioned nor the ones in this period, like dhimitër shuteriqi, shevqet musaraj, sterjo spasse, fatmir gjata, jakov xoxa, ali abdihoxha, aleks çaçi, mark gurkuqi, luan qafëzezi, llazar siliqi, etc., could not be stopped by enver with his numerous authorities and his harsh decisions which he used to take in the blink of an eye. regardless of the limitations and barbarian measures of socialist realism that he applied on albanian authors and their works, albanian literature marked advances in the seventies and eighties, with the emergence of ismail kadare (1936-), who started writing and publishing parallel to this generation of writers but who, in contrast to them, according to young critics and authors, was considered an auspicious initiative for the albanian literature to move forward. the signs of his opus appear in the horizon with poems, and then with novels, but it is the novels that made him known in the world, mainly the novel the general of the dead army, the monster, broken april, the castle, chronicle in stone, the traitor’s niche, doruntine, the wedding procession turned into ice, the dark year, and some other ones from his 60 published works. since he was originally from the same city as the communist leader, enver hoxha, he had his complete support, which the writer today denies. obviously, his success was also assured since the translation of his works into another language was enabled. at the end of the day, although he could do to him what he did to the others, hoxha never sent kadare to prison even when the latter would sometimes “scratch” him. nonetheless, he received warnings about his works by lead members of hoxha’s party, which he had to edit and tone down in every re-edition. as concerns the literature of this writer and his personality, i do not know of anyone having described his freedom of writing and his values better than elsie did: “ismail kadare did his utmost to emancipate albanian literature, which, thanks to his talent and support from the regime, reigned as an absolute monarch in the seventies and eighties. in many cases during the long years of heavy dictatorship, he expressed open criticism of the level in the field of literature and art, while at the same time giving his unconditional support to the political system from which he himself has undoubtedly suffered. this has led many adversaries to refer to him later as the 'royal 83 court writer' or 'exponent of the regime', opponents who have questioned even if it was indeed a secret dissident, as he tried, somewhat thickly, to prove it from exile in paris. be that as it may, there is no doubt that ismail kadare used his relative freedom and his talent under the dictatorship to make subtle attacks against the regime in the form of the allegories we encounter, as we have seen, everywhere in his works. however, it would be best if perhaps ismail kadare were valued from a completely literary point of view, as the author of works ranging from an average to excellent grade. political analysis of conformism or dissent in its prose should be left to the future” (elsie, 1997). this glorious researcher of albanian literature in the world, inside and outside the boundaries of our literature, has been quite supportive of creative and talented writers, such as petro marko, kasëm trebeshina, sabri godo, dritëro agolli, naum prifti, dhimitër xhuvani, kapllan resuli, skënder drini, vath koreshi, teodor laço, nasri lera, koço kosta, and many others, whose literature, from professional albanian and international criticism, is in many occasions appreciated more than that of kadare. good writers of the albanian literature, for many readers’ taste, who write for adults and children, prose and poetry and drama, are considered to be bilall xhaferi, ndoc papleka, martin camaj, kiço blushi, neshat tozaj, fatos kongoli, zija çela, betim muço, roland gjoza, valter file, bashkim shehu, preç zogaj, teodor keko, besnik mustafaj, ridvan dibra, lazër stani, elena kadare, diana çuli, mira meksi, mimoz ahmeti, mehmet myftiu, astrit delvina, trifon xhagjika, pjetër arbnori, fatos arapi, xhevahir spahiu, zihni sako, kolë jakova, spiro çomora, sulejman pitarka, ndrekë luca, loni papa, fadil paçrami, xhemal broja, ibrahim uruçi, selman vaçari, fadil kraja, naum prifti, fahri balliu, artur zheji, zef zorba, dhimitër l. gjoka, dhori qiriazi, qamil buxheli, moikom zeqo, zef zorba, mira meksi, klara buda, xhevat beqaraj, natasha lako, elvira dones, ben blushi, stefan çapaliku, teodor keko, teodor laço, vaid hyzoti, visar zhiti, xhevahir spahiu, ervin hatibi, flutura açka, gazmend krasniqi, gëzim hajdari, gridor jovani, gjekë marinaj, nonda bulka, irma kurti, irhan jubica, agron tufa, arian leka, arshi pipa, bardhyl londo, lindita arapi, liri seitllari, luljeta lleshanaku, valdete antoni, josif papagjoni, majlinda nana rama, mihal hanxhari, mimoza ahmeti, nazmi seitaj, parid teferiçi, sadik bejko, xhezair abazi, preç zogaj, romeo çollaku, rudolf marku, irena gjoni, ylljet aliçka, astrit bishqemi, gaqo bushaka, alfred çapaliku, primo shllaku, rudi erebara, and some other writers and researchers who, for now, we cannot recall so as to count all of them in this article, limited by the space of writing. but, they are writers whom the albanian readers know well because, based on some surveys done at book fairs (in tirana, prishtina, tetovo, tuz), they have mentioned their works and have even talked about the content of the books they had read. and, finally, we should mention that their works have been published mainly by these publishers in albania and kosovo: nëndori, zëri i rinisë, naim frashëri, rilindja, libri shkollor, onufri, toena, skanderbeg, argeta, buzuku, faik konica, rozafa, uetpress with publication circulations, depending on the writer’s fame, from 300 to 3,000 copies. 5. the status of contemporary albanian literature in the social life and education system as the researcher and poet sadik bejko notes, “with the political changes after the ‘90s, many of the meanings on society, history, literature, etc., were lost or some of the concepts that had led social opinion and sciences in general took other contents” (bejko, 2009). at the beginning of the ‘90s in albania, authors of this country had, more or less, the same fate as the authors from kosovo and their works. “teachers and university professors first cleansed their texts from flagrant politicization. just as the omission of authors from programs had been done for political reasons, the first evaluations of authors and works of this kind were very politically coloring, but they were now on the other side. the political coloring on the other side was stigmatized by a joke that circulated tirana in those years: we are passing from socialist realism to democratic realism. this happened because the persons who were making the changes were the same, and the same political orientation that had the biggest influence on the changes being made” (bejko, 2009). result and conclusion regarding contemporary albanian literature, the authors and their works presented in this article, it is worth noting that many other writers who create literary works in different countries outside of albania, macedonia and montenegro with motives of their country could not be presented here. whenever the time comes to write a history book of the albanian literature it can be estimated that this story will manifest itself in its own way with its deep history. it is this literature that makes us feel the story present in the fate of the writings that carry events, situations and ideas throughout history and also reflect the limitations of the writings through which the ruthless ideological reality was 84 reflected. in time, the formal instrument is no longer in the service of a triumphant ideology; is a form of a new situation of the writer, who loses connection with time, namely the power that necessarily leads to the beautification of the existing reality. because writing somehow assumes a neutral role, then the writer achieves a state of equality. references 1. aliu, ali, dëshmi letrare, akademia e shkencave dhe arteve e kosovës, prishtinë, 2008. 2. aliu, ali, letërsia bashkëkohore shqiptare : 4, prishtinë, albas, 2002. 3. aliu, ali, kritikë dhe ese: letërsi e sotme shqipe, rilindja, prishtinë, 1971. 4. elsie, robert, një fund dhe një fillim: vështrim mbi letërsinë dhe kulturën shqiptare bashkëkohore, gjon buzuku, prishtinë, 1995. 5. elsie, robert, historia e letërsisë shqiptare, toena, tiranë, 1997. 6. basha, doruntina, drama bashkëkohore nga rajoni, qendra multimedia, prishtinë, 2013. 7. berisha n., anton, antologji e poezisë bashkëkohore të arbëreshëve të italisë : 1946-1996, mësonjëtorja, tiranë, 2002. 8. bihiku, koço, historia e letërsisë shqiptare të realizmit socialist, naim frashëri, tiranë, 1978. 9. çapriqi, basri, format antitetike të tekstit letrar në poezinë e sotme shqipe, (master thesis), universiteti i prishtinës, fakulteti filozofik, prishtinë, 1987. 10. çapriqi, basri, simboli në poezinë e sotme shqipe, (doctoral thesis), universiteti i prishtinës, fakulteti i filologjisë, prishtinë, 2004. 11. daci, fatos, antologji e poezisë dibrane, kristalinakh, tiranë, 2005. 12. islami, nebi, historia dhe poetika e dramës shqiptare i-ii (1886-1996), universiteti i prishtinës, fakulteti i arteve dramatike, prishtinë, 2003. 13. ismajli, rexhep, poezia e sotme arbëreshe, rilindja, prishtinë, 1990. 14. jorgaqi, nasho, antologji e poezisë bashkëkohore arbëreshe, dudaj, tiranë, 2001. 15. kelmendi, shpëtim, antologji e prozës bashkëkohore shqiptare, ombra, tiranë, 2004. 16. kelmendi, ramiz, tregime të sotme shqiptare, enti i botimeve shkollore i republikës socialiste të serbisë reparti prishtinë, 1969. 17. koiçiçi, abedin, formimi i fjalëve dhe vlerat e tij në prozën e sotme shqipe në kosovës : (mbështetur në veprat e autorëve anton pashku e rexhep qosja), geer, tiranë, 2011. 18. kuçuku, bashkim, antologji e poezisë shqipe bashkëkohore, onufri, tiranë, 2008. 19. kuçuku, bashkim, letërsia shqiptare, 4, libri shkollor, prishtinë, 2004. 20. kuçuku, bashkim [et al.], zemra e qiellit : antologji e poezisë shqipe të shekullit xx, 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bashkëkohor shqiptar me tematikë të shekullit xv, (tezë magjistrature, up, fakulteti filozofik, 1985. 29. raifi, mensur, mbi poezinë bashkëkohore shqiptare, rilindja, 1977. 30. ramadani, sinan, vendlindja në poezinë e sotme shqipe, (master thesis), universiteti i prishtinës, fakulteti filozofik, prishtinë, 1986. 31. rexhaj, besim, drama shqiptare pas luftës së dytë botërore 1948-2008: poetika, tipologjia, periodizimi, faik konica, prishtinë, 2009. 32. rugova, ibrahim [et al.], lulet në ballkon : antologji e poezisë më të re të kosovës, zëri i rinisë, prishtinë, 1982. https://drive.google.com/file/d/0b2_vohy4ggerwxh2uxlwdxy4u3c/edit https://drive.google.com/file/d/0b2_vohy4ggerwxh2uxlwdxy4u3c/edit 85 33. rugova, ibrahim, kahe dhe premisa të kritikës letrare shqiptare (1504-1983), rilindja, prishtinë, 1986. 34. rugova, ibrahim, refuzimi estetik, rilindja, prishtinë, 1987. 35. rrahmani, kujtim, letërsia bashkëkohore, 13, albas, tiranë, 2006. 36. sadiku, sinan, rendi i vlerave në poezinë bashkëkohore shqiptare, “beqir musliu”, gjilan, 2013. 37. sejdiu, vaxhid, poema e sotme shqipe me temë historike, (master thesis), universiteti i prishtinës, fakulteti i filologjisë, prishtinë, 2005. 38. simpozium rrjedhat e letërsisë bashkëkohore shqiptare nga gjysma e dytë e shekullit xx poezia, proza dhe drama, ashak, prishtinë, 2005. 39. shema, isak, kultura letrare bashkëkohore, lidhja e shkrimtarëve e kosovës, prishtinë, 2015. 40. vinca, agim, struktura e zhvillimit të poezisë shqipe: (1945-1980), rilindja, prishtinë, 1985. references 38 addressing the challenges hindering covid-19 protocol compliance among university students oyinlola o. adebola ¹* bunmi isaiah omodan 2 ¹ university of the free state, faculty of education, adebolaoo@ufs.ac.za *correspondent author. 2 walter sisulu university, faculty of education, bomodan@wsu.ac.za article history: submission 07 july 2022 revision 16 september 2022 accepted 25 november 2022 available online 31 december 2022 keywords: university students, covid-19 regulation, complacency measure. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.353 a b s t r a c t it has been observed that students do not adhere to covid-19 regulations on campus despite various instructions from both government and university authorities for staff and students to maintain adequate covid-19 protocols in universities. therefore, this study explores the challenges faced by students that make them disregard covid-19 protocols, such as wearing nose masks, hand sanitization, and social distancing. the study is located in an interpretive paradigm using a case study as a research design. the convenience sampling technique was used to select ten university students who responded to interview questions on the challenges that hinder them from complying with covid-19 protocols. the study adopted thematic analysis (ta) as a qualitative tool to interpret and make meanings from the data generated. the study found that limited covid19 awareness on campus, health challenges among students, and lack of classroom capacity and personal protective equipment (ppe) are significant challenges. in contrast, the recommended solutions are stricter covid-19 regulations, provision of ppe and spacious lecture rooms, and creating covid-19 awareness/education. the study suggests that university management or authorities should provide strategies to make students adhere to the measures, provide ppe to alleviate students financially or socially and ensure adequate awareness of covid-19 on campus. 1. introduction the effects of the covid-19 global pandemic cannot be overemphasized as it affects every sphere of individual life, private and public sections in the world, including south africa (gondwe, 2020; unicef, 2021). the covid-19 outbreak started in wuhan, china, in late 2019, when thousands of chinese died as a result of the disease before its spread to other parts of the world, including south africa, in march 2020 (gondwe, 2020). as stated by omodan (2020), the emergency of the unknown caught every nation unaware. the only solutions were to declare a lockdown, stay at home, place an embargo on peoples' movement and subsequent work-from-home measures. all these regulations were recommended by the who (2020), which declared covid-19 a pandemic. the national lockdown in south africa was announced in march 2020 with strict regulations and an immediate move to level 5. otherwise, anyone violating the rules would be punished (nomani & parveen, 2020). again, every higher institution of learning in south africa was closed and people worked from home until the recent move to the level-1 announcement was made towards the end of 2021 with an emphasis on why people should follow the covid-19 regulations. however, the advent of the pandemic led to a sudden paradigm shift in the education system in most countries, whereby teaching and learning had to move online without proper preparation. meanwhile, most of these universities were not established/approved to run online programmes, nor did most of them, especially in africa, have the resources to do so (jimola & ofodu, 2021; oreku, 2021; mugizi et al., 2021). but this unannounced pandemic forced education and other organizations to a new way of working online, which people neglected or thought was impossible. besides the negative financial impact, https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:adebolaoo@ufs.ac.za mailto:bomodan@wsu.ac.za https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v6i3.353 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2768-4273 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9093-3108 39 health implications and the loss of lives, covid-19 affected the education sector in every aspect, especially in teaching and learning (adigun et al., 2021; jinadu et al., 2021). because there was no indication that a pandemic of this nature would happen, many universities that never had the intention of running online teaching and learning suddenly found themselves in this situation, which means that both students and lecturers must find the means of communication to engage in teaching and learning. the pandemic left some students stranded because they had no access to the internet and the internet of things (omodan, 2020; dube, 2020). some had no technical knowledge of gadgets and were excluded from teaching and learning (dube, 2020). observations also revealed that lecturers who were not trained to teach online and depended on university resources such as gadgets and the internet, as well as lecturers who lived with their families, were hindered from teaching because of the lockdown. all these and more were the challenges associated with the covid-19 pandemic regarding education, and one of the results among several is the low academic performance of university students. however, things are getting better as the world returns to normalcy and various authorities move to less restricted lockdowns. also, the covid-19 pandemic rate is reducing compared to 2020 or early 2021. the relative normalcy experienced in recent times, especially on university campuses, gave room for fully vaccinated staff and students to access campus while adhering to the covid-19 regulations such as wearing face masks, social distancing, and washing of hands are still mandatory (unicef, 2020). the working from the home period was almost two years, and the assumption was that most people adjusted to not wearing a face mask outside their homes, unlike when on campus, where they were expected to be on face masks every time, even in the classroom. however, we observed that students seem to ignore or fail to adhere to these regulations on campus despite various instructions from the government and university authorities for staff and students to maintain adequate covid-19 protocols to ensure a drastic reduction of covid-19 infections. apart from the covid-19 resultant challenges for university students across the globe, in south africa, campuses have since reopened and are now facing new challenges. however, there is a lack of compliance with covid-19 protocols among students. despite various government and university authorities' instructions, this creates a heightened risk of infection on campus. therefore, this study seeks to explore the challenges faced by university students during the covid-19 level 1 lockdown in south africa. this is done by understanding the barriers to compliance among students, assuming that universities will be better placed to support their students to cope and maintain the necessary precautionary measures. 1.1. research objectives based on the above problem, the following research objectives were raised to guide the study:  the factors responsible for the non-compliance of covid-19 protocols among university students during level 1 lockdown.  strategies to ensure that university students obey the covid-19 regulations while on campus. 2. methodology this section discusses the research methods employed to carry out this study. these were discussed in the other research paradigm, approach, design, participant selection techniques, and data analysis, followed by ethical considerations. 2.1. research paradigm the study is lensed through the interpretivism paradigm (ip) to generate an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon in its real meaning (kivunja & kuyini, 2017). this is a qualitative type of research paradigm that believes that realities are multiple. in other words, interpretivist as a research paradigm helps to have a deeper knowledge of how people socialize and assign different issues with diverse meanings within the social setting (antwi & hamza, 2015). however, with reference to ponelis (2015), it is assumed that ontologically, the nature of reality is subjectively constructed through the understanding and meaning established by the people facing the problem. therefore, the study relies on the participants' interpretation and meaning of the existing problem through critical engagement. 2.2. research approach qualitative research is often used to explore and understand people's beliefs, experiences, attitudes, or behaviours (pratt et al., 2022). this study used a qualitative research approach to investigate how people experience and understand the phenomenon. this was considered appropriate because they are particularly well suited for exploring complex phenomena indepth and in detail (van den berg & struwig, 2017). furthermore, dana and dumez (2015) agree that the qualitative approach allows researchers to establish trusting relationships with participants, which is important when investigating sensitive topics such as compliance or not compliance with covid-19 protocols. the data collected through qualitative methods can provide rich and nuanced insights that would not be possible to 40 obtain through other research approaches. in this study, the case study was adopted to design the study. 2.3. research design the current study adopts a case study (cs) as the research design for its appropriateness to work with special cases of a phenomenon. this is relevant for this study because it enables us to deal with the selected university and the specificness of covid-19 protocol compliance. numerous studies have found cs to be an effective means of collecting in-depth, detailed data, which is essential for understanding complex issues (gentles et al., 2015). in addition, cs allows the development of a rich, contextualised understanding of the phenomenon being studied (harrison et al., 2017). the current study will understand how the selected university has complied with covid-19 protocol compliance among students. 2.4. research participant and selection techniques the study comprised ten participants (university students) on campus who had spent at least one month on the university premises after the covid-19 level one lockdown in january 2022. apart from the certainty that they were students of the selected university, there were no other criteria for choosing except for the fact that they must be on campus. the convenience sampling technique (cst) was adopted for the study because of its convenient nature, affordability, proximity of the researcher to the sample population and easy access. it is a nonprobability sampling that is mostly used in qualitative research (etikan, musa & alkassim, 2016). the motive behind cst is the opportunity it offers the researcher and the idea of selecting relevant participants from within a certain environment, such as a workplace and neighbourhood (suen, huang, & lee, 2014). what has also been considered most important in the selection process is the fact that the participants are homogenous in nature, following the argument of sharma (2017). 2.5. data analysis the present study adopted thematic analysis (ta) as a qualitative tool to interpret and make meanings from the data generated. ta is a well-known method of data analysis that focuses on identifying, analyzing and interpreting patterns in qualitative data collection. according to clarke and braun (2013) and clarke and braun (2006), for a proper interpretation of data obtained through ta, the researcher must go through the following six steps of data analysis: getting to understand that data, which means that the researcher should have in-depth knowledge of the information through study; assigning codes to the data which have to do with the researcher categorizing data according to the meaning; searching for themes from the data generated to see where they rightly belong; reviewing articles, and defining and reporting articles. researchers also analyzed each line of interview text by reading and re-reading to identify repeated words, phrases, or incidents as well as incidences that contradict other people's accounts, to generate new ideas. the entire process enables researchers to understand what was said, why it was said and what it might mean, which were contained in the analysis below. 2.6. ethical consideration ethical consideration is the principles, guidelines, or rules that a researcher must follow when conducting qualitative research where people are involved (arifin, 2018). in relation to the above, every participant in the study was given a consent form to read and be informed about what the study was about. it is therefore left for the participant to be part of the study or opt-out after they have gone through the consent form and signed that they are interested (benton, coppersmith & dredze, 2017). however, the participants have the right to withdraw from the study whenever they feel uncomfortable, and they are assured of confidentiality; their names will not be revealed to anyone both during and after the study. the following were how they were coded and represented in the data presentation: students 1 to 10 were named participants a to j. 3. presentation of data this section presents the data analysis and interpretation according to the objectives of the study, factors contributing to the non-compliance with covid-19 regulations among university students and the suggested solutions identified by the participants. each objective has two sub-objectives. the themes are sorted and interpreted according to the participant's conversation on non-compliance to covid-19 students on campus. 3.1. analysis and presentation of objective one this section discusses the data and findings associated with factors of non-compliance with covid-19 regulations among university students. the three identified challenges are limited covid-19 awareness on campus, health challenges among students, limited classroom capacity, and ppe. 3.1.1. objective 1, theme1: limited covid19 awareness on campus there has been massive awareness of covid-19 from the government since the beginning of the disease and how people could stay safe by setting out regulations that should be strictly 41 adhered to, such as social distancing, hand sanitizing, wearing face masks and washing their hands constantly when in public (south african government, 2020; 2021). despite this observation, the data collected for this study show that students sparingly comply with the covid-19 protocols of the university. the conversations below from participants confirm our argument. participant b: "not clear information regarding the covid regulations. some students do not have data to view all the information sent to the university emails." participant a: "the mentality that the shot or vaccination prevents you from getting covid-19." participant g: "not being knowledgeable about compliance regulations the universities have in place; hence they don't comply." participant c: "the naiveness of the students who believe it's not there and can decide not to be vaccinated." participant f: "moving to level 1 makes people think that the risk of covid-19 is no longer there and because of that, they think that without being vaccinated, they are safe from covid-19." participant e: "the fact that as long as i haven't gotten sick or know someone who has covid, i'm safe." participant i: "the rumor that the vaccine could be fatal, and all the conspiracy theories surrounding it, sparks the fear in students." participant c: "sanitizing hands whenever students enter the lecture halls, libraries etc., is timeconsuming. some students end up not sanitizing their hands." participant h: "with regards to non-compliance, i think the students' populace has never been fully convinced by the seriousness of covid-19; thus, they perceive the regulations as an inconvenience to their normal lives and remember that universities are a microcosm of societies in which we come from so the behaviours of our societies are most likely to be transmitted into the university through the students. if i come from a community where roaming around wearing a face mask is a strange thing, it will also be strange for me to roam around the university premises wearing a face mask." the above discussions confirmed that the university needs to create more awareness of covid-19 regulations everywhere around the campus and the implications of non-compliance. for instance, according to participant h, universities are a social environment where knowledge is disseminated and should be a place where students are informed about the importance of adhering to covid-19 regulations. the university as an academic setting should be an avenue where people are educated, and every rumour regarding the pandemic is clarified, as stated by participants i, a and e. according to these participants, students walk around on campus freely without wearing face masks because they do not know the university regulations on covid-19; hence they see no reason to comply. this revelation is contrary to the argument by domènech-montoliu et al. (2021) that the virus spreads so fast in social gatherings such as universities, with a recommendation to track down unnecessary social contact. this claim makes universities a vulnerable and accessible place for covid-19 to spread among the students and infect other people outside the campus. additionally, participant f added that some students believe that since the government eased the national covid-19 regulations to level 1, it is an indication that the possibility of getting the pandemic is negligible. hence, it is safe, and the need to adhere to regulations is not necessary. this finding is supported by the argument of sebong et al. (2021) that students are mostly neglecting the covid-19 protocols as a result of youthful exuberance. 3.1.2. objective 1, theme 2: health challenges among students the data collected shows that some students have various health issues they are battling with. on the part of covid-19, organs such as the lungs, heart and brain stand the risk of long-term health complications (ogen, 2020; salehi, reddy, & gholamrezanezhad, 2020). in other words, after the government lifted the ban on face-to-face classes, some students could not attend classes for health reasons. below are the conversations from participants' views on adhering to covid-19 regulations while on campus: participant c: some students find it difficult to wear masks for an extended period due to their health challenges. participant a: they say that the face mask makes them suffocate when they put them on. participant e: the heat from the mask makes it hard to talk and sweat is created after some time under your eyes. participant g: it also affects our eyes. when we breathe, the hot air goes straight into our eyes, making them tired, red and sore. 42 the above statements indicated why some students failed to comply with face masks. for participants a and g, it is believed that students made flimsy excuses just to ignore the use of masks and that it chokes them and affects their eyes. this may be a result of the fact that the use of masks usually interferes with the use of eyeglasses. we then argue that the university has to make students aware of the broader health problems associated with not wearing masks and adhering to other safety measures. students, especially the ones with health challenges, will see why they should stick to the regulations instead of exposing themselves to more complicated health problems, as indicated by (inzaule et al., 2021). i think there is a need for the university to let students be aware of the consequences of this action through constant awareness within the campus. participants e and g are of the view that wearing masks as one of the covid-19 regulations makes it difficult to talk, creates heat, and affect the eyes; all these problems could be addressed if the university created awareness of how the challenges could be resolved since the university has clinic/health workers. this finding is consistent with the findings and arguments that most covid-19 measures are uncomfortable with human health (rossi et al., 2020; suárez-gonzález et al., 2021). 3.1.3. objective 1, theme 3: lack of classrooms capacity and personal protective equipment lack of classroom capacity and provision of personal protective equipment (ppe) has been identified as one of the factors responsible for non-compliance to covid-19 regulations by university students. below are the conversations from the participants: participant d: "well, there are factors responsible for the non-compliance to covid-19 regulations. first and foremost, institutions have come back to face-toface learning and most institutions don't have enough space to cater for their students. even the sanitiser stand is not in all classrooms." participant j: "for instance, in my university, lecture halls are small and accommodate a large number of students, which leads to no social distancing." participant c: "another factor is the limited resources for covid-19. for instance, there are limited sanitizing points." its evidenced from the participants above that some university students failed to comply with covid-19 regulations due to limited large classrooms and provision of ppe as expected. in conducive in this context refers to the small size of classrooms to accommodate many students who must observe social distancing. for this reason alone, it becomes a problem to maintain social distancing and even use face masks (ng & or, 2020). again, lack of ppe is a challenge in the university, and students take that as an opportunity to disregard covid-19 and university regulations. personal protective equipment such as masks, sanitisers and running tap water should not be scarce on the campus, coupled with the fact that most students are from poor backgrounds. for instance, most public places like bathrooms in south africa are full of condoms. this is because the government wants to reduce the rate of hiv/aids and early pregnancy; hence they make this protective measure available. this is what exactly the university is supposed to imitate. unfortunately, the university is located in a rural community where most of them may not have the money to buy ppe from time to time. participant d pointed out that students did not comply with covid-19 regulations such as wearing masks, sanitizing hands and social distancing due to classroom capacity and lack of ppe. hence, this is not far from participant c's opinion that limited resources in terms of sanitizing points in the university are missing. this indicates that the university is relenting in reducing the rate at which the virus spreads so fast among students (inzaule et al., 2021; gupta et al., 2020). the researchers also agree with the claim above that lack of ppe and classroom capacity is a problem that the university must check. 3.2. analysis and presentation of objective two this section discusses the possible solutions to the identified responsible factors of non-compliance to covid-19 regulations among university students. the three suggested solutions are stricter covid-19 regulations, provision of ppe, spacious lecture rooms, and creating covid-19 awareness/education. 3.2.1. objective 2, theme 2: enforcing stricter covid-19 regulations students in the selected university have called upon the government agencies and other stakeholders on the campus to make covid-19 regulations in and around the campus stricter as this would make everyone on campus, especially the students, adhere to covid-19 regulations. below are the participants' statements: participant a: "have people stationed at university gates and lecture rooms who will check for masks and sanitisers." participant c: "report students who don't wear a face mask to the src president. students who decide not to follow covid-19 regulations must be given a 43 fine or punished e.g., by paying a certain amount to the university." participant i: "the president should bring back stricter rules, hence introduce a law that if you are found without a mask around campus, there will be a certain penalty." participant f: "i think a system should be created, for example, scanning student cards to give out a warning first-time they find you without wearing a mask." participant b: "there should be a fine just like the previous year; there were people reminding students to wear their masks correctly; this time around, they should fine students." participant d: "universities should have covid-19 compliance officers (in the form of peer educators) who'd ensure that there's compliance beyond the entry". participant j: "the university should hire people who will ensure that students wear their face masks and comply at all times because all the signs of covid-19 are there, yet, most students are not following all the measures." from the above statements, there is a need for the university to enforce stricter rules and regulations regarding covid-19 on campus. a university is a place of knowledge, a community made up of learned people and students, and as such, it should be a place where covid rules are most adhered to. in other words, enough human capacity and knowledge could be explored. as suggested by participants a, d, c and j, the university could hire or get compliance officers who would monitor and remind students to adhere to covid 19 regulations. this means they will be working for the university authorities hence, enforcing students to keep to covid rules while indirectly reducing the spread of the virus on campus. they believed that if enforcement officers were stationed at entrances within the campus and classrooms, this would make students aware and conscious of adhering to the regulations (world health organization, 2020). participants b and i believed that imposing fines or level 5 lockdown rules in the university would make students comply because they are aware of the consequences if found guilty. however, they further suggested that for this to be effective, the university should publish the implications and make them accessible to every student. participant f suggested installing technological gadgets that warn students when they flout covid rules. the study agrees with the suggestions and believes that the university has all the needed resources to support the government in fighting covid-19 by implementing stricter regulations on campus. we, therefore, argue that, since it is the university's role to create a safe and healthy environment that is conducive for teaching and learning and especially for students, the university is bound to accommodate students' views to enable them to promote covid19 compliance policies. 3.2.2. objective 2, theme 2: consistent awareness on campus since the onset of the covid-19 pandemic locally and globally, there has been awareness via every platform to keep everyone informed on how to be safe from the virus. this awareness does not exempt any country, government agencies, or other relevant establishments. however, the statements below from participants seek enhanced social understanding: participant e: "the university can do health awareness every month whereby they educate/teach students more about this virus and the importance of why they should comply with it since they are in public spaces." participant b: "educate the students about the possible danger of not adhering to covid-19 and the risk of infecting others." participant c: "universities are the abodes of scholars, so they should lead every conversation that surfaces in public. for instance, universities should lead the dialogues surrounding the myths and conspiracy theories of covid-19 because in their absence, the less informed lead these conversations." participant i: "there should be weekly awareness whereby students participate in teaching other students about the importance of following the rules." participant d: "i believe institutions should educate their students more about covid-19 regulations." participant f: "there should be more online teaching and learning and less face-to-face to decrease student access on campus." participant h: "additional information about campus covid-19 compliance can be included as part of contents to cover in certain modules." participant j: "the universities should put posters around campus lambasting these conspiracies instead of engaging and educating." from the above conversations, it shows that there is a need for consistent awareness/education from the university to students, as indicated by participants b, e, i, h, and d. these students believed that if the university embarks on covid-19 awareness occasionally, they will understand why it is essential for them to adhere to the regulations. apart from creating awareness within the campus, the university being a source of information and correct knowledge could be imparted; they should go beyond the campus and even be a source of information to the environment. 44 with this form, there is a tendency that the virus spread would be reduced drastically (nemat et al., 2021). this means that the university is one of the sources where all false information, such as chronic disease and suffocation received regarding covid-19, could be corrected or countered, as suggested by participant j. meanwhile, participant f added that to reduce the spread of the virus, the university should introduce less face-to-face and more online teaching and learning as this will decrease the number of people gaining access to the campus. contrary to these suggestions, participant h believes in creating additional means of information that students have access to. hence the student said making covid-19 regulations part of the content in each module will help instill the fear of keeping to the rules. according to this participant, students retain information faster and longer if taught rather than seeing or being told. moreover, there should be a well-known policy document from the university stating the necessary punishments for anyone who fails to comply, as suggested by payne, morgan and piquero (2021) and regular communication, so they are aware when found guilty. 3.2.3. provision of ppe to students and easy access to information the who (2020) defined personal protective equipment as equipment that can be used to prevent the contamination of diseases or exposure to dangerous physical hazards or chemicals. according to the participants, ppe can be extended to cater to equipment such as hand gloves, masks, sanitizers, and others. so, providing ppe and access to information was suggested as a solution to the problem of compliance. to support this argument are the statements from participants in the study. participant d: "let there be the provision of data for students who live and let the data be for all students not discriminating. for students' proper view of information regarding covid compliances." participant c: "the school could also invest in moisturizing sanitizers. the ones they provide make the skin crack and irritable after multiple uses." participant j: "institutions must make disposable masks available for students at no cost like they do with condoms. only then would we start to see students observing all protocols practicing safe coexisting on campus". participant g: "the university should have more resources to deal with covid-19. social distancing should be implemented within lecturer rooms, and wearing face masks should be mandatory within the institutions." to have access to information and be guided, participant d suggested that the university should ensure that off-campus students, that is, those that stay outside the campus, should be provided with data since those students on campus do not have a problem in this regard. participant c added that the university should provide good quality sanitizers so students can always disinfect their hands. participant g talked about resources such as bigger lecture halls that could allow social distancing and implementing compulsory wearing of masks before entering and while in lecture rooms. according to participant j, ppe should be made free of charge for students and should be available everywhere. with these, students will adhere to covid-19 regulations. from what the students have, it is clear what the university has to do to address the issue. provision of ppe such as masks, sanitizing, and tap water should be available everywhere around the campus to promote student awareness and to reduce the rate at which covid spread among the students, as indicated by participant g. this is in line with the argument of cohen et al. 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(2018). construction parts in building projects: definition and case study. journal of management in engineering, 34(4), 04018014. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/324930/9789241515542-eng.pdf https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/324930/9789241515542-eng.pdf algorithmic financial trading with deep convolutional neural networks: time series to image conversion approach 32 social work as the safety net of the albanian society in transition prof. assoc. dr. arlinda ymeraj european university of tirana, faculty of economics article info a b s t r a c t article history: accepted 13 nevember 2018 available online 31 december 2018 keywords: social work, social-exclusion, social inclusion social work has little tradition as an academic discipline or as a profession in albania despite the high need for well-trained social workers. social work in albania had practically not existed in the past, neither before the wwii nor during socialist regime. it was the deep political and economic changes of the post socialist phase and the support of government and non-government stakeholders, like the ministry of labour, social affairs, emigration and expersecuted people as well as the grand valley university, michigan, which paved the way for the establishment from scratch of the faculty of social work at the university of tirana in 1992. two other schools of social work were also established in two public universities, one at the university of shkodra (2005) and another at the elbasan university (2004). the albania’s adherence to the bologna declaration brought a new reform, initiated in 2005, in which the departments of social work were actively involved and played a critical role to adjust the curricula according to the eu standards. however, social work is neither a straight forward academic discipline nor a clear-cut profession. social work is both, above all it is the safety net of society. the concept of social work derives from the needs of society, which in the end turns towards social mobilization, participation and inclusion. the global definition of social work, set out by the international federation of social workers (ifsw) and approved by its general assembly in 2014, defines social work as follows: “social work is a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change and development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation of people. principles of social justice, human rights, collective responsibility and respect for diversities are central to social work. underpinned by theories of social work, social sciences, humanities and indigenous knowledge, social work engages people and structures to address life challenges and enhance wellbeing”. (http://www.communitycare.co.uk/what-is-the-roleof-social-workers). besides the overall social structure of the society and the legacy from the past, social work can’t be developed outside the context of education system in one side and social protection and care system on the other. hence, this paper brings in some information, which by describing the status of social work education in albania, tries to further explore its multi faceted dependency on system of policies and social legacy from the past, alike. 33 1. an overview on the history of social work in albania the first school of social work (later transformed into the faculty of social work) in albania was established from scratch in autumn 1992, based on the decision of the council of ministers, nr. 348 dates 10.08.1992, at the university of tirana, former faculty of philosophy, thanks to the support of the ministry of labour, social affairs, emigration and expersecuted people as well as the grand valley university, michigan. the school was named faculty of social work. the newly established school of social work faced many challenges, namely: • the lack of qualified professionals and practitioners, • the lack of a clear approach with respect to social work profession, • the lack of appropriate legislation to ensure the institutional support to lay the foundation for the development of the profession. to strengthen academic capacities, one-year qualification in the us of the professors with psychology and similar backgrounds was organized. cooperation with well-known academic institutions in the us and in europe was and remains essential to the development of social work in albania. that is why, “social safety net development, 1992-1997” project financed by the world bank, covered also “social work education” (ncss, 2013). in the meantime, to prepare the ground vis-à-vis the legal adoption of the social work, the institution provided a one-year course of social work, tailored to emergency needs of the country. during 1992 -1996, while the school gradually transformed into the faculty, the first social work program was developed, in 1996 the first generation of albanian social workers was graduated, while in 2001the department of social work of the faculty launched the post-graduation course in social work (today master of science). after three years, in 2004, the doctoral studies in social work were initiated (isop, 2017, p.9). thanks to the attention of the ministry of labour, social affairs, emigration and expersecuted people to social work education as well as the promotion of social work studies, 90% of the newly graduated social workers were employed by public and government institutions. today social work is taught only in three public universities out of 6 (only those which have social sciences in their curricula, namely tirana, shkodra, gjirokastra, elbasani, durres and vlora), respectively in faculty of social sciences of tirana, of elbasani and of shkodra. although all private universities cover social sciences, none of them has developed a curriculum of social work. despite the lack of research, it is likely to believe that the number of social workers graduated every year from the three above mentioned public universities satisfies the demand of the albanian labour market. however, quality of education and the relevance of the knowledge vis-à-vis the needs of the society and the institutions are of concern. as a matter of fact, the history of social work in albania is strongly connected to the development of social protection mechanism in albania, which was also developed from scratch, alongside the implementation of transition reforms that transformed the centrally planned economy into a market one. 2. albanian social protection system the social protection system in albania was initiated to alleviate the shock of transition from a central to a market economy, but gradually its scope changed from an initial focus on helping people to cope with massive unemployment due to the closing of large state enterprises, to a focus on development and poverty alleviation, and recently, to implement policies that help people be socially integrated by protecting and realizing their rights. the social protection system in albania is comprised of four components: poverty alleviation, social insurance, labour market development and social care programs. the poverty alleviation component focuses on providing cash assistance to persons to guarantee a minimum standard of living. the program has three components: subsidiary, maintenance of living standards, and provision of non-contribution benefits. the social insurance scheme for economically active persons, provides benefits for protection against loss of income due to old age, disability, loss of life of the primary earner, unemployment, general sickness, occupation injury and work-related illnesses, and maternity leave. labour market development provides unemployment 34 benefits, vocational and professional training, counselling, market research and job placement services. social care services for people in need like those with disabilities, children out of parental care, women in need of protection, elderly etc. are provided through the social care program. most services are provided through residential institutions as well as daily centres or home-based services. while social insurance and social care programs are totally reformed compared to the past, the two other components are established from scratch. despite continuous improvements on the functioning of social protection system, guided mainly by the criteria of macroeconomic balance maintenance and the limited budget, the social protection mechanism while providing benefits fails in promoting people to be socially integrated. the policy of social protection, defined as the policy of ‘alleviation of social inequalities’ is not sufficient to promote the social development of albanian society, while the recipients of social assistance are the most vulnerable to social exclusion. they suffer from multiple social disadvantages because they lack access to basic standards of housing, education, health, human relationships and protection. beyond straight forward economic poverty, the use of term social exclusion recognizes that the human rights of the individuals can be further threatened by the forced passivity of welfare, the inability to fulfil their basic potential and to build the kind of human relationships that lead to active citizenship (ymeraj, 2016). social work is crucial to boost the development of social protection and ensure the provision of quality social care services to citizens in need. 3. the development of social work education in albania in addition to the school of social work in tirana, two other schools of social work were established in two public universities, one at the university of shkodra (2005) and another at the elbasan university (2004). the albania’s adherence to the bologna declaration brought about a new reform, initiated in 2005, in which the departments of social work were strongly involved to adapt the curricula according to the european standards. currently, social work education in albania covers the three levels of education, including doctoral studies and is organized as follows (table 1): table 1: diplomas of social work in albaniapublic universities diplomas of social work in albania department of social work and social policy, faculty of social sciences, university of tirana department of psychology and social work, faculty of education sciences, university of shkodra department of social sciences, faculty of education sciences, university of elbasan bachelor’s degree social work/180 ects social work/180ects social work/180ects bachelor’s in administration and social policy bachelor’s in psychology bachelor’s in sociology master of arts (professional master) advanced social work specialization in health and education/60 ects na social worker for children and families (90 ects) social policies analysis/90ects probation/90ects master of science advanced social work with three specializations, respectively clinical, social policy and community organizations. social services/120ects social services administration gender and development children and family issues penal justice social and behavioural change communications source of information: www.fshs-ut.edu.al/rreth-fakultetit albania has initiated the bologna process in 2003 and still is running it. based on bologna process standards and requirements, faculty of social sciences, like other universities in albania, is obliged to: http://www.fshs-ut.edu.al/rreth-fakultetit 35 ✓ to implement ects system. ✓ to adopt “quality assurance” standards at the institution, national and the european levels. ✓ to encourage students’ and academic staff’ mobility as well as to enhance the collaboration between the universities at a national, regional and european level. department of social work in cooperation with institute of studies of public opinion as well as unicef albania has analysed the curricula of social work to assess the level of compatibility with international standards and formulate pertinent recommendations, valuable for the future development of social work in albania. according to this analysis (isop, 2017, p.25), it is recognized that: from a theoretical point of view, school curricula vis-àvis social work profession differs in tirana faculty of social sciences compared to two other faculties. courses already offered in tirana have a strong focus on human behaviour and the social environment, and together with “introduction to social work and social problems” comprise the core courses. although human development is a core course at the elbasan school, it is not seen in closed connection with social environment, as needed for the social work profession. in the contrary, it is tailored to a more clinical/deviance approach of human behaviour rather than of human development orientation. while in shkodra, the curricula of social work lacks social focus as well as “life cycle “approach. from a practical point of view, relevant courses to prepare a self – reflective practitioner, within a holistic framework are offered. still the curricula of tirana faculty of social sciences are adjusted to the needs of the profession, especially by courses of social problems and social work, human rights (by choice), individual and group processes, ethics in social work practice and gender and social work. regarding teaching and learning methodology, comprehensive practical skills are enhanced in the three faculties. methods and skills in social work practice, interviewing and counselling and research methods, comprise the core courses. a series of courses, related to “paradigm of social work profession “like” social work practice” with children, families, individuals at risk of exclusion and with groups and communities, are delivered. social work administration is another course which complements practical knowledge of social work profession. an important component of social work education is “practice in the field”. according to international standards, a social worker should work in the field from 170 up to 200 days, which is not the case in any of the albanian faculties. it varies from 80 to 90 days of practice work and mainly during the third year of studies (1 day of practice equals 5 hours). subjects of general culture and formation are also part of curricula. in tirana faculty, there are offered five such courses with a total of 24 ects, namely: introduction to economics, introduction to psychology, introduction to sociology, introduction to legislation and social work practice with individuals. the suggested number of credits for these courses is 18 ects, therefore there is space to change/reduce one of the courses. however, based on the students’ opinion, there is the need to include “legal and clinical knowledge “courses. 4. social work as a profession in albania in 1993 some provisions that regarded the profession of social work were included in the law on social assistance, while in 2015, the legislation was completed, and the social work profession became part of the regulated professions of the republic of albania, according to law nr. 163/20149. despite that, to exercise the profession, social workers must compete in the labour market. where can social workers work in albania? there is a high need for the profession of social workers in public, private and not-for-profit sectors. they can and should provide quality services in health care, legal and judiciary, education and social protection. table 2 illustrates the number of students in different subjects from 2013. 36 table 2: number of students enrolled in tertiary education, 2013 2018 academic year/field of study 201314 201415 2015-16 201617 2017-18 education 15.42 6 13.65 4 11.236 11.77 9 10.689 in % to total 8,9 8,5 7,7 8,4 8,3 art and humanities 20.80 1 17.58 8 17.095 17.27 8 15.441 in % to total 12,0 11,0 11,6 12,4 11,9 social sciences, journalism and informatio n 15.89 8 10.46 2 12.727 10.00 4 12.259 in % to total 9,1 6,5 8,7 7,2 9,5 business, administrat ion and law 50.21 9 42.08 9 41.033 36.47 1 30.233 in % to total 28,9 26,2 28,0 26,1 23,4 natural sciences, mathematic s and statistics 7.100 10.47 3 6.719 7.816 6.325 in % to total 4,1 6,5 4,6 5,6 4,9 information and communica tion technologie s 8.033 9.560 7.911 7.487 8.228 in % to total 4,6 6,0 5,4 5,4 6,4 engineerin g, manufacturi ng and constructio n 18.39 1 18.72 8 18.005 18.48 0 18.730 in % to total 10,6 11,7 12,3 13,2 14,5 agriculture , forestry, fisheries and veterinary 9.039 10.17 1 8.383 7.086 4.564 in % to total 5,2 6,3 5,7 5,1 3,5 health and welfare 25.66 7 22.78 0 21.387 20.90 0 19.837 in % to total 14,8 14,2 14,6 15,0 15,3 services 3.245 5.022 2.260 2.306 3.088 in % to total 1,9 3,1 1,5 1,7 2,4 total 173.8 19 160.5 27 146.756 139.6 07 129.394 change in % -7,6 -8,6 -4,9 -7,3 source of information: http://www.instat.gov.al as we can observe from table 2, while the overall number of students has decreased over years, the proportion of students enrolled in social sciences has increased in 2017-2018. there are many reasons which explain the higher interest vis-a-vis social sciences. by all means, the increased number and typology of social problems stands out as crucial. over the past almost three decades, dramatic political and socio-economic changes in albania, have increased the vulnerability of people to poverty, access to basic services, violence, exploitation, discrimination, abuse and neglect. increased poverty, decreased access to and quality of basic social services, and weakened community support mechanisms have limited the capacity of families and networks to provide a nurturing and protective environment for people in need of protection. the existing national social protection system in albania is weak, and national mechanisms for identification, registration, referral and provision of appropriate support to people at-risk and their families are limited if at all existent. as a result, human rights are denied for some groups of populations like single – parent household women, pensioners living alone, people with disabilities, social assistance recipients, unemployed youth, children in poor families, unemployed single women, roma and egyptians etc. while they lack basic services, social care centres are not sufficient to provide all the support needed by vulnerable groups, thus they remain trapped in the vicious circle of exclusion. 37 exclusion in albania is a result of socio-economic transformation, but it also stems from the lack of professional capacities to deal with it. among professionals, the lack of qualified social work is the key. research of unicef in albania identified that there are not enough social work providers and services for poor rural families (not only rural, even urban families in small towns) who have children with disabilities, meaning that these families have no access to services (more often these services are non-existent), which increases the likelihood of institutionalization or re-institutionalization (unicef, 2015). despite the high need, social workers face difficulties to find a job. figure 1 shows the demand versus the supply for certain professions. figure 1: labour market demand and supply according to professions, year 2017 source of information: instat and labour market bulletin of national employment service, 2017 as we can observe from figure 1, there are less jobs in “social sciences” in general compared to the requirements. however, it is more a question of attitudes rather than of lack of jobs. thinking carefully about the “needs for social work “in one side and “the jobs of social work” in the other, we would emphasize the following issues: issue 1: attitude of government institutions in charge of social policy social policy in countries in transition, including albania is dominated by cash support instead of support in kind. as a matter of fact, social reform still remains a challenge in eec including albania. while the major purpose of the social policy during the early transition phase was to address emerging poverty, the earliest approach is no longer relevant, most importantly because, even in eastern european countries, the real definition of poverty has changed. the new strategy of poverty reduction is based on the new concept of the multi-dimensionality of poverty. this implies the necessity to provide social care services which protect people from exclusion and help people to be integrated, therefore a crucial role for social workers. issue 2: the attitudes of people in need of protection and reintegration as a result of communist heritage which influenced weaknesses of social capital and the lack of tradition of social work, socially excluded people face difficulties to approach social workers, even if they actively try to engage with communities. in the albanian case, apart from social work channelled through government institutions and networks, independent organization of social work are concentrated only in big cities, leaving alone population in rural and remote areas, which exacerbate their connection with people in need of support. issue 3: social workers ‘attitude social work is the safety net of society. social work is also about motivation and willingness to help people, without conditioning support with personal benefits. very often, social workers in albania choose to work for policy making institutions rather than to directly contribute to people’s relief. while social work should be used to encourage local communities to develop, to participate in the decision-making process and to join local initiatives, in the albanian experience, such role is rarely played due to the disconnection. 0 10 20 30 40 education arts and humanities social sciences,… business,… natural sciences,… information and… engineering,… agriculture,… health and welfare services labour market demand labour market supply 38 5. result that the curricula of social work per se have to improve and unify across the three institutions that provide social work education, is of utmost importance. however, this is a necessary condition, although not sufficient. social work education has to better adjust to the needs of the market, notably public services systems that adopt social work as well as not-for-profit and private sectors. by all means, social work education has to pay more attention to social work practice, not only in terms of hours, but most importantly to typology and variety of services. as such, a stronger connection and cooperation among school and institutions would help social workers to practice their knowledge in health care, education, justice and social services. in addition, social workers have to accustom to the needs of groups at high risk of exclusion such as children in special need of protection, people with disabilities, elderly, abused and neglected people, gender issues etc. however, we can’t ignore the role that policies play. having mentioned that, special provisions on the role of social worker in health care, education, justice and social services, have to be adopted, while monitoring capacities on law enforcement have to be strengthened. the social protection mechanism should be used to encourage local communities to develop and participate in the decision-making process, to leverage community participation, speeding up the process of democratization. nevertheless, the new role of social worker should go hand in hand with the reformed social protection mechanism, to enhance desired outcomes. it necessarily should be a tool in strengthening collaboration among government and nongovernment institutions and community, promoting selfresponsibility of local communities, encouraging a feeling of social responsibility for integrating vulnerable groups and reducing social exclusion. references 1. institute of studies and public opinion (isop)(2017), social work curricula analysis and recommendations, research paper, presented in the conference “milestones and challenges of social work profession in albania”, 26-27 october 2017, tirana 2. national center for social studies (ncss) (2013), social care services in albania: an updated map, characteristics and trends, survey report, www.ncss.org.al. 3. national institute of statistics (instat)(2016), labour force survey, tirana: instat. 4. united nations children’s fund (unicef), (2015), social protection for child rights and wellbeing in eastern europe, the caucasus and central asia (2015), social monitor, unicef. 5. ymeraj, arlinda (2016), boosting growth through social business in former communist countries: a state’s or a market’s function-the case of albania, balkan journal of interdisciplinary research, vol.1, nr.3. 6. ymeraj arlinda (2003), civil society and social care, european institute of social services, university of kent, canterbury, uk. 7. ymeraj arlinda and kolpeja vilma (1998), the old and the new changes in social care in central and eastern europe (chapter on albania) edited by the european institute of social services, university of kent at canterbury, uk http://www.ncss.org.al/ that the curricula of social work per se have to improve and unify across the three institutions that provide social work education, is of utmost importance. however, this is a necessary condition, although not sufficient. social work education has to... however, we can’t ignore the role that policies play. having mentioned that, special provisions on the role of social worker in health care, education, justice and social services, have to be adopted, while monitoring capacities on law enforcement hav... nevertheless, the new role of social worker should go hand in hand with the reformed social protection mechanism, to enhance desired outcomes. it necessarily should be a tool in strengthening collaboration among government and non-government institut... references algorithmic financial trading with deep convolutional neural networks: time series to image conversion approach 39 the impact of urbanization on food in security in amhara regional state metropolitan cities: monitoring agricultural foodstuff production as a mediating variable ma. besfat engdaw*, ma. melaku kebede** *lecturer, bahir dar university, school of law, department of governance and development studies **lecturer, bahir dar university, school of law, department of governance and development studies article info a b s t r a c t article history: accepted 17 november 2018 available online 31 december 2018 keywords: the process of urbanization in developing nations is attended without fast industrialization processes. as a result of this, the urbanization and urban process are accompanied by diverse problems. hence this paper is aimed at identifying the effect of urbanization on citizens’ food insecurity by monitoring agricultural foodstuff production as a mediating variable. a quantitative research methodology or approach has been used to depict out urban problems associated with unmanaged urbanization in the ethiopian, particularly in amhara regional state. structural equation modelling was employed to run a mediation analysis by decomposing the direct and indirect effects of one variable on the other. correlation and regression analyses were executed to measure the direction and magnitude of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent. regression analysis results indicated the existence of a significant direct effect of urbanization on food insecurity of citizens. the mediation analysis result shows agricultural foodstuff production doesn’t play a mediating role between urbanization and food insecurity. the paper, having traced out the effect of the urbanization on food insecurity, provides possible recommendations. the regional government should be very considerate about the pace of unmanaged, unindustrialized and unemployment induced urbanization. the regional government should address all pushing factors that are dragging farmers into the urban areas. so, it is important to find ways to make farmers beneficial from their farm activities. in this regard, the problem raised by farmers is the inability to settle the debt from fertilizers and improved seeds or at least what they get from selling what they have produced is used to settle their farm debt. some policy measures such as subsidizing the farmer or extending the repayment period of their debt are then essential to help farmers lead a stable life and lead their families. the government/concerned body need to make a cost-benefit analysis by weighing the pressure from the migration of the farmers and the cost of subsidizing the farmers: compare prevention with curative. moreover, as a short-term solution, the regional government should identify food unsecured urban households and embrace them in food security packages like urban safety-net programs. and enhancing the limited income generation capacity of food insecure households. urbanization, food in security, agricultural foodstuff production, amhara region 40 1. introduction as cities expand, prime agricultural land is converted into residential or industrial areas. for example, in conception, a chilean city of about 500000 inhabitants, 1734 hectares of wetlands and 1417 hectare of agricultural land and forests were transformed into residential areas over the period 1975 to 2000 (pauchard et al. 2006). in accra (ghana), it is estimated that 2006 hectares of agricultural land are converted every year (maxwell et al. 2000). similar patterns were observed in china and indonesia (verburg 1999; weng 2002). an immediate consequence is the crowding out of pre-urban agriculture, which often plays a significant role in supplying perishable foodstuffs to cities (fao 2008). agricultural production will be further challenged by the expanding cities’ substantial thirst for water. this has great effect on food security. “food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”.(world food summit, 1996). this widely accepted definition points to the food availability, access, utility and stability as the dimensions of food security: for food security objectives to be realized, all four dimensions must be fulfilled simultaneously. weather variability, price fluctuations, political, and economic factors are key factors. the 2015 global food security index (gfsi) shows global food insecurity remains a challenge. in particular, increased volatility of agricultural production, and also lower urban absorption capacity (as urban migration in many countries continues to rise and as gdp growth slows in over half the countries included in the index), are constraints on food security progress in almost every region. food security challenges of developed and developing countries differ considerably. investment in infrastructure and food systems in low-income and lower-middle income countries is the key to narrowing the gap. developing countries often lack basic infrastructure, including storage, road and port facilities, while smaller incomes inhibit access to and affordability of nutritious food. political risk and corruption frequently compound structural difficulties in these countries. advanced, rich-world countries generally outperform developing countries, but they too experience food security challenges. although developed western countries continued to have the highest levels of food security and sub-saharan african countries remained at the bottom of the rankings, the gap between the best and worst performers narrowed. amhara region is one of the regions that show rapid urbanization process in ethiopia. the region has an urban population growth rate of 4.9% from 1995-2000 which is above the rate of urban population growth at the national level. the region had an urban population growth rate which is ranked second next to the oromia region. from 2001-2005 the region has 4.4% of urban population growth rate. in 2007 it had a total of 208 cities and towns which is contributing 11.7% of urban population in the same year. this is higher than the 1994 urban population percentage that was around 8.5 %. in 1994 census result, in the region, semen gondar zone has the highest urban population proportion (18.7%) followed by south wollo (16.7%), north shoa (11.6%) and east gojjam (11.5 %). south gonder and west gojjam have also 9.2% and 8.5% of the urban population followed by bahir dar special zone which has 7.6% of urban population proportion (antonio golini, 2001, (bofed 2014). the population of bahir dar city has increased from 54,800 in 1984 to 96,140 in 1994 with an average growth rate of 5.6% and in 2007 the population increased to 155,428 with a 3.7 average growth rate. in 2014, it reached 226,713. on the other hand, gondar city had 80,886 population. in the year the population raised to 112,249 with an average growth rate of 3.3 from 19841994. the population growth has shown tremendous upsurge to 207,044 in 2007 with an average growth rate of 4.7. the other major cities in the amhara region is dessie. alike gondar and bahir dar city administration, dessie has also experienced a fast-growing urban population. in the year 1984 the population was 68,848 and in 1994 it turns to 97,314 with an average growth rate of 3.5 and in 2007 it reached 120,095 with an average growth rate of 1.6. therefore, there have been fast growing urbanization processes in the region comparatively (mudhco and ecsu, 2015). this fastgrowing urbanization is nowadays accompanied by multitudes of problems. among these, declining agricultural foodstuff production and food insecurity are the main ones. as a result of urban expansion to periurban agriculture, which often plays a significant role in supplying perishable foodstuffs to cities, and weak tenure system, agricultural productive lands may shift to 41 less productive areas, which could, ceteris paribus, result in yield losses (fao 2008). hence, declined agricultural production can be attributed to urban expansion. on the other hand, wfp and unicef (2009) stated that the three metropolitan cities in amhara region named bahir dar, dessie, and gonder, which are the focus of this study, have ranked 15th, 9th,7th in food security status by registering 0.434,0.522, 0.559 food security index respectively. as a result of this, the cities are leveled as the most food insecure cities in the country. hence, urbanization is considered as having negative impacts on agricultural foodstuff production. the decline in the volume of agricultural foodstuff production amounts to the decline in availability of food items in the market posing trouble on food security. generally, the very essence or objective of this paper is to investigate the effect of urbanization on food insecurity. it also examined agricultural foodstuff production as a mediating role in the relationship between urbanization and food insecurity. 2. data collection and the method of analysis a household survey was conducted in 2009 in three cities of amhara region: bahir dar (the capital of the region), gondar, and dessie, with a sample of 622 households. these sample units were chosen from a total population of 170456 household using a proportionate stratified sampling method. all households of metropolitan cities are stratified by using kebele units. after being stratified researchers used systematic random sampling techniques. the number of elements in each stratum is determined in kth value, which is calculated based on the formula ( 𝑁 𝑛 )th. hence the kth value in the study is 217. so, in every 217 from each stratum, proportional to its population, samples were drawn. finally, questioner was distrusted to 622 samples but as the return rate is 80.39 percent, the total sample respondent who were participated in the study were 500. when determining sample size for household respondents slovin’s sample size calculation is used at 95% confidence level and 4% level of precision as follows. n = n 1+(n×e2) n= is sample size n=total number of households e= level of precision n = n 1+(n×e2) n = 134946 1+(134946×0.042) ≈622 2.1. specification of the model: a logistic regression model has been estimated to elicit the effect of urbanization on income generating capacity of households. the model uses income generating capacity among the households as the dichotomous dependent variable. the model is given by; ln [ 𝑝 1 − 𝑝 ] = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 (𝑥) where: ln = the natural logarithm p= the short form of p(y=1)the probability that the dependent variable exists 𝑝 1−𝑝 = the odds for p(y=1) ln [ 𝑝 1−𝑝 ] = natural logarithm of the odds for p(y=1) the model is based on the following hypotheses: a) urbanization is a factor influencing the food security status of urban residents. thus, it is hypothesized that the ever-increasing urbanization would negatively affect or reduce citizens food security status. b) agricultural foodstuff production mediates the relationship between urbanization and food security status of urban residents. concerning mediation analysis the approach used by baron and keny(1986) is followed. four conditions must be fulfilled to evidence a mediating effect (baron and keny, 1986). first, the independent variable must significantly impact the dependent variable. second, the independent variable must have impact on the mediator. third, the mediator must impact the dependent variable. finally, the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable becomes less when the mediator is controlled, as shown by the change in regression coefficient. full mediation exists when such an effect becomes non-significant. as indicated in table 1, 2, and 3, before get distributed the questionnaire the researchers computed the reliability of the questionnaire for each variable. in doing so cronbach’s alpha is computed using stata 13 software program. looking at the above tables the cronbach’s alphas for urbanization, food security, income generation capacity, housing problems, agricultural production and poverty are 0.794, 0.775, and 0.822 respectively. therefore, the results indicated in the above tables confirmed that 42 there is high inter item consistency among questions as the results are higher than 0.70. 3. results and discussion 3.1. urbanization and food security: based on the data obtained from 500 households, we have run the binary logistic regression to identify the effect of urbanization on food security. the researchers have also monitored agricultural foodstuff production as a mediator between urbanization and food security. from the regression analysis, in table 4 that contains the odds ratio, we observe that when there is urbanization (x = 1) the odds of food insecurity (y=1) is 10.60571 times greater than the odds of food security (y=0) without urbanization(x=0). this indicates that with the expansion of urbanization the probability of food insecurity is higher than the case where x=0. hence, we conclude that urbanization intensifies food insecurity among the urban dwellers. on the other table, table 5, it is clearly indicated that the odds ratio is 10.60571. in this case the regression equation is given by: ln [ 𝑝 1−𝑝 ] = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 (𝑥) where: ln = the natural logarithm p= the short form of p(y=1)the probability that y=1 rather than zero 𝑝 1−𝑝 = the odds for p(y=1) – the probability that y=1 for a given ‘’ x’’ value divided by the probability that y=0 for that ‘’x’’ value ln [ 𝑝 1−𝑝 ] = natural logarithm of the odds of food insecurity. therefore, bo= ln of odds when x=0, 1.75: ln1.75 =0.5596 and b1= ln of odds when x=1, 10.60571: ln10.60571=2.361393. to convert the coefficients into odds, the formula is eb0 for the odds when x=0 and eb1 for the odds x=1, hence e0.5596 =1.75, e2.361393=10.60571. hence, the regression model based on the odds will be developed as; ln [ 𝑝 1−𝑝 ] = 0.5596 + 2.361393xis indicated in the regression output showing the result of coefficients. this tells us whenever there is urbanization the log of the odds of food insecurity is greater than the log of the odds of food insecurity when there is no urbanization. (y=1/x=1 or 0). but to make the analysis more plausible, we have to translate the model into probabilities as follows: ln [ 𝑝 1−𝑝 ] = b0 + b1 (declining volume of agricultural food production) take ‘’e” to the power of both sides 𝑝 1−𝑝 = e b0 + b1(x) then calculate the odds for x=1 and x=0 and compare the probabilities. 𝑃 = 𝑒 b0 + b1(x) 1+𝑒 b0 + b1(x) for x=1 𝑃 = 2.71820.5596 + 2.361393 1+2.71820.5596 + 2.361393(1) = 18.5597 19.5597 = 0.9488 this shows when there is urbanization the probability that there will be food insecurity is 0.9488. for x=0, 𝑃 = 𝑒 𝑏0 1+ 𝑒𝑏0 = 2.71820.5596 1+2.7182 0.5596 = 1.75 2.75 =0.636. hence, the probability that there will be a food insecurity even though no urbanization is 0.636. based on this we can conclude that the existence of urbanization exacerbates the status of food insecurity in urban areas. 3.2. urbanization and declining volume of agricultural foodstuff production the regression analysis has also been executed to find out the effect of urbanization on the declining volume of agricultural foodstuff production. hence, table 6 which contains the odds ratio, we observe that when there is urbanization (x = 1) the odds of decline in volume of agricultural food production(y=1) is 30.47 times greater than the odds of decline in volume of agricultural food production(y=1) without urbanization(x=0). this indicates that if there is urbanization the probability that volume of agricultural food production will decline is higher than the case that x=0. hence, we conclude that urbanization brings decline in volume of agricultural food production. as it is clearly indicated that in the table 6 the odds ratio is 30.474. in this case the regression equation is given by: 43 ln [ 𝑝 1 − 𝑝 ] = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 (𝑥) where: ln = the natural logarithm p= the short form of p(y=1)the probability that y=1 rather than zero 𝑝 1−𝑝 = the odds for p(y=1) – the probability that y=1 for a given ‘’ x’’ value, divided by the probability that y=0 for that ‘’x’’ value ln [ 𝑝 1−𝑝 ] = natural logarithm of the odds of declining volume of agricultural food production therefore, bo= ln of odds when x=0, 1.75: ln1.75 = 0.5596 and b1= ln of odds when x=1, 30.47: ln30.47=3.416946. to convert the coefficients into odds the formula is eb0 for the odds when x=0 and eb1 for the odds x=1, hence e0.5596 =1.75. hence, the regression model based on the odds will be developed as; ln [ 𝑝 1−𝑝 ]= 0.5596 + 3.4169xis indicated in the regression output in table 7 shows the result of coefficients. this confirms as whenever there is urbanization the log of the odds of declining volume of agricultural foodstuff production is greater than the log of the odds of declining volume of agricultural foodstuff production when there is no urbanization. (y=1/x=1 or 0). but to make the analysis more plausible, we translate the model into probabilities as follows: ln [ 𝑝 1−𝑝 ] = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 (declining volume of agricultural food production) take ‘’e” to the power of both sides 𝑝 1−𝑝 = e b0 + b1(x) then calculate the odds for x=1 and x=0 and compare the probabilities. p=( e b0 + b1(x) /1+ e b0 + b1(x) ) for x=1 p= 2.7182 0.5596 + 3.4169(1) 1+2.7182 0.5596 + 3.4169(1) = 53.33 54.33 = 0.981 this shows when there is urbanization the probability that there will be a decline in the volume of agricultural food production is 0.981. for x=0, p= 𝑒 𝑏0 1+𝑒 𝑏0 = 2.7182 0.5596 1+2.7182 0.5596 = 1.75 2.75 =0.636 the probability that there will be a decline in the volume of agricultural food production though no urbanization. based on this we can conclude that the existence of urbanization brings a decline in the volume of agricultural food production. this is because the outward expansion of cities into the suburbs converts agricultural lands to non-agricultural use and results in a declining ratio of food producers to food consumers as clearly stated by other researchers too. urbanization influences the food security and farming activities of an increasingly urbanized world and results in a declining ratio of food producers to food consumers. it has been underpinned by the rapid growth in the world economy and in the proportion of gross world product. globally, agriculture has met the demands of this rapidly growing urban population, including food. but hundreds of millions of urban dwellers suffer under -nutrition (david satterthwaite, gordon mcgranahan and cecilia tacoli, 2010). hardoy et al. (2001) and others in their article has indicated the effect of urbanization on agriculture as follows: “urban expansion inevitably covers some agricultural land while changes in land values and land markets around cities often result in land left vacant as the owners anticipate the gains they will make from selling it or using it for non-agricultural uses. in most urban areas in lowand middle-income nations, the absence of any land-use plan or strategic planning framework to guide land-use changes lead urban areas to expand haphazardly. this expansion is determined by where different households, enterprises, and public sector activities locate and build, legally or illegally. in most cases, there is little effective control over land-use conversions from agriculture to non-agricultural uses. there may be regulations that are meant to limit this but these have often avoided by politicians and real estate interests (hardoy et al. 2001 & angel, et al, 2005). there has been a lot of evidence whereby agricultural production would reduce as a result of urban expansions. f. eigenbrod and et al., (2011) gave an experimental testimony in assuring that agricultural production would be reduced at a rate of directly proportional to the amount of new urbanization (dense urban or suburban) in a 1 x 1 km grid cell. it has also predicted that the losses of stored carbon and agricultural production were estimated to be higher in the sprawl scenario than in the densification scenario. this happened because the conversion of 44 non-urban land is three times higher in sprawl scenario the densification. therefore, the finding of this research consistent with others has shown that urbanization is often considered as having negative impacts on agriculture, hence, agricultural foodstuff production. 3.3. declining volume of agricultural food production and food insecurity in the table 8, and 9 logistic regression and odds ratio are executed to depict out the effect of declining volume of agricultural foodstuff production on food insecurity. as the table indicates, the pseudo r2 is 0.11, and the coefficient is 3.2 which is significant at p<0.01, this means that one unit of decrease in agricultural foodstuff production leads 3.2 unit of increases in food insecurity. on the other hand, in the table 9 that contains the odds ratio, we observe that when there is a decline in the volume of agricultural food production (x = 1) the odds of food insecurity (y=1) is 24 times greater than the odds of food insecurity in the absence of decline in the volume of agricultural food production (x=0). this indicates that if there is a decline in the volume of agricultural food production the probability that citizens will be food insecured is higher than the case that x=0. hence, we conclude that a decline in the volume of agricultural food production brings the problem of food security. and the model is given by ln [ 𝑝 1−𝑝 ]= -.1541 + 3.21x then p= 2.7182−0.1541 + 3.2051 1+2.7182−0.1541 + 3.2051 for x=0 p= 0.46, for x=1 p= 0.95 this shows the likely hood that a citizen will be food insecure if there is a decline in the volume of agricultural foodstuff production is 0.95 while it is only about 0.46 in case there is no problem in agricultural food production. 3.4. mediation analysis the researchers execute a mediation analysis to depict out whether declining agricultural foodstuff production mediate the relationship between urbanization and food insecurity or not. hence the result is presented, interpreted and analyzed in the following ways. the decomposition of the direct and indirect effect using structural equation modeling (sem) is run. hence when we observe the mediating role of agricultural foodstuff production in the relationship between urbanization and food insecurity, which is indicated in the path diagram or figure 1 and the decomposition of direct and indirect effect in the table above, all the conditions to test mediation have fulfilled. accordingly, the direct effect of urbanization on food insecurity is 0.158 and the indirect effect is 0.1542. since the direct effect is greater than the indirect effect, it is possible to conclude that agricultural food production doesn’t mediate the relationship between the variables. 4. conclusion and policy implication 4.1. conclusion: the primary objective of this study was to investigate the effect of urbanization on food insecurity as mediated by the volume of agricultural foodstuff production with a particular reference to bahir dar, dessie, and gondar cities. to reach the conclusions that are asserted the study has used the appropriate data analysis method. hence, binary logistic regression is the prominent data analysis that the study has used. the conclusions based on our empirical study can be summarized as follows: 1. urbanization influences the food security status of urban households negatively. and there has been a reduction of agricultural foodstuff production in the region following the swift processes of urbanization. 2. urbanization is found to be reducing the agricultural foodstuff production in the region and 3. agricultural foodstuff production does not mediate the relationship between urbanization and food insecurity. 4.2. policy implications: in this paper, urbanization is found to pose diverse problems in the region. as a result of this, the regional government or concerned bodies have to take necessary policy interventions so that the adversarial consequences of urbanization will be rectified. henceforth, this paper has pointed out the following area of intervention. in the study, it is concluded that urbanization has negatively impacted agricultural foodstuff production in amhara region. this happened because of the outward expansion or expansion of urban cities into the pre-urban agricultural lands and unmanaged urban processes. in assuring this, it is only in bahir dar city administration that a total of 4119911 m2 and 4063084 m2 lands 45 were given for investors and real-estate and leaseholds from the year 2001 up to 2018(anrs industry park development, 2018, land management bureau, 2018). the total agricultural land that converted into non-agricultural uses reaches 8,182,995 m2 (818.2995hectar) (amhara regional state bureau of agriculture, 2009). unmanaged and ever-growing urbanization, which is happening in the region, is currently attracting a large number of farmers from the rural sides. according to csa (2007) census, in amhara region, urban centers are comprised of 373,238 urban residents who already have migrated from rural areas. farmers are migrating to urban cities because of push and pull factors. the push factors that lead farmers to migrate to urban areas are lack of agricultural land, less agricultural productivities and inability to settle agricultural financial debts. these ultimately contributed producers or farmers to be converted to consumers. hence this paper recommends the regional government or concerned bodies to redress all push factors. the regional government must devise policy interventions like providing subsidies, the regional government by creating strong partnerships with micro financial institutions should arrange appropriate loan facilities (when we say appropriate it means that the period that loan is settled should be convenient to farming activities, the loan repayment and the amount of the loan given to the farmer should be appropriate to the farmer), small and micro enterprises should effectively work in the rural areas to organize farmers, who are near to migration, to engage in different income generating activities, the regional government should support the farmers to enhance their productivity by introducing new technologies in the farming activities, and scaling up irrigations. these could deter the migration of farmers into urban areas and enhance the agricultural productions and productivities. the other factors that contribute to less agricultural foodstuff production because of urbanization are attributable to pull factors. instead of facing the challenges such as the decline in land productivity, and devising solutions by itself rural people or farmers consider migration to cities as the only and viable solution to the problems. hence, awareness should be created that their problem could even worsen rather than being solved through migration. the regional government has restlessly worked on awareness creation on the dark side of international migrations (for instance migration to arab countries). however, little has been made about internal migration. so, the regional government should aware the rural people about the challenges of urban lives. outward expansion into the pre-urban areas has also considered as one of the reasons that contribute to the reduction of agricultural foodstuff production. in different urban areas, particularly in metropolitan, cities are expanding into the neighboring agricultural areas. as a result of this, a priori agricultural lands are grabbed and converted into residential areas and partly to industrial areas. what makes it worse is, the agricultural lands seized from farmers for the purpose of industrial parks are not yet serving its purpose. there are a lot of plots of lands, which are redistributed to industries but yet idle. hence the regional government needs to revise its investment policies. the other conclusion made in this paper is urbanization has negatively affected the food security status of citizens in the region. this happened because of the existence of an increasing number of populations in urban areas. the increasing number of urban populations is attributed to internal migration. therefore, the regional government needs to halt the rural-urban migration by redressing push factors in the countryside. so that, the regional government will be enabled to balance the available food stock with the urban population. moreover, as the short-term solutions, the regional government should identify the food insecured urban households and embrace them in food security packages like urban safety-net programs, and enhancing the limited income generation capacity of food unsecured households. acknowledgements researchers would like to acknowledge sample respondents, key informants and bahir dar university. the researchers acknowledge the university because this work was entirely supported by bahir dar university, school of law in 2009 [grant numbers bdu/rcs/law/07/09]. references 1. anderson, s.a. (1990). the 1990 life sciences research office (lsro) report on nutritional assessment defined terms associated with food access. core indicators of nutritional state for difficult to sample populations. journal of nutrition, 102, 1559– 1660 2. angel, s., sheppard, s. c., civco, d. l., buckley, r., chabaeva, a., gitlin, l., kraley, a., parent, j. & perlin, m. (2005). the dynamics of global urban expansion. washington, dc: world bank 3. baron, r. m., & kenny, d. a. (1986). the moderatormediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. journal of personality and social 46 psychology, 51, 1173-1182.tion 4. bremner j. (2012). population and food security: africa’s challenge. population reference bureau 5. central statistical authority (2007). ethiopia demographic and health survey 2000. addis. ababa, ethiopia. 6. f. eigenbrod, v. a. bell, h. n. davies, a. heinemeyer, p. r. armsworth, k. j. gaston (2011). the impact of projected increases in urbanization on ecosystem services. the royial publishing society, vol. 278, no.1722. 7. fao. (2008). urbanization and food security in subsaharan africa. paper for the 25th regional conference for africa. nairobi. kenya: june 16-20. 8. hardoy, j. e., mitlin, d. & satterthwaite, d. (2001). environmental problems in an urbanizing world. london, uk: earth scan. 9. matuschke i. (2009). rapid urbanization and food security: using food density maps to identify future food security hotspots: rome: fao. 10. pauchard,a, m. aguayo, e.pena, and r.urrutia.(2006). multiple effect of urbanization on the biodiversity of developing countries: the case a fast-growing metropolitan areas (conception, chile). biological conservation. 127. 272-281. 11. satterthwaite, david & mcgranahan, gordon & tacoli, cecilia. (2010). urbanization and its implications for food and farming. philosophical transactions of the royal society of london. series b, biological sciences. 365. 2809-20. 10.1098/rstb.2010.0136. 12. verburg, p.h., t.a. veldkamp, and j.bouma. (1999). land use change under the conditions of high population pressure: the case of java. global environmental change. vol 9. no 4. pp 302-312. 13. weng q. (2002). land use change analysis in the zhujiang delta of china using satellite sensing, gis and stochastic modeling. journal of environmetal management. 64. 273-284. 14. world food summit. (1996). rome declaration on world food security. appendices appendix-a tables table 1 questionnaire’s reliability test result for urbanization table 2 questionnaire’s reliability test result for food insecurity 47 table 3 questionnaire’s reliability test result for agricultural foodstuff production table 4 odds ratio of urbanization and food insecurity table 5 logistic regression results of urbanization and food insecurity table 6 odds ratio of urbanization and declining volume of agricultural food stuff production 48 table 7 logistic regression results of urbanization and agricultural foodstuff production table 8 logistic regression results of declining volume of agricultural food production and food insecurity table 9 odds ratio of declining volume of agricultural food production and food insecurity table 10 the decomposition of the direct and indirect effect of the independent variable on the dependent _ c o n s . 8 5 7 1 4 2 9 . 4 7 6 8 7 0 3 0 . 2 8 0 . 7 8 2 . 2 8 8 0 6 3 6 2 . 5 5 0 4 5 7 a g g _ c a t 2 4 . 6 5 9 0 9 1 4 . 7 3 6 3 4 5 . 3 6 0 . 0 0 0 7 . 6 4 3 5 8 7 9 . 5 5 3 1 4 f o s s _ c a t o d d s r a t i o s t d . e r r . z p > | z | [ 9 5 % c o n f . i n t e r v a l ] l o g l i k e l i h o o d = 9 8 . 6 0 6 7 1 4 p s e u d o r 2 = 0 . 1 0 9 4 p r o b > c h i 2 = 0 . 0 0 0 0 l r c h i 2 ( 1 ) = 2 4 . 2 2 l o g i s t i c r e g r e s s i o n n u m b e r o f o b s = 5 0 0 49 appendix bfigure figure 1 the mediating role of declining volume of agricultural food production in the relationship between urbanization and food insecurity references 32 participation of women in the conduct of companies prof. ass. drita krasniqi prizren university “ukshin hoti, faculty of economics, drita.krasniqi@uni-prizren.com article history: accepted 15 march 2019 available online 30 april 2019 keywords: economic, management, businesses, structure of sme, developmet. a b s t r a c t the structure of the business owners who own firms is an important indicator and gender is treated in terms of business founders, their age group and level of education and professional training for business management. in any economy with market gender structure of owners of firms in business is analyzed and treated with the utmost care, with the aim in this field are performed equal gender rights and to support equal access to opportunities for establishing new businesses gender structure of the owners of enterprises is an important element in analyzing and monitoring the activities of enterprises. although in our country women's participation in the leadership of enterprises its small, in recent years has been seen an increase of female participation in the registration of enterprises. the purpose of this research is to produce results relevant to the current situation, structure, problems, difficulties, and to measure the trend of development of micro, small and medium enterprises, to determine the criteria and advanced recommendations for the possibility of supporting the development of them. analysis of obstacles and difficulties for business development including: a lack of qualified staff, lack of training in various areas, the lack of market, using modern equipment, workspace, physical infrastructure, transportation, finance, legal, economic and fiscal policies, offer the possibility of analysis, creation and research methods and methodologies to support small enterprises and medium enterprises in our country. introduction the paper is based on official statistical data provided by the institutions that have the responsibility to have them. for evidence that the government itself and the institutions of kosovo have a short history, still has statistical data are not consolidated. chat smes have a bearing far too substantial say in the growth of employment in certain countries. it is considered that about 60-70% of new labor countries of the more developed countries in the world membership, achieved as a result of past employment of peoples in smes. gender structure of owners of enterprises is an important element in analyzing and monitoring the activities of enterprises. although in our country women's participation in the leadership of enterprises is small, vitetve recently seen an increase of female participation in the registration of enterprises. we made paper highlights the obstacles and the difficulties in developing businesses such as lower education, training tracking, application technology an important indicator to assess the activities tëndërmarrjeve etc. activities. the following is a report of employment of women relative to men by age group, based on statistical data. yes persevere with particular importance of women participation in leading businesses to lodge formal 33 difficulties and obstacles to women's involvement in the economy. 1. gender structure of the founders of enterprises the following will make a parqitje participation of women in leadership research report by the competent organs. greenhaus & beutell (1985) to be followed by female owned firms tend to be of small size, with limited prospects of growth and profitability, and may have problems in finding collateral in order to gain finance from a bank or other source. thus, according to sme research from the ministry of commerce and industry of 2005 stream that 98% of owners of firms in small and medium enterprises are male, while only 2% are women. a structure of approximately the same gender was characteristic for 2003 and 2004, which shows that women in kosovo still reluctant to establish businesses on their behalf, either because of lack of economic and financial conditions, either because of insecurity for an entrepreneur. one of the most important improvements in terms of decision-making positions has been done in p olitics field, by enabling women to be elected as congresswoman with electoral gender quota. it is important to mention that the gender quota is set at 30 percent in kosovo (law no. 03/l-073, article 27, paragraph 1., 2008). in the table are presented data on the participation and role of women in the ownership of companies, which also has a positive effect on economic development. in the table are presented data of enterprises by female ownership at the country level. table 1. smes by a gender structure l a n g u a g e t o t a l b u s s in e s u n d e r t a k in g % p r is h t in ë % g j il a n % p e j ë % p r iz r e n % m it r o v ic ë % femal e 54 6.90 20 7.81 5 2.87 11 7.97 12 8.63 9 7.90 male 729 93.1 0 236 92.1 9 169 97.1 3 127 92.0 3 127 91.3 7 70 92.1 0 total 783 100 256 100 174 100 138 100 139 100 76 100 source: ministria e tregëtisë dhe industrisë rapor, 2011 hulumtimi i 800 ndërmarrjeve të vogëla dhe të mesme, prishtinë pp.10 from the table we can see that the increased participation of females in the establishment of business is in the region of prizren 8.63%, peja region 7.97%, mitrovica region 7.90%, followed by pristina region 7.81% and the share of small women in the establishment of business is in gjilan region with 2.87%. while most large participation of men in setting up businesses is in gjilan region with 97.13%, 92.19% region of pristina, mitrovica region 92.10%, then 92.03% regjini peja and prizren region with 91.37%. figure 1. sme structure by gender from the chart we can see that women's participation in the ownership of enterprises is about 7%. surveyed enterprises out of 729 (93%) of them are owned by men. 2. analysis of obstacles and difficulties for business development the data in the report of the survey of smes note that the total number of employees without school and elementary school does not exceed only 15.5% of females and 85.4% males, the structure of employees in preparation educational secondary school is participating around 24% female and 76% male, with high school 24.5% female, 76% male. while the educational preparation of college employees 19.1% female and 80.9% male, then the employees with master's degree 28.8% female and 71.2% male. structure of employees by gender phd noun gjithëashtu dominated by 83.3%, while the female population 16.7%. the rapid development of information technology, radical economic changes and dynamic market, 7% 93% female male 34 impose permanent monitoring of changes and learning countinual. a proven form of human capacity building within the enterprise are training. although smallscale monitoring of such training has begun applied to enterprises in kosovo. of all the firms surveyed have 25.42% of them stated that they have continued training in the past three years, while 74.58% of them stated that they have conducted trainings. training course have their financial cost and it is not easy to part of the sme-s to participate in these trainings. follow the trend of development of advanced methodologies and application of modern technology is an important indicator to assess the activities of the activities of enterprises, as well as to determine the level of development of modern enterprises. besides there are also difficulties incidental in the workspace, physical infrastructure, transportation and finance. 3. the number of women’s business owners in kosovo, women are still hard assets as an entrepreneur at least in formal terms. businesses owned by women are rare. according to the data, in general, only 13% of smes are owned by women and another 3% are co-owned by women. so, the remaining 84% of smes are owned by men. however, the incidence of female entrepreneurship is higher in personal and business services, where 23% and 35% of companies, respectively, are controlled by women. in other sectors, the proportion of women is much lower; building in particular has practically owned by women in all businesses. moreover, women are mainly active business as solo-entrepreneurs, while the larger category size women become more rare. finally, there are relatively more female entrepreneurs in the pristina region (18% plus 6% co-ownership) than in other regions (10% plus 2% co-ownership on average). companies led by women average a bit younger than those men-led, which means that self-employment is an option of last career for women. (oberholzner, 2014, p. 18) a small number of women in kosovo are the owner of a private enterprise, say the companies own manager and representative of women in this sector. according to them, lack of finances, the lack of competent authorities, did the percentage of women involved in the business to be very low. (www.evropaelire.org, n.d.) the number of albanian women who are in business continues to be low. there are many obstacles, financial resources are limited, there is discrimination and family role in the launch and development conditions of a business (www.monitori.al). data "women, business and the law 2014" of the world bank in 2013, which evaluates the differences before the law between men and women in the following categories: accessing institutions, using property, getting a job, providing incentives for job , history of good borrowing from going to court, and the protection of women from violence, found that of the 143 countries that were part of the study, including kosovo, conducted no gender difference in legal terms in general, the greater the gender equality is the greater number of women-owned businesses. however, this conclusion seems unfounded in the case of kosovo. since 2012, business registration agency within the ministry of trade and industry has collected data about ownership of businesses that are classified by sex, and reports a 11% percentage of women -owned businesses. this percentage is much lower compared with the regional average of 36%. almost all women owned businesses (99%) are micro-enterprises, which means that operating profit lower, with fewer workers and lower capitalization (www.womensnetwork.org). 4. the lack of women in leadership positions the apparent lack of women in leadership positions in business and politics is the key obstacle to kosovo's progress. in general, the reasons that may contribute to the low number of female leaders in the private sector involved "low percentage of women employed, the great burden of domestic responsibilities, the lack of mechanisms for proper evaluation of performance and femradim employees in the private sector, social prejudice against women in senior positions, practices that are likely to be discriminatory, and a lack of role models. kosovar women comprise only 0.3% of top managers in private companies, this percentage among the lowest in europe and central asia, where women make up on average 20% of managers of companies. a study of kcc in 2012 of women in decision-making positions in the public and private sectors has found that of 71 private companies (mainly small and medium enterprises (smes)), representing four sectors http://www.monitori.al/ 35 (ict, tourism, agriculture and finances), women were believed only an average of 4.2% of decision-making positions. moreover, in three important public enterprises, the post and telecom of kosovo (ptk), kosovo energy corporation (kek) and the airport of prishtina, the percentage of women in decision making positions was 20%, 11% and 9% .11 this lack not only provides women "less direct experience in managing businesses compared with men, but also hinder the chances of women to open their business. (www.womensnetwork.org, n.d.) 5. participation of the workforce by age and gender the constitution guarantees equal treatment of men and women before the law. men and women have equal rights to property and inheritance. there are no laws that restrict the industries in which women can work. while kosovo has a comprehensive legal framework and several mechanisms for the advancement of gender equality, including the law on gender equality of 2004 which was amended in 2015, implementation of the legal framework continues to be challenging. participation in the labor force, kosovo has one of the lowest rates of female participation in the workforce to a total of 21.4 percent. according to the statistics agency of kosovo (2015), the share of women aged 15 to 64 in employment is 21.4 percent compared to 61.8 percent for men, which is below the eu average (59.6 percent for women and 70.1 percent for men). the unemployment rate is particularly high among young people, which is of particular concern, considering that kosovo has the youngest population in europe. kosovo's labor market shows signs of vertical and horizontal segregation. women are overrepresented in administrative positions and by beep survey 2015, only 4 percent of women advance to managerial positions. women are more likely to have careers and supervisory roles in the public sector than in private companies, 79 percent of all women working in government institutions supervisory or state -owned enterprise. appellate labour statistics agency of kosovo (2013) women are under-represented in the energy, construction and transport. in kosovo, education contributes to gender segregation in the labor market, because female students tend to choose the branch of education, philology, medicine and philosophy while male students make up almost two thirds of all students in the branches of the economy, construction, architecture and computer engineering. (strategji për kosovën, 2016, p. 66) 6. employment of women in relation to men by age group the employment rate in the age group was highest among persons aged between 45-54 years (36.0%) and lowest among youth (15-24 years) (8.4%). the employment rate for women ages 25-44 ranges from 16.8% in the age group 25-34 years where falling 1.8% in the age group 35-44 years (15.0%). while women employed at the young age group (15-24 years old) were only 4.1% while the older age group (55 -64 years) was 10.6%. males (table 7.1), the employment rate was the highest for the age group 35 to 54 years (58%), and lowest for youth (12.0%) (www.atk-rks.gov). table 2. the number of employees and employment rates by gender and age kosovo male female total employment (in thousands) 15-24 21.7 6.9 28.6 25-34 55.8 20.4 76.2 35-44 64.0 18.0 82.0 45-54 54.5 18.2 72.7 55-64 33.0 8.1 41.1 15-64 229.1 71.6 300.7 employment to population ratio (%) 15-24 12.0 4.3 8.4 25-34 42.1 16.8 30.0 35-44 57.9 15.0 35.5 45-54 56.8 17.1 36.0 55-64 44.9 10.6 27.4 15-64 38.6 12.2 25.5 source: http://ask.rks-gov.net/media/2477/afp-tm12016-shqip.pdf, pp.14 http://www.atk-rks.gov/ http://ask.rks-gov.net/media/2477/afp-tm1-2016-shqip.pdf http://ask.rks-gov.net/media/2477/afp-tm1-2016-shqip.pdf 36 7. the participation of women in leadership business “gender differences in opportunity identification have been linked to differences in human capital variables including education and work experience, with men documented to leverage significantly higher levels of prior industry or entrepreneurial experience as well as experience in managing employees than women” (shane, 1993). participation of women in entrepreneurship and business formal ownership is also very low compared to regional standards. according to the survey data beep 2015, only 11.1 percent of businesses have women among the owners, while the percentage of businesses owned by women fully stands at 7.8 percent, which is among the lowest in the ebrd countries of operation. similarly, the businesses surveyed, only 7.2 percent of businesses have women in senior management positions (www.ebrd.com). although kosovo there are successful women who run businesses, the numbers are still very low, it is estimated that only about 10 percent of businesses are owned by women. however, the unemployment rate among women is alarming, only 12.5 per cent is the rate of employment among working-age women. based on recent statistics 14 percent of businesses on behalf of women. 95 percent of them are small and micro businesses in which employees work 1-10. business women consider and identify the main obstacles to women's involvement in the economy following obstacles (www.gratebiznes.com): • the educational level of women • lack of experience of women in business • lack of women's access to information and finance • lack of institutional support, including family, traditions and mentality. • as well as other social factors and environmental. conclusions and recommendations gender structure of the founders shows that the proportion of women and men has become a rise of 93.1.0% decrease over the years the owners of companies in the small and medium enterprises are male, while only 6.9% are women, compared with research done in 2005 it was 93.1.0% of owners and only 2% were female. the level of education of heads of enterprises continues to be low. monitoring the various trainings in the last years is a very important element to assess compliance with the professional knowledge and application of modern methods. according to the business registration agency of the ministry of trade and industry, 2012, collected data about the ownership of businesses that are classified by sex, and reports a 11% percentage of women owned businesses. this percentage is much lower compared with the regional average of 36%. the employment rate in the age group was highest among persons aged between 45-54 years (36.0%) and lowest among youth (15-24 years) (8.4%). according to the sme report for kosev 2014 only 13% of smes are owned by women and another 3% are co-owned by women. so, the remaining 84% of smes are owned by men. the main obstacles to the inclusion of women in business are: educational level of women, women's lack of experience in business, women lack access to information and finance lack of institutional support, etc. recommendations organizing an awareness campaign for empowerment of women in the construction and development of smes. it should be organized and training on the importance of operational and strategic planning of economic activity for longer periods of time, which will result in positive effects for the continuation of existing business. creating policies to stimulate the financial benefits for those who have the ambition to develop the business, being in tune with the enterprise business plan improving the ease of closing businesses. the importance of closing business facilitation contempt often. it is extremely important to undertake the initiative in this area to ensure that honest entrepreneurs can start off their businesses since they have failed. http://www.ebrd.com/ 37 references 1. retrieved from www.evropaelire.org: http://www.evropaelire.org/a/2288868.html 2. retrieved from www.monitor.al: http://www.monitor.al/femrat -pengesa-teshumta-ne-biznes-2/ 3. retrieved from www.womensnetwork.org: http://www.womensnetwork.org/documents/2 0140611153950100.pdf 4. retrieved from zeri.info: http://zeri.info/ekonomia/54246/pak-biznesedrejtohen-nga-grate 5. retrieved from gratenebiznes.com: http://gratenebiznes.com/sq/ (2014). 6. retrieved from www.womensnetwork.org: http://www.womensnetwork.org/documents/2 0140611153950100.pdf 7. (1985). sources of conflict between work and family roles. greenhaus, j. h., & beutell, n. j. . 8. (2016). retrieved from ask.rks -gov.net: http://ask.rks-gov.net/media/2477/afp-tm12016-shqip.pdf 9. (2016). retrieved from www.ebrd.com: http://www.ebrd.com/documents/strategyand-policy-coordination/draft-kosovostrategy-albanian.pdf 10. hulumtimi i 600 ndërmarrjeve të vogëla dhe të mesme. ( 2005). prishtinë: ministria e tregëtisë dhe industrisë raport. 11. hulumtimi i 800 ndërmarrjeve të vogëla dhe të mesme. (2011). prishtinë: ministria e tregëtisë dhe industrisë raport. 12. oberholzner, t. (2014). report on smes in kosovo. prishtinë: austrian institute for sme research. 13. shane. (1992-1993). noordehaven et.al(2003). 14. strategji për kosovën. (2016). banka europjane për rinderim dhe zhvillim. 15. (2008). the law on general elections, law no. 03/l-073, article 27, paragraph 1. the assembly of the republic of kosovo. http://gratenebiznes.com/sq/ introduction 1. gender structure of the founders of enterprises 2. analysis of obstacles and difficulties for business development 3. the number of women’s business owners 4. the lack of women in leadership positions 5. participation of the workforce by age and gender 6. employment of women in relation to men by age group 7. the participation of women in leadership business conclusions and recommendations recommendations references algorithmic financial trading with deep convolutional neural networks: time series to image conversion approach 86 the study of evaluation oecd member countries based on the enabling trade indexes erkan bil*, gülay keskin**, tanju güdük*** * çanakkale onsekiz mart university, gökçeada vocational school, erkan_bil@yahoo.com ** çanakkale onsekiz mart university, gökçeada vocational school , gulaykeskindr@gmail.com *** çanakkale onsekiz mart university, gökçeada vocational school, guduktanju@gmail.com article info a b s t r a c t article history: accepted 21 december 2018 available online 31 december 2018 keywords: 1. introduction facilitation of trade is defined in its widest meaning as simplification and harmonization of all processes and procedures which the commodity is subject to from the production to the delivery to the end user, and decrease of formalities. in this scope, the concept of facilitation of trade involves the strengthening of foreign trade and logistics infrastructure by implementing information technologies and automation in addition to simplification of procedures related to trade, including the customs procedures. countries which aim at reaching the growth objectives are required to increase foreign trade, and for this, to strive towards decreasing the commercial costs. the concept of facilitation of trade acquires a meaning beyond the reduction of rates with global and regional efforts under today’s conditions. countries which could manage this issue well will reach lower trade costs and have important contributions in the way of economic growth/ development. this of course is an issue which has an importance to be one of the basic fundamental areas of interest of policy makers as well as the economists for our country. for that reason, it becomes further important to direct the investments to be made in the field of trade facilitation, which includes vario us precautions and implementations from infrastructure investments in foreign trade to the modernization of customs processes, which would mitigate trade costs, to areas which require priority from the point of view of our country (cakmak, 2016: 5). with the realization of targets determined within the framework oecd, wef, the enabling trade index 2016 the organization for economic co-operation and development (oecd) is an intergovernmental economic organisation with 36-member countries, was established in paris,1961. oecd aims to stimulate sustainable economic growth and improve social well-being in many of the world's most advanced countries but also emerging countries. it provides a forum in which governments can work together to share experiences and seek solutions to common problems. the global enabling trade report was first published in 2008 by the world economic forum. it has become a powerful tool for alliances about improving trade facilitation by focusing on the right countries and the right projects, quickly and efficiently. co-published by the world economic forum and the global alliance for trade facilitation, the report features the enabling trade index which measures the factors, policies and services in economies that facilitate the flow of goods over borders and to their destination. this study aims to classify oecd member countries including turkey, based on the data of the enabling trade index 2016. for the process of entering the data, excel and the statistical software program spss have been used. in the process of analyzing the data, cluster analysis has been used and ward’s hierarchical clustering method has been chosen. in conclusion, the result indicates that oecd member countries generate five clusters. 87 of turkish strategy for facilitation of trade, thanks to the development of effective customs and trade procedures, use of advanced technology and development of infrastructure, it is aimed at ensuring the increase of flow of goods passing from the customs in unit time, facilitating the entry of smes to the export markets with the mitigation in trade costs as a result of facilitation of trade, and ensuring cheaper access to additional different products on the side of consumers as the trade costs decrease (turkish strategy and action plan for facilitation of trade, 2018 – 2022) the purpose of this study is to classify the oecd member countries, which include turkey, by their trade facilitation index indicators for year 2016, and to examine how the reshaping of the paradigm shift and comparative superiority forms experienced in the global trade within the context of trade facilitation affect the production and foreign trade structure of economies of oecd countries and of turkey in particular, and to analyze with which country economies turkey has similar trade values among oecd countries. 2. oecd countries organization of economic cooperation and development (oecd) is the successor of the oeec (organization of european economic organization) which was constituted in 1947 in order to ensure collaboration of marshall plan created by the united states of america and canada for the restructuring of europe in the aftermath of the second world war (oecd.dt.mfa.gov.tr) organisation for economic co-operation and development is an international economic organization (www.tech-worm.com). within the framework of new developments, oecd was established which was aimed at directing to new areas of collaboration with the paris contract signed on 14 december 1960, and it has launched its activities officially on 30 september 1961. the objectives of the organization are listed as follows (www.ekodialog.com): • improving the living standards of people in member countries where the financial stability is simultaneously protected and also in the developing countries, support and assistance to policy which provides for continuous and balanced economic development, abolishing the unemployment; • stimulating economic enlargement policies and supporting socio-economic collaborative development; • supporting development of global trade which does not make any separation between countries and is multilateral in accordance with international obligations. • countries which are members of oecd or apply for membership have adopted the following three principles as indispensable values in the socio-politic and economic life: • democracy; • loyalty to human rights and citizen freedom (www.csgb.gov.tr). while, on one hand, contributing in the strengthening of these principles in member countries, oecd also engages in the promotion of its principles in countries which are not its members on the other hand. (www.tech-worm.com). oecd member countries include: usa, germany, australia, austria, belgium, czech republic, denmark, estonia, finland, france, netherlands, uk, ireland, spain, israel, sweden, switzerland, italy, iceland, japan, canada, korea, latvia, lithuania, luxembourg, hungary, mexico, norway, poland, portugal, slovakia, slovenia, chile, turkey, new zealand, greece, consisting of 36 countries (www.mfa.gov.tr). fields of interest and activity of oecd, which has an expansionist policy, are not only limited to its members, covering around 100 countries that are within its membership perspective. turkey is among the founding members of oecd. turkey closely follows the economic developments in the world and their consequences also within the framework of oecd and contributes in the studies being carried out. oecd studies and the best practices of the countries provide turkey with an opportunity to create and exemplify a good ground for legislative and implementation changes which it has foreseen to undertake in the process of development and reform which it currently undergoes. issues within the scope of the wide activity range of oecd, are being closely followed by our various organizations and institutions that act in collaboration (oecd.dt.mfa.gov.tr). 3. trade facilitation index facilitation of trade, which is a process that aims at better management of trade, could be defined as systematically making more effective the presentation of documents and information required in the movement of commodities between countries (unsal, 2007: 2). facilitation of trade is defined as the whole of activities related to simplifying, harmonizing and standardizing the trade processes and accompanying financial processes by means of improving administrative, legal and technologic infrastructure by increasing the efficiency from the point of time and cost during the whole 88 international supply chain and to maximize the transparency and projectability in this field (www.academia.edu). trade facilitation index (eti) measures the extent to which the organizations, policies and services that exist in the body of each economic system make the free circulation of commodities that are the subject of foreign trade easier (global trade facilitation report, 2016). work economic forum (wef) is an international public – private collaboration organization. the forum deals with the leading political, business and other leaders of the society in order to shape the global, regional and industrial agendas. it was established as a non-profit organization in 1971, and its headquarters is located in geneva, switzerland. it is independent, impartial and not affiliated to any special interest. while the forum protects the highest governance standards, it also encourages entrepreneurship for the benefit of global public (www.weforum.org). world economic forum (wef) prepares a report on the extent to which the actions and regulations of 138 countries to facilitate trade are realized efficiently. it was developed in order to measure the level of development of the eco-system which will be a subject of international trade in particular. the first of the report was presented to public in 2008. the lower index value is calculated by taking the arithmetic average of the indicators. calculation of general index value from the lower indexes is also made by taking the arithmetic average of lower index values. the component values are structures so as to take a point between 1 and 7 (1 the words, 7 the best). world economic forum, which is an independent international organization, put the countries into a list with trade facilitation index according to the extent to which the commodities that are the subject of foreign trade make free circulation easy (besel, 2016: 9). global trade facilitation report has become an important source of reference since its publishing as the first time in 2008. the report, which is published biannually, has been a bag of stuff for many countries for their efforts towards facilitation of trade and has been assisting the companies in their investment decisions. from the beginning onwards, the evaluations were made on the basis of eti (enabling trade index). this index has been developed within the framework of trade facilitation program of world economic forum with he supports of leader academicians, partners and companies. trade enabling index measures the degree of organizations, policies, infrastructure and services developed by countries for facilitating the free circulation of commodities that are the subject of trade, from the borders of countries to their destination. the structure of the index comprises fundamental enabling elements of trade divided into 4 fundamental areas as well as sub-indexes. 1. “market access sub-index”, evaluates on one hand the policy framework adopted by the country at the point of meeting the commodity that enters the country, and on the other hand the obstacles and easiness that the country exporters encounter at the entrance to foreign markets. 2. “border management sub-index” evaluates the level at which the border management facilitates entry and exit of commodities. 3. “infrastructure sub-index” considers whether the required transportation and communication infrastructure to facilitate the movement of goods within and outside the country, is ensured. 4. “business environment sub-index” is an index that considers the quality of governance as well as the regulatory and safety framework that affects the activities of exporters, importers and transporters operating in the country. each of these four sub-indexes comprises a series of elements that facilitate trade. these elements are specified as follows. 1. access to internal market (6 indicators) 2. access to external market (2 indicators) 3. efficiency of customs administrations (13 indicators) 4. existence and quality of transportation infrastructure (7 indicators) 5. existence and quality of transportation services (6 indicators) 6. existence and use of information and communication technologies (7 indicators) 7. business environment (16 indicators) (global enabling trade report, 2016). the principle of trade facilitation is collected under 3 headings: simplification, harmonization and standardization (www.istemiparman.com.tr): • simplification; removing all unnecessary stages and repetitions in procedures, applications and processes; • harmonization; making the national procedures, processes and documents compliant with international contracts, standards and applications; • standardization; is the process of developing and implementing formats that are internationally accepted for the procedures, applications and documents. • practices of facilitation of trade increase the global 89 trade volume, and the increase of global trade volume creates wealth and richness in the countries that increase their foreign trade levels. the decrease to be provided in commercial costs by means of facilitation of trade, will crease important impacts for both the enterprises and the national economy for example, by means of simplification of customs and trade procedures, less efficient companies will find it more profitable to start export together with a decrease in the export costs, and thus the entry of smes to export markets will become easier (trade facilitation turkey strategy and action plan, 2018). the customs union (cu) process carried out with the eu has been an important factor within the trade facilitation experience of turkey. agreement was signed with the world bank in 1995 for the modernization of customs system and also a technical assistance agreement was signed with imf in the same year. in this scope, customs reform and modernization action plan was created in order to carry the customs regulations and administrative structure to the level of eu standards. within the framework of the plan in question, it was aimed at reshaping the customs administration by making the customs regulations in accordance with gb needs and international standards, developing and dissemination a computer system, creating a balance between customs control and trade facilitation and ensuring compliance with the international agreements to which turkey is a party. although it is accepted that in the process of customs union, turkey has significantly become in harmony with european union in the practices of customs administrations, it is necessary to reevaluate the acquirements and priorities that will be revealed from the point of tfa (cakmak, 2016: 7). 4. method in this study, it was aimed at classifying oecd member countries, which include turkey, from the point of trade facilitation index indicators for year 2016. clustering analysis is a multivariable statistical analysis group which includes grouping the individuals or objects based on the characteristics they have (kangalli et al, 2014: 102). it is expected that the clusters to be obtained as a result of clustering analysis have homogenous character within themselves and heterogenous structure among themselves to the extent possible (akoglu and tuna, 2016: 3). clustering analysis is a method that ensures collecting the units that are examined in a research under certain groups according to their similarities and thus making classifications, demonstrating the common features of the units and making general definitions in relation to these classes (erili and karakoy, 2015: 306). in other word, clustering analysis is a group of methods that helps dividing the units and variables which are included under x data matrix and of which natural groupings are not known, into sub-clusters which are similar to one another (özdamar, 2004: 377). in the clustering analysis, distance measurements, correlation measures or similarity measures of categoric data are used in order to calculate the values of the individuals or objects observed (in this research, countries) over all variables measured and determine the similarities (turanlı et al, 2006: 97). there are two methods in the implementation of clustering analysis. one of these is the hierarchical clustering analysis and the other is the k-means clustering, which is a non-hierarchical clustering analysis (nakip, 2006: 438). in this study, the hierarchical clustering analysis has been preferred. in general two methods, hierarchical and non-hierarchical, could be used consecutively. number of clusters is determined relying on the knowledge and experience of the researcher (arıç and erkekoğlu, 2013: 296). in this study, statistical analysis was done using spss 19 package program without determining the number of clusters beforehand. first, trade enabling index data for 2016 was entered using excel and spss package program. after the data was entered, it was made suitable for applying clustering analysis. in this study, hierarchical clustering, which is one of the clustering analyses, was used and ward method as selected as the method. hierarchical clustering is made in cases where the number of clusters is not determined by the researchers in advance. since the data used in the analysis take standard values between 1-7, there was no need for any standardization. table 1. aggregation table sta ge combined cluster coeffic ient nex t stag e stag e combined cluster coeffic ient ne xt sta ge clust er 1 clust er 2 clu ster 1 clust er 2 1 28 29 ,030 2 18 2 3 4,855 30 2 26 28 ,100 4 19 16 17 5,473 22 3 9 31 ,180 12 20 5 14 6,133 29 4 13 26 ,263 8 21 8 24 7,022 30 5 2 21 ,413 12 22 6 16 7,951 28 90 6 10 30 ,568 25 23 11 32 8,937 27 7 11 23 ,753 11 24 12 33 9,976 31 8 13 20 ,950 28 25 10 19 11,314 27 9 6 15 1,155 22 26 1 18 12,799 32 10 18 35 1,400 26 27 10 11 14,599 32 11 11 34 1,722 23 28 6 13 16,409 29 12 2 9 2,072 18 29 5 6 18,659 31 13 12 22 2,447 24 30 2 8 22,455 33 14 8 25 2,832 21 31 5 12 27,541 34 15 3 7 3,232 18 32 1 10 35,470 33 16 17 27 3,727 19 33 1 2 45,935 34 17 1 4 4,282 26 34 1 5 79,742 0 the first column in the aggregation table demonstrates the stages of clustering analysis. under the cluster combined heading, 28th observation in cluster 1 (slovakia) and 29th observation in cluster 2 (slovenia) are the closest two observations to one another (,030). as a matter of fact, the next coefficients column measures the distance between the observations. the next stage column demonstrates the stage at which two observations on that line combine with another observation to become a cluster. it could be seen that the next stage in the first line is the second stage. in this direction, the 28th observation (slovakia) and 29th observation (slovenia) in the first line combine with the 26th (poland) observation in the second stage to create the first cluster. it could be seen that the next stage in the second line is the fourth stage. at this stage, slovakia, slovenia and poland combined with the 13rd observation (hungary). similarly, it could be seen that the next stage in the fourth line is the eight stage and when this line is examined, it could be seen that lithuania (20th observation) is added to slovakia, slovenia, poland and hungary. clustering continues in this way until the 34th stage. the coefficients between the countries increased further while approaching last stages and finally 35 countries have been combined under a single cluster. it is possible to make the explanations related to the aggregation table abode by reading the dendrogram graphic from left to right. whereas countries which look similar to each other and could create a cluster create a cluster at a distance of 0 to 5 units, countries which look like the least create cluster at a distance of 25 units. figure 1. dendrogram for ward’s method table 2. distribution of countries by clusters according to ward’s method cluster 1 japan (18), united states of america (35), australia (1), chile (5) cluster 2 finland (9), sweden (31), austria (2), luxembourg (21), belgium (3), denmark (7), estonia (8), norway (25), netherlands (23) cluster 3 slovak republic (28), slovenia (29), poland (26), hungary (13), lithuania (20), czech republic (6), ireland (15), italy (17), portugal (27), israel (16) , canada (4), iceland (14) cluster 4 germany (11), new zealand (24), united kingdom (34), switzerland (32), france (10), spain (30), south korea (19) cluster 5 greece (12), mexico (22), turkey (33) if we read the dendrogram from left to right, it could be seen that oecd countries fundamentally divide into five clusters. the first cluster comprises japan, united states of america, australia and chile. whereas the second cluster includes a total of 9 members including belgium and finland; the third cluster includes 12 countries including italy, canada and portugal. the fourth cluster comprises germany, new zealand, the united kingdom, switzerland, france, spain and south korea. our group which constitutes the fifth and last cluster in this clustering is turkey, greece and mexica. when we examine figure 1, we can see that the ideal number of clusters is five. however, if we examine the graphic in detail, the number of clusters by index value could be expressed as minimum 3 and maximum 5. 91 table 3. members of cluster in the analysis where number of cluster is specified in table 3, analysis was made such that the number of clusters is minimum 3 and maximum 5. when the results obtained are examined, the results obtained from the tree graphic are confirmed. when the number of clusters is 5, the countries are clustered as in the tree graphic; and the new cluster distribution obtained when the number of clusters decreases to three is as follows: cluster 1: japan (18), united states (35), australia (1), chile (5), germany (11), new zealand (24), united kingdom (34), switzerland (32), france (10), spain (30), south korea (19). cluster 2 : finland (9), sweden (31), austria (2), luxembourg (21), belgium (3), denmark (7), estonia (8), norway (25), netherlands (23) cluster 3: slovak republic (28), slovenia (29), poland (26), hungary (13), lithuania (20), czech republic (6), ireland (15), italy (17), portugal (27), israel (16) , canada (4), iceland (14), greece (12), mexica (22), turkey (3). result and conclusion parallel to the increasing weight of our country in the international arena in the last period and the development and transformation it has been undergoing in the field of economy, there is a need for a comprehensive reform and this issue has been pronounced insistently in various platforms. within this framework, it is required to use the tools and mechanisms owned by oecd, which is an organization constituted by develop country democracies and provides positive contributions in the reform processes of countries if used appropriately, at a maximum level. for this, there is a need to review the relationships with the organization, the organizational structure and its operations from a visionary point of view. whereas oecd affects the organization and operation of turkish public administration on one side, it also will bring new expansions in its international relations on the other (www.igb.gov.tr). there is a need for the countries to combine the formalities and procedures in foreign trade operations and to constitute a more effective structure in the foreign trade process in order to increase their international competitive powers and ensure participation of all enterprises with required potential to foreign trade. in this context, facilitation of the trade is characterized as one of the basic elements for investment environment and international competitive power (unsal, 2007: 3). it is demonstrated that all sections of trade will win from the facilitation of trade. public sector, efficient customs and trade procedures, use of advanced technology and development of infrastructure will ensure increasing the flow of commodities passing at a unit time, controls in the supply chain will be made more efficient and there will be an increase in the tax incomes. besides, optimum benefit will be acquired from limited human resources with the effective case 5 clusters 4 clusters 3 clusters australia 1 1 1 austria 2 2 2 belgium 2 2 2 canada 3 3 3 chile 1 1 1 czech republic 3 3 3 denmark 2 2 2 estonia 2 2 2 finland 2 2 2 france 4 4 1 germany 4 4 1 greece 5 3 3 hungary 3 3 3 island 3 3 3 ireland 3 3 3 israel 3 3 3 italy 3 3 3 japan 1 1 1 south korea 4 4 1 leetonia 3 3 3 luxembourg 2 2 2 mexico 5 3 3 holland 2 2 2 new zealand 4 4 1 norway 2 2 2 poland 3 3 3 portugal 3 3 3 slovakia 3 3 3 slovenia 3 3 3 spain 4 4 1 sweden 2 2 2 switzerland 4 4 1 turkey 5 3 3 uk 4 4 1 usa 1 1 1 http://www.igb.gov.tr/ 92 use of technological tools. as a result of the research conducted, it could be seen that greece, mexica and turkey among oecd countries are included under the same cluster. whereas these three countries are included in the developing countries category, they have similar degree of being affected from economic, social and 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http://oecd.dt.mfa.gov.tr/content/assets/consulate/images/localcache/1/frqd4xyo3pags3ruhkwu34nbturkey%20brochure_turc_visa3.pdf http://oecd.dt.mfa.gov.tr/content/assets/consulate/images/localcache/1/frqd4xyo3pags3ruhkwu34nbturkey%20brochure_turc_visa3.pdf http://oa-b.org/ticatetin-kolaylastirilmasi-anlasmasi/ references 27 erotical signs in the poetry of ismail kadare prof. ass. merxhan avdyli public university "kadri zeka" gjilan, faculty of education, merxhan.avdyli@uni-gjilan.net article history: accepted 26 april 2019 available online 4 may 2019 keywords: poetry, kadare, love, signs, figure, poet, structure, verse, aspect, erosion, devotion, sublimation, heart, eyes, soul, flower, wax. a b s t r a c t the motive of love, not only kadare's poetry, but generally throughout the contemporary albanian and world poetry, is one of the fundamental, general and extremely universal motifs. such a motive has also prompted the poet kadare to write poems that propose the aesthetics of one of the most general motives of man the motive of love. the first and the first love in the verses of kadare is described and emerges as a part of human life and as such comes out of special dimensions. kadare, being a good builder of a full and complete poetry, would say, even if his poetry, if we can say erotic, we have a remarkable use of such signs, although in general the poetry of love does not occupy any remarkable place in kadare's poetry, naturally in comparison to the poetry of other motifs, though it is quite manifested. but, however, love in kadare's poetry marks, among other things, a particular poetic word in general, and even in this regard, it is also a multiple pluralist expression, using words, expressions and figures unused by others, also giving different words and meanings, from everyday life, to various functions, marking high aesthetic and literary uplift, but also figurative. he is a good builder of various artistic figures, an innovator of creating new words and expressions, and a sublimate of the ideas he poses and realizes in his poetry. although it is a whole set of signs that kadare uses in his poems, which are motivated by the feeling of love, we will in this case stop the signs he uses most, as well as those signs which make a special significance for his poetry. on this occasion, we will dwell on the signs, coinciding with the poetry, which appears as a poem of love, and which in kadare occupies a place, though not deserved, we would say, like love, moon, flower, bride, the heart, the lips, the eyes, the cheeks, the throat, the heart, the soul. there are also a number of other signs that reinforce and sublimate the poetic ideas of kadare's love motifs, but we believe that these are the signs that strengthen our conviction of the artistic achievement of his poetry as well as those that make up innovation in albanian poetry generally, whether in terms of poetry, or in terms of the breadth of poetic figuration. 1. love (poetry eros) the most useful word in erotic poetry is to remember that it is love. even in kadare's poetry, the presence of the motive of love is expressed, though not significant, as if it is eg. to the poetry of dritero agolli. so, being a special human feeling, love in kadare's poetry also has special treatment. the sign of love is encountered in a string of poems from the first poems. even a part of his poems are commitments, we would say concrete, which usually under the title emphasizes who he or she is devoted to, whether by imaginary name or only with initials such as "helena" "for helen", "tanja velinskajas", "zh. burkinas "," b. e. "," b. "," f. "or even the title of any dedicatory poetry such as" zhana b.", " devoted to v. "," llora "," ljudmillë " or even undetermined commitments, written below the title of poetry, such as: "a volunteer", "letter to a lover", etc. (kadare, 2005, p. 25). 28 usually poems with a wide range of love signs have a use of other signs, such as girls, flowers, lips, hearts etc., to which kadare in his poetry is very attentive, using them in complete poetic and aesthetic function. although the motive of love comes to a considerable part of kadare's poetry, however, the very notion itself, in this case, the love sign does not have any meaningful use, of course this in many cases is implied. with a special function, the love sign appears in the poem "i saw the first flowers ..." in which we have a personification of love, identifying it with a single flower, which does not fade or return. the strings of the last verse are realized, which is in fact the basic idea of poetry: all the first things will go away and yet they will come back. in addition to the first love: she does not flip it, nor does she come back. (kadare, 1957, p.19) love, as a concept that the author usually understands as a high individual human value, also appears in some poems, which are written, whether at different times, even in different places, even for flirtations, if we can say, the author's love to a certain time, indefinitely. such are also poems such as "you" (kadare, 1990, p. 44), "zhana b" (kadare, 2008, p. 61), "berjoza" (kadare, 1997, p. 9), "llora" (kadare, 1990, pp. 50-57), "ljudmilla" (kadare, 1957, p. 30) and some others. meanwhile, a more concentrated focus on love, in artistic and literary terms, but not only so, but also human, we have the ballad "flute", which even in the author's own note below her title writes: "ballad for love and jealousy. "balada is the focus of attention on tanna's love, which is also the lion's hero of the ballad. it is her feminine intuition, that is, of a loving lover, who through the sounds of the flute sounds the sensations of love when the author addresses it: and every night for love you hear the flute you say you know, no sound shed tears. (kadare, 1957, p. 70) the further elaboration of the ballad events is tragic, as tana fails to marry the shepherd who had been killed by the kacams, while she committed suicide by leaking from the bed. otherwise, ballad "juraja" is one of kadare's most accomplished ballads in which love and jealousy are two contradictory life segments that bring the tragic end to this excellent ballad. kadare's poetic power is also felt in this motivational type of poetry, or poetry of love, since through various poetic figures, in the concrete case of comparison, he also creates different pictures. since in love-motivated poetry we do, not rarely with memories, kadare's dedicating poetry "llora" (kadare, 1990, p. 40). here is an interesting picture of the first part of this long poetry that is more or less stuck with the poem where the author addresses lloré, with these words and thus: lora, you remember lora again. our past love again chew as a bull rearing the grass of remote meadows at night in the cob surrounded by snow. (kadare, 1990, p. 50) but we have another aspect of love the fear of it, which kadare brilliantly describes the fear of love, of different categories of people. the lines of poetry, which in its title bear the mark of love, which is simply titled "love", represents the decline in the power of love, of those to whom it also refers to love itself: they are afraid of you. oh, how are they afraid? elderly with wrinkles full of faces, which neither the beast nor the bullet either fears borsaline men and bags that are often called in the gathering, women who were bravely braved deaths; they are afraid of you. (kadare, 1976, p. 192) not only when we are dealing directly with the feelings of love that kadare reveals through his verses, but in one case goes beyond this, because he also writes verses for the very words of love, as is the case with the poem "the words of love "which is inspired by the verses of the russian poet lermontov, an inspiration that kadare functions in a lyrical love of words of 29 love, which, at the right moment, leave him, as in the following verses: o words of love do the fuck just before you leave me alone what did you do to me? where did the tongue tie me up, look at the legs birds like a hunter, that left you scared. (kadare, 1957, p. 35) it should be noted here that the sign of love, poetry of kadare, as well as poetry in general, is not used only as love in the sense of eros, but also as love in a broader, more general sense, or as a love of homeland, as a love for the family, or even as a love of people, as a love in an altruistic, human sense. but, in this case, they were not part of this treatment. 2. the girl (wigs, lazy, youth, love) one of the main signs, which fills the main motto of lovemotivated poetry, is the girl, namely the dresser. and in this light, kadare's poetry is motivated by love for a woman and hence does not hesitate to write, even poetry devoted to any woman she loves or for which she has felt the pangs of heart. in all periods of kadare's poetry writing, we have a good and significant representation of the girl's signature, namely the wax, which is presented through various stylistic figures. meanwhile, the sign is sometimes used in poems that are not motivated by love, but have other motives, for example. poetry "the first parachutists"(kadare, 1978, p. 109) (the verse "four daughters will descend to the earth, from the floors of the sky"). perhaps there is also an unwritten rule that feelings of love appear most in the period of youth, so poetry motivated by love for women is more present in the early period of kadare's poetry. although love does not recognize age limits, however, youth is somehow the most suitable bed for her. likewise, with this show of feeling, though not always, we have the use of the sign of the girl, who is very present in the first phase of his poetic writings, namely in the poetic volumes of calf inspirations and dreams, but later on the others, more or less. the treatment of the signs of the girl and the maid will become common since there are two synonymous words. meanwhile, kadare uses his poetry in the same sense, depending on the style and place used, either because of the rhythm or poet's intonation, but not because of emotional colorings, since both of them have the same emotional shades, as well as the same motivational star. he even uses the trimming of the lover's name as a lullaby. thus he, through the stylistic figure of thought-lithoth, to the "good-bye" (kadare, 1954, pp. 7-9) poetry, calls his girlfriend with a cuddly cuddle. there are a variety of poems with love motifs, which we always use for the love of the girl's sign, as well as the summaries of the dreams, such as the poems: "ballad", "the fall of autumn", "the river coast", "spring come again, "" o this side of the river, "" the whistle of the whistle, "" the joyous song, "etc. the poems in which we have the appearance of the girl are lyricism that has many emotional burdens of love, but these poems are more of a sometimes platonic love than any concrete love as it happens, for example. in cases where we have more specific erotic descriptions, where erotic areas are distinguished eg. lips. therefore, in these poetry of kadare, the girl does not speak but sings on her own, though she is sometimes playful and sometimes saddened by puddles, but she is sometimes close to the lyrical hero, when the author of poetry "the whip" express: there came a cool evening, calm autumn came, with a girl lying on the side, a lofate. the beautiful girl, the starry sky adorned; beyond the whistle song the forest had abandoned. (kadare, 1957, p. 33) generally, the girl in kadare's poetry is a sign that is largely identical to love, even with a sincere and extremely low-profile love, a love that rarely breaks the boundaries of first acquaintance with a youthful and healthy love. 3. the bride (crowning love, weddings, new life) the other sign of love is especially used in a part of kadare's ballads, but also in poems of other forms. the bride's signature is usually related, sometimes even in complete dependence with the wedding sign, which is more of an ethnographic sign, perhaps identity, because of the specialty of the albanian wedding, but it is also related to the groom, since it will naturally it was somewhat pointless to marry the bride from the groom. even, almost every time we have a coexistence of the wedding trinity the bride-groom, which signs have a causal connection. "brides and daughters" is a poem which is best seen in any other poetry of kadare, an interesting albanian wedding picture, where we have a description of it, then the albanian brides that are "dressed in pieces stars, "" meteorites "and albanian weddings in the autumn, because" the winter of wars came ", as kadare says. 30 thus, while the initial description for brides starts when, on the one hand, they are: mist-coated with broken pieces the brides of the provinces albania. (kadare, 1976, p. 31) meanwhile, on the other hand, the lyrical subject itself, becoming part of this beautiful lyrical, states: as in the pollen of flowers, since sprinkle everything, something from the starship bride over the shoulders of the ra. (kadare, 1976, p. 31) of the same theme is the other poetry "brides with veil", although there is a more pronounced drama in itself. in this poem the bride's sign is used in a very different function, compared to the poet quoted above. meanwhile, the dramatic culmination is reached in strings, as follows: veil covered the face of the bride as the drapery covers a drama. (kadare, 1978, p. 37) 4. the heart (physical love and platonic love) the heart, as a concrete physical body of man, but also as a metaphysical element, was used in poetry of kadare to reinforce the ideas of his love poetry. in this spirit, the heart becomes ever clean, soft and ready to strengthen the element of love in kadare's poetry, though it does not have any significant use. although there are occasions when the heart of kadare's poetry uses other figurative meanings outside the backdrop of erotic poetry, here we will only address the use of erotic erotic heart markers. moreover, the heart is especially used in poetry of patriotism, such as. to the poem "homeland"(kadare, 1954, p. 3-4) or to any other. kadare achieves that through the heart mark, not only create powerful stylistic figures, but also create different looks that seem to be close to her or entirely within her. it is especially significant to create the poetic atmosphere of poetry "enter without fear", where the poet gives the girlfriend's orientation to enter into his heart, where it is only her. the following verses: enter without fear in my heart, as in a dark salon, do not hold a torch in your hand that does not have to collide with this in the dark. (kadare, 2008, p. 102) even in the poem "song of miller" (kadare, 1978, pp. 52-55), which is an inspiration from popular poetry, the heart here is put into the function of the love ties between the village girl and the new miller. the heart of miller, says kadare will join the petes, which his bride will cook. in fact, all poetry focuses on the heart of miller, which as such is great, a heart that can not poison the bride, a heart that is even ready to withstand grinding. 5. lips (fire of love, kiss) another physical body, which in an erotic sense is an erogenous area that fosters the feelings of love and used in the poetry of kadare's love, are the feminine lips, which kadare describes as a flash of love feelings. but, not always, the poetry of kadare's lips expresses their expected heat. thus, in the poem "last night", during the description of the moment of division, the lyric hero states: we kissed lips like metal. (kadare, 1961, p. 49) meanwhile, on the other hand, in the poem "when to call", depicting the phone call with the girlfriend kadare heroic hero, who in this case may be the author himself, the feelings of love emerge through two erotic symbols: hair and lips, as in the verses where it rains constantly, as in many verses of kadare, as in the following verses: outside it rained. i gratefully appreciated the long phone wires. they came from afar, without stopping right from you, from the smell of your hair, from the loyal line of lips, without pausing, without pleading with glamorous rainbows on the road. (kadare, 1978, p. 71) references 1. aliu, a. sh. sinani, s. çapaliku, t. chobani, letërsia bashkëkohore shqiptare (contemporary albanian literature), albas, tirana-tetovo, 2002. 2. avdyli, merxhan, sprova zbuluese të poetikës (the exploration of poetry), brezi 81, pristina, 2005. 31 3. bart, rolan, književnost, mitologija, semiologija (literature, mythology, semiology), belgrade, 1971. 4. eco, umberto, si bëhet një punim diplome (how to become a diploma), "attempt", tirana, 1997. 5. fjalor i mitologjisë (dictionary of mythology) prepared by: todi thamo, "rilindja", prishtina, 1988. 6. kadare, ismail, ëndërrimet…, lirika dhe poema (dreaming ...), ndërmarrja shtetërore e botimeve, tiranë, 1957. 7. kadare, ismail, frymëzimet djaloshare, lirika (inspiration to the boy), ndërmarrja shtetërore e botimeve, tiranë, 1954. 8. kadare, ismail, ftesë në studio, poezi, shënime (invitation to the studio, poetry, notes), "naim frashëri", tirana, 1990. 9. kadare, ismail, koha, vjersha dhe poema (time), "naim frashëri", tirana, 1976. 10. kadare, ismail, motive me diell (sunni motives), "renesanca", prishtina, 1978. 11. kadare, ismail, pa formë është qielli (without form is the sky), “onufri”, tiranë, 2005. 12. kadare, ismail, përse mendohen këto male, vjersha dhe poema (why are these mountains), "naim frashëri", tirana, 1964. 13. kadare, ismail, poezi (poetry), “naim frashëri”, tiranë, 1976, f. 192. 14. kadare, ismail, shekulli im, vjersha dhe poema (my century), “naim frashëri”, tiranë, 1961. 15. kadare, ismail, vepra, vëllimi 7 (works, vol. 7), "onufri", tirana, 2008. 16. lotman, j. v., predavanja iz strukturalne poetike (lectures from structural poetics) "matica hrvatska", zagreb, 1965. 17. lotman, j. v., struktura umetničkog teksta (structure of the art text), "nolit", belgrade, 1976. 18. raifi mensur, mbi poezinë bashkëkohëse shqipe (on contemporary albanian poetry), "rilindja", prishtina, 1977. 19. slamnig, ivan, disciplina mašte (discipline of imagination), zagreb, 1971. 20. vinca, agim, orët e poezisë (poetry hours), "rilindja", prishtina, 1990. 21. welek, rene austin warren, teoria e letërsisë (theory of literature), "onufri", tirana, 2015. 22. zhenet, zherar, figurat (figures), "rilindja", prishtina, 1985. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 30 corporate sustainability indexes: ftse 4good index report on nestle gülay keski̇n çanakkale onsekiz mart university gökçeada vocational school gulaykeskin@comu.edu.tr afêrina skeja faculty of economics university of prizren aferina.skeja@gmail.com abstract corporate sustainability and economic business activities are focused on the social and environmental impacts. in this sense, the economic activity created by the businesses is to pursue social and environmental impacts, and producing information related to these effects is essential for the formation of structure for a sustainable business. sustainability indices are structures edited on first generation sustainability indicators, which are structures constructed in order to share information with consumers and businesses. the most important benefits are improvements in transparency without the need for regulation of the sustainability index, better understanding of the social and environmental impact of companies and the guidance for arrangements to minimize the negative side effects of company activities. ftse4good is a responsible investment index designed to help investors identify companies that meet globally recognized corporate responsibility standards. it is the only index of its kind since it includes specific criteria on the responsible marketing of breast milk substitutes. key words: corporate sustainability, ftse4 good, index, nestle. mailto:aferina.skeja@gmail.com prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 31 1. introduction institutional sustainability performance measurement aims to embrace the environmental, social and economic aspects of the institutional sustainability. there can be problems in the reduction of these three dimensions to a single dimension. multi-criteria decision-making models provide a useful frame for the evaluation of these variables together. sustainability indices are an important tool used for the increase in the institutional transparency for shareholders, the increase of the brand value and business reputation in long term, the support of innovation, the risk management, the increase in the awareness and motivation of the workers, the withdrawal of long term funds with appropriate financial conditions, the creation of financial value via increasing the shareholder value and supplying the business sustainability including all these. 2. corporate sustai̇nability originally, sustainability is the property of being capable of being continued with minimal long-term effect on the environment (akar and çamlıca, 2014: 102). another definition would be the one belonging to the world commission on environment and development (wced), which was set up as an independent body in 1983 by the united nations, with the brief to re-examine the critical environment. wced’s aim was to develop proposals to solve environmental problems, and to ensure that human progress will be sustained through development without bankrupting the resources of future generations (kesimli 2013: 2). institutional sustainability is accepted as the equivalent of approach of sustainability in operating level. for a proper sustainability implementation in companies, the economic, social and environmental parameters, which are the three sub-factors of sustainability, should be included in all the basic, strategic and operational process and decision-making mechanisms of the companies (öztel et al., 2012: 34). prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 32 institutional sustainability is defined as the companies undertaking activities by harmonizing their products and services with the stakeholders of the institutions and creating economic, environmental and social values. when operating activities are accepted as one of the effective factors in shaping the economic, social and environmental opportunities and sources of today and tomorrow, the significance of the institutional sustainability in providing development in the long term appears (çalışkan, 2012: 32). 3. measuring sustainability reaching sustainability is very closely associated with measuring the sustainability on an institutional or sectoral basis. the most important management tools used in the measurement of the sustainability are indicators. the indicators specified as a strategic objective in agenda 21, accepted in rio summit of 1992 are basic tools used to complete a system, define the options for the development of this system and to measure the performance shown while using these options. the indicators, which have an important role in converting the complex data sets into understandable units in decision making processes, are defined with regard to the three dimensions of sustainability (erol and özmen, 2007: 2). indicator samples within these three dimensions are presented below (teköz and önce, 2007: 27): environmental indicators: water consumption, energy consumption, renewable energy sources, mitigation of waste, product and package recovery, global warming, noise pollution, environmental reporting system, etc. economic indicators: creating new employment opportunities, research and development expenses, supporting new investments, total sales, number of the personnel employed, number of the shareholders, etc. social indicators: in-service training and career awareness, participation of the employees in decision processes, union relations, employee turnover and dismissal, equal opportunities, discrimination, violence and abuse, occupational health and safety, complaint and disciplinary regulation activity, management activity of wages and personal rights, child prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 33 employment, performance management activity, employee selection system activity, customer complaints, consumer health and food safety, investments made in social projects, etc. works with respect to adoption of the sustainability criteria by more financial institutions are performed considering competitive structure of the finance sector on the one side and based on cooperation and regarding the advantages of information sharing models on the other side. financial institutions play an important role in increasing the number of real sector companies considering environmental and social factors in decision making processes (www.skdturkiye.org). 4. institunal sustainability indices an index is an indicator for measuring the proportional change which consists of the movements of one or more variable(s). share indices are the indicators which give a general information about the "market performance" based on the share prices provided within the indices (www.borsaistanbul.com). sustainability indices, however, are the structures built on first generation sustainability indicators and formed on sharing information regarding the performance of the companies about these issues with the investors and consumers. especially, in an environment where accessibility, reliability and comparability of the environmental, social and governance (esg) data of the developing economies are questioned, mentioning the long-term investments is quite difficult. to eliminate this situation, non-profit institutions working on sustainability performance cooperate with the institutions in the developing economies and start to form and contribute to the formation of sustainability indices (www.s360blog.tumblr.com). the most important advantage of the sustainability indices is to lead to improvement in transparency without needing regulations, to better understand the social and environmental effects of the companies and to be guiding for the regulations which will reduce the negative effects of the company activities (çalışkan, 2012: 42). companies have not only economic responsibilities but social and environmental responsibilities, as well. it is seen that in operating level, institutional sustainability is associated with competition, innovation and marketing components at a high level. looking at this aspect, http://www.skdturkiye.org/ prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 34 any company can obtain an advantage of competition over institutional sustainability (diaz et al., 2011: 762). as a tangible tool of driving the issues such as inevitability of managing the change in business world for sustainable development, institutional sustainability, sustainable management of risk and opportunities, social and environmental values forward, the sustainability index serves for sustainable development across the country by providing advantages such as supplying capital and finance to companies, providing opportunity in attracting investment, and increasing reliability and recognition (www.ekoyapidergisi.org). 5. ftse4good index financial times stock exchange (ftse), which is an index company active in the international field, is an organization established with the cooperation of financial times and the london stock exchange in 1995. likewise, ftse4good index is a social responsibility investment index designed by ftse, one of the world's leading index suppliers (www.arge.com). the ftse4good index series, launched in 2001 has been designed to objectively measure the performance of companies that meet globally recognized corporate responsibility standards, as provided by the ftse (financial times stock exchange) company, which is a company jointly owned by the financial times and the london stock exchange (hussein, 2004: 24). it comprises 23 markets covering the global and european regions, the us, japan and the uk and over 2,000 potential constituents. in the uk, the universe of eligible constituents is drawn from the ftse all-share index. the ftse4good index series is a series of benchmark and tradable indices for responsible investors (sun et al., 2011: 679). the ftse4good index series is designed to measure the performance of companies demonstrating strong environmental, social and governance (esg) practices. transparent management and clearly-defined esg criteria make ftse4good indices suitable tools to be used by a wide variety of market participants when creating or assessing responsible investment products. ftse4good indices can be used in four main ways (www.ftse.com/products): http://www.ekoyapidergisi.org/ http://www.arge.com/ prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 35  financial products as tools in the creation of index-tracking investments, financial instruments or fund products focused on responsible investment.  research to identify environmentally and socially responsible companies.  reference as a transparent and evolving global esg standard against which companies can assess their progress and achievement.  benchmarking as a benchmark index to track the performance of responsible investment portfolios. socially responsible investments (sri) have a long and noble history, but have only grown to prominence in the recent past. in the beginning, sri was treated as a fad by the wider finance community, a fad that would either disappear or confine itself to the fringes. as of 2014, however, sri investments account for 11% ($3.74 trillion out of $33.7 trillion) of assets under management in the us, and 27% (£1.235 trillion out of £4.5 trillion) of assets under management in the uk. such widespread prominence puts it in a position that warrants closer scrutiny (belghiter, et al., 2014: 54). ftse4good comprises some benchmarking and trade indices which will facilitate investments in companies with social responsibility. the objective of the index series is to measure the performance and facilitate investments in companies with social responsibility. during the development of index, association is made with financial tools such as several funds and otc derivatives. it is not produced in order to support any special fund or investment product. indices are based on internationally accepted management rules and transparent and accepted index calculation methodology of ftse (www.arge.com). ftse performs index calculation together with ethical investment research service (eiris). eiris, which is a non-profit institution in england, provides research service for its members in the field of social responsibility. in the series, there are ftse4good global index and separate indices for usa, england, europe and japan (www.tspb.org.tr). as of september 2014, ftse has implemented a new esg assessment methodology and taken ownership of the underlying research process which underpins the ftse esg ratings and form the basis for determining inclusion in the ftse4good index series (www.ftse.co.uk). http://www.arge.com/ http://www.tspb.org.tr/ prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 36 ftse4good benchmark and tradable indices have been designed to measure the performance of companies that meet globally recognised social responsibility standards, and to facilitate investment in those companies (www.ftse.com). table 1: year performance total return (2010-2015) source: http://www.ftse.com/analytics/factsheets/temp/d704dac7-4aed-445d-88ac-532210ffc8d5.pdf the criteria are based only on publicly available data, and in assessing esg practice ftse does not accept data or information privately provided by companies. this improves the credibility of data and enhances transparency across the market. the ftse esg ratings also fall under the oversight of an independent committee comprising experts from the investment community, companies, unions and academia. they meet regularly to oversee esg rating reviews and methodology development (index inclusion rules for the ftse4good index series, 2015: 4). prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 37 source: index inclusion rules for the ftse4good index series, ftse, version 1.6 june 2015. 6. ftse4good index2014 report on nestle this information is taken from nestlé’s official website (www.nestle.com):  in the world nestle nestle has grown with new products and categories stably in 146 years and has become the leader of the world’s food and nutrition sector. today, nestlé has operations in almost all countries around the world with approximately 500 factories and 330,000 workers. the first meeting of nestlé with turkish consumers was in 1875 with the introduction of the first baby food to the turkish market. in the first years, making sales via its representatives, nestlé introduced condensed milk and chocolate products to the turkish market via its first sales branch opened in karaköy, istanbul in 1909. http://www.nestle.com/ prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 38  nestle in turkey having founded the first chocolate factory of turkey in 1927 and started production, nestle operates with its more than 800 products in 12 categories and almost 50 brands today. from the production base of nestlé turkey, exportation is realized 33 countries in the middle east and other close regions. nestle has sustainability projects in rural development, water and nutrition; contributes to the increase in the society’s social and economic welfare. it works to increase the quality and efficiency in pistachio production in gaziantep, şanlıurfa and adıyaman with “let our pistachios be abundant project.” with “i can be nourished project” it enables the school age children to have awareness about nutrition and have appropriate nutrition habits with the cooperation of the ministry of national education (www.nestle.com).  nestle's corporate business principl  nutrition, health and wellness: their core aim is to enhance the quality of consumer’s lives every day, everywhere by offering tastier and healthier food and beverage choices and encouraging a healthy lifestyle. they express this via our corporate proposition.  quality assurance and product safety: everywhere in the world, the nestlé name represents a promise to the consumer that the product is safe and of high standard. nestle quality policy. http://www.nestle.com/ prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 39  consumer communication: they are committed to responsible, reliable consumer communication that empowers consumers to exercise their right to informed choice and promotes healthier diets. they respect consumer privacy.  human rights in our business activities: they fully support the united nations global compact’s (ungc) guiding principles on human rights and labour and aim to provide an example of good human rights’ and labour practices throughout our business activities.  leadership and personal responsibility: their success is based on our people. they treat each other with respect and dignity and expect everyone to promote a sense of personal responsibility. they recruit competent and motivated people who respect our values, provide equal opportunities for their development and advancement protect their privacy and do not tolerate any form of harassment or discrimination.  safety and health at work: they are committed to preventing accidents, injuries and illness related to work, and to protect employees, contractors and others involved along the value chain.  supplier and customer relations: they require our suppliers, agents, subcontractors and their employees to demonstrate honesty, integrity and fairness, and to adhere to their nonnegotiable standards. in the same way, they are committed towards our own customers.  agriculture and rural development: they contribute to improvements in agricultural production, the social and economic status of farmers, rural communities and in production systems to make them more environmentally sustainable.  environmental sustainability: they commit us to environmentally sustainable business practices. at all stages of the product life cycle we strive to use natural resources efficiently, favour the use of sustainably-managed renewable resources, and target zero waste. they are committed to the sustainable use of water and continuous improvement in water management. we recognise that the world faces a growing water challenge and that responsible management of the world’s resources by all water users is an absolute necessity.  2014 performance summary nestle’s performance indicators provide a focus for measuring and reporting creating shared value, sustainability and compliance.  highlights 2014 http://www.nestle.com/aboutus/suppliers/suppliershome http://www.nestle.com/aboutus/suppliers/suppliershome prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 40 • 98% of thei̇r children’s products met all of the nestlé nutritional foundation criteria 1 for children at the end of 2014. • 73 our healthy kids global programme reached more than 7.6 million children in 73 countries in 2014. • they are ranked one of the top 3 global food and beverage manufacturers in the current access to nutrition index. 73% • they audited 8700 of our 10 000 tier 1 suppliers and found 73% fully complied with our supplier code (www.nestle.com).  ftse4good they remain the only infant formula manufacturer included in ftse’s responsible investment index, based their performance in human rights, labour rights, responsible marketing of breast-milk substitutes and more.  leader •they were ranked number one by the charity oxfam in its 2014 scorecard, behind the brands. •the survey scored 10 food and beverage companies on their efforts to improve food security. • 38% volume of high-priority categories of raw material that are traceable back to the primary source. • 52% water discharges per tonne of product cut by 52% since 2005. • 72 factories achieving zero waste for disposal in 2014. • 12 458 farmers sensitised on child labour issues in 2014. • nestlé needs youth helped 11 832 young people in europe find work or apprenticeship opportunities in 2014. • energy consumption per tonne of product cut by 26% since 2005.  creating shared value at nestle http://www.nestle.com/ prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 41 nestle has grown from a company founded nearly 150 years ago on the success of a lifesaving infant cereal to a global leader in nutrition, health and wellness. their growth has enabled us to help improve the lives of millions of people – through the products and services we provide and through employment, our supplier networks and the contribution we make to economies around the world. 4.1 million families earn a living because of nestlé, including many rural smallholders in developing countries. in 2014, they supported the livelihoods of 695 000 farmers and directly employed 339 456 people. their total group salaries and social welfare expenses were almost chf 16 billion and we paid corporate taxes of chf 2859 million (www.nestle.com).  responsible market ftse4good is a responsible investment index designed to help investors identify companies that meet globally recognised corporate responsibility standards. it is the only index of its kind to include specific criteria on the responsible marketing of breast milk substitutes. as part of a continuous assessment process, pricewaterhousecoopers (pwc) is commissioned by ftse4good to independently verify their breast milk substitutes marketing practices against a set of 104 criteria in countries with high rates of infant mortality and malnutrition. nestle were included in the ftse4good index in march 2011 after demonstrating that they had met theftse4good inclusion criteria for the marketing of breast milk substitutes (bms marketing criteria), in addition to the other ftse4good inclusion criteria, which cover areas such as the environment, human rights, and supply chain. they are the first, and so far the only, breast milk substitute manufacturer to be included in the index. ftse4good is currently the only independent, transparent, third-party assessing marketing practices of breast milk substitutes. it can serve as an important platform for raising not only our standards, but those of the industry (www.nestle.com):  facts about the ftse4good index http://www.nestle.com/ http://www.nestle.com/ prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 42 purpose: ftse4good is the responsible investment index of the ftse group. it is designed to help investors identify companies that meet globally recognised corporate responsibility standards and invest in them. ftse4good is the only responsible investment index that has defined clear criteria on the marketing of breast milk substitutes. inclusion criteria: to be included in the ftse4good index, companies must meet requirements in five areas (www.nestle.com): • working towards environmental sustainability • upholding and supporting universal human rights • ensuring good supply chain labour standards • countering bribery • mitigating and adapting to climate change inclusion of infant food manufacturers: infant food manufacturers have been eligible for inclusion in ftse4good since september 2010 providing they meet 104 specific requirements regarding the marketing of breast milk substitutes (bms criteria). these criteria are governed by an independent ftse4good bms marketing expert committee. inclusion process: companies wishing to be included in ftse4good are required to provide documentary evidence to demonstrate they meet all necessary criteria. evidence is then assessed by an independent research provider. an independent ftse4good policy committee meets twice a year to review companies and determine which should be added or removed based on their continued ability to meet the inclusion criteria.  facts about nestlé’s inclusion in the ftse4good index they achieved inclusion in: march 2011. we are the first, and so far the only, breast milk substitute (bms) manufacturer to be included. http://www.nestle.com/ prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 43 assessments carried out: the bms criteria is the only ftse4good criteria to be subject to an independent annual verification assessment. these are done by pricewaterhousecoopers (pwc). 2011: india, zambia, and their headquarters in switzerland. 2012: morocco and laos. 2014: angola, malaysia, and our headquarters in switzerland.  as a result of recommendations, they have: • made their compliance management system more transparent. • clarified what is and isn’t permitted in 152 higher-risk countries. • improved communication with our distributors and customers regarding our nestle policy and instructions for implementation of the who code policy, and encouraged them to share this information with their clients. • improved the packaging of our products where appropriate to ensure they are adapted to local conditions. • rolled out strict guidelines to ensure the appropriate use of display cabinets. • strengthened our internal and external mechanisms for reporting concerns regarding our marketing of bms, so that allegations of who code violations can be raised with us directly, promptly investigated, and addressed if needed. • strengthened their internal reporting mechanism in order to report the results of their compliance monitoring to the board of directors annually. why it is important for them: • the ftse4good inclusion process is a key building block of our commitment to transparency, compliance and good governance • they are committed to the highest standards of responsible marketing • this is currently the only independent, transparent, third-party assessment of marketing practices of breast milk substitutes • ftse4good can serve as an important platform for raising not only our standards, but those of the industry. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 44 conclusions considering the companies, which use the sources most and affect the environmental impairment most, as primary, changing of the business strategy and ways, substituting some current products for the new and more environmentally friendly products suitable to sustainability in social and economic aspect have a critical importance for the continuity of economy. in addition to the attempts of the institutions for continuing their existence under current market conditions, the issue of sustainability requires a change in the management mentality and reorganization in the activities of the same in a manner to also consider the welfare of the next generations. ftse4good index provides an opportunity for the companies to compare their institutional sustainability performances on local and global sense. moreover, a performance evaluation tool is presented through index in order to make improvements and determine new targets, wherein the opportunity of developing risk management skills regarding institutional transparency and accountability and sustainability issues is provided. in turn, it is thought that this will create an opportunity of competition for the companies and recognition and credit of the companies indexed will increase before public opinion. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; 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may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 67 small and medium enterprises (sme) development policy based on economic society in east java tutiek retnowati watiek boediningsih law faculty narotama university law faculty narotama university tutiekretno@gmail.com watiekwidyawati@gmail.com prof. dr afdol afdol dr. suwardi suwardi law faculty narotama university law faculty narotama university muhafdol007@gmail.com maswad0634@gmail.com abstract smes have a great role in the national economy, as well as in employment absorption and distribution results, through the law no. 5 of 1999 government give the limit on sme for small businesses is a business that: a. owns 200 million assets, excluding land and office building, b. annual sales proceeds at most 1 billion, c. owned by indonesian citizens. with these limits, it is expected that the role of government and society needs to give great attention to encourage its development. development of sme through business empowerment approach, need to pay attention to social and cultural aspects of each region the existence of regulations both in the form of laws and government regulations relating to sme in terms of production and banking side, will spur the role of sme in the economy. for the government, licensing is necessary to maintain public order and provide protection to the public. keyword: policy, sme program, sme development, community economy mailto:tutiekretno@gmail.com mailto:watiekwidyawati@gmail.com mailto:muhafdol007@gmail.com mailto:maswad0634@gmail.com prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 68 1. introduction government policy on small and micro enterprises (sme) is an important sector and great contribution in realizing the goals of national economic development, such as economic growth, employment opportunities, increasing state revenues, and regional economic development. sme are expected to have the ability to participate in spurring national economic growth so sme need government protection. being aware of the great role of sme in the national economy, as well as in the absorption of manpower and equitable distribution of development results, the government through law no. 5 of 1999, limits the sme to small businesses are: a. have 200 million net assets, excluding land and office building, b. annual sales proceeds (revenue) at most 1 billion, c. belonging to citizens of indonesia, d. stand alone, not a subsidiary or branch company. with these limits, it is hoped that the role of government and society needs to give great attention to push its development. sme development through business empowerment approach needs social and cultural attention in each region. referring to the characteristics that are owned, small and medium enterprises (smes) describes the existence of some limitations in the form of weak ability to access sources of business progress. constraints such as low capacity and access to msmes, among others: (a) low ability of access to information sources. (b) low ability to improve access and market opportunities. (3) low capacity and access to capital sources including banking. (4) low ability in the mastery and utilization of technology. (5) low ability in developing organization and management. (6) weakness of establishment of business network or partnership between fellow small and big business. based on the problems of cooperatives and msmes, business empowerment strategy is needed in order to create a productive and prospective community. the existence of regulations both in the form of laws and government regulations related to smes in terms of production and banking side, will spur the role of msmes in the economy. if a policy or regulation is not in accordance with expectations, of course, the policy should be evaluated because of the evaluation will be obtained inputs related to policy mismatch with the expected performance results. thus, evaluation helps policy-making at the stage of policy appraisal of the policy-making process. the government made a policy to accelerate the economic growth directly related to smes that have been in canangkannya prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 69 three main policy items in the economic field. the first is the improvement of financial services especially for msmes, which includes improvement of banking services, capital market, multifinance, insurance. the second key policy is the improvement of financial services infrastructure, in the form of market access, billing and payment services, ease of investment and saving, and general support for the implementation of trade transactions. the improvement of its supporting services and supporting infrastructure will not mean much without a thorough revamping effort to increase ability of entrepreneurship for the perpetrator of umkm. the third key policy is to improve the capability and mastery of technical and business management aspects, product development and sales, financial administration, and entrepreneurship as a whole. government policy in the development of umkm sector aims to increase the potential and active participation of msmes in the national development process, especially in economic activities in order to realize the distribution of development through the expansion of work and increase income. after understanding the characteristics of msmes then the next step is to understand the problems that exist in the world of smes, as for the problems include: (1) weakness in the field of organization and management. (2) weakness in capital structure and limitations to obtain access point to capital sources. (3) weaknesses and opportunities (market access) and enlarge market share. (4) limitations in the weaknesses of the use of access and mastery of technology, especially applied technology. (5) low quality of human resources including competency, skills, work ethic, character, awareness of the importance of consistent quality and standardization of products and services, and entrepreneurial insight. (6) limited supply of raw materials ranging from quantities that can be purchased, standardization of existing quality, and length of the distribution chain of raw materials. (7) partnership system that has been rolled out so far, tends to distort at the implementation level so that it affects the sub-ordination of micro, small and medium business actors compared to its business partners (big business). 2. research method prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 70 the objective of this study is to give contribution of thought and brief description to all parties who have the same interest and interest with this research material. for the author herself, this research would like to observe the sme business subject towards the capital and their rights and obligations related to the sustainability of their business as a result of the governments policy related to their relationship with the banking sector as long as it concerns the capital and guarantee that must be charged by the sme business subject. 3. research approach the author uses a normative juridical approach in discussing this research. notice the applicable legal norms as well as their application in the problems of community based sme business development and their solutions. 1. legal material primary source 1.1 primary legal material is derived from interviews with indonesian chamber of commerce and industry as public servants and citizens / communities as business subject of sme in the process of obtaining convenience both in terms of capital and marketing. 1.2 legal material secondary source secondary law materials come from literature studies and laws, scientific papers, newspapers and magazines that have similar topics to the discussion of this research. 2. data collection and processing procedures the primary data collection procedure is done by conducting field study that is through interviews with related parties indonesian chamber of commerce and industry and general public. secondary data collection is done by study literature, then process data by collecting, selecting and arranging systematically so that can obtaining accurate data and can be accounted for. 3. data analysis data which have been compiled analyzed further by using analytical descriptive method, to describe the problem, express the views and opinions and finally solve the problems contained in the data. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 71 4. discussion the government through various elements such as the cooperatives ministry, industry ministry, national planning institution (bappenas), soe (bumn) as well as financial institutions both banks and non-banks, make efforts to realize sme in order to become tough and independent and can develop to create a strong national economy. support is realized through policies as well as the provision of facilities and other stimulation. furthermore, support or assistance related to such endeavors is much needed, such as procurement of production equipment, other physical goods procurement also required appropriate and applicable methods, mechanisms and procedures as well as efforts on conformity of business operations and efforts of development with the ability of the community as an element of business subject in a community based municipal system, thats in the form of sme. efforts to ensure development and progress of sme is also programmed by finance ministry of through minister of finance decree no.316 / kmk.016 / 1994. the decree requires state-owned enterprises (bumn) to set aside 1-5% of the company's profit for development of small business and cooperative (pukk). the obligation of soe to set aside their profit 1-5% has not been properly managed and implemented. the study by sri adiningsih (2003: 4) explanation of the selected state-owned percent, ie 1% of the profit, while many sme are admitted difficulty accessing these funds. in addition, credit is also difficult to be accessed by sme, processed because of complicated procedures and the number of sme that have not been bankable. economic recovery in the regional economy will be more quickly achieved if the role of sme can be more leveled and the various internal constraints that wrapped around sme such as credit and capital can be found appropriate and accurate solutions. credit and capital for sme development is often a constraint, because sme have limited ability to access credit or banking institutions. based on law no. 23 of 2014 on regional governments, cooperatives and smes become obligatory matters of local government. this means that local governments have the widest authority to implement development in accelerating the realization of community welfare, equity and justice based on the principles of democracy. in the framework of empowering cooperatives and sme, the government has issued a policy which prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 72 is poured into 17 credit schemes with soft requirements. with the scheme, then in 1997/1998, has been allocated funds of rp. 1 trillion. then in 1998/1999 the allocation of funds for cooperatives and sme increased fourteen times from the previous year with a value of rp. 14.4 trillion. in practice, it has not been able to run optimally. this phenomenon is suspected to occur because the implementation of credit faced many difficulties, both in the distribution and in repayment of the loan. furthermore data from the asian development bank in 2001 showed that credit for sme from credit institutions such as banking are as follows: a). sme who have obtained credit from banks only amounted to 21%, b). sme who have applied for credit but have not obtained credit of 14%, c) .ukm who badly need credit but have not applying for credit of 33% and). the remaining 32% do not require credit. due to the large potential of medium enterprises in the global arena generally and in the indonesian economy in general, it is important for us to understand more about this issue. and then look for the right solution for all those problems. sme management based on community economy is very helpful for business subject to create opportunities and employment for itself if it is executed properly. this is considering indonesia is a country with a large enough population that requires a large enough employment opportunity as well. besides, the business culture in our society is still so traditional that our society is often left behind from other countries. given the level of human resources we need to be equipped with the ability to work more diligently and seriously. therefore, it is hoped that the role of the government in mobilizing employment opportunities, such as sme business subject, will be able to create their own employment, thereby helping the government's homework in providing such employment. because if you want business subject still exist and stay awake it is expected that the management must be professional and more precisely with the system of moving the sme business subject as the main motor of the economy of the indonesian nation will be more resilient and evenly this is the solution because it is expected to realize the job opportunities that many and the community will be absorbed with the sme efforts. if the main goal of the populist economy is further elaborated, the main target of the populist economy in its outline includes five points: prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 73 1. provision of decent work and livelihood opportunities for all members of the community. 2. the implementation of social security system for members of the community in need, especially the poor and neglected children. 3. the distribution of material capital ownership is relatively evenly distributed among community members. 4. the implementation of national education free of charge for every member of the community. 5. ensure the independence of every member of society to establish and become members of economic unions. no less important is the role of the banking should be focused and serious and many provide convenience for the sme business actors so that real welfare can be achieved by our society evenly. with such a policy system, the management of sme based on the people's economy is the right action to raise the community's standard of living and life more assured, more stable, prosperous in east java region especially surabaya, sidoarjo, gresik, mojokerto, jombang. thus, of course, no one can guarantee that in the presence of this will automatically effectively encourage the real sector. the sme sector controls approximately 90% of the business sector in indonesia which also can be read that the sme sector is represents the economy of the people in indonesia. in addition, the sector has proven itself to be a more resilient business sector than the hurricane of the crisis. it can be said that the issuance of pbi is also one of the manifestations of bank indonesia's consistency concerns to sme. in the development of sme bank indonesia has a training program mentoring sme and line base surveys of sme conducted on a regular basis. in aggregate, to encourage more significant economic growth, it will be faster if the policy of easing the determination of productive quality is directed to large scale business group or corporation. however, in relation to the large-scale business credit risk, it is also necessary to prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 74 take a more prudent step in policy towards large-scale business sectors. because in case of credit failure in the corporation sector, the impacts on the economic situation are also greater. amid the uncertainty of government policy concerning the restructuring of small and medium business debt (sme), the poverty reduction committee (kpk) blew the winds of heaven to micro, small and medium enterprises (sme) by making a joint agreement with bank indonesia (bi). the target of community economic empowerment can be seen from the side as follows: first, create atmosphere or climate that enabling the potential of developing society (enabling). second, strengthen the potential or resources owned by the community (empowering). third, the process of empowerment must protect and prevent (protecting) a weakened weakened due to lack of empowerment in the face of a strong. in the perspective of empowerment, the existence of small and medium enterprises with all its characteristics is required to seize opportunities in very difficult economic situations, namely high flexibility, and with adequate management support in producing products and services gradually the relaxation began to touch the large scale business sector though by remaining within the regulatory corridor in accordance with the principle of prudence. for credits of rp 500 million-rp 20 billion, only applicable to banks with predicate risk control systems for a strong credit risk, the minimum capital adequacy ratio (kpmm) is at least equal to the prevailing provisions (8%), and has a composite rating of minimum bank soundness. the relaxation for credit of rp 500 million-rp 10 billion applies only to banks with predicate risk control system for acceptable credit risk, kpmm ratio at least equal to prevailing provisions, and has a minimum bank composite rating. in addition to providing concessions to the determination of earning assets quality, bank indonesia also indirectly encourages banks to improve the quality of risk management. banks must maintain and improve their credit risk management quality at least reach the strong level and or acceptable levels while maintaining kpmm ratio in the applicable provisions. agreed with ryan kiryanto, that the effectiveness of pbi can not run on their own, but must also be accompanied by improved investment climate and decreased micro risk by the government, that the effectiveness of a monetary and banking policy should also be supported by appropriate real sector policies. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 75 handling and management of banking-based msme is a profile of growing business in indonesia. the development of smes business is a bit late because of the powerlessness of business actors in the face of an open economic scope of empowerment efforts required. one way to empower them is to provide consultancy assistance in the field of strategic management and access to capital. local unit of medium enterprises (smes) that need encouragement by private companies and soes because it is an integral part and economy of the people who have a position and a strategic role to realize a balanced regional economic structure. based on the evaluation of the development of smes and several companies will create a fixed agenda to promote smes products by selling directly to the community. "local sme exhibition and direct sales will be a fixed agenda, by using strategy with different place selection and activity type each time, in the future we will encourage local and export destination." the steps to be undertaken are to cooperate with private companies and state-owned enterprises that mobilize community-based msmes will be directed at a period of high buying interest in the community so that sales of msme products increase in east java, especially in surabaya, sidoarjo, gresik, mojokerto, jombang considering the lack of funds from the department cooperatives for msme development. 1. sme and cooperatives ministry synergize with indonesian chamber of commerce and industry (ikadin) to develop the application of community economy in the empowerment of cooperatives and micro, small and medium enterprises (kumkm) indonesia. cooperatives and sme minister sjarifuddin hasan said from this cooperation is expected to develop the real sector with the popular pattern, especially empowerment of cooperatives financial services. this agreement is to improve and develop the application of the people's economy through kumkm in an effort to support the expansion of employment and poverty alleviation. "the mou was signed last week attended by community leaders and local officials. cooperation based on the principle of partnership and mutual giving and beneficial. first party is the institution responsible for the empowerment of umkm. the second party, is a community institution that is responsible for developing economy society. the scope of cooperation includes prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 76 improving kumkm (cooperative sme)human resources capacity, improving kumkm institutional quality, facilitation of halal certification of each kumkm product, and facilitation of community based cooperative sme business. 2. in 2009 start of the program in developing the cooperative financial services which is one is the cooperatives and sme ministry program in advancing the development of cooperatives and sme based on society. in addition, the orientation in developing kjks (cooperative financial services) can not be separated from the spirit of the emergence of the law on banking which is a pillar of the economic society development in indonesia. how kjks potential and future opportunities are so potential kjks to develop, it is seen from the market segmentation is very wide to be developed and added the majority of indonesian people make their own appeal for the development of kjks. the kjks advantages of compared to ordinary cooperatives so far are many things that are obtained in kjks where in kjks have many financing schemes this is very suitable and in accordance with the needs of existing sme so far. in addition, the orientation of the people's economic system is to promote the real sector, which is in accordance with the interests of the development of cooperatives. competitive strategy theory (porter, 1980) argues that companies must create a special competitiveness in order to have a strong bargaining position in the competition. porter (1991) further states that the company can achieved success if three conditions are met: 1) the company's strong market objectives; 2) attention to the strength of the company dynamically taking into account the opportunities and threats of the external environment; 3) must possess and explore the special competence (distinctive competency) as a booster, if this is not done then business performance and profit will decrease. meanwhile, according to mahoney and pandian (1992) to face increasingly complex competition and internal crisis, small companies can use the theory of resourced-based strategy. this theory is considered potential to maintain the company success in conditions of turbulent external environment, this theory primarily develops superior internal capability, untransparent, elusive or diverted by competitors and gives long-term competitiveness (futuristic) and is resistant to recession (recession proof). umkm (small to medium-sized enterprise) is the spirit to continue learning how to build a learning culture in the organization. entrepreneurs can affect the internal organization including elements in the organization of its business to willing and able to learn proactively prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 77 and not passive. then organization can get information and new information to running the business. 5. conclusion problems that arise in the society about sme business problem, solution to the problems that need to be done in honesty to all parties so government will not be able to maximal without public role to participate to help resolve it with the implementation of regional autonomy number 22 year 1999 so local government has a big interest in the implementation of the sme empowerment program to the welfare of the community widely for all indonesian citizens. in order to be expected with proactive in raising the attention for sme business subject will create positive job opportunities for all parties and will provide new hope for all the layers for the realization of welfare to the achievement of the mandate of the 1945 constitution article 33 can be realized. 6. suggestion in order to create a sense of justice, it is time for the government to provide the best service for the community, especially in relation to the ease of obtaining working capital for sme businessmen by providing all the best service facilities to obtain accurate data administratively so that there is a legal force that becomes the handle for all business actors sme as indonesian citizens who both live in the territory of indonesia thus if achieved welfare it will create order within the community itself. references brown, lisanne, anne lafond, and kate macintyre. (2001). measuring capacity building, carolina population center, chapel hill: university of north carolina, prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 78 djunaedi, achmad. (2000). literature review writing guide. yogyakarta: postgraduate of ugm. hamdy, hady. (2001). international economics theory and policy of international trade. book 1, revised edition jakarta, ghalia indonesia. isaac, effendi. (2005). article: the role of information for sme progress. yogyakarta: kedau latan rakyat. ismawan, bambang. (2002). people's economy: an introduction, economics inaugural seminar, jakarta: financial club. krisnamurthi, bayu. (2002). the bill on microfinance: the draft agreement on the people's economy, (online), (www.bmm-online.org, dikses 4 october 2011) 31 loudon, kenneth c and loudon, jane p. (2007). management information system: managing the digital firm. jakarta: pearcon education prabowo, hendro and wardoyo. (2003). performance of micro finance institutions for micro, small and medium enterprises enhancement efforts in jabotabek area. depok: gunadarma university rahmana, arief. (2008). small and medium enterprises (smes), advanced information on small and medium enterprises (online), (http://infoukm.wordpress.com, accessed 1 october 2011) republic of indonesia. (2008). law no. 20 year (2008) on micro, small and medium enterprises. jakarta: state secretariat sabirin, s. (2001). utilization of micro credit to promote people's economic growth in the era of regional autonomy. scientific oration lustrum ix university of andalas, padang, september 13, (2001). setyobudi, andang. (2007). participation of bank indonesia in the development of micro, small and medium enterprises (umkm), banking and financial official bulletin, volume 5, number 2, august (2007). jakarta: bank indonesia sudaryanto. (2011). the need for ict-education for manager or agribusinessman to increasing farm income: study of factor influences on computer adoption in east java farm agribusiness. international journal of education and development, jedict, vol 7 no. 1 halm. 56-67 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 79 sudaryanto and hanim, anifatul. (2002). evaluation of the readiness of sme to meet the asean free market (afta): perspective analysis and theoretical review. journal of economic accounting and management, vol 1 no. 2, december (2002) suyanto, m. 2005. articles, it applications for smes facing global competition. yogyakarta tambunan, tulus, (2001), international trade and balance of payments, empirical theory and findings, lp3es, jakarta tambunan, tulus, (2010), center for industry, sme and business competition studies, trisakti university, indonesia 54 peer related factors affecting the provision of psychosocial support to vulnerable learners: a case of selected secondary schools in amathole district in south africa nyarayi chinyama ¹* octavia sibanda ² shingirayi chamisa ³ happy mathew tirivangasi ⁴ ¹ university of fort hare, institute of social and economic research, nchinyama@ufh.ac.za *correspondent author. 2 university of fort hare, institute of social and economic research, osibanda@ufh.ac.za 3 university of free state, industrial psychology department, chamisasf@ufs.ac.za 4 university of limpopo, department of research administration and development, happy.tirivangasi@ul.ac.za article history: submission 30 july 2021 revision 10 september 2021 accepted 25 october 2021 available online 31 december 2021 keywords: learners, peers, peer led groups, peer counselling, psychosocial support, schools. doi: https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.259 a b s t r a c t school-based peer groups have been identified as a popular and effective method of providing health education and psychosocial support in schools. children in developing countries as well as some of the poorest children in developing countries like south africa face daily risks related to poverty, street crime and violence, poor health, lack or low-quality housing, inadequate and ineffective schools. these children and their families live in crisis which render them vulnerable. thus, this study noted that there is an increase in social and emotional challenges and several risk factors for vulnerable learners globally and south africa is not an exception. the incidence of child vulnerability and psychosocial support services have not been studied thoroughly in south africa yet it is recognized widely that there is an increase in child stress and depression. much of the psychosocial support services are provided by children themselves in terms of peer education groups. however, much of the research that is currently available on children relies on the reports of teachers and parents. this study learnt from literature that adults consistently underreport the effectiveness of these peer led groups in schools. following this, the study took a qualitative approach using multiple case studies of 4 secondary schools with children as part of the participants. pre-coded research instruments were administered to 4 teacher coordinators, 4 peer leaders, 1 district official and 1 learner support agent supervisor. documents were also analyzed in the form of minutes of the meetings held, learner support agents report and registers. the study found that shortage of resources such as, counselling rooms, transport, attitudes of teachers and parents towards peer led programs, lack of training and cooperation of parents still hampered the progress of peer led programs. the study therefore concluded that there were still a lot of challenges faced by vulnerable children in schools because they were not accessed by their peers due to lack of resources, training, shortage of time and negative attitudes from adults towards children’s lives attitudes from adults towards children’s lives. the study recommends that peer led groups be part of the large school curriculum with a specific budget to sustain the needs of the peer led groups. the study indicated that there were no networking opportunities amongst peer-led groups due to lack of time, yet this is very important to all successful organizations of a peer group nature. the participants also revealed that peers are better placed if they had counselling rooms, time tabled services, positive attitudes from parents and long-term training on peer counselling. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 mailto:nchinyama@ufh.ac.za mailto:osibanda@ufh.ac.za mailto:chamisasf@ufs.ac.za mailto:happy.tirivangasi@ul.ac.za https://doi.org/10.32936/pssj.v5i3.259 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1819-0044 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8320-2641 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5804-583x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1353-6635 55 1. introduction globally, schools operate in settings characterized by acute forms of social disruptions: disasters, illness, the hiv and aids pandemic, poverty, and social injustice (abuse, class interruptions, bullying, rape and covid-19), which all impact on the psychosocial well-being of children (knight, haboushdeloye, goldberg & grob, 2019). these social disruptions lead to serious and long-lasting stressors which render (them) children vulnerable. in south africa, vulnerable situations of some learners are made worse by the unreliable child-care practices from the community, parents, teachers, and peers (mwoma & pillay, 2015). children going through social and emotional problems are likely to display a variety of emotions which can affect their schooling or life in general (ecclestone & hayes, 2019). for instance, they can suffer from anxiety, anger, feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, guilt, shame, sleeping disorders and depression, hence; the need for psychosocial support (weare, 2015). these social disruptions are on the increase globally and have detrimental effects on intelligent quotients (iq), school achievement, and socio-emotional functioning, hence, their classification as factors causing vulnerability (kennedy, flach, detullio, millen, engleber & edmonds, 2019). this suggests that there is a need to attend to individuals who are functioning poorly even in the absence of clinical disorders. thus, schools have several groups offering psychosocial support to vulnerable learners which include social workers, psychologists, teachers, and learners in the form of peer education groups (birkett & espelage, 2015). peer education is known as sharing of information and experiences among individuals with something in common (d’costa, lobo & ward,2021). it aims to assist young people in developing knowledge, attitudes, and skills that are necessary for positive behavior modification through the establishment of accessible and inexpensive preventive and psychosocial support (al-khayat,2021). in addition, peer education programs mainly focus on harm reduction information, prevention, and early intervention (kimmel, gaeta, hadland, hallett, marshall, 2021). the youth have accepted peer education as a preferred strategy to reach unreachable populations such as high school learners and to approach and discuss topics that are insufficiently addressed or considered taboo within other contexts (alfeir, 2021). high school learners are at the adolescence stage. adolescence is an important stage of human life span; which crucial developmental processes occur. since peers play a critical role in the psychosocial development of most adolescents, peer education is currently considered as a health promotion strategy in adolescents (chen, schneider & patten,2021). peer education is defined as a system of delivering knowledge that improves social learning and provides psychosocial support. this study refers to these groups as peer led groups. peer led groups take many forms of supportive actions such as love and affirmation and ensure that a child’s basic rights are realized through sensitively listening and responding to their peers (bradshaw, 2016). such programs assist the vulnerable learners to adjust and cope with challenges they might be facing. the effectiveness of these peer led groups is influenced by many factors such as resources, training of peer leaders and the support from all the stakeholders working with peer led groups. improving the effectiveness of the peer led programs is therefore crucial since peer education is an effective tool for promoting healthy behaviors among adolescents in schools. the development of this social process depends on the settings, context, and the values and expectations of the participants (audley & jović, 2020). therefore, designing such programs requires proper preparation, resources, training, supervision, and evaluation of the peer led programs. although substantial gains have been made in understanding the ways that young people are both emotionally and physically vulnerable, children still represent an understudied and underserved group. in order to fully understand the nature and scope of children’s vulnerability when exposed to disasters, there is need to learn more about experiences that the children have gone through and not from teachers and parents alone. thus, this study noted that there is value in learning as much as possible, about children’s experiences from the adults in their lives, this is despite the fact that research has shown that adults consistently underreport levels of distress and emotional problems in children (babugura & mcfarlan, 1987). moreover, this study hopes to develop a participatory child centered research method and approach that offers children and youth the opportunity to give voice to their own thoughts and interpretations of events. researchers and practitioners will be in a better position to comprehend the full scope of children’s needs and vulnerabilities both as victims or as cheer leaders. the argument for examining the effectiveness of peer education programs within the context of constructivism is appropriate in assisting addressing these barriers. this study therefore aims to investigate the peer related factors affecting the provision of psychosocial support to vulnerable learners in amathole west education district. https://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/issue/view/11 56 2. literature review 2.1. resource globally, nice, joseph, kolbert, hilts, crothers & kratsa (2021) argue that assessment of learner counselling needs is hindered by lack of resources such as psychometrically sound instruments of learners’ psychosocial needs. maturure (2004) found out that in america, effective school peer support services had computer assisted psychosocial support programs, psychosocial support exploration materials, self-development resources, college catalogues and test taking skills packages and booklets. these were put in place to help learners to address developmental needs such as adjusting to their physical changes, handling peer pressure and preventing substance abuse, newsletters, brochures and pamphlets. however, despite these positive initiatives, deshields, wells‐di gregorio, flowers, irwin, nipp, padgett & zebrack (2021) argue that effective american psychosocial support services are hindered by lack of referral resources hence peer support groups in schools with successful comprehensive services recruit volunteers to work in peer led groups as peer educators. moreso, benedek, gemayel, senhadji & tieman (2021) state that in finland and botswana peer support groups are negatively affected by inadequate space and materials that enable peer support groups and their support staff to provide efficient and effective services to vulnerable learners. tharp, (2018) further indicated that these materials should be allocated in such a way that everyone in the school has equal access. sima (2018) in a study on challenges in the provision of counselling services in secondary schools in tanzania uncovered that counsellors were mainly challenged by the unavailability of counselling resources, including confidential rooms for conducting interviews. they recommend that the ministry of education provides peer counselling services in schools more strategically as well as supply them with the required resources. further to this, research shows that most schools in tanzania, particularly those in rural areas, are at a disadvantage because they have not been furnished with adequate physical, fiscal and human resources (haki, 2004 in sima, 2018). thus, the counselling programs should be strong so that they will be able to delineate issues, strategize and establish intervention programs that may assist in closing the achievement gap between these learners and their more advantaged peers. sima (2018) further highlights that school counselors have been left out of the education reform movements that have been implemented with very little having been done to prepare them for advocacy roles in relation to learners. in botswana, the meagre resources that are available exist mainly in schools in big cities and towns while the rural schools, especially those with learners from low-income families are ignored (divanoglo, trok, jörgensen, hultling, sekakela & tasiemski, 2019). in south africa, peer led groups are affected by severe economic constraints which have led to the marginalization of the peer support services and the demoralization of its practitioners. one of the major factors that has promoted marginalization is pressure on schools’ budgets and these have negatively affected peer psychosocial support services (ntuli, mokgatle & madiba, 2020). this has been worsened by the country’s apartheid legacy of racial oppression and discrimination perpetuated by a wide range of political, socio-economic, and educational inequalities which continue to affect subsequent generations of black people, including learners in need of learner counselling services (naidoo & cartwright, 2020). south african learners are a racially and ethnically diverse community, classified into the racial categories of “african,” “colored,” “indian,” and “white.” the concept of “black south african” encompasses “africans,” “colored,” and “indian’’(tewolde, 2021:54). in addition, a smaller segment of the learner population consists of foreign or international from neighboring african countries as well as abroad. the extant literature shows that, south african learners, in general, have been noted to have a range of academic, mental health and psycho-social issues that include mood and anxiety-related disorders; psychotic disorders, substance abuse, and dependence; issues pertaining to identity, sexual orientation, ethnicity, and discrimination; hiv/aids, bereavement, relationship, and family challenges; peer pressure; historical and current trauma relating to crime and gender-based violence (bantjes et al., 2019; 2020; naidoo, 2016). additionally, difficulties inherent to historically disadvantaged african schools are socio-economic and psycho-social in nature, ranging from a lack of funds to buy basic services and resources. 2.2. time another key factor that has been found to affect the effectiveness of psychosocial support services by peer led groups is time. globally, peer support coordinators’ such as teachers complain of heavy teaching loads and other responsibilities such as administrative and clerical duties in the school which leave very little time for them to meet learners needing psychosocial support services (york‐barr, sommerness, duke & ghere, 2005). in malaysia, research by wright-berryman, hudnall, bledsoe & lloyd (2018) revealed that schools had less time for psychosocial support duties as much of the time is spent on studying. as such, besley (2002) advocates for the employment of full-time school peer support groups in schools to overcome the shortage of time. this has been witnessed in finnish schools, where most of the peer support groups work as full-time school peer supporters 57 (kurunsaari, tynjälä & piirainen, 2021), hence they have more time for the learners. farrington & ttofi (2009) indicated that the intensity and duration of a program is directly linked to its effectiveness, and other researcherss (olweus,solberg & breivik, 2020; ntinda, maree, mpofu & seeco,2014) also found a ‘dose-response’ relationship between the number of components of a program that were implemented in a school and its effect on bullying. farrington & ttofi (2009) further states that the duration (number of days) and intensity (number of hours) of the program for children were significantly related to the reduction of bullying and victimization. what these findings show is that peer led programs need to be intensive and long-lasting to have an impact on this troubling problem. it could be that a considerable time period is needed in order to build up an appropriate school ethos that efficiently uses peer led programs. in a study carried out in ireland dooley jugde (2017), participants revealed the need for more time, such as 5-year program time frames, in order to promote long-lasting intervention programs. dooley judge (2017) further highlighted that donor-imposed project time limits constrained the full implementation of the project and the process of behavioral change. informants in the study emphasized that more preparation time should be allotted for materials development so that peer educators were not sent into the field without the necessary support materials. in south africa, school peer support groups complain that counsellor-learner ratios are too high and as such this negatively affects their psychosocial support services (chireshe, 2006). moreso, in south african schools there were no periods allocated for psychosocial support services and these were not optimally utilized because of shortage of time (dhital, shibanuma, miyaguchi, kiriya & jimba, 2019). peer support coordinators’ heavy teaching loads and other responsibilities such as administrative and clerical duties in the school leave little time to them to meet learners in need of psychosocial support services. 2.3. training globally, lack of proper training of peer supporters has been found to have a negative effect on peer led psychosocial support groups in schools (mitchell, purcell, forsyth, barry, hunter, simpson & moore,2020). in america, lack of training on the part of peer supporters negatively affects psychosocial support program evaluation (maree, fletcher & pienaar, 2018). moreso, in uganda, zimbabwe, botswana and south africa several educational planners and heads of institutions are not trained to assist peer led groups in psychosocial support programs (mtemeri, 2020). farrington & ttofi (2009) in their research also discovered the need for resources to train more head office staff who could supervise peer educator activities in the schools. they also discovered that training of technical staff for persons involved in peer education programs is not as simple as ensuring that they know how to teach people about knowledge, attitudes, and practices. their study also revealed that there is need to work on these issues within staff, failure to which will make the whole educational process distorted. in the same study several informants said that the low educational levels of peer educators necessitated additional training that was often not carried out. evidence from the above researches reveals that peer educator training needs to be more practical and participatory in nature, and structured curricula and support materials are also crucial in order to curb the abstract nature of training of peer educators. farrington and ttofi (2009) further aver that peer leaders are trained in hotels with flip charts but when they go to the community they find a totally different scenario. they are unable to fully put into practice what they have been taught for they don’t have the teaching aids for demonstration and materials to distribute. 2.4. attitudes globally, stakeholders’ attitudes affect the effectiveness of peer led groups. attitudes are stable opinions regarding a person, object or activity, containing a cognitive element (perception and beliefs) and an emotional element (wade & tarvis, 1993 in moeti, 2016). in austria and spain stakeholders with positive feelings about peer support groups have been noted to give a lot of support to peer programs (zeiler, kuso, nitsch, simek, adamcik, herrero & waldherr, 2021). in america, negative attitudes of some school administrators, counsellors and learners affect the effectiveness of the psychosocial support programs (pincus, hannor-walker,wright & justice, 2020). the above situation also prevails in malawi where peer support group services are often seen as ancillary-support services, placing school counsellors mainly in remedial reactive roles that are not seen as mainstream education (mwale, & muula, 2019). in nepal, it is culturally taboo to discuss sexual and reproductive health between adults and adolescents and youth (upadhyay, 2016). this scholar posits that expectation of project staff was to break the ‘secrecy’ surrounding sexual reproduction health, to enable parents, other significant adults, adolescents and youth to discuss sexual reproduction health more openly. this in turn would lead to an increased demand for sexual reproduction health services (shariati, babazadeh, mousavi & najmabadi,2014). for the most part parents appeared willing for their children to receive this information from peer educators or project staff, but in the endline surveys parents were not 58 mentioned as a source of information themselves. this suggests that the majority of parents are still not willing to talk with their children about sexual reproduction health issues. similarly, shiferaw, getahun & asres, (2014) state that teachers in ethiopia still have difficulty in discussing sexual reproduction health issues with their learners but will often allow peer educators to undertake sessions within school time. furthermore, mugai (2020) argues that in uganda, some parents tend to resist psychosocial support services because of its ambiguity in the expectations of school counsellors and teachers regarding the school counsellor’s role. dickens (2016) adds that school administrators and policy makers in south africa have raised concerns about the vagueness of the outcomes of peer support services. moreover, peer support services may not survive without school administrative support for their implementation and maintenance (fortuna, naslund, lacroix, bianco, brooks, zisman-ilani & deegan, 2020). sahlberg (2021) states that it is unfortunate that many policies makers’ world over, including south african public schools are less impressed by psychological development among learners, instead, they are more impressed by improved grades and test scores. thus, this study sought to find out whether the effectiveness of peer led groups is affected by the attitudes of headmasters, school counsellors, learners and parents. 3. research methodology this study adopted an interpretive paradigm with the intention of understanding the experiences of the stakeholders in peer led groups. the interpretive paradigm is based on the concept that “reality is socially constructed” (pilarska, 2021:56). hence, the interpretive paradigm was suitable for this study as it allowed the researchers to interact with participants as well as relying upon the participants' views on the factors affecting the effectiveness of peer led groups (yong, husin & kamarudin, 2021). 3.1. research approach and research design the study adopted the qualitative approach which allowed the researchers to meet the participants in their natural settings and to probe them seeking to understand the effectiveness of peer led groups in learners experiencing psychological problems (erath, pellegrino, digennaro reed, ruby, blackman & novak, 2021). the researchers employed a multiple case study design of 4 secondary schools in amathole west district. a multiple case study research design was suitable for this study because it enabled the researchers to get immersed in the participants’ actual feelings. the research design was also commensurate because it allowed the researchers to get in-depth and detailed understanding of patterns and trends emerging from the interviews and document analysis on the challenges faced peer led groups in the provision of psychosocial support. this study is focused on one of the larger districts in the eastern cape province of south africaamathole district. this area, amathole west district was purposively considered as the population frame of the study because of easy access in line with the resources available at the time of the study. a total number of 55 secondary schools were identified from which only four schools were further purposively selected for the study based on the availability of peer led groups, convenience, and feasibility. 3.2. sample and sampling techniques the participants were purposively selected, and the sample included a multiple case study of 4 schools in amathole west district. pre-coded research instruments were administered to 4 teacher coordinators, 4 peer leaders, 1 district official and 1 learner support agent supervisor. purposive selection of the schools was justified in this study because the researchers were interested in schools which were accessible and had functional peer led groups that were established and with some experiences. 3.3. research instruments the researchers employed three research instruments namely: semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and document analysis. below is a description of the instruments employed in the study: semi structured interviews were preferred to other forms of interviews in this study because they offered a platform for conversation with the intention that the researchers explore with the participant her or his views, ideas, beliefs and attitudes concerning peer related factors affecting the provision of psychosocial support to vulnerable learners by peer led groups (prior, 2016; nyumba, wilson, derrick & mukherjee, 2018). the study also used focus group interactions which widened the range of responses and also activated forgotten details of experience that may have discouraged participants from disclosing information. document analysis was also used as a way of triangulating the data collection instruments. 3.4. trustworthiness and credibility issues of trustworthiness and credibility were obtained through use of multiple data collection instruments (triangulation) in this case interviews with various participants holding different positions in the education sphere as well as the learners who worked with peer led groups themselves. member checking allowed the researchers to ask the respondents to verify and confirm findings of the study. 3.5. data analysis the data collected was coded into common themes as well as writing stories to uncover the main issues arising. the qualitative 59 data was organized into categories, general ideas, concepts or similar features. the issues arising from the interviews, focus groups and the document analysis, were put together as findings for the study. 3.6. ethical considerations in this study, all ethical considerations were observed by obtaining ethical clearance from the university of fort hare. permission was sought from the department of education and schools to obtain information from participants (negotiation of entry). more so, informed consent, voluntary participation, anonymity and confidentiality were also observed. 4. findings the researchers sought to find out the factors affecting the implementation of peer led psychosocial support programs in schools. peer group members were asked about their views on the factors affecting the provision of psychosocial support to vulnerable learners in their schools. findings were solicited from peer leaders, peer group members in focus groups and teacher coordinators. participants revealed that several factors hindered the implementation of peer led groups in the provision of psychosocial support to vulnerable learners. this included lack of resources, training, negative attitudes and lack of time. 4.1. lack of resources participants indicated that peer related factors affecting provision of psychosocial support in their schools was shortage of resources and this seriously affected the implementation of peer led groups. resources mentioned by the participants included information on psychosocial support, counselling rooms as well as more manpower. peer leader 1 had this to say: we do not have counselling rooms in the school. we usually use the library, but sometimes teachers use the library for meeting, we need closed rooms where we can meet with our learner support agents and the vulnerable learners who seek for our help. peer leader 2 also added: there are no materials to display, for example information on career guidance or health in an area where we can always refer to this information. we have no rooms to work from, so most of the time we discuss in the playground. in addition, peer-leader 4 elaborated that: we use the old buildings behind the school as counselling rooms and sometimes we find the big boys sitting there and they do not want to move. the whole ground is full, so we end up talking while standing, so there is no privacy. learner support agents work directly with peer leaders in the schools. the participants generally agreed that the schools where they worked in lacked resources. learner support agent 1 also said: the counselling room is near the administration building. learners do not want to visit the counselling room they will be shy because that place is in the face of everyone including visitors. learner support agent 2 explained: some learners have stopped visiting the peer leaders because we sit under the shade of a tree with others listening to them discussing confidential information with them. sometimes i see the peer leaders, learner support agents and their peers in the library. the library is not functional so they choose to go and work from that side. but sometimes we hold our cluster meetings there and we disturb them. we do not have a specific budget for peer led groups because it is part of the health advisory committee, so this group does not have enough attention from the school although learners are bringing forward a lot of information that these learners could not disclose to their adults, that is teachers and parents. teacher 4 had this to say: we use learner helpers to network with their peers but the challenge is hat of transport as a resource. we need money to do outreach programs but we cannot do that because we are limited financially. learner support agent supervisor: there are no reception areas, private rooms and conference rooms for peer group sessions nor secure storage areas for learner records. the learner support agents in schools do not have working space. some work from old buildings, some from libraries and some under the shades of trees. this includes the peer leaders. as a result, our clients (vulnerable learners do not feel free to come and consult with us because they are shy to come to us. 60 the district official also reiterated: our program is greatly affected due to lack of counselling rooms, our numbers are big in the schools, so there are no rooms to spare for these support programs. the researcherss were able to access files for learner support agents in the school. the files had reports which were written for the district officials. in the reports there were section where the learner support agents were supposed to write their challenges in the carrying out of their duties. all the four learner support agents highlighted that there was shortage if resources such as counselling rooms. it further emerged from the learner support agents that they all mentioned that the problems were not yet been addressed since some peer led groups operated under trees. 4.2. negative attitudes of those who support peer led groups peer group members in all the schools indicated that they had challenges in that their elders who were supposed to give them support had negative attitudes towards their peer groups. the school-based support teams in the schools were not functional and peer led groups were operating with the assistance of a learner support agent and learner support agent supervisors. the general feeling from the teachers in the school-based support teams was such that peer led groups were not mature enough to handle some of the social issues that the vulnerable learners experienced. peer leader 1 had this to say: we work with the learner support agent but when she is not there is no one to take the reports because we do not know whom to report to. we cannot tell teachers, yhoo, like mrs x she comes to class and start talking about it. peer leader 2 and 3 had the same sentiments: peer leader 2: teachers and our parents feel that we should be busy with our school work and leave other children alone. when i told my mother that i am a peer leader she thought of a prefect and i explained that i am not a prefect but i am supporting other learners by identifying their needs and bringing them to the attention of the learner support agent. our peers do not believe in us. they just think that since we are also learners and children like them we do not have anything of assistance to give to them. in my school i have been victimized because my colleagues think i am a spy for the teachers, because i always report what i see even in the playground to the teachers. teacher 1 said: negative attitudes of some school administrators are shown in my school when the learner support agent is sometimes given a class to teach other subjects and not anything related to their jobs. they teach ems here. it was better if it was life orientation. so psychosocial support is taken very lightly by some school administrators. the public, like parents are openly critical and are beginning to question the value of peer support groups because they do not believe that learners have any impact in psychosocial support for their peers. they are also complaining about their children being spied on by other children. teacher 3 reiterated: in my school this program is not functioning well because the principal sees the program as not essential and gives the service lower priority. she always says we should concentrate on the core business. some teachers who are not lo teachers do not want to assist in peer led groups although they are in the school-based support team. they always question the role of peer led groups saying that they are not capable of counselling other learners. when the researcherss asked the learner support agents to comment they all agreed that communities had mixed feelings with the existence of peer led groups in schools. learner support agent 1 commented: my principal has a negative attitude towards this program, and she does not believe that the peer leaders that we have chosen to assist us can assist their peers. as a result, we do not have any publicity in the school. we want to hold concerts in the community hall but she says the school does not have money to buy food for the learners when they go there. learner support agent supervisor: a general feeling is that they learner support agents are not fulltime personnel, and they are relying on a stipend so some of them are busy looking for piece jobs to supplement this job. it needs someone with a positive attitude to work for a small stipend like this. do: there are not committed members of the hac in the schools that i am working with. we only have teachers who accompany their learners to the training. so more still needs to be done in order to encourage the stakeholders to be part of the peer led groups. they must change their attitudes. 61 in their reports, learner support agents and peer leaders indicated that they struggled to get financial assistance from the school administrators. some parents were reported to have refused to sign indemnity forms for their children who were supposed to go for training arguing that they did not like it when their children wasted time assisting their peers. 4.3. lack of training of peer leaders this study sought to find out the nature of training that the peer supporters get and how it affects the effectiveness of the psychosocial support services in the schools. most of the participants explained how training affects the effectiveness of peer led groups. peer leader 1: we were trained for three days in a hotel. we have never been trained again. we were given cases to study and we were asked how we can help the people in those cases. some of the cases were not practical for me, like someone coming to me telling me they have been abused by their uncle. this needs parents to check on their children’s wellbeing, so the training should include parents too. i am not happy with the three days of training. we need more training time because we hurriedly touch on some of the issues because we will be rushing back home. we were supposed to go back home, so with me it was not good. i needed more time to ask questions because we had a lot on our minds as well that we needed clarity on. teacher 1 also said: training is done for three days but i think the time should increase. and training i think should involve even other teachers not lo teachers only but all of them including the parents, even when they start with the sgb members so that they know what is required for the school to support vulnerable learners. moreover, peer leaders need more training in psychosocial support. they are young but they can be trained to identify their vulnerable peer fellows. learner support agent supervisor: i have seen that there were some learners who were not trained to be peer leaders because the training is done once at the beginning of the year. it will be better if training was done throughout the year so that even if some peer leaders transfer, we may replace them with the newcomers. the district official also shared his experience with the peer led groups and this what she had to say: i am very much aware that the training needs more time but there is nothing much that we can do as program coordinators at the district level. we do not have the trainers within the education department. we outsource the trainers, so it is very difficult to actually do justice in this regard. all the participants report highlighted that they needed more time for training. they all indicated in their comment sections of their program evaluation forms that they felt that three days was not enough for training. 4.4. lack of time when asked to explain the factors affecting the provision of psychosocial support to vulnerable learners, the participants gave various opinions. peer leaders perceived school counsellor effectiveness to be related to the availability of time for direct contact of counsellors with learners and accessibility of peer support services to learners, parents and teachers. peer leader 1 had this to say: there is no time to work with our peers because we are also learning. our time table does not have anything related to what we are doing, so we are not able to do anything officially in terms of peer education. we want our activities to be placed on the time table like all other activities so that we can get time to do our work properly. peer leader two also reiterated what peer leader one had said: there is no time for peer led activities. we need more time to engage with our peers. there is no peer education on the time table. teacher 1 had this to say: there is no time on the part of learners to befriend their peers or conduct the indabas because the peer led group sessions are not time tabled. so it is very difficult for the learners to create time for this. moreover, we need to be time tabled. we are struggling to make impact in schools because we do not have enough contact time with the vulnerable learners. we just go to class and teach. we need peer activities to be time tabled. learner support agents were also asked whether the time that was allocated for peer support was enough. generally, all learner support agents agreed that the time allocated for peer education was inadequate because the program was not even there on school time tables. 62 learner support agent 1 summed this up: i think that the schools did not plan for peer led groups, they did not even adjust their time tables to accommodate us as learner support agents, and so we do not have time allocated to us. i go to children’s classes when a teacher is absent. most of the time i am told to teach the learners that particular subject and not even do my work as a learner support agent. it was better if i was teaching them life orientation. i sometimes ask for time from other teachers just to teach general life orientation topics but i am finding it hard to get time for one on one consultation with the children. when school is out they go home…their transport will be waiting for them. learner support agent supervisor: i am supervising learner support agents in 20 schools as a facilitator of the implementation of the program. i do not have enough time to do all the duties that i am supposed to do. it is therefore difficult to make a follow up if you are sometimes not around the school. do also added: time is very difficult to come by. as a result, the whole program is full of hiccups. we do not have enough time to do meetings because teachers and children are always busy during the term. it is not easy to create time since the programs are not time tabled. i would advise the department that the program should be part of the school programs so that it can be allocated some time on the time table. even 30 minutes is enough. the researcherss checked the time tables in all the schools, there was no time allocated for peer led groups. there was time for life orientation and there were teachers’ names there who happened to be program coordinators of the peer led groups. they also confirmed that they could not share their time with learner support agents because they had content to teach and the content was assessed. thus, the above responses revealed that time, attitudes and resources were some of the factors affecting the effectiveness of peer led groups in schools. 5. discussion of results 5.1. lack of resources the study revealed that peer led groups needed resources such as counselling rooms. the findings are in line with chireshe (2009) who concluded that effective peer support services in american schools have adequate resources, equipment and space. all the schools did not meet the standards suggested by badza, (2005) that schools should have a counselling centre with a reception area, private offices, and conference rooms for group sessions as well as, secure storage areas for learner records. moreso, participants revealed that they did not have psychosocial support. in addition, mbabazi and bagaya (2013) suggest that counselling centres should store and display career and college materials in an area where learners can have access. more so, maturure (2004) found out that in america effective school peer support services had the following materials: computers for computerassisted psychosocial support programs, psychosocial support exploration materials, self-development resources, college catalogues, test taking skills packages. in addition, booklets that help learners address developmental needs such as adjusting to their physical changes, handling peer pressure and preventing substance abuse, newsletters, brochures and pamphlets were also identified as part of effective school peer support services. in addition, the findings revealed that consultation rooms in some schools did not exist and those that existed were not located at centres. as a result, this failed to attract vulnerable learners to visit them because such centres were not located in such a way that everyone in the school has equal access as suggested by tharp (2018). schmidt (2016) also buttressed that counselling centres were not supposed to be near the administration buildings because the vulnerable learners will associate the counsellor with administration. a study carried by kapp (2020) in america, where assessment of learner counselling needs is hindered by lack of psychometrically sound instruments of learners’ psychosocial needs also aligns with the extant literature and the findings of the study. participants revealed that there were high learner ratios, thus gysbers & henderson (2001:252) in chireshe 2006 suggests that peer support groups with successful comprehensive services recruit volunteers for the school, generate support from business and industries who donate money to pay peer supports team members such as learner support agents and supervisors. the findings of this study align with chireshe (2006) who found out that in zimbabwe there were severe economic constraints which led to the marginalization of peer support services thereby demoralizing its practitioners. thus, riele (2006) lamented that schools with pressures on schools’ budgets have resulted in the marginalization of peer psychosocial support services. 5.2. lack of time a key factor that has also been found to affect the provision of psychosocial support in this study is time. the results of the study were in line with mekgwe & kok, (2017)’s findings which established that there are no lessons allocated for psychosocial support services in schools in botswana. moreso, peer support coordinators’ heavy teaching loads hindered schools to run the 63 peer support programs well. this is in line with mintah (2012) who claimed that responsibilities such as administrative and clerical duties in the school leave little time for them to meet learners needing psychosocial support services. to curb this challenge besley (2002) in chireshe (2006) advocates for the employment of full-time school peer support groups in schools who should be paid as full-time practitioners so that they can only focus on their work to overcome the shortage of time that is currently being experienced in a majority of schools. this worked well in singapore and zimbabwean schools where most of the peer support groups worked as full-time school peer supporters (low, 2018; chidarikire, 2017) hence they had more time for the learners. 5.3. lack of training the results of this study also indicated that there was lack of adequate training of peer leaders and this affected the implementation of peer led psychosocial support programs in schools. peer leaders may be prevented from meeting the needs of learners by increasing the number of cases due to inadequate training of peer leaders (crooks, jaffe, dunlop, kerry & exnercortens, 2019). the same findings were also found in uganda where “many educational planners and heads of institutions were not trained in psychosocial support methods” (rutondoki, 2000: 15) in kiptala & kipruto, (2021). hence, some of the school leaders did not care about the importance of psychosocial support services in their schools. 5.4. negative attitudes of adults supporting peer led groups the findings also indicated that negative attitudes from school leaders and parents affect the implementation and effectiveness of psychosocial support programs in schools. the findings of this study were in line with the findings of previous study which revealed that attitudes of some school administrators, counsellors and learners affected the effectiveness of the psychosocial support programs. thus, in kenya ntwiga, (2015) advised that administrators and teachers in schools should allocate resources for anything outside their conventional perceptions-ofclassroom-activities. the findings also revealed that there is generally a lack of appreciation for the contributions peer led groups make in schools. for instance, research shows that administrators and the general public in america are openly critical and are beginning to question the value of peer support groups since “most school counselors do not receive program evaluation training during pre-service experiences’’ (trevisan & hubert (2001) in badrujaman, luawo & cahyawulan,2018; lusky & hayes, (2001) in köse, 2019). lastly, this study found out that this study indicated that some parents had negative attitudes towards peer led groups because of different cultural practices and beliefs which do not cater for psychosocial support services. as a result, some parents were reluctant to support their children when doing these services because they are not part of their culture. this is in line with chireshe (2006) who revealed that parents were more impressed by improved grades and test scores of their children because it is difficult to claim credit for improved performance on tests to school counselling. in kenya abuya, wekulo & muhia (2018) suggests that peer led groups should work with parent volunteers to enable them to see all learners seeking their help. 6. conclusions the study revealed that peer led groups had challenges in implementing peer led programs. these challenges emanated from lack of resources such as time, space as in venues for counselling, adequate training for peer leaders and support for the peer led groups. the study concluded that there were several factors affecting the provision of psychosocial support to vulnerable learners. there were no networking opportunities amongst peer-led groups due to lack of time, yet this is very important to all successful organizations of a peer group nature. the participants also revealed that peers are better placed if they have counselling rooms, time tabled peer services, positive attitudes from parents and training on peer counselling. more so, the results of the study, the necessity for health professionals to provide emotional support in south african secondary schools is apparent. the programs pertaining to student wellbeing through psychosocial support require more qualified and experienced specialists. on the other hand, the study revealed that this may be a challenge in settings such as township high schools, where the government and school authorities do not provide adequate support. furthermore, south africa has a serious deficit of mental health experts, hence peer led groups in schools could cover this gap. the health systems trust and the psychological society of south africa (psyssa) reveals that the department of health employs 0.32 psychiatrists for every 10,000 persons and 0.7 clinical psychologists. the results of this study show that a peer leader-mediated intervention alone may not be enough to increase students' wellbeing. the findings, on the other hand, may aid policymakers in recognizing the need for policy adjustments to include health experts in schools. when all stakeholders understand the importance of the wellbeing of students, more resources such as counselling rooms and other materials will be easily accessible or rather will be made readily available by the schools and communities at large. refresher training for peer leaders, 64 students, counselors, teachers, and parents could help keep the momentum going in the direction of preserving students' psychological well-being. more focused and longer training is necessary to enlighten parents that psychological well-being affects the grades and test scores of their children. in addition, the results of the study support the value of assessing and instilling the culture of psychological reliance and prolonged follow-up is essential, particularly with parents and learners. 7. recommendations this study recommends that schools should have well-trained teachers to assist the peer-led groups with the appropriate decisions to net-work. schools should also make beneficial home visits which bring in parents as critical members of the counselling processes in the schools. lastly, psychosocial support should be implemented as a large school program which should be given an independent budget, so that peer led groups may be able to provide adequate resources for learners needing psychosocial support. the results of the study direct that training psychosocial specialists and placing them in schools around the nation would necessitate significant policy changes, which may require an extended period in a developing country like south africa. meanwhile, peer leader-mediated interventions may be a more viable and long-term approach for addressing adolescent psychological issues earlier. however, more targeted, and extensive training may be required for the peer leaders to timely refer those with more serious difficulties to specialists for further assistance. lastly, the study's findings suggest that in lowresourced schools, training school teachers on psychosocial issues and advocating for student well-being to parents and school administrators may be practical and worthwhile. references 1. abuya, b. a., wekulo, p., & muhia, n. 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(2021). online interventions to prevent mental health problems implemented in school settings: the perspectives from key stakeholders in austria and spain. european journal of public health, 31 (supplement_1), i71-i79. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckab039 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12115-021-00563-1 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429496943 https://www.proquest.com/docview/213261289?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true https://www.proquest.com/docview/213261289?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00161-6_3 https://doi.org/10.1080/02739615.2019.1630279 https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v6n5p26 https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466913501882 https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckab039 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 80 policy on natural disaster response to guarantee the principles of post-disaster assistance widyawati boediningsih prof. dr. afdol afdol law faculty narotama university law faculty narotama university watiekwidyawati@gmail.com muhafdol007@gmail.com dr. woro winandi dr. suwardi suwardi law faculty narotama university law faculty narotama university winandiworo06@gmail.com maswad0634@gmail.com abstract indonesia is an area belonging to the ring of fire line, fascinating the beauty of the panoramic, so attract much foreign tourists to come and see its beauty. furthermore, indonesia is a country that often experience natural disasters, indonesia located in a geographical location that is prone to disaster. disasters can be caused by both natural and behavioral factors for utilizing and managing natural resources. in some areas of indonesia, disasters examples that hit the country. so far, there are available disaster management regulation tools, which provides disaster management framework, predisaster comprehend, emergency response, and post-disaster. although the law has outlined comprehensive disaster management provisions, so far is still focused on the emergency response period. further actions such as mitigation, rehabilitation and reconstruction appear not to be a top priority of disaster management activities. other issues that are still scattered are coordination, rescue aid, appropriateness of assistance, and logistic distribution. keywords: policy, disaster, aid, bnpb, environment mailto:muhafdol007@gmail.com mailto:winandiworo06@gmail.com mailto:maswad0634@gmail.com prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 81 1. introduction capacity building of human resources (capacity building) to strengthen institutional capacity and preparation of disaster support capacity should be implemented in a measurable and planned manner as an effort to anticipate the impact of more severe disasters. law 24/2007 clearly affirms that disaster management is not just an emergency response action. it also includes a broader process, ie mitigation (pre-disaster) and reconstruction rehabilitation (postdisaster). various disaster management agencies must provide a proportional priority to the three stages of disaster management, especially in the mitigation, reconstruction, and rehabilitation stages are still often stagnant and not even clear how to handling. in relation to the mitigation process, the government should optimize the role of participative parties from all disaster stakeholders. one of them with educational institutions such as universities. cooperation with universities can be done in order to approach the disaster with existing science theories, which in fact can be used as a basis for us to improve human resource capabilities in the range of planning and application of better disaster management problems. therefore, the participation of universities as partners becomes significant in this context. some of the things that need attention in cooperation are, among others, the importance of mapping of disaster prone areas, the issuance of modules and information systems in disaster management, community-based disaster management training and social recovery after the disaster. with a synergic pattern of cooperation, it is hoped that the government role in dealing with disaster is not merely to be a fire extinguisher in the event of a disaster. governments can play a more important role in the pre-crisis stage and are able to prepared national disaster development, especially disaster management capabilities. government efforts to synergize with all disaster stakeholders can also be directed in the formulation of education strategies and programs to anticipate natural disasters as well as build a network of stakeholders who play a role in anticipatory and disaster education programs. this can be followed up by forming task forces (tasks) anticipation and disaster education in order to accelerate and streamline the implementation of disaster education program, and empower communities to adapt to the environment that is prone to natural disasters. there is a lot of public helplessness in anticipating the natural causes of human casualties and economic losses in the event of natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, floods and prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 82 landslides. therefore, a natural disaster education strategy and program is urgent to be formulated immediately. it better educates the community to be more responsive to the disaster. with the right strategy, it is hoped that the education program to anticipate natural disasters can be done effectively, then it is hoped that the community can be more empowered and anticipative in responding to natural disasters. what is need to be observed is the number of agencies dealing with disasters can lead to overlapping and confusion regarding the domain of duties and responsibilities in disaster management. coordination also needs to be enhanced with non-governmental institutions that also carry out disaster duties by collecting and distributing resources and assistance for disaster management. this should be well managed and needs to be built effective communication and coordination formats so that it does not become a new problem in the disaster management process. it is clear that the need for synergies between ministries has to do with the need in various fields. perhaps still overlapping handling. the bnbp must outline duties and responsibilities, whether pre-disaster, during disaster, or post-disaster. for example, the handling of schools and hospitals damaged by natural disasters, whose job. even if the national education ministry, health ministry or social affairs ministry, for example, when they should give assisstance. natural disaster management in the region need a fast handling precisely and certainly in accordance with the applicable legislation therefore the readiness and responsiveness of local government apparatus in the face of natural disasters in need of togetherness, and can localize the impact caused by natural disasters own. and besides that since the fall of soeharto's totalitarian dictatorial era of the last millennium, conflict after conflict arose in the society. not only with the background of differences in beliefs, the seizure of land associated with the money, but also to conflicts with the aim of secession from indonesian entities with the theme of self-determination. more complex, the occurrence of this conflict is often accompanied by the occurrence of natural disasters, so that in the circumstances in the field need to refer to what legal basis should be completed first, disaster management or conflict management. indonesia is a rich country, but it is in a geographical location that is vulnerable to disasters. disasters can be caused by natural factors and the consequences of human behavior prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 83 that is not responsible for utilizing and managing natural resources (sda) and environment. earthquake and tsunami in mentawai, merapi eruption in yogyakarta as well as floods of wasior in papua and floods in various areas of disastrous examples that hit the country. so far, there are available disaster management regulation tools, namely law number 24 year 2007 which provides disaster management framework, covering pre disaster, emergency response, and post disaster. although the law has outlined comprehensive disaster management provisions, so far the response is still focused on emergency response issues. further actions such as mitigation, rehabilitation and reconstruction appear not to be a top priority of disaster management activities. other issues that are still scattered are coordination, speed of assistance, appropriateness of assistance, and distribution spread evenly. institutional on the mandate of law 24/2007 also have been established national disaster management agency (bnpb) at the regional level throughout and indonesia. bnpb also established a regional technical unit (uptd) of 12 units, in several areas. the details are 2 units of sumatra island, 2 units of sulawesi, 2 units of kalimantan, 3 units of java-bali, 1 unit of ntt-ntb, 1 unit of papua and 1 unit of maluku. however, for indonesia with tremendous potential disaster, current disaster management capacity is still far from adequate. improvement of uptd units still needs to be improved as needed. for example, for east java area that still often appear vulnerable to disaster, obviously need more uptd unit. all parties certainly crave a bnpb institution that is supported by human resources (hr) trained already to be deployed to the most difficult terrain. of course, with standard equipment as well as having an activity center that collects all the resources needed in the context of disaster management. this should be supported by adequate and measurable funding in apbn (national fund source) and apbd (regional fund source). institutional strengthening grand design is needed in order to strengthen institutional capacity and disaster management standards quickly, responsively and professionally in accordance with international standards. for example in some developed countries (australia and the united states), their disaster hazard center is based on a railway station, equipped with adequate equipment, even some with special fast-moving aircraft that serve as logistics suppliers as well as emergency hospitals. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 84 1. research methods this research aims to give a contribution of thought and brief description to all parties who have same interest with this research material. for the authors themselves, this research would like to examine the disaster that has been appropriately achieved against the people experiencing natural disasters for the government policy is demanded to pay attention to the aid really reached the victims of natural disasters. 2. research approach the author uses a normative juridical approach in discussing this research. notice the prevailing legal norms and their application to disaster relief problems must be well targeted to the neediest. 1. source of legal material 1.1 legal material primary source the primary legal materials are derived from interviews with the bnpb institution (national disaster management agency) as public servants and residents / people who need assistance due to natural disasters that often occur in indonesia. 1.2 legal material secondary resources secondary law material comes from studying literature and legislation, scientific writings, newspapers and magazines that have similar topics to the discussion of this research. 2. data collection and processing procedures the primary data collection procedure is done by conducting field study through interview with related parties ie bnpb employee and disaster affected community. secondary data collection is done by literature study, then process the data by collecting, selecting and arranging in mathematical system so that obtained data accurate and can be accounted for. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 85 3. data analysis the data have been compiled further analyzed using analytical descriptive method, which describes the problem, express the views and opinions and finally solve the problems contained in the data. 3. discussion government efforts to implement with all disaster stakeholders can also be directed in the formulation of education strategies and education programs to anticipate natural disasters as well as build a network of stakeholders who play a role in anticipatory and disaster education programs. this can be followed up by forming a task force (tasks) anticipation and disaster education in order to accelerate and streamline implementation disaster education program, and empower the community to adapt with the environment that is prone to natural disasters. there are many people's helplessness in anticipating natural disasters resulting in massive loss of lives and economic losses in the event of natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, floods and landslides. because of it, a strategy and education program of natural disasters is urgent to be formulated immediately. it can better educate the community to be more responsive to the disaster. with the right strategy, it is hoped that the education program to anticipate natural disasters can be done effectively, it is expected that the community can be more empowered and anticipative in responding to natural disasters. what needs to be observed is that the number of disaster management agencies can lead to overlapping and confusion over the domain of duties and responsibilities in disaster management. coordination also needs to be enhanced with non-governmental institutions that also carry out disaster duties by absorbing and channeling resources and assistance to disaster relief. this should be well managed and needs to be built on effective communication and coordination format so that it does not become a new problem in disaster management process. it is clear that the need for synergies between ministries is related various field needs. perhaps handling is still overlapping. the bnbp should outline clearly its duties and responsibilities, whether pre-disaster, during a disaster, or post-disaster. for example, handling for schools and hospitals damaged by natural disasters, it's who's duty. even if the national education ministry, health ministry or social affairs ministry, for example, when they should aid. likewise, with other ministries. if still overlapping of course maximum results cannot be realized. need funding support so far for prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 86 disaster in apbn 2010 is approximately rp 3 trillion, as well as last year (2009). on the other hand, local governments also allocate funds in the apbd in case of disaster. however, the facts in the field of the regional disaster management agency (bpbd) of the district admitted the agency is not ready to face natural disasters that occasionally hit the area. 1. the disaster relief assistance process. in relation to the mitigation process, the government should optimize the participatory role of all disaster stakeholders. one of them with educational institutions such as universities. cooperation with universities can be done in order to approach the disaster with existing science theories, which actually can be used as a basis for us to improve the ability of human resources in the framework of planning and application of handling disaster problems better. some of things that need attention to cooperation are, among others, the importance of mapping of disaster prone areas, the issuance of modules and information systems in disaster management, post-disaster social recovery training. with a synergic pattern of cooperation, it is expected that the government can play a more prominent role in the pre-disaster stage and be able to develop national disaster preparedness, especially the ability of disaster relief fund management with the right target. 2. responsibility for disaster aid natural disaster management in the region in need of a fast handling precisely and certainly in accordance with the applicable laws and regulations therefore the readiness and responsiveness of local government officials in the face of natural disasters in need of togetherness, and can localize the impact caused by natural disasters itself. and besides that, since the fall of the era of totalitarian dictator suharto last millennium, conflict after conflict emerged in the community. not only with the background of differences in beliefs, the seizure of land associated with the money, but also to conflicts with the aim of secession from indonesian state entities with the theme of self-determination. more complex, the occurrence of this conflict is often accompanied by natural disaster events, so that in the field conditions need to reference what the legal basis that must be resolved first, disaster management or conflict handling. budget availability for disaster in apbn 2010 is approximately rp 3 trillion, as well as last year (2009). on the other hand, local governments also allocate funds in the apbd in case of disaster. however, the facts in the field of regional disaster management agency prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 87 (bpbd) between districts are not ready to face natural disasters that occur during the period of time. the head of the pbd emergency response party expressed concerns that no budget allocations were prepared for disaster relief and post-disaster costs. according to him, the absence of disaster budgeting post plotted through the 2010 budget (apbd) raises high levels of anxiety if the disaster occurs in this area, although in emergency situations there are often donor agencies and grants, but the government should not rely on this uncertain nature. because the disaster is much related to the survival of humans who need a fast movement. 3. disaster management implementation system next in article 5 it is explained that the government and regional governments are responsible for the implementation of disaster management. following the provisions of article 5 of the disaster management act, the government established the national disaster management board (bnpb). this agency is a non-departmental government institution (lpnd) that has task of assisting the president in plan coordinating and implementation of disaster management and integrated activities, and implementing disaster and emergency response from before, during and after the disaster including prevention, preparedness, emergency response, and recovery. 1national disaster management agency established pursuant to presidential decree no. 8 of 2008. before this entity called the national coordinating agency for disaster management established under presidential decree no. 83 of 2005, replacing the national coordinating agency for disaster management and refugees, established by presidential decree no. 3 year 2001. according to article 12 of the disaster management act, the national disaster management agency has the following duties: 1. provide guidance and direction to disaster management efforts that include disaster prevention, emergency response handling, rehabilitation and reconstruction of the structures in a fair and equal manner; 1 see law no. 24 year 2007 on disaster management and presidential decree no. 8 of 2008 on the national disaster management agency. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 88 2. establish standardization and the need for disaster management in accordance with laws and regulations; 3. delivering information on disaster management activities to the community; 4. reporting disaster management to the president once a month under normal conditions and at all times in a state of emergency; 5. using and responsible for national / international donations / assistance; 6. responsible for the use of the budget received from the state revenue and expenditure budget; 7. carry out other obligations in accordance with the laws and regulations; and 8. develop guidelines for the establishment of the regional disaster management agency. with the establishment of law number 24 year 2007 on disaster management and all its derivative legislation, the outline of the scope of disaster management will be: a. all disaster management efforts undertaken during pre-disaster, during emergency response, and post disaster; b. emphasizing preventive efforts on pre-disaster; c. providing easy access for disaster management agencies during emergency response; and d. implementation of post-disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts. as well understanding of disaster management implementation, a series of efforts covering the establishment of development policies that are at risk of disasters, disaster prevention activities, emergency response, and rehabilitation. from this understanding, disaster management is divided into 3 (three) process stages: 1. pre-disaster in this stage, still divided into 2 (two) situations, namely: a. in no disaster situation; and b. in the event of a potential disaster occurring. in the event of no disaster, some of the activities carried out include: a. disaster management planning; b. disaster risk reduction; c. prevention; d. integration in development planning; prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 89 e. disaster risk analysis requirements; f. implementation and enforcement of spatial planning; g. education and training; and h. requirements of disaster management technical standards. i. as well as research and development in the field of disaster. in the prevention activities at the pre-disaster stage, disaster risk reduction plans are formulated based on the results of disaster risk analysis and disaster management efforts described in the disaster management program and the details of its budget in indonesia are coordinated by: a. national disaster management agency for the national level; b. provincial national disaster management agency for provincial level; and c. national agency for district / city disaster management for district / city level. the disaster management plan as mentioned above is stipulated by the government or regional government in accordance with its authority for a period of 5 (five) years, and reviewed periodically every 2 (two) years or at any time in the event of a disaster. this arrangement should refer to the guidelines set by the head of the national disaster management agency. risk reduction is an activity to reduce threats and vulnerabilities and increase the community ability to cope with disasters, and some activities that can be done in this process: a. the introduction and monitoring of disaster risks; b. participatory planning of disaster management; c. the development of a disaster-conscious culture; d. increased commitment to disaster management; and e. implementation of physical, nonphysical, and disaster management efforts. an action plan for disaster management or often referred to as renas pb (national development plan ) is a comprehensive and integrated one in a forum covering elements from government, non-government, communities and business entities coordinated by the national agency for disaster management, while in the regions coordinated by regional agency disaster management. this national action plan and action plan for disaster risk reduction is established for a period of 3 (three) years and can be reviewed as needed. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 90 prevention referred to pre-disaster stage is done by reducing the disaster threat and the vulnerability of the party that is threatened by the disaster through the activity: a. identification of hazard sources or disaster threats; b. monitoring of; c. supervision on the implementation of spatial and environmental management; d. strengthening community's social resilience. in accordance with article 35 letter e of law number 24 year 2007 regarding disaster management that addresses the requirements of the intended disaster risk analysis to know and assess the risk level of a disaster prone condition or activity. disaster risk analysis is prepared and established by the head of national disaster management agency by involving related institutions / agencies. disaster risk analysis is used as a basis for the preparation an analysis of environmental impacts, spatial planning and disaster prevention and mitigation, so that any development activities that have high risk to cause disaster, must be equipped with disaster risk analysis. 2. emergency response implementation of disaster management during emergency response: a. rapid and precise assessment of location, damage, loss and resources; b. determination of disaster emergency status; c. rescue and evacuation of affected communities; d. fulfillment of basic needs; e. protection of vulnerable groups; and f. immediate recovery of vital infrastructure and facilities. rapid assessment is done by rapid assessment team based on assignment from head of national disaster management agency or head of regional disaster management agency according to its authority. the rapid and precise assessment referred to above is done through identification of: a. disaster site coverage; b. the number of disaster victims; c. damage to infrastructure and facilities; prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 91 d. disruption to the function of public services and government; and e. natural and artificial resource capacity. determination of the status of a state of emergency is carried out by the government and local government in accordance with the level of disaster, so that if the disaster at the district / city level is done by the regent / mayor, the provincial level by the governor and the national level by the president. at this time, the draft of presidential regulation on the determination of status and disaster levels which was formed by the national disaster management agency has been in the state secretariat for the signature of the president for his ratification. when the status of a disaster emergency is established, bnpb and bpbd have easy access in the areas of: a. deployment of human resources; b. deployment of equipment; c. deployment of logistics; d. immigration, excise, and quarantine; e. licensing; f. procurement of goods / services; g. management and accountability of money and / or goods; h. rescue; and i. command to order agencies / institutions. 3. post disaster the implementation of disaster management in the post-disaster stage consists of: a. rehabilitation; and b. reconstruction. in order to accelerate the recovery of people's lives in post-disaster areas, local governments set priorities for rehabilitation activities based on the analysis of damage and disaster losses. this rehabilitation activity is the responsibility of government and / or affected local governments by paying attention to community aspirations. rehabilitation in post-disaster areas is done through: a. improvement of the disaster area environment; b. improvement of public infrastructure and facilities; prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 92 c. provision of psychological social assistance; d. health services; e. reconciliation and conflict resolution; f. social, economic, and cultural recovery; g. restoration of security and order; h. recovery of government functions; and i. recovery of public service functions. reconstruction is undertaken to accelerate the reconstruction of all infrastructure and facilities and institutions in post-disaster areas, the government and / or local governments to prioritize reconstruction activities based on disaster damage and loss analysis. reconstruction in post-disaster areas is done through: a. rebuilding of infrastructure and facilities; b. rebuilding of community social facilities; c. revitalization of socio-cultural life of the community; d. applying the proper design and better use of equipment and disaster-resistant; e. participation and participation of civil society, business and community institutions and organizations; f. improvement of social, economic, and cultural conditions; g. improvement of public service function; or h. improvement of primary services in the community. in preparing the reconstruction plan should pay attention to: a. spatial plan; b. arrangements on building construction standards; c. social conditions; d. customs; e. local culture; and f. economy the reconstruction plan as referred to is prepared on the guidance based stipulated by the head of bnpb. in conducting the reconstruction, local governments must use disaster management funds from apbd. in the event that the apbd is inadequate, district / city government may request funding from the provincial and / or government to fund the prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 93 reconstruction activities. and in case the district / city government requests reconstruction funds to the government, the request must go through the relevant provincial government. local governments may also request assistance to provincial and / or government authorities in the form of: a. experts; b. equipment; and c. infrastructure development. government assistance proposal from the local government is done through verification by a team of inter-department / non-departmental government institution coordinated by bnpb. the verification determines the amount of assistance to be provided by the government to the local government proportionally and carried out in conjunction with the implementation of the rehabilitation certificate. regarding the use of assistance provided to local governments, monitoring and evaluation by interdepartmental / non-governmental government agencies involving bpbd, coordinated by bnpb, were conducted. v. disaster relief system disaster management is any effort or activity undertaken in a range of prevention, mitigation, preparedness, emergency response and disaster-related recovery undertaken before, during and after the disaster. (law no. 24 of 2007 on disaster management). compare with south africa, republic recovering from racial discrimination for decades, also has a policy of comprehensive disaster handling, namely the disaster management act 2002. this policy organize the relationship among government agencies (intergovernmental structures), handling hierarchy starting from the center (national disaster management center), province (provincial disaster management center), to city / district (municipal disaster management center). disaster management activities are basically a series of activities both before, during and after a disaster to prevent, reduce, disappear from and recover from the impact of disasters. in general the activities which is conducted in disaster management is pre disasters which includes prevent effort and mitigation, the reduction of the impact of hazards, preparedness. in the event of a disaster that is the phase of emergency response, and post disaster includes recovery (rehabilitation and reconstruction), and reconstruction of infrastructure as follows: prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 94 1. pre-disaster stages prevention: prevention is an attempt to eliminate completely or reduce threats. in phase prevention, made the drafting of the disaster handling (disaster management plan) or often called a readiness plan (disaster preparedness plan). this plan is a comprehensive plan of disaster management to pre-disaster until post-disaster, but limited in what activities to be implemented, and who its perpetrators and funding sources will be used. examples of precautions: making artificial rain to prevent drought in the region. prohibit or stop logging. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 95 4. conclusion if the stage after the disaster, expected the activity continues to be done is to increase disaster preparedness and prevention / risk. through training and simulation of action when disaster strikes on educational institutions, companies, government, and so on. the activity aims to awaken the public to know about the disaster (awareness) and community organizing in the framework of advocacy. indeed, this policy is prepared to deal with disasters with all devices holistically and sustainably. however, the policy has institutional or continuous variables. this includes disaster mitigation efforts that emphasize disaster prevention and preparedness activities, including: disaster management planning, disaster risk reduction, prevention, integration in development planning, disaster risk analysis requirements, implementation and enforcement of spatial plans, education and training, and the technical standard requirements for disaster management. 5. suggestion at the time of the disaster happen usually many parties who pay attention and reached out to aid energy, morale and material. the amount of aid that comes is actually an advantage that must be managed properly, so that any incoming aid can be appropriate, right on target, appropriate benefits, and efficiency occurs. thus, it is expected that the implementation of logistics management and equipment can run effectively and efficiently and well-coordinated. to the government to improve the management of disaster prevention and anticipation. it is expected that the government has the agency or special agency to overcome disaster. giving socialization and simulation to people living in disaster prone areas. in addition, community participation is needed in the rescue and preservation of the environment, because most of the disaster caused by environmental damage. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 96 references regulation of the head of national disaster management agency number 02 year (2012) about guidance general assessment of disaster risk. jakarta: bnpb.central bureau of statistics (bps). (2016). jakarta in figures (2015). jakarta: bps. beven, k.j .; kirkby, m. j. (1979). a physically based, variable contributing area of basin hydrology model. hydrolological science bulletin 24: 4369. deputy for technical support and capacity building. (2007). potential prone analysis natural disasters in papua and maluku (landslide flood earthquake tsunami). jakarta: klhk dixon, j.a., k.w. easter. (1986). remote sensing and image interpretation. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. lo, c. p. (1996). remote sensing applied (translation). jakarta: publisher university of indonesia. madjid, a. (2009). fundamentals of soil science. palembang: faculty of agriculture sriwijaya university murti, sigit heru. (2004). mapping of flood-prone areas in the comal basin by using remote sensing technology and geographic information systems. yogyakarta: faculty of geography, universitas gadjah mada. son, e.h. (2007). determining the location of flood-prone areas (case study of north sulawesi province) using twi method. north sulawesi: forest ecosystem control center. rosytha, anna, & amp; m. taufik. (2011). flood analysis study using gis technology in bojonegoro district. surabaya: engineering civil, surabaya institute of technology. 95 shahrizal, e. (2008). understanding hydrology. internet: http://www.malang.ac.id/elearning/fmipa/budi%20 handoyo / geography3.htm. retrieved 20 may (2016). sudaryatno. (2015). remote sensing image integration and geographic information system for model preparation prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 97 drought vulnerability (cases in central java and yogyakarta provinces). dissertation. yogyakarta: faculty of geography universitas gadjah mada sukresno. (2010). technical identification of flood-prone areas (case study in keduang sub-basin). solo: research center forestry sulfiani. (2015). study of rainfall relationship and high inundation with geographical information system in the region makassar municipality. thesis. makassar city: faculty of civil engineering, hasanudin university sutanto. (1995). basic remote sensing. yogyakarta: ugm faculty of geography publisher faculty (bpfg). tut. (2005). hydrological cycle disorders could flood and drought. internet: http: //www.kapanlagi. com / h / 0000051276.html. retrieved may 20, 2016. usgs. (2013). using the usgs landsat 8 product. hämtat från usgs landsat missions: http://landsat.usgs.gov/landsat8_using_product.php wilson, j.p., gallant, j.c. (2000) secondary topographic attributes, in wilson and gallant (editors) 'terrain analysis: principles and applications', p. 87-131 50 implementation of flood disaster mitigation policy community-based in cilacap regency, central java, indonesia rudi subiyakto¹ sri suwitri² endang larasati² prayitno prayitno³ ¹doctoral student on public administration program diponegoro university semarang ² public administration program diponegoro university semarang ³ wonosobo district regional disaster management agency article history: accepted 24 april 2019 available online 30 may 2019 keywords: disaster mitigation, policy implementation, disaster impact, cilacap regency policy environment a b s t r a c t cilacap regency is the region that has the highest disaster risk index in the central java province, this area has the risk of floods, water robes, landslides, droughts, tornadoes, earthquakes, and tsunamis. data from the indonesian disaster risk index (irbi) in 2016 shows the level of disaster risk in cilacap regency occupying the 17th position nationally and first from 35 regencies/cities in the central java province with a score of 132 (high hazard class). under these conditions, a disaster mitigation policy is needed. legally, the mitigation policy in cilacap regency has been regulated in regional regulation number 1 of 2012 concerning violation of disaster management, especially in article 43 which includes several activities, namely: (1) spatial planning implementation (2) arrangement of infrastructure development, governance buildings, (3) organizing education, counseling and training, both conventional and modern, so that regional governments are expected to be able to develop disaster information, disaster databases, and maps in order to minimize the impact of disasters. therefore, in this study, trying to describe the analysis of the implementation of disaster mitigation policies in cilacap regency. the research method used is a qualitative research method by looking at phenomena in the implementation of disaster mitigation and the factors that support and inhibit them. the community plays a role according to the direction of the bpbd. the community continues to coordinate, communicate and cooperate in carrying out its role. the non-technical role is carried out through socialization, education, advocacy to the community in the flood disaster area. introduction based on data from the regional disaster management agency of central java province, this region, including those that are very prone to disasters, is spread evenly throughout the region including floods, water robots, landslides, droughts, hurricanes, earthquakes and tsunamis, which requires vigilance and preparedness of the entire community to minimize the impact of the flood disaster. referring to a study conducted by the national disaster management agency (bnpb) on the indonesian disaster risk risk index (irbi) in 2015, central java ranked first in 27 provinces categorized as highly vulnerable to all types of disaster vulnerability. (irbi 2011; central java bpbd 2015). furthermore, based on the indonesian disaster risk index in 2016, central java province ranks 13th at the national level from 51 26 provinces with a score of 158, including high risk (irbi 2013; bpbd central java 2016). cilacap regency is a regency in the central java province which ranks 3rd nationally and ranks first in the region in central java province for disaster vulnerability (irbi 2013; bpbd central java 2016). the regional disaster management agency of cilacap regency recorded the number of losses due to natural disasters that occurred throughout 2016 reached rp.71.5 billion. the amount of this loss was caused because, throughout the year, cilacap district was hit by disasters in the form of tidal floods, flash floods and submersions, landslides, and tornadoes. the highest amount of losses is due to rob floods in the southern coastal region of cilacap district which reached rp. 40,090 billion. flash floods and submersions occur 25 times in 64 villages with losses reaching rp. 20,899 billion. humans are the cause of natural disasters having increased scale especially in hydro meteorological disasters such as floods and wind storms (cutter, boruff & shirley 2003; vos et al. 2010). floods always have a broad impact on human life, damage infrastructure, and the natural environment (salami, 2017). legally, the mitigation policy in cilacap regency has been regulated in regional regulation number 1 of 2012 concerning violation of disaster management, especially in article 43 which includes several activities, namely: (1) implementation of spatial planning; (2) arrangement of infrastructure development, building management; and to (3) the implementation of education, counseling and training, both conventional and modern. so that the regional government is expected to be able to compile disaster information, databases and disaster map in order to minimize the impact of disasters caused. flood-prone areas pose a risk of human casualties, and damage and loss of property. scholars explain that people living in flood-prone zones are able to resolve disturbances caused by floods, while those in floodprone zones without conditions that threaten will have no risk of disaster (muller and weiland,2011; wisner et al. 2004; smit and wandel 2006;, turner et al. 2003, and brenkert and malone, 2005. this shows that flood risk represents a function of vulnerability and danger. cutter (1996) and cutter (2000) in isa et al. (2018) describe vulnerability as a condition that inhibits the ability of people in certain areas to overcome flooding. vulnerability has dynamic traits in line with the conditions, systems, and environment of a community. scholar suggest that suggest that the vulnerability of flood areas consists of three aspects: exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity (douben, 2006; smit and wandel, 2006. low levels of flood risk represent a high level of community resilience (isa 2015). the resilience as the ability to survive and overcome it flooding and deal with post-flood problems that will ultimately minimize risk (djalante and frank, 2011). the collective behavior of the community in overcoming flooding represents community resilience. the high level of community resilience is a product of community empowerment against flooding. because the level of resilience is the conception of the effort produced, community resilience to flooding can be considered a product. in disaster mitigation policies, the community becomes an important part involved in its implementation. the role of the community in disaster mitigation is a basic need, because of the disasters that occur in their lives. it is hoped that community participation in disaster mitigation can minimize the impact of the disaster. that is why this article is important to be a media in describing the role of the community in implementing disaster mitigation in cilacap district. the purpose of this study describes community-based disaster mitigation and the analysis of the role of the community in cilacap district, central java province, indonesia. 1. literature review disaster is a serious disruption to the functioning of a community or community on any scale that has an impact on human, material, 52 economic and environmental. readiness means knowledge and capacity developed by the government, response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to and recover from the possible, immediate or current disaster impacts. prevention is taken to refer to activities and actions taken to avoid existing and new disaster risks. as far as possible, preventive measures seek to fully reduce the possibility of recurrence of disasters and reduce risk (vulnerability and exposure). mitigation is defined as reducing or minimizing the adverse effects of a hazardous event. mitigation actions/actions are taken with the recognition that although the adverse effects of hazards cannot be completely prevented, the scale/severity and severity can be significantly reduced. unisdr (2009) defines disasters as serious disruptions to the functioning of a community or society that involve extensive losses from human, material, economic or environmental impacts, which exceed the capacity of the affected community or community to cope with using the disaster itself. resource. unisdr considers disasters as a result of a combination of many factors such as exposure to hazards, existing vulnerability conditions, and capacity or inadequate actions to reduce or overcome potential negative consequences. disaster impacts can include loss of life, injury, illness and other negative impacts on human physical, mental and social well-being, along with damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of services, social and economic disruption and environmental degradation. dm act 2005 defines disasters, accidents, catastrophes or serious events in any area, arising from natural or man-made causes, or due to accidents or negligence resulting in the loss of many lives or human suffering or damage to, and destruction, property, or damage, or degradation, the environment, and are of such or large magnitude beyond the coping capacity of the community in the affected area. unisdr disaster management defines disaster risk management as a systematic process for using administrative, organizational, skills and operational capacity decisions to implement policies, strategies, and capacities to address communities and communities to reduce the impacts of natural hazards and environmental disasters and related technologies. it consists of all forms of activities, including structural and non-structural actions to avoid (prevent) or limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse effects of hazards. the definition for the term disaster management management 'is not included in the handbook of the unisdr terminology. however, it is proposed, but has not been adopted. disaster risk reduction 'unisdr3 has proposed the following definition for the term disaster management (unisdr 2015b): "organization, planning, and implementation of the steps to prepare to respond to and recover early from a disaster. "according to this definition, 'disaster management' focuses on creating and implementing preparedness and other plans to reduce the impact of disasters and rebuild them better. failure to make/implement a plan can cause damage to lives, assets, and loss of income. however, that may not completely prevent or eliminate threats. disaster risk reduction, according to unisdr, consists of a framework of elements that will help minimize vulnerability and disaster risk throughout the community, to avoid (prevent) or limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse effects of hazards, in the broad context of sustainable development. especially disasters are triggered by natural or human-caused hazards, or the result of a combination of both. according to law number 24 of 2007 concerning disaster management, the definition of mitigation is a series of efforts to reduce disaster risk, both through physical development and awareness and capacity building in the face of disaster threats. in general, in practice mitigation can be grouped into structural mitigation and non-structural mitigation. (bakornas pbp 2002, direction of urban disaster mitigation policy in indonesia). structural myths are an effort to minimize disasters and disaster risks carried out through the construction of various physical infrastructures and using technological approaches, such as the creation of special canals for flood prevention, volcanic activity detection devices, earthquake resistant buildings, or the early warning system used to predict the occurrence of a tsunami wave. non-structural mitigation is an effort to reduce the impact of disasters other than those mentioned above. can be within the scope of policy-making efforts such as making a regulation. the disaster management act (pb law) is a non-structural effort in the policy field of mitigation. another example is the creation of urban spatial planning, capacity building of the community, and even reviving various other activities that are useful for strengthening community capacity, as well as part of this mitigation. this is all done for, by and in the communities living around disaster-prone areas. 53 non-structural policies include legislation, regional planning, and insurance. non-structural policies are more related to policies aimed at avoiding unnecessary and destructive risks. of course, before you need to identify risks first. physical risk assessment includes the process of identifying and evaluating the possibility of a disaster and the possible impacts. mitigation policies, both structural and non-structural, must support each other. the use of technology to predict, anticipate and reduce the risk of occurrence of a disaster must be balanced with the creation and enforcement of an adequate set of regulations that are supported by an appropriate spatial plan. frequent occurrences of floods and landslides in the rainy season and drought in several places in indonesia during the dry season are mostly caused by weak law enforcement and regional spatial use that is not in accordance with the surrounding environment. technology that is used to predict, anticipate and reduce the risk of a disaster must be sought so as not to disrupt the balance of the environment in the future. technically, in the implementation of natural disaster mitigation in cilacap regency, it has been regulated in the cilacap district regulation no. 1 of 2012, so to minimize losses due to natural disasters, the cilacap district government must be guided by these regulations, wherein the article points governing implementation of disaster mitigation community-based disaster risk management (cbdrm) is an emancipatory approach to risk management that aims to empower communities to reduce the forms of local risk and underlying vulnerabilities, thus building a stronger community (zweig, 2017). community risk assessment (cra) is an important element of cbdrm, which combines a very participatory risk identification and risk analysis process. conducted on a relatively small geographical scale, community-led risk assessments can determine the nature, spatial level, temporality and reality of local risks and related vulnerabilities experienced. it also offers a 'bridge-to-practical strategy for integrating local development efforts on the one hand with strategies to reduce the impact of disaster risk priorities on the other' (holloway & roomaney 2008: 18). by incorporating local knowledge and insights, cra can identify the nature of local risks, taking into account the many hazards, realized impacts or potential impacts on local communities. 2. methodology qualitative design methods used in research (creswell, 2013). all communities are used as resource persons. data collection is done through interviews and observations. data processing is done in qualitative descriptive. the analysis technique includes the phenomena of the role carried out by the community in disaster mitigation in the cilacap district. 3. discussion and results of research implementation of flood disaster mitigation policies in cilacap regency is a process that must be followed continuously by the community in managing all hazards through efforts to minimize the consequences of disasters that may arise from these hazards. the community consists of individuals and groups. table 1. community role in disaster mitigation n o community role pre-disaster during a disaster after a disaster 1 muhammadiyah disater management centre (mdmc) socialization, education about disasters in cilacap handle victims assistance to the traumatic center 2 taruna tanggap bencana (tagana) disaster training for youth help with disaster victims infrastruktur recovery 3 sentra komunikasi mitra polri dissemination, disaster information, early warning, pamphlets or disaster banners helps safeguard the environment, establish communication between affected areas helps secure and reconstruct infrastructure 54 all roles of communities in disaster mitigation in cilacap district are in accordance with the directives of the regional disaster management agency as the leading sector in the implementation of flood mitigation in cilacap district, each community has a similar role but in accordance with the background of the community's ability. mdmc has broader capabilities because it is motivated by a strong parent organization, muhammadiyah with its hospitals and educational institutions, tagana supports young people in cilacap flood areas to participate in mitigation, sentar community. meanwhile, the obligations of the community are (1) maintaining a harmonious social life of the community, (2) maintaining balance, harmony, harmony, and preservation of environmental functions, (3) carrying out disaster management activities, and (4) providing the correct information to the public about pb. in fact, the role of the community is involved in pre-disaster, during disasters, and post-disaster. the role of the community during pre-disaster includes (1) participating in the making of disaster risk analysis, (2) conducting research related to disaster, (3) making community action plans, (4) active in the drr forum, (5) making disaster prevention efforts, ( 6) cooperating with the government in mitigation efforts, (7) following education, training, and counseling for drr efforts, and (8) working together to realize resilient disaster villages / villages. the role of the community at the time of the disaster includes (1) providing information on disaster events to the bpbd or related agencies, (2) carrying out independent evacuations, (3) conducting rapid assessments of the impact of disasters, and (4) participating in emergency response according to their expertise. meanwhile, the role of the community during the post-disaster period is (1) participating in the making of an action plan for rehabilitation and reconstruction, and (2) participating in efforts to restore and develop public facilities and infrastructure. this is in line with the research conducted by jurenzy (2011) in several villages in the affected cilacap regency which reported that if there were signs of a flood occurring, namely the status of the river level had reached alert 4, almost all respondents said they would move goods their valuables to a safer place. the results of this study were also reinforced by dodon (2013) research which revealed that most people made the intensity of the duration of rainfall as a source of information based on their experience in dealing with flood disasters. communities need an early warning system that includes warning signs and information distribution in the event of a disaster. a good early warning system can reduce the damage experienced by the community (sagala, 2014). a good system is a system where the community also understands the information that will be provided by the early warning sign or knows what to do if one day the warning signs are sounding (sutton and tierney, 2006). according to latour in katanha (2019), placing the community as a network of actors is not an object. the community is an interconnected object. actors are individual entities; actor network is a group of actors: a heterogeneous network of entities that are connected to each other through different relationships, whose resistance has been overcome (law, 2007). in a network, there is a sense of belonging between actors and networks. the response of the community in dealing with floods is very diverse, according to the flood experience felt by each individual. psychologically, one of the responses expressed by the community can be described through feelings, feelings that arise in the community can provide a real picture of the feelings felt during a flood. according to yulaelawati & usman (2008), experiences experienced by individuals during a disaster can make a person become traumatized by a disaster, the response shown makes one translate through response expressions and expressions, including anger, sadness, loss, regret to depression. flood events should make the public aware of the impact (rohman & suroso, 2012). impacts experienced by the community, especially social impacts and economic impacts directly affect people's attitudes towards existing disasters. communities make economic and social impacts their most important consideration in dealing with floods (sagala, 2014). based on the results of this study, according to researchers, various effects of flooding have been experienced by the community when there was a flood, for this reason, preventive action is needed to reduce the impact. conclusion and recommendation the community plays a role according to the direction of the bpbd. the community continues to coordinate, communicate and cooperate in carrying out its role. the non-technical role is carried out through socialization, education, advocacy to the community in the flood disaster area. the government needs to provide disaster management technical training to the community to be able to develop skills, expertise in disaster mitigation. nodules should be given intensively and frequently so that communication skills and skills are maintained. research limitations research is only conducted on communities that have institutions. research has not touched individual or small group communities. 55 implications of future research future research can observe small, non-institutionalized communities and play a role in flood disaster mitigation. acknowledgment the author conducts a study of the role of the community in implementing disaster mitigation as part of the dissertation. the author is a doctoral student of the public administration program at diponegoro university, semarang, indonesia. references 1. badan penanggulangan bencana daerah (2015). indeks risiko bencana indonesia 2011. direktorat pengurangan risiko bencana. 2. badan penanggulangan bencana daerah (2016). indeks risiko bencana indonesia 2013. direktorat pengurangan risiko bencana. 3. creswell, john w, (2013), research design qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods 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(2008). mencerdasi bencana: banjir, tanah longsor, tsunami, gempa bumi, gunung api, kebakaran. jakarta: grasindo 7. holloway, a. & roomaney, r., (2008), weathering the storm: participatory risk assessments for informal settlements, periperi publications, cape town. 8. isa, m., sugiyanto, f.x. & indah susilowati,(2018), community resilience to floods in the coastal zone for disaster risk reduction’, jàmbá: journal of disaster risk studies 10(1), a356. 9. katanha, a. & d. simatele, (2019), ‘natural hazard mitigation strategies review: actor–network theory and the eco-based approach understanding in zimbabwe’, jàmbá: journal of disaster risk studies 11(1), a629. 10. rohman, ahmad abdul & santoso abi suroso. (2012), hubungan antara umur, pendidikan, pendapatan, dan pengalaman bencana dengan kesiapsiagaan tingkat rumah tangga: studi kasus banjir kali lamong kabupaten gresik.tesis. bandung : sekolah arsitektur perencanaan dan pengembangan kebijakan itb 11. sagala, saut.(2014), studi kasus tanggap darurat banjir jakarta 2013, 2014, 2015, jakarta 12. salami, r.o., von meding, j.k. & giggins, h., (2017), urban settlements’ vulnerability to flood risks in african cities: a conceptual framework’, jàmbá: journal of disaster risk studies 9(1), a370, 13. smit, b. & j. wandel, (2006), ‘adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability’, global environmental change 16, 282–292. 14. unisdr (2009), unisr terminology on disaster risk reduction. 15. unisdr (2015a), sendai framework for disaster risk reduction 2015-2030. 16. vos, f., rodriguez, j., below, r. & guha-sapir, d.,(2010), annual disaster statistical review 2009. 17. centre for research on the epidemiology of disasters (cred), brussels. 18. zweig, patricia j.2017, ‘collaborative risk governance in informal urban areas: the case of wallacedene temporary relocation area’, jàmbá: journal of disaster risk studies 9(1), a386. algorithmic financial trading with deep convolutional neural networks: time series to image conversion approach 6 corruption in slovenia matic borošak(a), štefan šumah (b) (a), ph. d candidate, postgraduate student of fkpv, celje, qlinlife d.o.o (b), dr. of economy sciences, omco d.o.o, žalec article info a b s t r a c t article history: accepted 28 september 2018 available online 31 december 2018 keywords: corruption, slovenia, fight against corruption, perception of corruption, typology, causes a lot has been written about corruption, especially regarding the corruption in postcommunist countries, and slovenia is not an exception. the forms of corruption are similar to those in other countries in transition, the reasons for corruption in slovenia well known and the typology well processed. most of the corruption in slovenia occurs in the area where public and private spheres come together, with strong networks remaining, and where also systemic corruption occurs. however, there has not been any progress in corruption fighting. opinion surveys show that the perception of corruption is high (the personal experience with corruption proved very high during the conducted research), however, people are not very familiar with the it (all its forms and consequences) and therefore, in order to successfully fight corruption, actions should be taken in the form of education and in the sense of raising public awareness of the harmfulness of corruption. at the same time the political will is also lacking, which, however, in the fight against corruption has not been shown by any government so far. 1. introduction many scientific and professional articles on corruption in transition countries have been published. especially the countries that were created by the collapse of the soviet union are a real laboratory for the investigation of corruption. and how is the corruption in slovenia different from the corruption in other transition countries? actually, only in a few things. the corruption in slovenia is more sophisticated, more obscure and less crude than in some of the other post-communist countries, there is less use of force, threats and links to organized crime (except regarding the organized economic crime). however, negative impacts are similar or identical (only the extent of these impacts can be 1 old boys – a network of individuals, who have been cooperating with each other in the business, friendship and political sphere for a long time, while most of the connections originate from the time of the previous regime (exyugoslavia) 2 originates from the word udba, which means ‘state security administration’. the administration was later replaced with sdv – ‘state called into question). the state administration still exhibits the remains of the old administration, loyal to the previous regime or the previous leaders, as well as the remains of the old socialist structure in the judiciary and other important services and institutions that impact the functioning of the state (the police, the secret services). old commitments and friendships still remain, old economic links and connections to old politics and economy (the so-called old boys1) as well as links, based on the remnants of the communist party and of former intelligence and security services (the so-called udbamafia2), which do not select resources for their operations and use a number of methods that are similar to those in other socialist countries (compromise, security service’, however, the term udba remained in use. the udba mafia therefore means the still connected ex-members of the state security administration, who are still influential in all sectors of the society (from economy to health care and culture). 7 extortion, covert coercion, media influence, etc.). in russia, a similar network of people who remained closely connected and assist each other whenever necessary consisted of people who were in high positions in komsomol (dobovšek, mimič, 2005, p. 39). if both branches functioned separately, the influence of corruption would be easier to manage, however, the great danger for both the democracy as well as the economy is that both branches are connected. the mentioned is due to the old economic connections, the remains of the old administration, as well as the judiciary and the remnants of the so called udba-mafia which are interconnected and operate in a coordinated manner. the links remained also because the president of the communist party of slovenia had the highest function in the republic, and was also superior to the national executive council (the government of the republic of slovenia) and directly superior to the national security intelligence service (sdv) (the state security service the communist police), while the political top had complete control over the appointment of directors or administrations in (state) enterprises (only vetted staff, according to the political line). during the transition from socialism to democracy in 1991, the president of the new independent slovenia became the last president of the league of communists of slovenia. as lustration was not performed, the connections and networks remained more or less practically. through the transition, the so-called continuity forces acquired the political, economic power, and still dominate the majority of the leading media, part of the state administration and the judiciary. at the same time, the stagnant and relatively low-paid bureaucratic apparatus, high regulation and limitations applying to the economic activities and a still great state’s share in large and important companies lead to corruption in itself. a special area is also public health, where millions are getting lost through non-transparent and often falsified public procurement (in this area the networks and the interests of old continuity structures already severely intertwine with the emergence of new actors), while many doctors try to earn money on the side. the inventory transformation was led by gradualism, instead of changing rapidly, and all too many important companies became only a money bucket for supplying various consultants, suppliers and politicians of both poles. 2. causes and typology of corruption the old players are always joined by new ones, those who also want their share or participation in the distribution of state money. however, these networks or individuals strive for money much than the ideology. according to dimc (2009, p.66), the impact of informal networks is high in all areas; the economy, politics, state institutions, health, media, etc. these areas are, due to the small size of the country, closely intertwined, which further stimulates or promotes the formation and growth of informal networks. such policy of demanding something in return is present in all areas, from legislation making, financing of business, financing of elections, employment, etc.). in addition, slovenian ethical and moral standards do not yet have a tradition, as opposed to the countries with long-standing democracy and are not yet fully built (there still exist the thought patterns from the times of socialism and social equality is still one of the greatest values, etc), which also applies to professional standards, and therefore the public officials sometimes do not decide according to professional and ethical standards, which would, depending on the job they occupy, be expected from them. appendix to the explanation of the proposal of the law on preventing conflicts of interest and restriction of corruption (the first proceedings, eva: 2003 -2011 0042) identifies similar causes for the development of corruption in slovenia: • economic and social causes: corruption in slovenia is not existentially conditioned, and serves only to improve the material position of individuals; the old and new elites, by combining economic and political power, are establishing dominance in new conditions, which creates favourable conditions for the development of “state capture” and administrative corruption, the privatization of individual state functions progresses slowly, private companies are still too dependent on politics. • legal causes: the still unfinished reform of the legal system, subject to frequent, also non-systematic and inconsistent changes, which, on one hand, cannot meet all the challenges of real life, and on the other do not 8 provide effective responses to detected sociopathological practices; large backlogs. • institutional causes: public administration in slovenia has not yet been depoliticised, employment and promotion are not based on purely meritocratic principles, clientelism and nepotism have developed, and above all the political favouritism, while the internal and external control mechanisms have not yet been sufficiently developed and effective (the risk of corrupt individuals is small or non-existent), the decisionmaking is not yet transparent enough, the discretionary powers are too wide, the system of responsibility for wrong political and business decisions is not functioning, there is no coordinated approach to the prevention and suppression of corruption, the private sector almost does not deal with the dangers of corruption. • cultural causes: the culture of exclusively state intervention still holds for mediation in the event of irregularities, and according to the opinion polls, the deciding politicians enjoy only a low level of people's confidence, the non-governmental sector has only begun to develop, the level of citizens' awareness of their and institutional rights and obligations is low, the level of anti-corruption sensitivity or awareness is growing slowly, the high ethical standards are rarely formulated, the useful ethical codes are more an exception than the rule, the role of the media in detecting and exposing corruption could be bigger. • external causes: free competition in the conditions of the global economy exposes the slovenian companies to additional risks. the rapid and intense adaptation of the acquis while integrating into international integration could also have resulted in the unverified adoption of foreign regulations, doctrines and practices. from the analysis of the trends of corruption it is evident that (especially in the transition countries, including slovenia) the most cases of corruption occur in areas where the state sphere and economy are intertwined, and where the most of money is made (dobovšek, 2008, p. 195), which is exactly the sphere that also includes public procurement. public procurement appears in all corruption surveys in slovenia as well as in europe at the very top of the corruption risks (even the corruption 3 public-private partnership – hereinafter ppp investigations most commonly deal with fraud in procurement) and, according to peteh (2001, p. 25), the negative tradition continues from the former social property system, where the unwritten rule was that whenever a big investment (roads, bridges, etc.) was built, so was a smaller, private one (for the local or state important persons) or a “social” facility (for wider community). these statements are confirmed also by the study by kurdija (2009), which he carried out for the commission for the prevention of corruption of the republic of slovenia, where the respondents expressed the belief about the relatively high levels of corruption in public services, especially in public procurement. the next such big opportunity for corruption is the public-private partnership3. the public infrastructure and the public services play an important role in the modern society, and the state should be the one that provides this, and thus pursue the public interest of the society. the provision of such “goods” requires more and more investments, which (often) exceed the budgetary capacity of the state, and the state is trying to solve this problem of the deficit in the state budget by linking it to the economy. by concluding a publicprivate partnership, the state transfers part of the financial burden to a private partner, thus enabling the implementation of projects that are in the public interest but could otherwise not be (most likely) implemented by the state itself. the latter is also the main reason why the state introduced the public-private partnership; to enable it and encourage private investments in projects that are in the interest of public. at first glance it seems that a public-private partnership presents a solution or rather the response to many financial problems of countries when it comes to providing public infrastructure, services and public good. however, at the same time such a partnership gives the public officials, office holders and political leaders the opportunity to “access” private funds. there is a great temptation to plan and implement the ppp project by placing in a privileged position a favoured individual or company, due to acquaintanceship or promised benefit. it is obvious that even although a public-private partnership is “offered” as a means of 9 reducing corruption, the process itself allows or provides a number of corrupt practices (banovec, 2013). although dissatisfied with the current state of affairs in the country, the slovenians are still politically apathetic and of a rather pessimistic character, they stick to the “go with the flow” dogma, which means that they do not regard protests or uprisings as one of the solutions and are even not of the opinion that the early elections might improve the situation. this political apathy is also reflected in the creation of cdos4 that would respond to the problems of inadequate political and socio-cultural governance in the country, while at the same time the strong influence of institutionalized religious communities on the public and policy making can be noticed. comparisons of official data on poverty, income inequality, unemployment, etc. gathered in the annual reports of the ombudsman, the red cross, karitas, social assistance centres, etc., are also interesting. there is a noticeable gap between the official statistics on one hand and those who directly deal with people's problems on the other, which raises doubt about the official data. due to the reduced access to a better living standard (social security is becoming payable), some are reducing their ethical standards (by using social networks and connections to obtain social security, avoid paying taxes, moonlight, abuse the position, etc.) in order to achieve a higher level. nevertheless, the slovenes appreciate honesty and fairness, while integrity is becoming an increasingly recognizable value, one that is also clearly demanded from the power holders (one of the effective slogans for winning the election is precisely the reference to morality, ethics and transparency). political apathy and mistrust of citizens in the rule of law reflect the low support to the government, political parties and the current political activity in general. corruption is perceived as a major problem, one that could be reduced through the commission for the prevention of corruption, the media and partly the law enforcement agencies (habič et. all, 2012, p. 9). 4 cso civil society organization 5 corruption of white collars is the corruption of highly qualified officials, who are the carriers of specific powers, and highly trained professionals, which are: ministers, state secretaries, according to the different types of corruption, the commission for the prevention of corruption assessed the corruption in slovenia as follows (kpk, 2010, page 8): • slovenia is a country with a relatively low level of administrative corruption when compared to other (post) transition countries in the wider europe (member of the council of the european union); even in comparison with some older eu members (for example, italy, greece); • with regard to white collar corruption5, certain indicators show that slovenia is in a better position than other (post) transition countries and comparable to some of the old eu member states (the mediterranean basin). this form of corruption is closely linked to the cases of economic and public finance crime that slovenia has been facing in the recent years. • the past and current economic and financial crisis in slovenia revealed the long-standing development of systemic / institutional corruption. however, in 2014, after the assessment of the situation, the cpc became more critical of the corruption of white collars. according to the assessment of the commission, the corruption of white collars is strongly present in slovenia, while there is less administrative corruption, although the commission receives a lot of complaints about suspected irregularities in administrative procedures. according to the commission, the systemic corruption is especially important, as it often goes hand in hand with the defective legislation, thus providing a number of opportunities for individuals or groups to place their own interests before the interests of the community or the state (kpk, 2014, p. 3). similarly, to the findings of the cpc, the world bank institute's survey carried out in 2004 (finance, 2006) found that in slovenia there are fewer problems with illegal corruption than with legal or lawful corruption (a common denominator of legal corruption around the world, that is the phenomenon of exploitation of informal powers and political ties for one’s own benefit, directors of directorates, senior ministry officials, members of parliament, directors of public, public-private and private companies, as well as the experts on law and operation of the state apparatus. 10 is the political irresponsibility). one of the co-authors of the study (pedro vincente) also added that legal corruption is a phenomenon when the media in the country usually do not have independent or good control of the work of politics; they also do not have control of lobbying and other forms of informal influence that lead to the exchange of services between the state, companies and individuals. the anti-corruption laws do not apply to these softer forms of corruption. in his doctoral dissertation, škrbec (2013, p.107) investigated also the causes and motives for the occurrence of corruption in slovenia and found the four most common ones. the first or most common cause and motive for corruption is the improvement of the economic status (thus greed). the second most common cause are past habits6, since the people in ex-yugoslavia looked for ways to circumvent the system and the rules of the game. the third cause of corruption is of a systemic nature, as the system itself has an impact on the increase of corruption, while the fourth most frequent cause is the smallness of slovenia and the functioning of the bonds and acquaintanceships, which makes the regulation of things in slovenia specific; the country being so small that everybody knows everybody makes it easier to create informal networks and, which are, therefore, also easier to conceal. people thus meet through informal networks and together search for ways to meet their own interests. he also states (p. 120) that the slovenes are selfish creatures and that, when something is good for them, they respect it, but otherwise they try to find a bypass of such restrictions or things that do not suit them. the legal culture in slovenia is at a level where people respect the law only when they have a personal benefit from it. those who strictly observe the law in slovenia are exemptions rather than the rule and are in public sometimes even stigmatized as “idiots, fools” or something similar. grodeland (2005) in his study similarly finds that the majority of respondents in slovenia believe that the slovenes do not respect the rule of law and that the 6 partially already after world war i, and even more so after the second world war, the so-called balkanization of slovenia occured, when after the confrontation with the pre-war economic and political elite, the authority and the leading role in the country were taken over by the former nob fighters, who and often introduced the “balkan mentality” in the political as well as the wider social space. slovenia, as the most economically developed republic, search for holes in the law is a national sport. according to grodeland, the slovenes in general consider that it is necessary to be inventive, and they respect only the part of the laws that benefits them. according to the respondents, the non-observance of laws originates mainly from the communist past. as previously mentioned, major problems and a major source of corruption in slovenia are also informal networks, both old, stemming from socialism and new ones, created only to gain benefits, while there is also the interweaving of both. the existence of the networks and the connection of these with corruption was confirmed by the survey of 2003 2004 (dobovšek in dimc, 2007, p.76), as well as by the research of the norwegian institute for urban and regional research (grodeland, 2005). there are, however, quite a few studies or studies of corruption (as well as the networks that allow it), among which i would like to mention also tonin (2009), who studied corruption at the level of municipalities, in particular the operation of mayors and their influence: the mayors have become all-powerful “local sheriffs” that are involved in all disputes of social life, and have also become the creators of local informal networks, which enable them to achieve their goals, both public and private (p. 4). the informal network thus ensures that even those who in various public tenders only lend their name and who, by fixing an excessive price, make it possible to select a specific provider, get their share. the network between the mayor and the local economic operators intertwines into a strong interdependence, where the exit from the network is almost impossible and can mean the loss of position, the loss of work, and, ultimately, the prosecution of those involved (p.8). i would also point out the study of the effects of corruption on business between economic operators, the results of which are indicative of how poorly people in leading positions prepare for business cooperation. it is true that in business transactions everything is directed to the realization of the transaction within a certain period of time, so that no additional costs are incurred, similarly experienced a great arrival of workers from the south of yugoslavia, which further caused the change in mentality of both workers and officials. the term “rule of law” was not taken seriously (heršak in brioschi, 2003, p.240), since tito himself stated that judges should not adhere to the law “like blind person clinging to a lamp post”. 11 and that with each business transaction, the goal due to which this transaction was concluded is also achieved. in all cases, it is also expected from the manager that the business will conclude with profit or increase liquidity. all of this is becoming the fundamental goal of each director, who often completely forget all ethical standards, consequently become victims of the desire to achieve the goal regardless of the risk (partljič, 2012, p. 67). it is also sad that the research by ernst & young consulting firm, published in die welt (2013), reveals that slovenia is a notorious record holder in europe, as the share of managers for whom bribery is common is 96 per cent. slovenia is followed by croatia with 90 per cent and ukraine with 85 per cent (also a former communist state). 3. systemic corruption alongside individual types of corruption (administrative, corruption in public procurement, corruption in health care, etc.), the systemic corruption also presents a significant problem of corruption in slovenia. according to researches carried out by international institutions, and the theories of various experts who have been closely involved in corruption and practice, known from various events around the world, the indicators that influence the development of systemic corruption, which is among the more widespread also in slovenia, are as follows (commission for the prevention of corruption, 2011): • the existence of economic monopolies, negotiations with cartels and limited competition, large national and local infrastructure projects, • little chance that corruption will be detected and properly sanctioned by supervisory institutions and law enforcement authorities, • the process of economic liberalization and privatization with the influence of politics, • lengthy court proceedings, • distrust of the political system and institutions of the rule of law, and the uncertainty of political and economic events in the country, • poor control over public procurement, • incomplete system of internal audits regarding the efficiency of public money, • weak control of supervisory authorities in the economy and low degree of ethics between the actors in the business performance, • politicization or non-transparent privatization of public media, especially media space, • inefficient and non-transparent financing of entrepreneurship by the financial institutions, • the influence of lobbies on the legislative process. dobovšek and škrbec (2012) similarly confirmed with their research, as they found that corruption in slovenia affects the state's functioning, especially the doctrine of the rule of law, its functioning and the way people think or establish certain values. most of the corrupt practices are done by those who should be examples of a correct and fair attitude towards matters of public interest in all areas of social relations and processes (officials and public office holders). 4. perception of corruption in his article, malnar (2011) notes that slovenia is characterized by a significant gap between official statistical indicators of social inequality and their public opinion perceptions. pursuing of minor inequalities means also a spontaneous rational strategy of providing one's own social “just in case” security. this is particularly likely in an environment characterized by the extremely low public confidence in politics on one hand, and at the same time extremely high expectations about the role of the state in ensuring the material wellbeing on the other. this “paradox”, which is another highly interconnected unified element of political space in slovenia, is probably the key to explaining the gap between the statistics and the public opinion. according to the data, the “a priori” demands of the public for the reduction of inequality are not motivated by the experience of social deprivation, but rather by the favourable material position of most households and the associated fear of losing the achieved prosperity, while small inequalities are understood as a condition or a support system of its continuity. similarly goes for the large gap between the official statistics of corruption and the perception of corruption in the survey, and it could therefore be assumed, according to malnar's findings, that the high perception of corruption generates fear of it (nothing to fear but fear itself). the fact is that there is a connection between the perception of corruption and the living standard. if we take into account that the mentality of slovenes folds 12 also the tendency to revolt and “rebel” especially if someone interferes with their acquired standard of living, which is derived from the psychological profile of slovenes (musek, 1997) then it can be concluded that often, when detecting the first changes in indicators that show a decline in the standard (economic agents respond quickly and rationally to changes in the market), the corruption detection index also increases. the first such indicator of the fall in the living standard is the rise in the unemployment, while the second is the fall in the purchasing power. the above graph shows that there are some correlations between the index of corruption perception, unemployment and purchasing power. especially in 2008, when unemployment was at the lowest, the corruption perception index was at the highest, or rather, with the decline in unemployment, the corruption detection index rose, and vice versa. after the beginning of the rise in unemployment, the corruption perception index began to fall (that is, when the unemployment is low, the corruption perception is also low and vice versa). the same findings were identified by other authors who have studied the impact of the living standard and social conditions on the perception of corruption (e.g. melgar, rossi and smith, 2010). similarly goes also for the graph that shows the relationship between the corruption perception index and the purchasing power (here, too, the curves, especially the tops and the bottoms, match). figure 1: ratio between the index of corruption perception and unemployment source: šumah and mahič, 2015, p.25 figure 2: ratio between the index of corruption perception and purchasing power source: šumah and mahič, 2015, p.25 both are in the survey statistically confirmed with the least square’s method (the p-value is low, indicating that there is a statistically significant link between unemployment and the corruption perception index, or the impact of unemployment on the change in the corruption index is statistically significant): corruption perception index = 6.96099 + (0.130923 x unemployment) if unemployment increases by one percent (unemployment is given in %), the corruption perception index drops in average by 0.130923 percentage point (the perception of corruption increases). similarly applies to the correlation between the corruption perception index and the purchasing power. here also there is a statistically significant link between the change in the purchasing power and the change in the corruption perception index, or the impact of the change of the purchasing power on the change of the corruption index is statistically significant: corruption perception index = 6.96099 + 1.06806 x purchasing power if purchasing power increases by one percent, the corruption perception index increases by 1.06806 percentage point on average or the perception of corruption decreases (šumah and mahić, 2015). undoubtedly, the increased perception is influenced also by the collectivism and the socialist ideology of “equality”, which were forced upon by the previous system, and which did not suit the personal structure and the tradition of the slovenes. of course, the system could 13 not force a substantial change of the personality profile, however, the profile was already affected by the transformation of the mentality of the people. the slovenes still have difficulties to say goodbye to the forced mentality of egalitarianism without responsibility, which diminishes creativity, and so people often choose an easier way (also through corruption). although the great changes liberated the slovenes from two debts they became independent and at the same time shook off the collectivism that was foreign to their culture the habits and part of the “socialist folklore” still remain. the summary of the most important findings of the indirect measurement of corruption in slovenia since 2000 (škrbec, 2009). if the main findings of the indirect measurement of corruption after 2000 are summarized, it can be seen that: • compared to the period before 2000, the period after 2000 was enriched by researches, the share of them increased remarkably, the share of slovenia's corruption surveys also increased by 100%, • 42% of respondents believe that corruption is a major problem in slovenia, • mostly respondents believe that since the last elections (in 2004) things got worse as regards to the incidence of corruption, however, the most noticeable shift in the situation happened between december 2007 and february 2008, • the majority of respondents think that bribes in public services are accepted by “quite a few civil servants”, • if the answers “has somewhat increased” / “has increased significantly” are calculated, the sum represents approximately 62% of the respondents’ answers, • the greatest likelihood of an incidence of corruption, according to the personal opinion of the respondents, is in the health sector, • in all the assessed areas, the proportion of respondents who believe that corruption in this area is probable, far exceeds the proportion of those who had a real experience with the corruption in that area, • the inefficient prosecution and too low sanctions are the main cause of corruption, followed by a lack in legislation, • the majority of respondents actually experienced corruption in public procurement, in health care, in the conduct of police and inspectors, etc., • according to the respondents, the most important actors in the prevention of corruption are commission for the prevention of corruption or the former office for prevention of corruption, then the media, followed by the police, the office for money laundering prevention, inspectorates etc., • in the case of the indirect measurement, the influence on the formation of a subjective opinion on the prevalence and forms of corruption are largely caused by the media and then by personal experience, • one of the findings of the 2008 survey is that more than half of the respondents (55.4%) believe that the level of corruption in slovenia will increase in the coming years, while a quarter (25.5%) is of the opposite opinion. 14.9% of respondents think that corruption will remain the same. as part of the research for this article, a short survey of people's experiences with corruption was also made. the survey was conducted through social networks and emails. it reached 1649 respondents. 360 surveys that were filled were appropriate for the analysis with the spss programme. a surprisingly high percentage of respondents have personal experiences with corruption (157 out of 359 respondents, or 43% of the respondents whose answer to the question whether they had had a personal experience with corruption was positive). especially interesting, however, is the analysis of differences in experience with corruption by gender: gender total male female experience with corruption 1 88 69 157 2 82 120 202 total 170 189 359 14 a. 0 cells (0,0%) have expected count less than 5. the minimum expected count is 74.35. b. computed only for a 2x2 table there are differences in the experience with corruption according to gender. chi-square is 8.47, the statistical significance is 0.003. there are differences in the proportion of men who have experienced corruption, which still shows certain patriarchalism in an otherwise fairly equal slovenian society. however, there is nevertheless a huge difference between the perception (i.e. indirect measurement) and the official records, which is best seen if a comparison is made between the official records available and the perception. if only official records were considered, it could easily be concluded that the corruption in slovenia is, in fact, a small problem. discussion corruption is indeed a multi-dimensional process. on one hand there is the provider of the benefits, on the other the recipient, while both are aware of the action that remains a secret. the third link in the chain is then everyone else; the injured parties. although not every act of corruption is yet a criminal offense, it is unethical and harmful to the economic and political development of the society. the actors involved are usually those who have political, economic power and power of decisionmaking (integrity, 2013), and, as the philosopher karl popper wrote in his book open society and its enemies, the biggest problem is not who should direct, but how to control the one who directs, that is, how to organize the political and social institutions in order to prevent the weak and incompetent rulers from causing harm. however, as there is no general and unmistakable way to prevent the tyranny or the corruption of the influential people, the price of freedom is eternal alertness (brioschi, 2003, p. 125). slovenia (as well as other transition countries) is thus facing a hard nut of corruption to crack, if it wants to approach the success in the fight against corruption similar to some economically prosperous countries with a rich tradition of democracy. the european path begins with the legal order, political and social equality, and above all with the cosmopolitan cultural identity. after the acceptance of these values, a culture of mutual understanding and dialogue will also succeed. until now, the post-socialist countries that have reconstructed their failed democracy (the so called “brake down countries”) after the fall of the berlin wall have not yet traversed from the (post)transition to transformational learning society. slovenia, being one of the youngest and the smallest among them, has no transitional experience in this area (novak, 2011). therefore, in the fight against corruption, slovenia must be inspired by older and more successful democracies, and the mentality of the people, not individuals changed, as it will only thus succeed in the fight against corruption. c h i-s q u a re t e sts v a lu e d f a sy m p . s ig . (2 -sid e d ) e x a c t s ig . (2 -sid e d ) e x a c t s ig . (1 -sid e d ) p e a rso n c h i-s q u a re 8 ,4 6 6 a 1 0 ,0 0 4 c o n tin u ity c o rre c tio n b 7 ,8 5 7 1 0 ,0 0 5 l ik e lih o o d r a tio 8 ,4 9 0 1 0 ,0 0 4 f ish e r's e x a c t t e st 0 ,0 0 4 0 ,0 0 3 n o f v a lid c a se s 3 5 9 15 it can also be argued that people often do not recognize corruption, since it seems to already be a part of everyday life, a kind of folklore (typical of countries in transition), and those who get rich due to it are not condemned, but admired: “he got around it!” or, if kant's findings (kant in jager, 2015) of 1764 (which are still very true today) are used, fraudulent cunning is expanding and slowly establishing as the rule or “the maxim of behaviour”. those who are most cunning often climb to the highest positions, the mass media are putting them on a pedestal, they become role models to young people who are raised by their parents and the mass media brought up in the spirit of “delusional success”. whoever does not follow this maxim because he cannot (a simpleton) or refuses (an honest man), is subject to ridicule. an interesting point of view about what influences illegal or criminal behaviour was presented by the nobel prize winner becker in his research by means of economic analysis (1974, p. 43-47). to put it simply, according to him, a person is a rational thinking being and the decision whether or not a person will commit an unlawful act is affected by three factors: • the benefit which is acquired through the unlawful act, • the probability of being caught, • the expected sanction if the person gets caught. by comparing the first factor to the other two, the person rationally decides whether or not the unlawful act would pay off, which becker explains by the model of choice; when a perpetrator or a potential perpetrator prefers the risk or when the risk is on the brink, the perpetrator considers whether the realistic profit from the criminal act is greater or lesser than what would otherwise be received through less legally risky activities. this condition of “optimality” is, according to becker, the main principle in decision-making, and not, for instance, the effectiveness of the police or the court. to put it in short, it is about considering the possible positive and negative effects (costs and benefits) and not thinking about whether something is right or wrong. although this is a simple model, it can easily apply to an individual illegal (as well as an immoral) act, therefore also to corruption (šumah and mahić, 2017, p. 250). therefore, if we derive from this model, the legislation should make the benefit from corruption smaller than the potential negative consequences. this can, however, only be done through a change in legislation which must provide protection for those who care, increase sanctions, and enable the law enforcement authorities to act more effectively. one of the possible solutions for the reduction of corruption is offered by ariely (2012, p. 181) and based on the “broken windows theory”, described in 1982 by george kelling and james wilson in an article in the atlantic magazine. the article dealt with establishing of order in dangerous urban neighbourhoods. the authors did not see the solution in the increased police presence on the streets but rather elsewhere. they noticed that the broken windows in disorderly neighbourhoods (which remain unfixed for a long time) “are asking” for additional damage to the same building and others in the immediate surroundings by themselves. the vandalism consequently expands and intensifies. if there are no broken windows, the next vandals will not be encouraged. this theory is difficult to confirm or deny, but is logical according to ariely, and he thus suggests that petty crimes (in this case, the occurrence of small corruption) should not be overlooked, excused or ignored, as this will only increase the problems. in his opinion the said applies especially to politicians, directors, public officials and celebrities. it is true that he wonders if it would be right to subject them to stricter standards than ordinary people, however, it is necessary to be aware that people who are more under the scrutiny of others have a greater influence on the behaviour of the observers (and followers) and the consequences for the society are bigger when they do something wrong. therefore, the reaction to all phenomena of corruption, even the smallest ones, should be immediate and without mercy, for the only way to fight corruption is zero tolerance towards it. directors, public officials, politicians and similar persons should be under even more scrutiny, both in terms of their actions and their financial situation. the 16 reversal of the burden of proof7 for the control of the property, which was introduced into the slovenian law in 2011, should thus be used more frequently. if we want to deal with or limit corruption, one of the easiest and most effective ways is to take the unlawfully acquired property away from people, in which case it is not necessary to prove the blame of those who are suspected of corruption; it is them who must prove where their property is from, and if they not convincingly do that, they are stripped of their possessions. however, there is too little done in slovenia with respect to prevention and education, for only if one gets people to become aware that we are all paying or are being deprived due to corruption (worse roads, more expensive healthcare, etc.), a critical mass with zero tolerance for corruption can be created, and only thus can success in the fight against corruption be guaranteed. conclusion however, the main measures for preventing corruption are still more transparency, the establishment of mechanisms to reduce the risk of corruption and the coherence of governance with the legislation and ethics of both the state and state-owned enterprises, which can only be achieved with a sufficient number of adequately informed citizens. precisely for this reason, two coordinated directions of action are needed in the fight against corruption; the first is through education and awareness of citizens provide a critical mass, which will have zero level of corruption tolerance and at the same time provide political will for changes. references 1. ariely, d. (2012). the (honest) truth about dishonesty. new york: harper audio. 2. banovec, d. j. (2013). javno-zasebno partnerstvo in možnosti korupcije. 14. slovenski dnevi varstvoslovja. ljubljana: fakulteta za varnostne vede. 7 the reversal of the burden of proof is one of the means in the fight against all types of organized crime. this form of crime brings huge profits to criminal organizations and individuals. thus, acquired property brings more economic power that they use for the promotion of their own interests in the economy and politics. the law enforcement authorities are thus placed in a subordinate position, which is why they are always looking for new ways of limiting such crime at home and internationally. a series of international acts puts the confiscation of the crime proceeds into the foreground at the political level, as 3. becker, g. s. (1974). crime and punishment: an economic approach. in essays in the economics of crime and punishment (pp. 1-54). nber. 4. brioschi, c.a. (2003). kratka povijest korupcije – od starov vijeka do naših dana. zagreb: mate d.o.o. 5. die welt. (2013). euro krise bremst europaweit. pridobljeno 27.6. 2015 s spletne strani: http://www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article115079570/eur o-krise-bremst-europaweit-die-korruption.html 6. dimc, m. (2007). korupcija in neformalne mreže v sloveniji. magistrsko delo. ljubljana: fakulteta za družbene vede. 7. dobovšek, b. (2008). korupcija v tranziciji. študijsko gradivo. ljubljana: fakulteta za varnostne vede. 8. dobovšek, b. in minič, d. 2005. korupcija, lobiranje in neformalne mreže. korupcija in politika. ljubljana: rs,mnz,policija,generalna policijska uprava. 9. dobovšek, b. in škrbec, j. (2012). korupcija, grožnja slovenski (pravni) državi. revija za kriminalistiko in kriminologijo, 63(1), s.50-59. 10. finance. (2006). še bolj kot nezakonita korupcija je v sloveniji pereča ''zakonita'' korupcija. pridobljeno 6.10.2015 s spletne strani: http://www.finance.si/168328/%c5%a0e-bolj-kotnezakonita-korupcija-je-v-sloveniji-pere%c4%8dazakonita-korupcija?metered=yes&sid=448024442 11. grodeland, a. b. (2005, december). informal networks and corruption in the judiciary: elite interview findings from the czech republic, slovenia, bulgaria, and romania. in world bank conference “new frontiers of social policy,” december (pp. 12-15). 12. habič, s et all (2012). nacionalni sistem integritete v sloveniji: ocena in analiza. s. habič (ed.). ljubljana: društvo integriteta-društvo za etičnost javnega delovanja. 13. integriteta – društvo za etičnost javnega delovanja (2013). kaj je korupcija. pridobljeno 10.12.2015 s spletne strani: http://www.integriteta.si/ftpuser/brosura_nvo.pdf 14. izhodišča za pripravo resolucije o nacionalnem programu za preprečevanje korupcije v rs; priloga k obrazložitvi predloga zakona o preprečevanju nasprotja interesov in omejevanju korupcije (prva obravnava; eva: 2003 – 20110042), str.7. 15. jager, m. (2015). o sleparjih, dveh vrstah poštenjakov in vlogi države skozi kantov »poskus o bočeznih glave«. revija za kriminalistiko in kriminologijo, ljubljana 66(3), 208-219. 16. komisija za preprečevanje korupcije. (2010, 2011). letna poročila. pridobljeno 6.11. 2015 s spletne strani: https://www.kpk-rs.si/sl/komisija/letnaporocila well as at the level of concrete requirements for the legalisation of the established procedures. in our country as well as in others, it is known that a trial of a person who commits an offense that brings a lot of profit does not really touch their property. the aim of the reversal of the burden of proof is that the suspect loses the property if he cannot prove that the property was acquired in a legal way, and also has to settle obligations (mainly tax) to the state. 17 17. komisija za preprečevanje korupcije. (2014). ocena stanja. pridobljeno s 12.10.2015 s spletne strani: https://www.kpk-rs.si/sl/komisija/letna-porocila 18. kurdija, s. (2009). komisija za preprečevanje korupcije republike slovenije. stališča o korupciji 2009. ljubljana: fdv. 19. malnar, b. (2011). trendi neenakosti v sloveniji med statistiko in javnim mnenjem. teorija in praksa, 48(4), 951-67. 20. melgar, n., rossi, m. in smith, t. w. (2010). the perception of corruption in a cross-country perspective: why are some individuals more perceptive than others?. economia aplicada, 14(2), 183-198. 21. musek, janek. (1997). psihološke prvine narodne identitete in analiza slovenske samopodobe. v: d. nećak (ur.), avstrija. jugoslavija. slovenija. slovenska narodna identiteta skozi čas (str. 174.203). ljubljana, oddelek za zgodovino filozofske fakultete. 22. novak, b. (2011). odnos med kozmopolitskim in provincialnim pri slovencih. povzetek. pridobljeno 12.12.2015 s spletne strani: http://www.dlib.si/stream/urn:nbn:si:doczjrpdvkm/01f89b97-d653-4bb8-b55770be5d192e1b/pdf 23. partljič, s. (2012). vpliv korupcije na poslovanje med gospodarskimi subjekti. magistrsko delo. maribor: ekonomsko poslovna fakulteta. 24. peteh b. (2001). korupcija – javna naročila. društva za javna naročila in združenje seniorjev slovenije, str. 25 – 35. 25. škrbec, j. (2009). analiza posrednega merjenja korupcije v sloveniji. v: pavšič mrevlje, tinkara (ur.): varstvoslovje med teorijo in prakso. ljubljana: fakulteta za varnostne vede. 26. škrbec, j. (2013). vpliv korupcije na pravno državo v republiki sloveniji. ljubljana: fakulteta za varnostne vede. 27. šumah, š. in mahić, e. (2015). impact on the perception of corruption. iosr journal of humanities and social science issn: 2279-0845.vol. 20, issue 11 str. 21-29. 28. šumah, š. in mahić, e. (2017). dejavniki, ki vplivajo na stopnjo korupcije. revija za kriminalistiko in kriminologijo, 68(3), 248 – 257. 29. tonin, m. (2009). slovenski župani kot »vsemogočni lokalni šerifi«. ljubljana: fakulteta za družbene vede. 1. introduction references 68 challenges of female entrepreneurs in transition countries: case study of kosovo prof. ass. rrezarta gashi, msc. hana gashi aab college, faculty of economics, rrezartag@gmail.com university of prishtina, faculty of economics, gashihana5@gmail.com article history: accepted 17 april 2019 available online 30 april 2019 keywords: challenges, women, female, transition, entrepreneurship, factors a b s t r a c t opportunely in the time of globalization, female entrepreneurs, including those doing business in countries in transition, are moving towards the booming of their businesses. apart from the advantages they have in the period their countries are transitioning, female entrepreneurs also are faced with many challenges. these challenges are faced by female entrepreneurs who are doing business in kosovo, which is in a transition period. the challenges faced by female entrepreneurs in the state of kosovo, apart from economic factors, are also cultural factors. given the role of small businesses in the country's economic development, a number of these businesses are run by women, ventures also known as small businesses. through this research paper, we will try to highlight the main challenges of female entrepreneurs are facing in countries in transition, and especially in the state of kosovo, where through the recommendations collected by this research paper, we believe that we will contribute to female entrepreneurs of this country. introduction worldwide, entrepreneurship is considered as an important segment of the country's economic development. one of the biggest advantages of entrepreneurship is the possibility of creating new jobs, which is particularly important for countries that are in the transition period, to help in strengthening the wellbeing of the citizens. female entrepreneurs come up with important concrete ideas that motivate economic growth, economic development and employment (arbnore abazi salihaj, 2018). given that kosovo is a country in transition, a country devastated by war, new ventures are much needed for this country. in addition to the economic development of the country, with the growth of women-led businesses, their empowerment is also important, especially in transition countries, which usually can be considered patriarchal societies like it’s the case in kosovo. in addition, the impact of female entrepreneurs on competition, productivity and growth potentials of the country was not acknowledged and therefore women did not have sufficient support from society to achieve their entrepreneurial and managerial potential (mirjana radović-markov, 2015) there are two reasons why female entrepreneurs deserve academic research (veland ramadani, shqipe gërguri-rashiti, alain fayolle, 2015): ➢ female entrepreneurs are known as an inexhaustible source of economic growth, considering the fact that they create jobs for themselves and for the society ➢ female entrepreneurship has traditionally been betrayed both by the society in general and by social sciences, given that fact that research, policies and programs have been "men streamed" mailto:rrezartag@gmail.com mailto:gashihana5@gmail.com 69 the main reason for this research paper is that in our country, research in this field is scarce. 1. literature review a definition of female enterpreneurs can be as follows: "they are women who have certain financial capacities or who possess professional skills or who have also adept trainings in that particular field" (hind bouzekraoui, driss ferhane, 2017). entrepreneurship is an idea or vision that a woman has to explore, which helps to create new jobs and economic empowerment of the country (mohan kumar, h.s. chandrika mohana, vijaya ca, lokeshwari na, 2013). unfortunately, in the recent decades, research related to female entepreneurs has been scarce, especially in countries in transition period. usually in countries in transtion only achievement of entrepreneurs are broght to the surface. according to author marjana (2015), today most of the knowledge about the activities of female entrepreneurs are from developed countries. in the next five years, it is predicted that earnings to women of global size will have an increase from us $ 13 trillion to us $ 18 trillion. forecasts give us a interesting figure, since according to them by 2028 women will control 75% of all expenditures in the world (pula, 2016). in a research conducted by author sebiha in 2014, the number of female entrepreneurs are growing rapidly in the world. the factors that influence this growth of women in the global sectors are opportunities created by globalization, integrated markets and jobs, family support, large support from the government through various programs that started internationally and support by the government for female entrepreneurs, improving their standards, health as well as education (sabiha fazalbhoy, 2014) individually, women have made significant progress in the economy, but collectively their economic impact still remains moderate. women own about 37 percent of firms globally; however, they hold high leadership positions in only about 18 percent of enterprises; and hold the position of executive directors in less than 5 percent of the world's largest enterprises (riinvest, 2017). according to a survey conducted in 2015 by the global enternprenreurship and development instute gedi, across 77 countries around the world, the top ten where women are doing enterprenual activities are the following: united states has a score of 82.9, continuing with australia with a score of 74.8, united kingdom 70.6 , denmark with 69.7, netherlands 69.3, france 68.8, iceland 68, sweden with 66.7, finland with 66.4 and norway with a score of 66.3. (siri terjesen, ainsley lloyd, 2015). table 1. the top ten countries for female entrepreneurs rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 country u n it e d s ta te s a u st ra li a u n it e d k in g d o m d e n m a rk n e th e rl a n d s f ra n c e ic e la n d s w e d e n f in la n d n o rw a y score 82.9 74.8 70.6 69.7 69.3 68.8 68.0 66.7 66.4 66.3 source: siri terjesen, ainsley lloyd. (2015). the 2015 female entrepreneurship index. gedi institute . global entrepreneurship and development institute women usually start their own businesses in the sectors, which are more attractive to them. the avarage age of women starting their businesses is from 25 to 34 years old in the least developed countries, while in developed countries women start their business from 25 to 44 years old (merdža handalić, 2009). cyprus as a small country, but with a lot of problems, 46% of female entrepreneurs are between 31 and 44 years old, where every second women has completed secondary school, while only 34% of them have completed their postgraduate studies. it is worth mentioing that their tendency is to continue their education. 54% of young entrepreneurs have qualifications above the average level of education (mateja vadnjal, jaka vadnjal, 2015). female entrepreneurs have several advantages: opening up new firms, numerous innovations, opening up new jobs, and economic development of the country. figure 1. linking entrepreneurship to economic growth 70 source: edona haxhiu. (2015). the factors affecting success and performance of women entrepreneurs in kosovo. ljubljana, slovenia: master thesis, university of ljubljana, p.6 fortunately, women nowadays are building programs to encourage women leaders in every institution. however, there is still room for improvement in this regard. the facts that need to be considered are as follows (rrezarta gashi, 2015): ➢ many companies want more diversity in decision making or a participatory female leadership style ➢ companies and the government have more interest in setting gender balance quotas ➢ women are "unused resources" ➢ the largest number of consumers are women, so they expect to deal with other women as well according to the research conducted by poonam kain and meenakshi sharma in 2013, some of the most important factors affecting female entrepreneurs are said to be: figure 2: most important factors affecting female entrepreneurs source: poonam kain & meenakshi sharma. (2013). women entrepreneurship education need for today. apeejay-journal of management sciences and technology (ajmst), 1 (1), 47 unfortunately, female entrepreneurs face many challenges as opposed to male entrepreneurs. women usually are faced with social prejudices, especially in those countries that are in the transition period (arapi and others, 2017). some of the challenges faced by female entrepreneurs are: lack of capital, lack of professional staff, financial constraints due to large spending’s, lack of vocational training (siri roland xaviera, syed zamberi ahmadb, leilanie mohd nora, mohar yusofa, 2012). also, female entrepreneurs are often faced with a lack of capital, as it is well known that most of the household’s capital are inherited by male, not female family members, this phenomenon is particularly largely present in countries in transition. in the absence of capital, it is likely that even startups fail, because they lack capital. another challenge for female entrepreneurs is the lack of adequate training to assist them in improving their managerial and technical skills, and to solve imminent production problems, thus improving productivity and increasing success (fungai ngoma mauchi, margaret mutengezanwa, david damiyano, 2014) another challenge specific to female entrepreneurs is also the socio-cultural ones, where it is known that in developing countries the prejudices for these women are common. women are expected to play multiple roles, including family ones, which is a major obstacle to them (bharthvajan r, 2014) “the challenges in industry happen when entrepreneurs could not identify an appropriate industry and able to give profits. challenges in this industry include problems in obtaining capital financing from the banks, do not understand the business methods in the industry that they involved, problems in creating an appropriate network, competition with other businesses and the problems in ensuring the products or services offered are appropriate with the needs of consumers, the ability of the entrepreneurs in putting their business as a catalyst for the state economy and be a prime initiator pooling of state resources. these challenges represent a heavy responsibility to be shouldered by female entrepreneurs” (iklima husna abdul rahim, noor fzlinda fabeil, toh pei sung , 2017). there are many reasons for promoting entrepreneurial education, but three of them are the most important (elona garo, 2015) ➢ entrepreneurship is projected as the main force of the economy in the twenty-first century. ➢ the need for an inter-functional integration of knowledge will be the future of business education. ➢ there is a need for contemporary educators to understand not only their specialty but also the business system as a whole 71 2. push and pull factors in entrepreneurs in literature we encounter two types of factors: push and pull. we can describe the pull factor or we can look at them as external stimulators, like the average industry expectations and its effects on expected profit, market opportunities in relation to those situations where goods, services, raw materials and ways of organization can be used and sold at a higher price compared to the price of their production, attracting people to become entrepreneurs (mario ҫurҫija, 2015) whereas the push factors are, entrepreneurial motivational factors, which are not the same for all people, but are usually related to their surrounding environment and personal traits of the individuals (francesco quatraro, marco vivarelli, 2013) the difference in the perception of general push and pull factors is that pull factors could account for average industry expectations and its effects on expected profit, market opportunities in relation to those where goods, services, raw materials and organizational ways can be used and sold at a price higher than the price of their production, attracting people to entrepreneurship, while push factors can be accounted for as incentive factors for entrepreneurship of an initiative arising from the need, not the opportunity displayed (mario ҫurҫija, 2015). according to the author fauzia (2018), pull factors to female entrepreneurs can be considered the following: personal successes and achievements, economic independence, rejecting stereotypical feminine identities, using personal ideas, opening and developing family businesses, gaining a higher social status. while push factors for female entrepreneurs can be considered: unemployment, lack of higher education, lack of skills, lack of work experience, and lack of institutional and family support (fauzia jabeen, 2018). 3. female entrepreneurs in kosovo in recent years, kosovo has made its efforts to promote the advancement of equality and in fighting the discrimination of women, especially the advancement of women in leadership positions, but still the country faces many challenges in exploiting the potential of women in the labor market. the kosovo labor force survey in 2012 has released the following statistics that talk about the gender gap in employment (nazmi pllana, business support center kosovo, 2016): ➢ less than one in five (17.8%) women of working age are active in the labor market, compared to more than half of men (55.4%) of working age; ➢ among the labor force, unemployment is much higher among women compared to men (40.0% and 28.1% respectively); ➢ the employment rate of women of working age is only 10.7% whereas it is 39.9% for men in kosovo 13% of businesses are owned by women, of which 95% are micro businesses with 1 to 10 employees. (kosovo democratic institute, 2017). the number of women entrepreneurs in kosovo is also among the lowest in the region, and women often face more hurdles than men while trying to establish a business (usaid, 2015). below are appeared the percentage of individual businesses during 2017 in kosovo, both genders (mti, arbk, 2018). table 2: percentage of individual business in kosovo by gender, 2017 source: mti, arbk. (2018). arbk.rks-gov.net 72 although in a very small number, recently in our country we have seen awareness that women, can be leadership of successful businesses. they face many problems, just like women in other countries, such as: lack of training, lack of initial capital, lack of professionalism in certain areas, etc. the table below shows the percentage and number of new businesses owned by women and men (frédéric meunier, yulia krylova, rita ramalho, 2017) table 3. economies with the most significant growth in the proportion of new female business owners source: frédéric meunier,yulia krylova, rita ramalho. (2017). women’s entrepreneurshiphow to measure the gap between new female and male entrepreneurs?world bank group, p.10 like in other developing countries, women in the state of kosovo face lack of access to inheritance. most women, especially those in rural areas, are not entitled to their inheritance, although by law, males and females have equal rights in inheritance (assembly of kosovo, 2004). kosovo as a transitional country has many projects, nongovernmental organizations that are in support of female entrepreneurs. according to a research conducted by riinvest institute related to female entrepreneurs in the state of kosovo, it reveals that there are three high barriers: tax rates, small market, and administrative burden. other barriers, which are specific to female entrepreneurs are, lack of time for specific training and family obligations, these two are ranked highest. in general, female, compared to male entrepreneurs, rank barriers with lower intensity (riinvest, 2017). 4. research methodology the primary data of this research was gathered via a quantitative questionnaire composed of 19 questions. the questionnaire was previously used in a similar study, thus no piloting of the questionnaire to test its feasibility was applied (arbnore abazi salihaj, 2018). questionnaire contained single option questions, while some questions had more than one answer option. data was gathered during the period of january through february 2019. the questionnaire was distributed to 135 female entrepreneurs throughout the territory of kosovo, where their selection was done using a snowball effect. data processing and validation was done in excel, whereas, primary data will be presented through descriptive statistical analyzes. secondary data used are from similar research published in various scientific reports and publications were considered. following are the research questions: ➢ what are the main challenges influencing the success of female entrepreneurs in kosovo? ➢ who are the biggest supporters of female entrepreneurs in kosovo? following is the hypothesis of the research: ➢ the clarity of thinking to be in depended, extension investment in training, and building an institutional and family support system are the challenges facing women entrepreneurs in kosovo 73 5. research analysis the opinion of 135 female entrepreneurs distributed in all major cities all over kosovo, coming from different age groups with different educational background and field of operating businesses, mainly coming from small businesses was taken as a sample for the purpose of this research, that in order to ensure as much of a representative sample as possible considering the nature of the study but also taking into consideration the limited statistical data available in order to draw a statistically representative sample. table 4. descriptive analyzes city frequency percentage prishtina 31 22.96% peja 14 10.37% gjakova 15 11.11% prizren 18 13.33% ferizaj 12 8.89% lipjan 4 2.96% skenderaj 8 5.93% suharek 6 4.44% gjilan 11 8.15% vushtri 7 5.19% mitrovice 9 6.67% total 135 100.00% on this table appeared cities in which the questionnaires have been distributed. in total are 11 cities in total, a total of 135 respondents. table 5. age of respondents in table 5, appeared the respondents' age, which appeared that the largest percentage is made up of women aged 41-50 years with 47%, while their lowest percentage consists of women aged 20-30 years with 11 %. table 6. status of respondent status of respondent answers percentage not married 32 24% married 82 61% divorced 21 16% 135 100% table 7. education of respondent in table 6, the status of respondents is appeared, with 32 of them not married, 82 of them are married, and 21 of them are divorced. based on the table 7, it is seen that 65 out of 135 respondents are more bachelor studies, followed by master studies with 45, while only 2 of them have phd. table 8. are they equally supported by society and the family as women entrepreneurs just like men? are they equally supported by society and the family as women entrepreneurs just like men? answers percentage yes 42 31% no 93 69% 135 100% in the question "are they equally supported by society and the family as women entrepreneurs just like men", which is shows above, 93 of them have responded no, while only 42 have responded with yes. table 9. how satisfied is the institutional support for women entrepreneurs? how satisfied is the institutional support for women entrepreneurs? answers percentage not at all satisfied 45 33% age of respondents answers percentage 20-30 age 15 11% 31-40 age 42 31% 41-50 age 47 35% 51-60 age 31 23% 135 100% education of respondent answers percentage secondary school 23 17% bachelor 65 48% master degree 45 33% phd 2 1% 135 100% 74 satisfied 69 51% very satisfied 21 16% 135 84% on the question "how satisfied is the institutional support for women entrepreneurs", the responses that are presented in table no.9, 45of them have responded are not satisfy, 69 of them are satisfied and 21 of them have responded that are very satisfying. table 10. women in kosovo are women in kosovo are: answers discriminated 52 not discriminated 32 there is no gender equality between women and men 60 there is gender equality between women and men 55 need support 135 have support by family 75 are biased 63 are not biased 52 results in table 10 are: since this question had more than one answer, the results are as follows: 52 responses are that women are discriminated, 32 responses are that they are not discriminated, 60 say that there is no gender equality between men and heavy, 55 say there is equality between men and women, 75 of them say they are supported by the tire family, 63 responses are that they are biased, 52 of them are that they are not biased, all have the answer that women entrepreneurs need support, whether family or institutional. table 11. are you a participant of any organization or forum of women entrepreneurs in kosovo are you a participant of any organization or forum of women entrepreneurs in kosovo? answers percentage yes 95 70% no 40 30% 135 100% when asked "are you a participant of any organization or forum of women entrepreneurs in kosovo", 40 of them have the responses that they are not participating in any women's entrepreneurship organization, while 95 of them have a positive response. table 12. do you know about any local or world-wide organization that provides help to women entrepreneurs? do you know about any local or world-wide organization that provides help to women entrepreneurs? answers percentage yes 121 90% no 14 10% 135 100% answer of question "do you know about any local or world-wide organization that provides help to women entrepreneurs", 121 of them responded yes, while only 14 responded no. table 13. have you been a beneficiary of any donation to women entrepreneurs have you been a beneficiary of any donation to women entrepreneurs? answers percentage yes 96 71% no 39 29% 135 100% answer of question “have you been a beneficiary of any donation to women entrepreneurs “96 out of 135 respondents have responded that received donations, while only 35 of them did not benefit from donations. table 14. how many workers do you have how many workers do you have? answers percentage 1-5 workers 34 25% 6-15 workers 67 50% 16-30 workers 22 16% 30 and over 12 9% 135 100% 34 of the interviewers had a small business from 1 to 5 employees, 67 of them 6-15 employees, 22 of them had 16-30 employees, while 12 of them had more than 30 employees in their business. table 15. your business has this sector your business has this sector: answers percentage productivity 60 44% medical services 4 3% 75 aesthetic services 42 31% real estate 7 5% agriculture 16 12% finances 6 4% 135 100% fortunately, most of the answers to the question presented in table no 15 are with production, 60 or 44% of them, followed by 42 of them with aesthetic services, 16 with agriculture, of them with real estate, 6 with finance and at all end with medical services, only 4 of them. table 16. are you ignored by men who operate in the same business field as you are? are you ignored by men who operate in the same business field as you are? answers percentage yes 87 64% no 48 36% 135 100% on the question "are you ignored by men who work in the same business field as you are", 87 out of 135 respondents responded yes, while 48 of them have responded no. table 17. are there any thoughts on women that they are a major factor for economic growth are there any thoughts on women that they are a major factor for economic growth? answer s percentag e there is no progress 35 26% there is little progress 43 32% there is enough progress 57 42% 135 100% fortunately, 57 of the respondents think that women have enough progress in the country's economic growth, while 43 of them think they have little progress, while 35 believe that there is no progress in this regard. table 18. what are the challenges for women entrepreneurs what are the challenges for women entrepreneurs? answers lack of initial capital 58 lack of training 100 lack of institutional support 115 high interest rates 135 bases in table no 18 appear that all women entrepreneurs face high credit interest rates, continuing with insufficient institutional support, lack of initial capital, as well as lack of training. table 19. have you taken credit for opening a business have you taken credit for opening a business? answers percentage lack of initial capital 120 89% lack of training 15 11% 135 100% unfortunately, about 120 or 89% of female entrepreneurs interviewed have received credits from the bank for opening their business, while only 15 or 11% of them have not received credits. 5.1. hypothesis authentication the hypothesis of submitted in this research is based in the descriptive analysis. hypothesis “the clarity of thinking to be in depended, extension investment in training, and building an institutional and family support system are the challenges facing women entrepreneurs in kosovo” we can say it has been verified, since 100 respondents from 135 involved in this research have said that they lack training in the operating market, 115 responses are lacking in institutional support, 75 or 56% responded that they have lack of family support. women, as opposed to men, are also ignored in the same field of business. all women who were part of this research said they needed to support them. thus, the biggest challenges faced by women entrepreneurs in kosovo are: lack of training, lack of institutional and family support, women are also prejudiced and discriminated. discussions and recommendations during the research we have noticed that women face many challenges. many are discriminated against, and/or are faced with prejudice. another challenge, which unfortunately a big challenge for female entrepreneurs, is the lack of institutional support. in every country of the world, institutions play an important role in any development. however, given that kosovo is a country in transition, lack of institutional support is being noticed in every aspect. also high credit interest rates are another challenge for women entrepreneurs, as currently kosovo evidently has the highest interest rates in the region. nevertheless, the interest of women to engage the business activities in kosovo is very high. by offering them more training and support, they would be even more motivated and we would have a higher percentage of female involvement in the business 76 sector. at the same time, female entrepreneurs also have a positive impact on the economic development of the country, as it is known that the economies of the countries are influenced by small and medium-sized businesses, and entrepreneurs are mainly small businesses, that usually within a short period of time many of them grow into middle-sized businesses. based on the results of the research done, female entrepreneurs are usually managing small businesses, with a small number of employees. according to our sample 60 of them claim that there is no gender equality between men and women. the recommendations given for this research are as follows: • family support of female entrepreneurs should continuously grow • institutional support should grow like in developed countries. separate budget should be dedicated to the support of female entrepreneurs • banking institutions should offer lower interest rates for female entrepreneurs with a longer period of time of return. • provide opportunities for various trainings locally and abroad, as it is known that trainings plays a major role in developing of managerial skills, • there should be more non-governmental organizations that are specifically involved with female entrepreneurs and lobby for their support • non-governmental organizations have cooperation with international nongovernmental organizations in order to exchange their experiences. references 1. merdža handalić. 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(2015, 11). retrieved 1 15, 2019, from usaid.gov: https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/success/files/gr at%c3%ab%20po%20p%c3%abrparojn%c3%ab%2 0n%c3%ab%20sektorin%20afarist%20t%c3%ab%2 0kosov%c3%abs.pdf 31. veland ramadani, shqipe gërguri-rashiti, alain fayolle. (2015). female entrepreneurship in transition economies. palgrave macmillan. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2212567112003474 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2212567112003474 http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/article/view/6 http://prizrenjournal.com/index.php/pssj/article/view/6 introduction 1. literature review 2. push and pull factors in entrepreneurs 3. female entrepreneurs in kosovo 4. research methodology 5. research analysis 5.1. hypothesis authentication discussions and recommendations references algorithmic financial trading with deep convolutional neural networks: time series to image conversion approach 94 indigenous tourism ventures in malaysia: exploring its potentials and limitations siti hajar mohd idris*, norlida hanim mohd saleh** * university kbangsaan malaysia, faculty of economics and management, hajar@ukm.my ** university kbangsaan malaysia, faculty of economics and management, ida@ukm.my article info a b s t r a c t article history: accepted 21 december 2018 available online 31 december 2018 keywords: 1. introduction the dynamic growth in tourism industry has enabled it to be seen as a tool in increasing and spurring economic growth especially in countries with scarce resources (lou,y., 2018). studies have also shown that development in tourist destination areas would bring both positive and negative impacts in terms of economic, social, cultural and environmental to its surrounding regions (mathieson & wall, 1982; boopen, 2011) . the community living in these regions consequently will be affected in many ways due to tourism activities. the direct and indirect effects of this industry will prosper other industries through the value chain especially transportation, hotels and food (nowak et al., 2003). hence, some studies concluded that tourism activities are a new form of income generation mechanism that enables local communities to prosper (mitchell & ashley, 2010). tourism activities have been gathering impetus in areas where tourism can be promoted to improve economic conditions of communities which are considered to be lagging behind from the mainstream economic development. this includes the indigenous communities whom have been the center of numerous tourism studies including those explored in regions like australia (hinch & butler 2007; whitford & ruhanen, 2010), arctic (notzke, 1999), new zealand (hall et al., 1996) and africa (veuren, 2003). indigenous tourism as it is termed focus mainly on their lifestyles and cultures. in general, indigenous tourism refers to ‘activities in which indigenous people are directly involved either through control and/or by having their culture serve as the essence of the attraction’ (hinch & prentice, 2004). the primary focus and pulling factors relies on tourism activities that revolve around their culture, heritage and lifestyle. findings pertaining to these activities are mixed, stressing the tourism economics, indigenous tourism, cultural, swot/tows analysis, agro and ecotourism activities in cameron highlands malaysia play a vital role in promoting growth to its surrounding region. tourism activities generate income to the local residents including the indigenous community that lives in settlements scattered within this tourism hub. although previous studies have highlighted the economic needs to also introduce indigenous tourism to this area, limited studies have actually evaluated its potentials and limitations as a tourism product. hence this study embarks on appraising indigenous tourism potentials and developing strategies for its successful implementation. swot analysis was performed to detail its internal strengths and weaknesses and its external opportunities and threats. tows matrix was used as a situational analysis in developing strategies for the implementation of the proposed indigenous tourism product. the swot analysis shows this product has 13 strengths, 10 weaknesses, 13 opportunities and 9 threats. these points are used in the tows matrix and relevant strategies were proposed. this study concludes that indigenous tourism has great potential to be explored in this region but appropriate measures must be considered in its development and implementation. 95 facts that both negative and positive impacts are experienced by the indigenous communities whom are participating in tourism activities. however, the magnitude of the positive impacts especially in terms of economic and social outcomes (kwon & vogt, 2010), cultural preservation and appreciation makes it an important tool to be considered as a community development option. in malaysia, indigenous tourism has been introduced though very minimally exploited, in certain states like sarawak, johor and pahang. cameron highlands, the area under study is a well known destination both domestically and internationally for its agro and ecotourism. it is also a dwelling for approximately 60,000 indigenous people clustered in 28 settlements which are scattered around this mountainous region (jheoa, 2010) where some are either directly or indirectly involve in tourism activities. deserving attention however has not been given to indigenous tourism, where products highlighting their culture, heritage and lifestyles have not been a part of the central tourism attraction in cameron highlands. thus, this study brings forth a unique scenario where introducing and exploiting this type of tourism seems inevitable because of the existing tourist in flow to the area under study. the inability to pursue this venture can be perceived as an opportunity not well taken. however, it is crucial for an evaluation to be made on its potentials and constraints before any ventures and policy implementation is undertaken. although numerous studies on tourism activities in cameron highland have made suggestions on incorporating this community in tourism activities (passoff, 1991; foucat, 2002; chan et al., 2003), none however has made a comprehensive evaluation on its potentials. hence, this study aims to embark on appraising indigenous tourism potentials in cameron highland, by focussing on the community’s perception on tourism since it is vital for a long-term tourism development planning. the community is also viewed as stakeholders whom will be directly affected in the tourism development processes (ap,1992; gunn, 2002). 2. the indigenous community in cameron highland the indigenous people or better known as orang asli in malaysia is divided into three main ethnic groups which are negrito, senoi and melayuproto. these ethnic groups speak different languages, practices different culture, each with its own uniqueness. they live in settlements located in rural areas far from the city dwellings. to provide aid, assistance and facilitate their integration into the society, the government has set up jheoa, the department of aboriginal affairs under the ministry of national unity and social development. it safeguards their welfare in matters pertaining to basic facilities such as water supply, community hall, school and generator for electricity. many of the indigenous households belong to the hardcore poverty group. studies showed that their perpetuating dependence on forest base resources are the main factors contributing to poverty (mustafa, 2004; siti nor awang edo and july, 2003) since these economic activities does not provide a fixed and stable income. they collect and sell forest products including fruits, rattan, wild orchids to visitors and farmers for livelihood. due to environmental damages cause by farming, plantations, logging (wazir-jahan, 1990, barrow et al., 2003) and exposure to alternative livelihood activities, many has been seen taking up employment either directly related or indirectly related to the tourism industry. however, limited initiatives, attention and development has been done to promote indigenous handicrafts, culture and heritage as an additional tourism product to cameron highlands (nicolas, 2000). 3. literature review indigenous tourism relates to tourism servicers, products and businesses that are either completely or partially associated with the indigenous community. it is broadly defined as “tourism activities in which indigenous people are directly involved either through control and/or by having their culture serve as the essence of the attraction” (hinch and butler, 1996) where the emphasis of this definition is the word ‘control’ (zeppell, 1998). their life style which is unique and different from the tourist becomes one of the key attractions for those seeking new experience, different from their own culture (harron & weiler, 1992). indigenous tourism products therefore must be owned or operated by at least in part by an indigenous group (alexis bunten & nelson graburn, 2010). the strength of indigenous tourism product relies on the uniqueness of their culture and lifestyles (northern development ministers forum, 2008; pascal tremblay and aggie wegner,2009). studies on tourism which relates to the indigenous community have primarily focus on the issues of economics, social, cultural and environmental impact (dogget 2001, salleh et al, 2012a; mason, peter, 2012). findings are mixed, depending mainly on the community’s attitudes towards tourism itself (lepp, 2007; harrill, 2004; vargas-sánchez, 2009). positive attitudes towards tourism bring more gains to the community (aref, 2010). most however, have highlighted the importance of practising sustainable tourism to enable this community to prosper with a 96 long-term economic benefit (nepal,1997; roseland, 2012). concerns have also been raised on the effects of tourist arrivals which have brought changes to the community culture (stone, m. t., & nyaupane, g. p., 2018) and disruption to their social life (mercer, 1994). studies on indigenous community that has participated in the tourism industry highlighted some major hurdles that are of concerned. the issues revolve around the inability of those involved to attain some level of success in the industry due to their socio demographic background. these include the lack of skill and low educational attainment (craig-smith & french, 1994), limited knowledge of the industry (notzke, 2004) and their limited financial capabilities (altman & finlayson, 1993). although there are some degree of community’s involvement, it is limited to the ‘low skill low pays’ type of jobs (hunter, 1997) indicating low overall benefits to the community. in malaysia, tourism in general has brought positive impacts to the economy (othman, et al., 2012 & 2012b) especially in employment generation (liu, & wall., 2006). studies on tourism impact to the indigenous community though limited, have found both positive and negative impacts on their health and cultural preservation (man, zanisah et al., 2009; zuriatunfadzliah sahdan et al., 2009), environmental degradation (evelyn,1985). these impacts vary among different indigenous groups and location of their settlements. hence analysing tourism potentials will provide greater insights on best practices that should be undertaken to ensure sustainable tourism development growth is achieved and benefits the community. 4. methodology this study uses both secondary and primary data to analyze tourism potentials in cameron highlands. secondary data is collected to give a better understanding of the issue at hand and these are gathered from various state and district publications. primary data was collected in three stages with the cooperation of jheoa, cameron highland especially in the ice breaking process between the researchers and the community leaders. the first stage involves having a roundtable talk with representatives of jheoa and leaders of the indigenous community in each settlement. a guide was assigned to the research group to help penetrate into the settlements and get an insight of the area under study. nine settlements located in urban, suburban and rural areas were assessed in terms of infrastructure facilities, community’s social interactions with outsiders, environmental conditions, health issues and general economic activities. a questionnaire was then developed as a research instrument with two main objectives which are to measure the perceptions of these communities on tourism and secondly, to collect a comprehensive baseline data on the demographic profiles of individuals in the community. a multistage stratified sampling technique was used to identify potential respondents from the total 27 settlements which were stratified into three strata namely rural, urban and suburban. a second stage stratification was based on whether respondents were head of households or household members. a total of 475 respondents were successfully interviewed. a third stage data collection involves an in-depth interview with 20 individuals including the community leaders and those involve either directly or indirectly in the tourism industry. this includes indigenous individuals who work as tourist guide, golf caddies and hotel cleaners. swot analysis technique is used in this study to explain the possibilities of developing indigenous tourism incorporating the indigenous community living in this area. this technique has been used in studies to assess potentials of tourism products (ndenecho, 2008; hasan acka, 2006; rahmani seryasat m, 2013). it enables detail analysis on the strengths and weaknesses (internal factors) and opportunities and threats (external factors) if indigenous tourism is to be introduced to this community. the strengths would identify the niche factors that would make indigenous tourism a success while weaknesses focus on areas that require improvements. opportunities evaluate factors that can be exploited to the advantage of this venture and threats are elements that could cause harm and detrimental if overlooked. for the purpose of this study, all the items for each category are sub categorized for detail analysis. the second stage of the analysis is strategy development with tows matrix (weihrich, heinz, 1982). tows matrix develops strategies, tactics and actions based on the internal and external factors. four strategic categories in the matrix are strength-opportunity (so), strengththreats (st), weaknesses-opportunities (wo), and weaknesses-threats (wt). so maximizes its internal strength and opportunities while wo attempts to minimize its weaknesses by maximizing its opportunities. the strategy formulated for st relies on its strengths to overcome external threats. wt strategy is to minimize internal weaknesses and external threats. in summary, strategies that should be considered before exploring indigenous tourism in the area under study which is cameron highlands are 97 where proposed strategies related to product, proposed strategies related to workforce, proposed strategies related to community, proposed strategies related to infrastructure, proposed strategies related to typology, proposed strategies related to national policies. result and discussion the developed swot matrix for this study is shown in table 1. each swot categories were further refined to six criteria which are products, workforce, community, infrastructure, typology and national policies. each criterion is evaluated in terms of its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats if indigenous tourism is explored in this region. the strengths of this product rely heavily on the uniqueness of their culture and heritage expressed in their lifestyles and handicrafts. another factor is the abundance of resources that could be gathered from the surrounding forest to produce these cultural products which includes handicrafts and traditional huts. most of the indigenous individuals surveyed have good knowledge and skills in producing these products which consequently provide enough manpower to exploit indigenous tourism in this community. almost 45 percent of the respondents have attained at least a lower secondary educational level. absorption of employment by economic sectors shows that 39.0 percent are already involved in the tourism industry. since the area under study is a tourist destination area, the indigenous community attitudes and exposure towards tourism (measured on a likert scale of five) scored a high mean of 3.8 and 3.9 respectively. infrastructures have also been well maintained and all settlements are equipped with the basic facilities. the settlements are usually located away from the busy township, nestled away in the thick forest with lush greeneries and cool fresh air. this study also details the foreseen weaknesses if indigenous tourism is to be introduced to this community. the main issues include the market unreadiness of the product and the lack of proper tools and manpower to embark on successful marketing strategies. since the project involves the whole community, profit after being shared would be minimal for each individual. this acts as a disincentive since another source of income is required to supplement the needs of the family. their partially nomadic way of life remains a constrained to the 9-5 work hour’s routine. although most respondents can communicate in the national language, most are not able to speak the english language. environmental issue that needs to be addressed is the lack of systematic waste disposal where most households do open burning to rid of their waste. recycling is still at its introductory phase where small traders would come by the settlements to buy used paper, glass bottles and tin cans. public facilities especially public transportation is almost nonexistence in some remote settlement areas. since the region is mountainous, some areas have no access to telecommunication signals which makes it difficult in times of emergency. hence, there is frequent breakdown in the dissemination of information between jheoa and the community. embarking on indigenous tourism venture would provide an opportunity for the recognition of this product both domestically and internationally. as in australia and new zealand where this type of tourism has garnered worldwide exposure, indigenous tourism product from malaysia too can be exploited with its own unique signature to give an economic advantage to this community. product growth in terms of new demand for other related tourism activities would spur the creation of linkages between the community and other agencies. entrepreneurship would also mushroom among individuals in the community with the development of small cottage industry to meet the new demand. threats would include market globalization and commercialization. these would erode the distinctive nature and traits of the community to meet the new demand and also to ensure perpetual demand. deforestation due to the need for more agricultural land and housing projects would eventually deny the community of its rich fauna and flora environment. exploitation of labor is another threat that needs to be considered seriously. some respondents have mention not being paid, underpaid and made to work for long hours. the tows matrix is used to outline strategic planning procedures if this venture is to be undertaken. all the strategies are outlined in detail as shown in table 2. a joint concerted effort between the community, the government and non-governmental bodies is needed to realize the success of this venture. the community in its initial stage needs to be guided and trained in the specific skills that is required to meet the new demand. 98 table 1. swot matrix for indigenous tourism potentials in sw ot strenghts weaknesses opportunities threats p r o d u c ts • uniqueness; • craft, • culture, • lifestyles, • experience not destination, • abundance of resource; • forest produce (seasonal) • forest provides raw materials for crafts etc • ungle tracks • handicrafts; • not market ready • dependent on availability of resources • marketing; • lack communicative skills • dependent on middleman • not ‘business ready’ • signature events and festivals performed elsewhere • no linkage with tour operators • profit; • low • disincentives since they have to supplement with other source of income • recognition; • development of malaysian indigenous tourism • signature products • product growth; • interactive activities • demand for other related types of tourism • networks; • creation of linkages between agencies and the community • market globalization • cheaper imitation products • products become too consumer oriented • deforestation • resources become scarce • settlements lost the beauty of its flora and fauna w o r k fo r c e • skill; • skilled in traditional crafts culture • allocation of fund for training • experience in recreational involving indigenous people • lifestyle; • not profit/wealth driven • not used to 9-5 working environment • service quality; • communication s barriers • reserved by nature • entrepreneurs among indigenous community • creation of quality workforce amongst indigenous people • increase awareness on the importance of education and training in the • employment: • malpractices/labor exploitation • low pay • long working hours 99 • education; • sufficient educational attainment • not english speaking • lack of skill and educated staff community c o m m u n it y • attitudes • good attitudes towards tourist • good communicati on • exposure • participated community, national events • easy to organize • environmental issues; • waste disposal • forest being explored for resources • barriers; • unable to speak english • some not speaking the malay language • literacy level • participation level must be coercing • promote sustainable tourism practices • link with other agencies in the development of programmes with • the community • economic gains in terms of employment for the community • • compromise culture for commercialization of products in fr a st r u c tu r e • settlements; • easily accessible • clean water • electricity (solar) • surrounding areas; • access • lodging available • tourist information counters • distance; • some settlements are far and remote • difficult to reach in times of emergency • public facilities; • lack of tourist support services ie public transport • will incur cost to develop attractions facilities for tourist • no signage/website etc • winding roads • growth in international tourist due to cheaper and better air transport • development of cottage industry especially in making cultural handicrafts • competition between agricultural (vegetables and tea plantation) activities for land • limited coverage of internet and telecommunication servicers 100 t y p o lo g y • rich in flora and fauna , • beautiful landscape formed by tea plantations • fresh air • cool weather conducive mountain climate • difficult and costly to build facilities for tourist due to the treacherous terrain. • preservation of flora and fauna • landslide especially in rainy season • environmental degradation due to unplanned development n a ti o n a l p o li c ie s • already a tourist destination area • awareness; • lack of information dissemination regarding benefits provided for the community • new tourism product that can increase demand for malaysia tourism • land ownership of the indigenous community table 2. tows matrix strategic planning for the development of indigenous; tourism in cameron highland tows external opportunities (o) external threats (t) in te r n a l s tr e n g th ( s ) product (p) workforce (w) community (c) s-o (maxmax strategy) p1. capture domestic and international market by branding strategies p2. develop networking between local and international agencies especially tour agencies. p3. develop innovation on products w1. human resource development via training in relevant areas including soft skills. w2. development of entrepreneurial skills amongst individuals in the community. c1. positive attitudes should be manipulated to s-t (max-min strategy) p3. capture product uniqueness to have an edge in the competition against imitation products . p4. promote awareness on forest preservation practices. w3. develop link with labor ministry in setting up a bureau complaints board handle by jheoa in cameron highlands to cater labor issues. c4. setting up a panel consisting of the elders and head of settlements to oversee and form guidelines to avoid over commercialisation. 101 infrastructure (i) typology (t) national policies (np) maximize tourism positive impacts especially in terms of economic gains. c2. development of products should include effort from majority c3. partnership to restore history/museum i1. provide comprehensive tourism package that includes transports and accommodation facilities i2. develop cottage industries zones where economies of scale can reduce operating cost. t1. development of reserved forest for flora and fauna attractions and cultural huts np1: incorporate indigenous tourism as part of tourism attraction in cameron highlands i3. development of tourist attraction areas should be chosen away from areas with intense agricultural activities i4. public telephone lines should be provided for communications in the settlement areas t2. sustainable development practices must be emphasized to preserve the natural beauty of the landscape in cameron highlands np2. lobby land rights to the community before launching this project in te r n a l w e a k n e ss e s (w ) product (p) workforce (w) community (c) infrastructure (i) typology (t) national policies (np) w-o (min-max strategy) p5. link with professional agencies that would be able to advise on strategies especially on marketing aspects w4. develop relevant training programs to provide skill and knowledge including entrepreneurship c4. systematic and well-planned waste disposal to preserve the flora and fauna attractions. l5.link with international and domestic tour operators where transportation will be included in the package i6. trained tourist guides amongst the indigenous community t3. adaption of cultural huts that can be less costly and able to be built on rough mountainous areas np3. hold briefings to deepen understanding and awareness of the project to community members w-t (min-min strategy) p6. focus on indigenous products by taking into consideration the community’s specialization. p7. innovation on mixing new raw materials in production of cultural products (eg. handicrafts and huts) to preserve the forest. w5. form labor organization to have a stronger and united front in matters pertaining to labor exploitation issues. c5. implement phase by phase development to keep visitation at manageable level. estimate level of optimum success in each phase considering issue of over commercialization. i7. develop settlements that have good basic infrastructure facilities and optimal size land area reserved for future expansion t4. probable location for development must be 102 (stakeholders) and the important role of each individual member. this generates pride and further expedite the process of making indigenous tourism a part of malaysia tourism parcel assessed by relevant authorities and supported by the environmental investigation agency. np4. the government of malaysia must detail areas that belongs to the community to avoid intrusion of agricultural activities conclusion indigenous tourism has great potential to be developed in cameron highlands. tourist either from within the country or abroad will be able to learn and understand the indigenous community’s culture and heritage. it also provides opportunity for tourist to interact with this community and experience their lifestyles. through this, indigenous tourism product in malaysia will have an avenue for international recognition and consequently bring positive impacts to the indigenous community especially in terms of economic benefits. the proposed tourism product relies 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(2011). assessing the dynamic economic impact of tourism for island economies. annals of tourism research, 38(1), 291-308. 42. siti nor awang & juli edo. (2003). isu pembangunan dan dampak sosial dalam kalangan masyarakat orang asli dlm mohd razali agus & yahya ibrahim (eds.). penilaian dampak sosial. 278-290. 43. stone, m. t., & nyaupane, g. p. (2018). protected areas, wildlife-based community tourism and community livelihoods dynamics: spiraling up and down of community capitals. journal of sustainable tourism, 26(2), 307-324. 13 forest management in dangila woreda, ethiopia: bird eyes view on agamengi community forest gedifew sewenet yigzaw bahir dar university, department of governance and development studies, , ethiopia, sgedifew2010@gmail.com article history: accepted 25 march 2019 available online 30 april 2019 keywords: causes; degradation; fuel wood; resource; status a b s t r a c t this study highlights the overall current performance of agamengi forest management. descriptive survey method was employed in this study. a total of 182 respondents from 2183 households were selected through simple random sampling technique. questionnaire, key informant interview and focus group discussions were mainly employed as data collection tools in this study. this desirable sample size was determined by using yamane‘s statistical sample size determination formula. the major findings of this study revealed that the status and management of agamengi forest in the last 30 years was much dense and there was proper management of the forest. however, the current forest status is degraded and the forest management is poor mainly due to rapid population pre ssure, high demand for fuel-wood, farmland expansion, charcoal making and inadequate implementation of forest laws. this study recommends that all concerned stakeholders should work together to keep and maintain the quality of the agemengi forest through applying re-afforestation and afforestation methods. introduction development for the most part bases on the utilization and management of environmental resources, like natural forests. globally, forest management with an emphasis on participatory approaches and local benefits has become a phenomenon around the world (agrawal & gupta, 2005; nilsson, 2005). according to fao (2009), ethiopia loses about 141,000 hectares of forest each year. the main agents of deforestation in ethiopia include agricultural expansion, the inappropriateness of land-use patterns, the underlying social forces, overgrazing, consumption of firewood and charcoal, fodder collection and forest fire. besides these, poverty and rapid population growth are also seen as the main causes of forest depletion. besides these, girma (2005) noted that forest fires, encroachment of forest reserves, livestock grazing, and timber and firewood collection by the local people have also significantly contributed to deforestation. experiences made in ethiopia have also shown that participatory forest management approaches can play a key role in reversing the ongoing process of forest degradation. however, mulugeta and melaku (2008) noted that the current trend of natural resource exploitation in ethiopia is unsustainable and it has led to land degradation, loss of fresh water bodies and decline of biodiversity. hence, the forestry sector is facing the challenge of balancing utilization with conservation which requires appropriate forest policy and laws; strong and stable institutional set up, and strong forest related research backing. the status, management and economic benefits of the forest is not so far being studied. therefore, the overall objective of this study is to give bird eyes view on the management of agamengi forest in dangila woreda, ethiopia. 1. methods a descriptive survey research method was applied to have rich and clear information on forest management and conservation efforts of the government and the involvement of adjacent community. in this study, transect walk, key informant interview, focus group discussion and questionnaire survey as primary data collection techniques were mainly used. concerning respondent selection, based up on the degree of proximity to the agamengi forest resource, a total of 182 desirable sample size from 2183 households using yamane mailto:sgedifew2010@gmail.com 14 (1967) statistical sample size formula was determined and simple random sampling method was used for selecting these respondents in this study. finally, the quantitative data were cleaned, coded and entered into microsoft excel software application to generate figures. the quantitative data were analyzed using simple descriptive analytical techniques, mainly percentages. data collected through open-ended items; responses of key informant interviewees and focus group discussion were analyzed through narration. 2. major findings 2.1. the past status and management of agamengi forest the figure 1 below clearly shows the status and proper management of the agamengi forest resource in the last 30 years. figure 1. past status of agamengi forest as it has shown in figure 1, 70% of the sample farmers responded that the status and management of agamengi forest in the last 30 years was much dense and the people were responsible to manage the forest appropriately. moreover, these respondents agreed that the forest land coverage in the last thirty years was in an excellent condition due to good management of the forest by the adjacent community. 1.1. current forest coverage and management status concerning the current forest coverage, majority respondents perceived that the current forest status is excessively degraded and the forest management is poor due to population pressure and high demand for fuel wood. the key-informant interview held with model farmers shows that; the status of the agamengi forest have been under tremendous pressure from an increasing human population and their ever growing demands for shelter, land for cultivation and demand for fuel wood, timber and other forest products necessary for the livelihood. besides this, the result revealed that the local communities had no awareness regarding the sustainable use of forest resource. they were only applying their indigenous knowledge for forest protection rather than integrating their knowledge with scientific way which was being important to ensure environmental sustainability. yohannes, a model farmer, who had lived over 50 years around the forest, narrated that: the agamengi forest was the main source of food for us in the last 30 years. it was very much dense forest during the past regimes because the then government was very much sensitive in protecting and managing forest resources. the forests were mainly state forests. agamengi forest was the home of bio-diversity in the past century. there were so many wild animals like, tiger, lion, gazelle…etc. and indigenous dominant tree species in the forest in the last 30 years; however, these fauna and flora are almost disappeared today. the forest recently becomes the home of human population and livestock due to fast population growth, livestock rising, farmland expansion and demand for fuel-wood. it was observed that some farms were close to the forest and even shares border with the forest too. similarly, focus group discussions (fgds) held with eight local development committee members concerning the post 1990’s forest status revealed that: there were no guards hired by the government or by the community so as to 15 improve the sustainability of agamengi forest resource. as a result, there was free roaming of livestock, cutting of trees for sale and charcoal making inside the forest. moreover, the government did not give full legitimacy practically to the communities to control deforestation. in theory, the forest is assumed to be in the hands of the community but still there is strong government control. from this one can infer that the agamengi forest is not currently managed properly and the management system is very poor. this poor status of forest management led to forest degradation and exploitation. therefore, the concerned bodies and other stakeholders should contribute their efforts to rehabilitate the forest for sustainable use. majority of the respondents ranked carelessness of forestry experts or lack of forest experts’ work commitment towards sustainable forest management as the primary reason for poor conservation and management of agamengi forest, followed by lack of community awareness (21%). poor implementation of the forest laws is ranked third. lack of skills by local development agents and absence of forest guards are also the additional reasons for the current poor management of the forest. 2.2. perceived causes of agamengi forest destruction this study identified greater demand for charcoal making, fuelwood collection, greater number of livestock, farm land expansion and population growth, unintentional bush burning, lack of community awareness, demand for house construction and inadequate forest legislation as major perceived causes of forest degradation. figure2. perceived major causes of agamengi forest degradation as it has shown in figure 2, fuel wood is the most common and major household energy source for home based activities. because of lack of modern electric energy supply and bio-gas, majority of the households are dependent on fuel wood for household cooking. from these stand point, about 32.4 percent replied the greater demand of the people for fuel wood as the main perceived cause of agamengi forest degradation. on the other side, about 20.9 percent of respondents identified expansion of agricultural land and population pressure as the 2 nd major cause of forest destruction. moreover, demand for charcoal making, livestock rising, lack of community awareness, inadequate forest legislation, cutting trees for house construction and unintentional bush firing as additional causes of forest quality decline. one key informant forest management expert narrated about inadequacy of forest legislation as a cause of forest destruction: there were strong government forest laws and legislations formulated for ensuring sustainable forest management and to assure active community participation in forest conservation. however, there is discrepancy between formulated laws and their actual implementations. the existing laws are like; ‘’toothless dog.” local communities have no room to participate in forest management. there is still centralized forest management system. as a result, inadequate forest laws, legislations and inadequate land policies 16 are mentioned as perceived causes of forest destruction. besides, key informant interview held with local community development and forest management committee also mentioned scarcity of land, poor economic conditions and rapid population growth as other causes of forest destruction. they also added that free roaming of livestock into the forest caused great damage to the forest by fueling soil erosion since the forest is mountainous. conclusion the study revealed that the status and management of agamengi forest in the last 30 years was much dense and the people were responsible to manage it appropriately. however, the current forest status is much degraded and the forest management is poor. this poor status of forest management led to forest degradation and exploitation. high population pressure, greater demand for fuel wood, inadequate implementation of forest laws, cutting of trees for sale and charcoal making inside the forest were identified as causes of forest degradation. finally, this may cause the climate change and lose of biodiversity. hence, the government and the community should work together to improve forest sustainability and full legitimacy should be given to the communities. references 1. agrawal a. & gupta k. (2005). decentralization and participation: the governance of common pool resources in nepal’s terai. world development, 33 (7), 1101-1114. 2. aklilu a., feyera s. & tsegaye b. (2004). impact of participatory forest management practice in adabadodola forest priority area of oromia, ethiopia. ethiopian journal of natural resource, 6: 89–109. 3. food and agricultural organization (fao) (2009). state of the world’s forests. rome: fao. 4. girma a. (2005). rehabilitation and sustainable use of degraded community forests in the bale mountains of ethiopia. inaugural dissertation. albert-ludwigs-university, freiburg im breisgau, germany. 5. mulugeta l. & melaku b. (2008). participatory forest management best practices, lessons learnt and challenges encountered: the ethiopian and tanzanian experience farm–africa/sos-sahel, march 2008. africa/sos-sahel. 6. nilsson, s. (2005). experiences of policy reforms of the forest sector in transition and other countries. forest policy and economics 7, 831–847. introduction 1. methods 2. major findings 2.1. the past status and management of agamengi forest 2.2. perceived causes of agamengi forest destruction conclusion references 56 characters in fatos kongoli novel gjylë totaj, phd. c. university of prishtina “ukshin hoti, faculty of filology, gjyla_totaj@hotmail.com article history: accepted 1 may 2019 available online 30 june 2019 keywords: novel characters fatos kongoli kosovo a b s t r a c t the greater philosopher,aristotel,dealing with the characters would have said that “due to the fact that they imitate,they imitate acting people,and these people will of course be good or evil-because characters almost always follow these two peculiarities and it is known that the difference of the character of all the people is done by the good or the evil. (aristoteli, 19849). even though in the novels of our author, fatos kongoli, no such traditional line is followed, such distinction is perceptible in every literature and at any time, and of course, in the novels we are analyzing. literary scholar anton berisha says that "literary character is an important component element, especially of epic creations, may they be prose or poetry”(berisha, 1985). berisha also adds that "they are known extremely successful realizations of the characters in the traditional novel, but also in contemporary and generally modern characters, are noteworthy, but also we do not miss the lyrical characters through which the subjective world is introduce (berisha, 1985). 1. characters and narration characters are essential and key points in fatos kongoli's novels. they are conveyors, as well as the main pillars of their thematic and conceptual construction. therefore, they are also rarely classified as novels of the character, because of the size and importance that the characters have within the textual structure. fatos kongoli focuses on the theme of the characters on the chief antagonist around whom the whole story is built up, and most of the episodic situations, motives and characters are auxiliary tools for his realization and portrayal. even the secondary characters are quite significant in the narrative of certain novels of this author, like sonja, vilma, in the novel "lost"; sabit kurti in the novels "at st. peter's gate" and "the lucky man"; valmir d., in the novel "the ghost" etc. it should be noted that all the major protagonists in the novels of the congolus are male, except for the parashqevie, which is the main protagonist of the novel "bolero in the elder’s house“. so we only have a leading female protagonist. in fatos kongoli's novels, we see the observer character, who observes more than he does himself. so, a surveillance character. this is the type that appears most frequently among the protagonists of the novels of fatos kongoli. as such a character we can get, let's say, valmir d., angjelin kalaja thesar lumi, and many other characters, who observe more than they do. they are characters built with the psychic of the fearless who has no courage to take inward action, but just to look forward to what's going on outside. 2. identifying character the identifying character of fatos kongoli's literature and prose is thesar lumi, the protagonist of the "lost" novel. with this novel and with this character he has become known both for the local reader as well as for the international one. according to the scholar and albanologist, katarzyna tachzynska, "with this novel kongoli has secured himself the top position in the hierarchy of albanian literature (tachynska, prishtinë). thesar lumi has its own point of view and rebukes and confesses too much, which remained an indelible spot in the imagination of a young man. so he confesses to himself and to the others around him. the "loss" novel from the title itself marks the futility of an individual's life without a specific orientation and purpose. man in the loss of personal identity. thesar of the fatos kongoli's 57 "lost" novel, represents the profile of a character built on the basis of the absurd pattern whose essence is around the blade of consciousness and the impossible, which are facing each other from the very beginning until the end of the story. he feels lost, as he is aware of the system's corruption, but cannot do anything. regarding the character of treasury, the literary scholar arben prendi, says that “lost”is a “novel with a sincere confession, where the protagonist and confessional character positions himself in the present, in the present through a retrospective of the past (prendi, 2015). through the character of thesar lumi, we see other characters of the novel, such as xhodon of take, fag, sonjën, ladin and so on. through them is built a very specific and quite distorted world of a reality that can hardly be described as normal. and being such, he takes the trajectory of a reality approaching more absurdly. in his confrontation with xhodon, who was a functionary and director of the school, thesar suffered his first defeat. he lost the ideal he had for his father as a possible protector of him and of the truth. 2.1. regime and punishment in the "the three of us" novel, we have three main characters, as we can see from his title. so the three characters of this novel are: miri, fredi simaku and ina. fredi simaku is a worker in a factory and is in love with ina who is an engineer there. due to bad family biography, fredi is punished by the communist regime, and in this case, the family of ina also suffered because he visited them very often during the time they considered their son-in-law. while miri's character appears more like a child, as the tale in this novel speaks of three age-old protagonists, such as childhood, early youth, and maturity. so the number three in this novel is extremely essential for all aspects of it, in this case for the characters we are discussing. 2.2. characters and “carusel” in the novel "karuseli" of this author we have three main characters, such as albana progri, minella troja and agron gjiknuri. since we have three narrative tips in this novel, then it is natural to have three main characters, though albana progri is more present and representative in terms of narrative situations and thematic motives present in this novel. the first narrative point is that of,albana progri, which is also the main character around which the whole story unfolds in this novel of the konkoli. the second point is that of, minella troy, which is the catalyst character of the novel, about which most of the events in this novel are developed. while the third point is that of agron gjiknur, styled edmond dante, through whom, is linked this work of kongol. albana progri is a young pharmacist, a daughter of an ambassador who has developed a youthful life by being petfriendly by the family and the circle. she's a kind of fragile girl and so the tragedy follows her. she is in love with minella troy, while she is loved by martin and agron gjiknuri. minella troy is a controversial character and figure. from the beginning of the novel to the end we are presented as a painter and a new professor of art full of love for albana and his art. while at the end of the novel he appears to us with a feature that completely alters the look of his character. so in him we see a characteristic revelation where the lover comes to us only the careerist, who had all the excitement and all the slanderous courtesy. while agron gjiknuri appears to us as a conflicting and libelous character. many people suffer from lies, including albana, whom he loved. 2.3. subtext from “the ghost” in the novel "the ghost" of fatos kongoli the main character is festim gurabardhi. he, besides being the main character of the novel, carries in himself the main messages and subtexts of the novel "the ghost". it carries all the meaning and is the nucleus of action in this novel. he, besides character, is also a confessor himself, keeping, as the researchers say, "the reader related to him. (doda, 2006). through festim gurabardhi is best described the figure of a middle and low-ranking regime official, who, though profoundly disagreeing with dictatorship, simply does not do anything except silent disagreement as it turns out to have been the majority of albanians during the regime of enver hoxha. he is not acting, being a character who feels constant fear. he is afraid of the people of the system, even without making any fault, being convinced that dictatorship punishes the individual even when he does nothing when he does neither good nor bad. so we're dealing with a system that penalizes non-nationalists as well. so, it's a character tip that has the dimensions of a passive character that does not turn itself even when it feels he has to do it. so we have a feature anti-hero character that is a sign of the poetics of the modernist novel. a very special character in the novel "the ghost" is valmir d, which is one of the most prominent protagonists in the contemporary albanian prose. profiling the character valmir d., who is one of the main actors of the novel "the ghost" is the most powerful sculpture of a character and a character in our letters. he is the childhood partner of festim gurabardh, but also his greatest tormentor. valmir d., is a human prototype serving the dictatorial system. it is one of the important chain linkages of the system, acting and thinking forever in its hardening. for the most important thing is the system of the man himself, so each individual who posed a danger to the system, for valmir d.'s mentality, should be punished, regardless of whether he was a friend or a collaborator. 2.4. situations and characters in kongoli novel 58 genc skampa is the main character of the "ivory dragon" novel. he is one of the most specific characters of romanesque prose of fatos kongoli. he is a full character accomplished in its entirety. to be confessed from his early youth to his old age, when most of his old memories remain of his past memories. so his profile alternates in different parts of this story. the narration starts with genc skampën in love and finishes with genc skampa in memories. he during the time of the chinese cultural revolution and the good relations of enver hoxha with china of mao zedong had been a student at peking university. there he is introduced to chinese friends and falls in love with a chinese girl, lui sini. after his compulsory return to albania, genc skampa marries and insists on starting a new life. a life start that never makes him happy, despite being father of two children. he later divorces with his wife and with the already grown children, almost loses contact. he tries to connect with his young girlfriend, rita, but without success, as he remains hostage to the past. his past is felt most closely during a paris visit, where he met someone who resembles so much his former chinese girlfriend lui sini. in short, these are the voices of a character like genc skampa of our novel. in the novel "damokleut's dream" the main character is ergysi. he is one of the most prominent characters of romanesque prose of fatos congolese. in his actions, we see a combination of what we can call a realistic character and what we can call it a fantasy character. so a no typical kind of kongoli novel, when we consider that most of his characters are in the midst of realistic portraying and portraying as absurd beings, which goes far beyond portraying the characters of modernist prose. ergysi is a persuaded character that a supernatural hand, a secret hand, guides the destiny of destiny, drives human life and its development. so a character covered with fatalism. this sensation makes you walk in situations of psychological delusions. in such a state he faces damokleu, a mythological figure recognized by antiquity. kristi tarapi of the novel "the skin of the dog" is one of the most distinctive characters not only of the prose of kongol, but of all contemporary albanian literature. he is the chief protagonist of the novel "dog skin". around him behave all the actions, all motives and ideas that may arise from reading and interpreting the text. kristi tarapi is a character that feels lonely, like many characters of his creator's novels as a character. apart from being alone, he has an indescribable sense of selfdepreciation and a fearful fear of what might happen to him and his close people. an absurd character that apart from individual existence is not that there is any interest in other things. like most of the characters of kongoli, kristi is not part of any great social and political cause, nor does he or she bare such things. he is also unfulfilled in the emotional and erotic plan. he is the illusionist who only tends to do this, but is not making great concrete efforts. in this aspect, and in that of the illusionist dimension of the character, christi tarapi differs from other characters of kongol who do not have this dimension. in the novel "at st. peter's gate" we have four very specific characters and each is the bearer of the narrative in its own way. we are dealing with a novel by the rarest of kongol, where we do not have a leading character as a narration carrier. so the four characters of this novel are: plator guri, ardiana gjini, sabit kurti and erald perjaku. plator guri is a university professor of history and married to ardiana gjini, an important woman in the cultural districts of the capital of albania, tirana. it's a tragic, as grotesque character. it is the victim of an accidental attack of a group who had thought of killing someone else but he accidentally he had been there and the bullet had hit him. ardiana gjini is a well-known writer of tirana and the wife of the historian plator guri. she is a character that is more engraved through the realistic prose model. in one way or another, it is a grotesque victim of reality created during the years of democratic transition in albania. she suffers the fact that her husband is in a coma, in a state of shyness between life and death, as well as the insults that the media are doing just about the case of her husband's serious injury. sabit kurti is a police investigator who has been searching for criminal groups that function in the neighborhoods of the albanian capital. his investigation did not succeed because of the links of these groups with different segments of the state. his investigation gives, as we have said, the novel "at st. peter's gate" an aspect of the police narrative that is a narrative way lacking in albanian artistic prose. this character is also present in the novel "lucky man" by the same author. while erald perjakut is a young boy from northern albania, from peripheral areas of the country, living in a peripheral suburb of the capital, which in the confession is called by the capitals as "chechnya". such a young man with significant material and cultural shortages, poor in many dimensions, turns into a "devoted soldier" of the criminal group led by the owner of the "lura" complex. in the novel "life in a racket box" as the main character and carrier of ideas and confession we have bledi terziu who is a journalist in profession. his life and routine changes due to a coincidence. such a thing causes absurd situations in this novel by fatos kongoli. bledi terziu, in completely random circumstances, turns into a criminal, without his will. in his apartment comes randomly a gipsy girl and he invites her to make sex. so this gipsy girl accidentally dies in the bathroom of the 59 bled apartment. he falls into doubt whether he should call the police about the tragic case in his apartment, or throw the corpse of the new gipsy girl into the suburbs of the city. being frightened of what might have happened, if he admitted that such a thing had happened in his apartment, he chooses the second option. she throws the girl's corpse in a remote area on the outside part of the city. so the journalist bledi terziu inadvertently makes a crime, not because the girl dies in his apartment, but because he had thrown her corpse as a common criminal. an accidental death that would change the course of life to our main character. in the novel "bolero in the elders house" as a protagonist and confessor is parashqevia, a nurse in profession, who speaks to us of her past and present, her problems and special moments of life. confessing from a woman's point of view, we can emphasize that we are dealing with a narrative quality and deep psychological recognition by the author, a dimension that completes kongol as a prose. the character of parashqevi, is one of the most powerful and most complete characters of this artist's prose. it is one of the few characters of kongol that tries to change something, do something different from others or, better say she has a revolt of her own. she takes care of two lonely elders, since she is a nurse in profession and is constantly close to them, tracking the fate of the two neglected beings that their relatives already consider to be excessive. parashqevia has a problem with itself. there is a lack of self-confidence and self-realization. she feels ugly and there is a nervousness that goes so far as to hate herself. she also has a feeling for the same sex. he loves hannah and feels great pain when she dies in the civil conflict that occurred in albania in 1997. parashqevia suffered a traumatic shock during these disrupted riots this year. she is sexually raped by a group of boys led by anne's brother. in the novel "gjemia e mbytur", the main character is glauk fusha, a forty-two year old who returns to albania after a time of migration. he is looking for his identity and truth about his family. in his quest to know himself, his family and his circle, and to find out the truth, glauk becomes a tremendous terrorist of the people of the former communist albanian regime. he puts the fear of the former regime servants, especially those who were responsible for killing his father, berti fusha. a very special and extremely significant personage for this novel by fatos kongoli is the character of dhimo shkurat who is an elder about seventy. he had been one of the most important people in the hierarchy of the communist bloody regime. dhimo shkurra is in a way the directly causes the glauk fushë family's tragedy during the time of communism. in the novel "si-do-re-la" the main character is ardi, a young man around the age of thirty who has the profile of a memorial character that continues to be mindful of a past love, a love of early youth that is also really his first love. it is in constant memories of dorna, which he always remembers, no matter how long years pass and no matter he meets many other women. he meets again after many years with doras that some called ela, and some to ridicule him and call him sida. so by the unification of these three names comes the acronym "si-do-re-la" that for ardin is a vital motive and element that makes him live with a beautiful memory he wanted to return over and over again. in the novel "lucky man" we have two main characters, such as sabit kurti and gentian engjëll. due to the fact that in this novel there are two thematic lines, then the addition of two characters is a natural thing. the first character, sabit kurti, is linked to the line of the first thematic motif that characterizes this novel of kongoli. sabit kurti is a special character of this author. he is also present in other novels of this author, especially in the novel "at saint peter's gate". in this novel comes the same features as in the previous one. sabit kurti is invited to investigate a sensible case, to uncover a crime that had occurred in a hotel built at the foot of the albanian coast. at the hotel with no ordinary name "elsinor" there has been a crime and the task of the old investigator is to uncover the truth. gentian engjelli is the key character around which the second thematic aspect of the novel "lucky man" arises. he is in the midst of two love: real and illusive and virtual. his real love is called cleopatra, a beautiful blonde, while his illusive love is called vega, a girl with big black eyes. two parallel love of the main character, one real, the other virtual, develop into a dimension as absurd as grotesque. "illusion in the drawer" is an autobiographical novel, so naturally the character is the author himself. so we do not find it appropriate to deal with the same logic as the characters of fiction romances, even though they have autobiographical signs, but we have preferred to read them as fiction, since for such a biographical and autobiographical reading we need the help of the psychoanalytic method of literature study. also, in the stories of kongol, we have not encountered any character that is representative and equally valuable in terms of stylistic and conceptual, as is the character of a series of novels of this author. based on this, we have not seen the story of characters in the same line with the characters of fatos kongoli's novels that are among the most interesting in today's albanian novel. conclusion there are many characters in fatos kongoli prose which are related to the albanian reality and their past life connected with many of before, during and after communist situations. the whole 60 construction of kongoli novels are numerous situations lived by each character. it should be noted that the variety of characters' actions in the novel of kongoli and many other credible facts are the human situations and actions artistically presented by the author in his novels. kongol has written a lot of novels, so it is not enough to talk about each of them in just an article, so it remains for another occasion to present in more details the other situations in his novels. references 1. kongoli, fatos, “bolero in elders house ”, novel, toena publishing house, tiranë, 2009. 2. kongoli, fatos, “ivory dragon”,novel, toena publishing house, tiranë, 2009. 3. kongoli, fatos, “ damokleu dream”, novel,toena publishing house, tiranë, 2004. 4. kongoli, fatos, “gjemia e mbytur”, novel, toena, tiranë, 2015. 5. kongoli, fatos, “the lost”, novel, faik konica publishing house, prishtinë, 2000. 6. kongoli, fatos, “ilusions in the drawer”,toena publishing house, tiranë, 2010. 7. kongoli, fatos, “life in a racket box”, novel, toena publishing tiranë, 2009. 8. kongoli, fatos, “carusel”, novel,toena publishing tiranë, 2007. 9. kongoli, fatos, “the ghost”, novel, toena publishing, tiranë, 2007. 10. kongoli, fatos, “dog”s leather”, novel toena publishing, tiranë, 2006. 11. kongoli, fatos, “the three of us”, novel, toena publishing, tiranë, 2006. 12. kongoli, fatos. “the lucky man”, novel, toena publishing, tiranë, 2015. 13. kongoli, fatos, “si-do-re-la”, novel,toena publishing, tiranë, 2011. 14. kongoli, fatos: “to saint peter”s gate ”, novel,toena publishing, tiranë, 2006. 15. elsie, robert: “history of albanian literature”, dukagjini, pejë, 1996 16. hamiti, sabri: “albanisma”, akademy of science and arts of kosovo; special publishing ciii; section of linguistics and literature; book 42, prishtinë, 2009 17. olluri, adil: “face of tirany: narration of dictatiorship in the contemporary albanian novel”,albanologic institute of prishtina, prishtinë, 2017. 18. qosja, rexhep: “new albanological notions ”, albanologic institute, prishtinë, 1983. 19. todd, allan: “the europian dictatorships: hiteler, stalin, mussolini”, cambridge university press, cambridge-uk, 2002. 20. vinca, agim: “albanian alternative literature”,third edition,albanologic institute, prishtinë, 2009. 21. vinca, agim, “lost-the novel that signed the success of an authori”, literary magazine“jeta e re”, no 1, year xlvi, prishtinë, 2015. 22. xhaferri, hamit, novel “dog”s skin” of fatos kongolit, international seminar of albanian language,literature xxviii nr. 28/2, prishtinë, 2009. 23. mehmetaj, albana, “literature of absurdkamy dhe kongoli”, jeta e re,literary magazine, prishtinë, nr. 3, 2010. 24. pasho, severine, “prose of kongolilabirinth of human pain”, literary magazine mehr licht, tiranë, 2007. 25. prendi, arben, “albanian contemporary literature”: combination of poetics and decodation of metaphysic realities in contemporary albanian literature”, fiorentina, shkodër, 2015. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 154 the investigation of investor behaviors in terms of behavioral finance and investor psychology: the case of sultanhi̇sar district dr. yasemin coşkun aydın adnan menderes university, turkey yascoskunk@hotmail.com abstract today, one way of understanding the activity and inactivity of the world of finance passes through understanding human because the investment decisions that individuals make or not are completely related to human, that is to say, to themselves. in this sense, the investment decisions that individuals have made or not are available for research in the field of behavioral finance and striking results have been revealed. within this context, the aim of this study was to reveal the investor profiles of the farmers working in sultanhisar district of aydın province, the distinguished province of aegean region and to try to determine which psychological factors they were influenced by while making investment decisions. as a result of the study, investor profiles were revealed and of investor psychological bias, acquaintance delusion, overconfidence delusion, attribution delusion, representation heuristic, predisposition effect, and over optimism delusion was used. at the end of the research, it was determined that there were differences among the sub-dimensions used and suggestions were presented. keywords: investor behavior, behavioral finance, investor, delusion. mailto:yascoskunk@hotmail.com prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 155 1. introduction the world of finance, contrary to ongoing traditional finance models of the last fifty years, give wider publicity to the concepts of human and investor psychology with behavioral finance because investors do not make investment decisions depending only on financial indicators but also on how their own psychologies are effected. within this context, by examining the concept of behavioral finance, investor psychology and which psychological bias investor psychology is effected and analyzing with spss 22 package program in this study, they were interpreted and it was determined that there were differences among the sub-dimensions of delusion used. 2. literature review there are many studies in the world and in turkey aiming to determine the profiles of the investors in the field of behavioral finance and to investigate how their moods are influenced and thus, they make investment decisions. however, because of the fact that there are no studies on farmers in turkey until today, this study is the first one on behavioral finance implemented to farmers working in turkey. almost all the studies conducted so far are directed to equity share investors and these studies in turkey are as follows: in their study, oran, yılmaz and özer (2010) aimed to investigate the presence of some perceptual deviations that are common in the literature (anchoring, reference points, biased probability evaluation and risk trends) in turkey, which is developing and which has a fluxional environment. the data used in the study was obtained by the survey method and applied to a wide range of participants from university students through employees and retired people. as a result of the study, it was determined that the participants did not exhibit simple anchoring perceptual delusion significantly, yet the reference point effect was encouraging the present option with the existence of a safe alternative, that the perceptual deviation of the biased probability evaluation outweighed in the direction of gambler delusion and the risk tendency was highly effective on individual decisions. the aim of the study by kahyaoğlu and ülkü (2012) was to examine the impact of the risk level individual equity share investors undertook, in other words the impact on their risk-taking tendencies, as a result of the risk level they perceived. in the analysis where real data in terms of the equity share purchase-sale transactions of 31 individual investors in istanbul stock exchange between 1st january 2007 and 31st december 2009 was used, it was determined that prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 156 the investment decisions of individual equity share investors were sensitive to their previous performances and that this sensitivity was seen in their last one day returns. in their study, çömlekçi, öncü and çakır çömlekçi (2015) questioned the relationship between anomaly perceptions and investor characteristics of the individual investors trading in borsa istanbul. the population of the study was composed of all individual investors having made equity share purchase-sale transactions in borsa istanbul. sampling was used in the study and snowball sampling method was preferred. as a result of the research, it was determined that individual investors perceived anomalies as price anomalies, firm anomalies, weekday anomalies and daytime anomalies. besides, it was concluded that there were differences in the anomaly perceptions of the investors according to their demographic characteristics and investor characteristics. the aim of the study by doğan (2016) was to test the relationship between investment fund preferences and behavioral finance tendencies in the private pension system. risk perception, risk-taking attitude, emotional intelligence, basic financial literacy and advanced financial literacy variables were used as behavioral finance tendencies. in the research, the questionnaire was conducted on 400 employees of the banks in ankara, bursa and mersin provinces. anova, chi-square, t-test and correlation methods were used in the study. as a result of the analyses performed, it was found that risk perception, risk-taking attitude, emotional intelligence, and basic and advanced financial literacy levels were effective on private pension investment fund preferences. in their study, kesbiç and yiğit (2016) conducted a questionnaire of 36 items on the individual investors living in the urban areas of manisa province and its districts in order to reveal the demographic characteristics influencing the individuals’ investments and the importance of their knowledge about the economic conditions, social-cultural environment they were in and the economic issues. accordingly, percentage and variance analyses were performed by using spss 22 program to measure the risk tendencies of the individuals according to their income, saving rates and demographic characteristics. as a result, it was found that there were significant differences among some demographic and socio-economic groups. in their study, angı, bekçi and karataş (2016) aimed to reveal whether there was a relationship between the investment decisions of individual equity share investors and demographic characteristics and cognitive bias, which was one of the psychological tendencies, and the level of this relationship, if any. for this purpose, general information was given about the cognitive prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 157 bias of the investors first. then, a questionnaire was applied to the individual investors in the western mediterranean region (antalya, isparta and burdur provinces), the data obtained was tested by frequency analysis, arithmetic mean, standard deviation, two-dimensional factor analysis, t-test analysis and one-way anova, and it was found that the investment in the equity shares was preferred more by men compared to women. it was also concluded that married people invested more in equity shares. the aim of the study by dizarlar and şener (2016) was to determine the risk-taking behaviors of individual investors. in the theoretical phase of the study, the developments in behavioral finance theories were examined. in the research phase, the relationship between the demographic and social characteristics of individual investors and their risk-taking behaviors was investigated. the questionnaires applied to individual investors in the research through simple random sampling method were interpreted by chi-square and frequency analysis. as a result of the research, individual investors revealed that the most significant element while investing was to be knowledgeable about the securities and the market. besides, the presence of a “pseudo-certainty effect”, which explains the characteristics of the investors who both take risk and avoid risk according to the amount they allocate for investment was also observed. in the research, it was concluded that socio-economic factors and knowledge were influential on the investors’ risk-taking behaviors. in their study, cihangir, şak and bilgin (2016) attempted to examine the factors affecting riskreturn preferences of individual investors by means of various demographic characteristics. based on the individual investors in osmaniye province, the research was conducted by using survey method on randomly selected individuals from different professions with random sampling method. the data obtained was evaluated using “multinominal probit model” and it was observed that individual investors showed different risk-taking levels according to some demographic characteristics. as a result of the model estimation, it was found that of the demographic factors, gender and marital status variables were effective on the individuals’ risk preferences. the main aim of the study by i̇stanbullu dinçer, dinçer, kulakoğlu dilek, altınay and ulucan (2017) was to evaluate and argue the individual touristic investors’ psychological tendencies in their investment decisions towards turkey market within the context of behavioral finance theory. in the study, the studies conducted on the insufficiency of traditional finance theories on influencing the decision-making processes of the individuals were given first, and behavioral finance theory, which is an alternative or supplementary approach, was explained in a prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 158 comparative manner. the theoretical discussion on how behavioral finance theory takes place within the context of investment and investors in the tourism sector was given and the psychological tendencies influencing the decision-making processes of individual investors were mentioned. finally, suggestions for future studies were developed to conduct more studies for tourist investors related to behavioral theory, which helps us to acquire how and why individual investors are making investment decisions. in the study by asoy and saldanlı (2017), it was aimed to investigate the bias of overconfidence and over optimism, which are supposed to cause individuals to act irrationally in their investment decisions and which are often handled under the heading of behavioral finance. based on the questionnaire applied to 423 individual investors trading in bi̇st (borsa istanbul), it was aimed to identify both these cognitive bias and the demographic factors that were thought to have impact on these bias. in line with the statistical data obtained as a result of the survey, it was noticed that individual investors trusted in their personal intuitions and analyses and they were optimistic in their expectations of the future. on the other hand, as a result of the multiple regression analysis applied, it was determined that gender, age, sector experience and monthly income were independent variables. therefore, it was concluded that on the contrary to the assumption that traditional investment theories standardize individuals, they might be said to exhibit different attitudes according to age, gender, sector experience and monthly income. 3. behavioral finance traditional financial models assume that the individual is rational, expect him to act accordingly and make investment decisions. in other words, it assumes that the rational human acts according to the assumptions of the effective market hypothesis, has enough knowledge, acquires the new information immediately and is an individual who does not repeat his mistakes, which is completely a delusion today since the individual is a whole and is not just financial indicators and knowledge completing this whole. behavioral finance has emerged in order to understand and interpret human as a whole. in the expectation theory developed by kahneman and tversky (1979) and which is the basis of behavioral finance, it is suggested that individuals give different significance to income and loss at different probability levels. contrary to expected utility theory, the expectation theory also pays attention to psychological factors. psychological factors cause investors to deviate systematically in the same way moving away from rationally. the expectation theory, which is used as a descriptive model in kahneman and tversky's (1979) decision-making process prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 159 under risk, and the heuristics of decision theory under uncertainty clarify many issues in the psychological dimension that traditional finance models have trouble with. in behavioral finance, it is emphasized that investors should be considered "normal" rather than rational. it is assumed that other variables together with risk and return are also effective in investment decisions and that investors take the decisions that best satisfy themselves instead of maximizing the benefit (köse & akkaya, 2016). behavioral finance advocates that human psychology should also be taken into consideration as it accepts human as an entity of flesh and blood as well as the knowledge of investment acquired. behavioral finance is a relatively new but rapidly evolving field that focuses on how human psychology affects the financial decisions in the direction of certain bias and tendencies by combining behavioral psychology with traditional economics and finance (tufan, 2008; bayar, 2011). 4. investor psychology and psychological bias influencing investor psychology investor psychology, which is the fundamental issue of behavioral finance, is basically related to two sciences. when investor psychology is the subject matter, investor and the science of psychology must be associated. the investor, with the most general definition, can be defined as an individual who decides to buy or sell any financial asset under uncertainty in order to obtain returns. being a field of science on human, psychology is the most significant scientific discipline that influences the direction and position of the investment decisions that investors will take or have taken. for this reason, the most fundamental aspect of behavioral finance is investor psychology. investors are influenced by various factors while taking investment decisions. in addition to the quality and quantity of the investments, the behaviors and psychology of investors are the most significant of these factors. this is also the basis of the fact that many investors with similar data make different decisions (ede, 2007). investors need to learn how to manage themselves as well as their knowledge of investment. while making an investment decision, emotional factors, cognitive factors and shortcuts (heuristic) are of great importance. many psychological reasons and psychological bias (delusions) that prevent investors from making rational decisions arise (küden, 2014). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 160 in the study, six shortcuts were used as the shortcuts influencing the investors. four of them are cognitive and two of them are emotional bias. for this reason, the shortcuts used in the study are as follows. 4.1. acquaintance delusion investors prefer things they know (they are acquainted with). the individuals do shopping from the shopping center they know, support the local sports team, and purchase the shares of the company they work with or they know because they are acquainted. individuals prefer the option they have more knowledge about when they are confronted with two risky choices. individuals sometimes choose the option they are more acquainted with even if it is highly unlikely for them to win (heath & tversky, 1991). acquaintance delusion is among the cognitive shortcuts influencing the investors. 4.2. overconfidence delusion overconfidence is a situation in which people tend to value the accuracy of knowledge more than it has to be with their level of knowledge and abilities, or in which they are extremely sure of their abilities to control the future. in other words, overconfidence causes people to overestimate their knowledge, underestimate the risks and exaggerate their ability to control the events (ackert & deaves, 2010). in a significant amount of the studies conducted on behavioral finance, people are generally found to feel overconfident and overestimate their abilities compared to those of others (döm, 2003). there are three main reasons beneath overconfidence delusion, which are cognitive shortcuts in behavioral finance. these are attribution, knowledge and control delusions (döm, 2003). 4.3. attribution delusion according to the concept of attribution delusion in cognitive psychology, while people link successful outcomes to their own abilities and intense efforts, they attribute failures to external factors such as bad luck (ansari, 2006). the fact that the individual has attribution delusion can be linked to himself. for example, people who have more arrogant attitudes are more likely to have attribution delusions. on the other hand, factors such as cultural values, gender, and attaching importance to the task undertaken are the indicators of excessive attribution delusion. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 161 4.4. representation delusion representation delusion is based on the investors' preference of total return without paying attention to its potential by associating good shares concept with good companies. in other words, representation illusion is the illusion that prevents the investors from accurately assessing the investment and market knowledge and thus, is said to be the cause of losses (nofsinger, 2001) because the investor cannot distinguish between the good company and the investable company. good companies do not always mean that they are investable companies (döm, 2003). representation delusion is also among the cognitive shortcuts in behavioral finance. 4.5. predisposition effect the fact that investors tend to keep the investments of loss for a long time and dispose the investments of profit very quickly is an emotional shortcut. according to predisposition effect, individuals do not behave rationally but act according to what their feelings say and take decisions in that way. there are three basic points to be emphasized about predisposition effect. these include the point that previous investment returns effect subsequent risk-taking behavior, the bias towards the return expectations such as returning to the average, and the theory of regret (döm, 2003). individuals have a tendency to either keep the investment more than it has to be or sell it immediately because of such reasons, and thus, they exhibit predisposition effect. 4.6. over optimism delusion over optimism delusion arises in the financial markets in the equity share recommendations of investment counsellors to their investors and in company return forecasting (orçun, 2016). over optimism illusion is presumed to be a mood so this delusion is included in behavioral finance as an emotional shortcut. banks, which are one of the most important actors of financial markets, increase their loan supply significantly with the influence of inflated balloons during the periods when economy is in a positive phase in over optimism illusion and the more the time that goes by until the prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 162 balloon fulminates the wider the loan supply is (altunöz & altunöz, 2017). this situation increases the volatility of the investor’s emotional state. 5. material and method 5.1. research method the aim of this study was to determine the investor profiles and behaviors of the farmers and by revealing which psychological factors they were influenced by while making investment decisions, to have knowledge about investor psychologies. according to the data obtained from the directorate of agriculture in sultanhisar district, aydın province, there were 2009 farmers registered in the farmer registration system (frs) in 2017. therefore, assuming that these 2009 farmers were the population of the research, 10% of them were reached and the questionnaire was applied to 226 farmers. in the research, the questionnaire with a total of 35 questions including demographic characteristics, the questions to determine investor profile and behavior and the questions to determine investor psychology were adapted and applied by transforming from the survey prepared by döm (2003). 5.2. research hypotheses the hypotheses of the study are determined as follows: h1 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational status and delusion subdimensions. h1.1 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational status and acquaintance delusion. h1.2 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational status and overconfidence delusion. h1.3 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational status and attribution delusion. h1.4 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational status and representation heuristic. h1.5 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational status and predisposition effect. h1.6 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational status and over optimism delusion. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 163 h2 there is a relationship between the investors’ age and delusion sub-dimensions. h2.1 there is a relationship between the investors’ age and acquaintance delusion. h2.2 there is a relationship between the investors’ age and overconfidence delusion. h2.3 there is a relationship between the investors’ age and attribution delusion. h2.4 there is a relationship between the investors’ age and representation heuristic. h2.5 there is a relationship between the investors’ age and predisposition effect. h2.6 there is a relationship between the investors’ age and over optimism delusion. h3 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational level and delusion subdimensions. h3.1 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational level and acquaintance delusion. h3.2 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational level and overconfidence delusion. h3.3 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational level and attribution delusion. h3.4 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational level and representation heuristic. h3.5 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational level and predisposition effect. h3.6 there is a relationship between the investors’ educational level and over optimism delusion. h4 there is a relationship between the investors’ bias level and delusion subdimensions. h4.1 there is a relationship between the investors’ bias level and acquaintance delusion. h4.2 there is a relationship between the investors’ bias level and overconfidence delusion. h4.3 there is a relationship between the investors’ bias level and attribution delusion. h4.4 there is a relationship between the investors’ bias level and representation heuristic. h4.5 there is a relationship between the investors’ bias level and predisposition effect. h4.6 there is a relationship between the investors’ bias level and over optimism delusion. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 164 h5: there is a statistically significant relationship among the participants’ delusion sub-dimensions. 5.3. findings and evaluation in the analysis of the research data; descriptive statistics were presented with frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation values. t-test analysis was performed in order to examine whether the sub-dimensions of delusion differed according to gender. anova test was performed to examine whether the sub-dimensions differed according to age and education variables. so as to identify the different groups, lsd and sidak paired comparison tests were performed. correlation analysis was performed to determine the relationship among the subdimensions. in addition, chi-square analysis was performed to determine whether the investors’ gender, age, and educational distribution differed according to bias state (those who circled option a more according to the question number 35). in the study, p values lower than 0.05 were considered as statistically significant. the analyses were performed by using spss 22.0 package program. 5.3.1. reliability analysis in the questionnaire, cronbach alpha analysis was performed to test the reliability of the 35 items in the questionnaire regarding the measurement of the participants’ financially delusion levels. at the end of the analysis, cronbach alpha coefficient was found 0.75. the coefficient obtained indicated that the scale was reliable enough. as the reliability coefficient was found 0.75, which was above the critical value of 0.70, no item was removed from the study. 5.3.2. the demographic characteristics of the investors it was found that 7% of the investors who participated in the study were female and 93% were male. it was revealed that 4% of the investors were between 21-30 years old, 24% of them were between 31-40 years old, 25% of them were between 41-50 years old, 24% of them were between 51-60 years old, and 24% of them were 61 years old or above. table 1: the demographic characteristics of the investors prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 165 gender n % female 15 6,6 male 211 93,4 age n % between 21-30 8 3,5 between 31-40 55 24,3 between 41-50 56 24,8 between 51-60 54 23,9 61 years old and above 53 23,5 education n % primary school 101 44,7 secondary school 42 18,6 high school 58 25,7 university and above 25 11,1 it was found that 45% of the investors were primary school graduates, 19% were secondary school graduates, 26% were high school graduates and 11% were university graduates and above. 5.3.3. the investigation of delusion sub-dimensions according to gender, age and educational level 5.3.3.1. the investigation of delusion sub-dimensions according to the investors’ gender table 2: the investigation of delusion sub-dimensions according to the investors’ gender the subdimensions of delusion gender n x sd p investor profile female 15 2,34 0,13 0,01* male 211 2,54 0,19 acquaintance delusion female 15 1,93 0,25 0,06 male 211 2,12 0,37 overconfidence delusion female 15 4,67 1,63 0,90 male 211 4,62 1,42 female 15 2,47 0,55 0,23 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 166 attribution delusion male 211 2,72 0,80 representation heuristic female 15 3,67 2,35 0,01* male 211 2,30 1,86 optimism female 15 2,70 0,92 0,03* male 211 2,22 0,81 predisposition female 15 3,67 2,35 0,01* male 211 2,30 1,86 it was found that the participants’ investor profile dimension scores differed according to their gender and that investor profile levels of female investors were lower than those of male investors (p=0,01, p<0,05). it was found that the participants’ acquaintance delusion dimension scores did not differ according to their gender and that acquaintance delusion levels of female and male investors were similar (p=0,06, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ overconfidence delusion dimension scores did not differ according to their gender and that overconfidence delusion levels of female and male investors were similar (p=0,90, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ attribution delusion dimension scores did not differ according to their gender and that attribution delusion levels of female and male investors were similar (p=0,23, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ representation heuristic dimension scores differed according to their gender and that representation heuristic levels of female investors were lower than those of male investors (p=0,01, p<0,05). it was found that the participants’ optimism delusion dimension scores differed according to their gender and that optimism delusion levels of female investors were lower than those of male investors (p=0,03, p<0,05). it was found that the participants’ predisposition dimension scores differed according to their gender and that predisposition levels of female investors were higher than those of male investors (p=0,01, p>0,05). 5.3.3.2. the investigation of delusion sub-dimensions according to the investors’ age table 3: the investigation of delusion sub-dimensions according to the investors’ age prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 167 the subdimensions of delusion age n x sd p investor profile between 21-30 8 2,38 0,30 0,08 between 31-40 55 2,52 0,19 between 41-50 56 2,51 0,17 between 51-60 54 2,54 0,21 61 years old and above 53 2,57 0,18 acquaintance delusion between 21-30 8 2,11 0,33 0,67 between 31-40 55 2,14 0,37 between 41-50 56 2,04 0,33 between 51-60 54 2,11 0,35 61 years old and above 53 2,13 0,41 overconfidence delusion between 21-30 8 4,13 2,03 0,48 between 31-40 55 4,73 1,50 between 41-50 56 4,84 1,30 between 51-60 54 4,50 1,44 61 years old and above 53 4,47 1,41 attribution delusion between 21-30 8 2,69 0,65 0,15 between 31-40 55 2,72 0,71 between 41-50 56 2,87 0,69 between 51-60 54 2,74 0,83 61 years old and above 53 2,48 0,90 representation heuristic between 21-30 8 2,75 2,19 0,97 between 31-40 55 2,42 2,00 between 41-50 56 2,45 1,95 between 51-60 54 2,30 1,77 61 years old and above 53 2,34 2,00 optimism between 21-30 8 2,25 0,80 0,10 between 31-40 55 2,20 0,86 between 41-50 56 2,03 0,83 between 51-60 54 2,36 0,82 61 years old and above 53 2,42 0,76 predisposition between 21-30 8 2,75 2,19 0,97 between 31-40 55 2,42 2,00 between 41-50 56 2,45 1,95 between 51-60 54 2,30 1,77 61 years old and above 53 2,34 2,00 it was found that the participants’ investor profile dimension scores did not differ according to their age and that investor profile levels of the investors between 21-30 years of age, between prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 168 31-40 years of age, between 41-50 years of age, between 51-60 years of age, and that were 61 years old and above were similar (p=0,08, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ acquaintance delusion dimension scores did not differ according to their age and that acquaintance delusion levels of the investors between 21-30 years of age, between 31-40 years of age, between 41-50 years of age, between 51-60 years of age, and that were 61 years old and above were similar (p=0,67,p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ overconfidence delusion dimension scores did not differ according to their age and that overconfidence delusion levels of the investors between 21-30 years of age, between 31-40 years of age, between 41-50 years of age, between 51-60 years of age, and that were 61 years old and above were similar (p=0,48,p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ attribution delusion dimension scores did not differ according to their age and that attribution delusion levels of the investors between 21-30 years of age, between 31-40 years of age, between 41-50 years of age, between 51-60 years of age, and that were 61 years old and above were similar (p=0,15, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ representation heuristic dimension scores did not differ according to their age and that representation heuristic levels of the investors between 21-30 years of age, between 31-40 years of age, between 41-50 years of age, between 51-60 years of age, and that were 61 years old and above were similar (p=0,97, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ optimism delusion dimension scores did not differ according to their age and that optimism delusion levels of the investors between 21-30 years of age, between 31-40 years of age, between 41-50 years of age, between 51-60 years of age, and that were 61 years old and above were similar (p=0,10, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ predisposition dimension scores did not differ according to their age and that predisposition delusion levels of the investors between 21-30 years of age, between 31-40 years of age, between 41-50 years of age, between 51-60 years of age, and that were 61 years old and above were similar (p=0,97, p>0,05). 5.3.3.3. the investigation of delusion sub-dimensions according to the investors’ educational level table 4: the investigation of delusion sub-dimensions according to the investors’ educational level prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 169 the subdimensions of delusion educational level n x sd p investor profile primary school 101 2,53 0,19 0,04* secondary school 42 2,51 0,17 high school 58 2,57 0,20 university and above 25 2,44 0,24 acquaintance delusion primary school 101 2,10 0,35 0,75 secondary school 42 2,06 0,39 high school 58 2,12 0,38 university and above 25 2,15 0,36 overconfidence delusion primary school 101 4,69 1,48 0,02 secondary school 42 4,02 1,39 high school 58 4,79 1,31 university and above 25 4,92 1,41 attribution delusion primary school 101 2,75 0,81 0,33 secondary school 42 2,50 0,85 high school 58 2,75 0,76 university and above 25 2,74 0,66 representation heuristic primary school 101 2,52 1,85 0,19 secondary school 42 1,90 1,64 high school 58 2,64 2,10 university and above 25 2,08 2,18 optimism primary school 101 2,34 0,81 0,23 secondary school 42 2,25 0,89 high school 58 2,22 0,76 university and above 25 1,96 0,90 predisposition primary school 101 2,52 1,85 0,19 secondary school 42 1,90 1,64 high school 58 2,64 2,10 university and above 25 2,08 2,18 it was found that the participants’ investor profile dimension scores differed according to their educational levels and that investor profile levels of the participants that were university graduates and above were lower than those of the participants that had lower educational levels (p=0,04, p<0,05). it was found that the participants’ acquaintance delusion dimension scores did not differ according to their educational levels and that acquaintance delusion levels of the investors that were primary school graduates, secondary school graduates, high school graduates, and university graduates and above were similar (p=0,67, p>0,05). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 170 it was found that the participants’ overconfidence delusion dimension scores differed according to their educational levels and that overconfidence delusion levels of the participants that were secondary school graduates were lower than those of the participants that were primary school, high school, university graduates and above (p=0,02,p<0,05). it was found that the participants’ attribution delusion dimension scores did not differ according to their educational levels and that attribution delusion levels of the investors that were primary school graduates, secondary school graduates, high school graduates, and university graduates and above were similar (p=0,33, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ representation heuristic dimension scores did not differ according to their educational levels and that representation heuristic levels of the investors that were primary school graduates, secondary school graduates, high school graduates, and university graduates and above were similar (p=0,19, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ optimism delusion dimension scores did not differ according to their educational levels and that optimism delusion levels of the investors that were primary school graduates, secondary school graduates, high school graduates, and university graduates and above were similar (p=0,23, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ predisposition dimension scores did not differ according to their educational levels and that predisposition levels of the investors that were primary school graduates, secondary school graduates, high school graduates, and university graduates and above were similar (p=0,19,p>0,05). 5.3.4. attributed bias and gender according to the basic cause of the volatility in investment tools. table 5: attributed bias and gender according to the basic cause of the volatility in investment tools gender according to the basic cause of the volatility in investment tools p there is attributed bias there is no attributed bias female n 0 15 0,01* % 0,0% 100,0% prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 171 male n 68 143 % 32,2% 67,8% it was found that the genders of the participants were effective on attributed bias state and that male participants had higher levels of bias compared to female participants (p=0,01, p<0,05). 5.3.5. attributed bias and age according to the basic cause of the volatility in investment tools it was found that the participants’ attributed bias states were similar according to their age and that attributed levels of the investors between 21-30 years of age, between 31-40 years of age, between 41-50 years of age, between 51-60 years of age, and that were 61 years old and above were similar (p=0,13,p>0,05). figure 1: attributed bias and age according to the basic cause of the volatility in investment tools 5.3.6. attributed bias and education according to the basic cause of the volatility in investment tools it was found that the participants’ attributed bias states were similar according to their education and that attributed bias levels of the investors that were primary school graduates, secondary school graduates, high school graduates, and university graduates and above were similar (p=0,31, p>0,05). % % % % % 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 60 ve daha fazlası 37.5% 41.8% 32.1% 20.4% 24.5% 62.5% 58.2% 67.9% 79.6% 75.5% yatırım araçlarındaki oynaklığın temel nedenine göre yükleme önyargısı var yatırım araçlarındaki oynaklığın temel nedenine göre yükleme önyargısı yok prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 172 figure 2: attributed bias and education according to the basic cause of the volatility in investment tools 5.3.7. the investigation of the sub-dimensions according to attribution bias table 6: the investigation of the sub-dimensions according to attribution bias the subdimensions of delusion according to the basic cause of the volatility in investment tools n x sd p investor profile there is attribution bias 68 2,58 0,18 0,01* there is no attribution bias 158 2,50 0,20 acquaintance delusion there is attribution bias 68 2,07 0,36 0,38 there is no attribution bias 158 2,12 0,37 overconfidence delusion there is attribution bias 68 4,90 1,20 0,06 there is no attribution bias 158 4,50 1,51 attribution delusion there is attribution bias 68 2,96 0,67 0,01* there is no attribution bias 158 2,59 0,81 representation heuristic there is attribution bias 68 2,37 1,92 0,91 there is no attribution bias 158 2,40 1,94 optimism there is attribution bias 68 2,13 0,74 0,13 there is no attribution bias 158 2,30 0,85 predisposition there is attribution bias 16 1,88 1,50 0,35 there is no attribution bias 38 2,32 1,66 it was found that the participants’ investor profile dimension scores differed according to having bias and that investor profile levels of the participants having bias were lower than those not having bias (p=0,01, p<0,05). % % % % i̇lkokul ortaokul lise üniversite 34.7% 31.0% 27.6% 16.0% 65.3% 69.0% 72.4% 84.0% yatırım araçlarındaki oynaklığın temel nedenine göre yükleme önyargısı var yatırım araçlarındaki oynaklığın temel nedenine göre yükleme önyargısı yok prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 173 it was found that the participants’ acquaintance delusion dimension scores did not differ according to having bias and that acquaintance delusion levels of the investors with bias and without bias were similar (p=0,38, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ overconfidence delusion dimension scores did not differ according to having bias and that overconfidence delusion levels of the investors with bias and without bias were similar (p=0,06, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ attribution delusion dimension scores differed according to having bias and that attribution delusion levels of the participants having bias were higher than those not having bias (p=0,01, p<0,05). it was found that the participants’ representation heuristic dimension scores did not differ according to having bias and that representation heuristic levels of the investors with bias and without bias were similar (p=0,91, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ optimism delusion dimension scores did not differ according to having bias and that optimism delusion levels of the investors with bias and without bias were similar (p=0,13, p>0,05). it was found that the participants’ predisposition dimension scores did not differ according to having bias and that predisposition levels of the investors with bias and without bias were similar (p=0,35, p>0,05). 5.3.8. the investigation of the relationship among the sub-dimensions table 7: the investigation of the relationship among the sub-dimensions inves tor profi le acquain tance delusion overconfi dence delusion attribu tion delusio n represen tation heuristic optim ism predispo sition investor profile r 1 p acquaint ance delusion r -0,09 1 p 0,16 acquaint ance delusion r 0,27* 0,04 1 p 0,01 0,54 r 0,22* 0,01 0,38* 1 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 174 attributi on delusion p 0,01 0,88 0,01 represen tation heuristic r -0,01 0,01 0,03 0,01 1 p 0,86 0,93 0,67 0,96 optimism r 0,17* 0,06 -0,12 -0,28* -0,11 1 p 0,01 0,37 0,08 0,01 0,09 predispos ition r -0,10 0,12 -0,05 0,11 -0,03 -0,05 1 p 0,15 0,08 0,50 0,09 0,67 0,50 it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ investor profile levels and their attribution delusion levels (p=0,88, p>0,05). it was found that there was a positive, low level and significant relationship between the participants’ investor profile levels and their overconfidence delusion levels (p=0,27, p<0,05). it was determined that the increase in the participants’ investor profile levels increased their overconfidence delusion levels. it was found that there was a positive, low level and significant relationship between the participants’ investor profile levels and their attribution delusion levels (p=0,22, p<0,05). it was determined that the increase in the participants’ investor profile levels increased their attribution delusion levels. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ investor profile levels and their representation heuristic levels (p=0,01, p>0,05). it was found that there was a negative, low level and significant relationship between the participants’ investor profile levels and their optimism delusion levels (p=0,22, p<0,05). it was determined that the increase in the participants’ investor profile levels decreased their optimism delusion levels. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ acquaintance delusion levels and their overconfidence delusion levels (p=0,54, p>0,05). it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ acquaintance delusion levels and their attribution delusion levels (p=0,88, p>0,05). it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ acquaintance delusion levels and their representation heuristic levels (p=0,93, p>0,05). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 175 it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ acquaintance delusion levels and their optimism delusion levels (p=0,37, p>0,05). it was found that there was a positive, low level and significant relationship between the participants’ overconfidence delusion levels and their attribution delusion levels (p=0,38, p<0,05). it was determined that the increase in the participants’ overconfidence delusion levels increased their attribution delusion levels. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ overconfidence delusion levels and their representation heuristic levels (p=0,67, p>0,05). it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ overconfidence delusion levels and their optimism delusion levels (p=0,08, p>0,05). it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ attribution delusion levels and their representation heuristic levels (p=0,96, p>0,05). it was found that there was a negative, low level and significant relationship between the participants’ attribution delusion levels and their optimism delusion levels (p=0,01, p>0,05). it was determined that the increase in the participants’ optimism delusion levels decreased their attribution delusion levels. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ optimism delusion levels and their representation heuristic levels (p=0,09, p>0,05). it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ predisposition levels and their investor profile levels (p=0,15, p>0,05). it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ predisposition levels and their acquaintance delusion levels (p=0,08, p>0,05). it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ predisposition levels and their overconfidence delusion levels (p=0,50, p>0,05). it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ predisposition levels and their attribution delusion levels (p=0,09, p>0,05). it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ predisposition levels and their representation heuristic levels (p=0,67, p>0,05). it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ predisposition levels and their optimism delusion levels (p=0,50, p>0,05). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 176 6. conclusion in the study, it was found that 7% of the investors were female and 93% were male, 4% of the investors were between 21-30 years old, 24% of them were between 31-40 years old, 25% of them were between 41-50 years old, 24% of them were between 51-60 years old, and 24% of them were 61 years old or above. it was also revealed that 45% of the investors were primary school graduates, 19% were secondary school graduates, 26% were high school graduates and 11% were university graduates and above. it was found that the participants’ investor profile dimension scores, representation delusion scores and optimism (over optimism delusion) scores differed according to their gender and that investor profile levels of female investors were lower than those of male investors. it was found that the participants’ acquaintance delusion dimension scores, overconfidence delusion scores and attribution delusion scores did not differ according to their gender and that acquaintance delusion levels of female and male investors were similar. it was found that the participants’ investor profile dimension scores, acquaintance delusion scores, overconfidence delusion scores, attribution scores, representation heuristic scores, and over optimism scores did not differ according to their age and that investor profile levels of the investors between 21-30 years of age, between 31-40 years of age, between 41-50 years of age, between 51-60 years of age, and that were 61 years old and above were similar. it was found that the participants’ investor profile and overconfidence delusion dimension scores differed according to their educational levels and that investor profile levels of the participants that were university graduates and above were lower than those of the participants that had lower educational levels. it was found that the participants’ acquaintance delusion, attribution delusion, representation heuristic and optimism delusion dimension scores did not differ according to their educational levels and that acquaintance delusion levels of the investors that were primary school graduates, secondary school graduates, high school graduates, and university graduates and above were similar. it was found that the genders of the participants were effective on attributed bias state and that male participants had higher levels of bias compared to female participants. it was found that the participants’ attributed bias states were similar according to their age and that attributed levels of the investors between 21-30 years of age, between 31-40 years of age, prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 177 between 41-50 years of age, between 51-60 years of age, and that were 61 years old and above were similar. it was found that the participants’ attributed bias states were similar according to their education and that attributed bias levels of the investors that were primary school graduates, secondary school graduates, high school graduates, and university graduates and above were similar. it was found that the participants’ investor profile dimension scores differed according to having bias and that investor profile levels of the participants having bias were lower than those not having bias. it was found that the participants’ acquaintance delusion dimension scores did not differ according to having bias and that acquaintance delusion levels of the investors with bias and without bias were similar. it was found that the participants’ overconfidence delusion dimension scores did not differ according to having bias and that overconfidence delusion levels of the investors with bias and without bias were similar. it was found that the participants’ attribution delusion dimension scores differed according to having bias and that attribution delusion levels of the participants having bias were higher than those not having bias. it was found that the participants’ representation heuristic dimension scores did not differ according to having bias and that representation heuristic levels of the investors with bias and without bias were similar. it was found that the participants’ optimism delusion dimension scores did not differ according to having bias and that optimism delusion levels of the investors with bias and without bias were similar. it was found that the participants’ predisposition dimension scores did not differ according to having bias and that predisposition levels of the investors with bias and without bias were similar. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ investor profile levels and their attribution delusion levels. it was found that there was a positive, low level and significant relationship between the participants’ investor profile levels and their overconfidence delusion levels. it was determined that the increase in the participants’ investor profile levels increased their overconfidence delusion levels. it was found that there was a positive, low level and significant relationship between the participants’ investor profile levels and their attribution delusion levels. it was determined that the increase in the participants’ investor profile levels increased their attribution delusion levels. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ investor profile levels and their representation heuristic levels. it was found that there was a negative, low level and significant relationship between the participants’ investor profile levels and their optimism delusion levels. it was determined that the increase in the participants’ investor profile levels decreased their prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 178 optimism delusion levels. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ acquaintance delusion levels and their overconfidence delusion levels. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ acquaintance delusion levels and their attribution delusion levels. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ acquaintance delusion levels and their representation heuristic levels. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ acquaintance delusion levels and their optimism delusion levels. it was found that there was a positive, low level and significant relationship between the participants’ overconfidence delusion levels and their attribution delusion levels. it was determined that the increase in the participants’ overconfidence delusion levels increased their attribution delusion levels. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ overconfidence delusion levels and their representation heuristic levels. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ overconfidence delusion levels and their optimism delusion levels. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ attribution delusion levels and their representation heuristic levels. it was found that there was a negative, low level and significant relationship between the participants’ attribution delusion levels and their optimism delusion levels. it was determined that the increase in the participants’ optimism delusion levels decreased their attribution delusion levels. it was found that there was not a significant relationship between the participants’ optimism delusion levels and other sub-dimensions. according to the results obtained from the study, when the cognitive and emotional shortcuts influencing the investor profile and investors were examined, it was determined that gender and educational level variables were not affective and thus, by increasing the investors' financial knowledge levels (training, seminars, courses, etc.), it can be reevaluated by increasing financial awareness and financial literacy levels. furthermore, when the investors' delusion sub-dimension scores were examined, it was found that there was not much of a relationship among the sub-dimensions (between investor profile level and attribution delusion level, between investor profile level and representation delusion level, between acquaintance delusion and overconfidence delusion, between overconfidence delusion and optimism delusion, between attribution delusion and representation heuristic, between optimism delusion and representation heuristic), and thus, it is concluded that the personality traits that investors have can be reevaluated by examining them in detail. together with all these, it was found that there was a positive, low level and significant relationship prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 179 between investor profile levels and overconfidence delusion levels. it was determined that the increase in the participants’ profile levels increased their overconfidence delusion levels. it was also found that there was positive, low level and significant relationship between the participants' investor profile levels and their attribution delusion levels. it was determined that the increase in the participants’ profile levels increased their attribution delusion levels. references ackert, l. & deaves, r. 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(2016). bireysel yatırım tercihlerinde risk faktörünün önemi: manisa i̇li yatırımcı profili analizi. finans politik & ekonomik yorumlar, 53(613). köse, a. k., & akkaya, m. (2016). beklenti ve güven anketlerinin finansal piyasalara etkisi: bist 100 üzerine bir uygulama. bankacılar dergisi, 99, 3-15. küden, m. (2014). davranışsal finans açısından bireysel yatırım tercihlerinin değerlendirilmesi. unpublished master’s thesis. gediz üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, i̇zmir. nofsinger, j. r. (2001). investment madness: how psychology affects your investing… and what to do about it?. new jersey: financial times prentice hall. oran, a., yılmaz, ö., & özer, g. t. (2010). türkiye’de algısal sapmalar. i̇şletme fakültesi dergisi, 11(2), 297-307. orçun, ç. (2016). bireysel yatırımcı ne i̇ster?. i̇zmir: ekin basın yayın dağıtım. tufan, e. (2008). davranışsal finans. ankara: i̇maj yayıncılık. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 114 whose identity? rethinking islam in contemporary southeast europe francesco trupia, phd candidate st. kliment ohridski sofia university trupia.francesco@gmail.com abstract the socio-political heredity of the long-term presence of islam in southeast europe deserves to be questioned in the light of today’s climate of suspicion and heightened tensions toward autochthonous muslims within the region and beyond. this brief paper focuses on max weber’s neologism “sultanism” related to the religious legacy that ottoman rules left behind in the balkan peninsula, which symbolises a counter-narrative in academia, in order to address a yet another issue regarding the interfaith coexistence among balkan populations and history-related aspects. this paper then, too, seeks to unravel contemporary shades of balkan islam by pointing out how such religious identity has come to represent a communitarian set of everyday rules of practices rather than a pristine faith. lastly, the employment of the term “idiosyncratic identity” will serve to shed light on volatility of balkan islam over which a hostile language toward muslim communities is nowadays winning ground. keywords: sultanism, balkan islam, minority groups, identity, manipulation; mailto:trupia.francesco@gmail.com prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 115 1. introduction in the contemporary climate of suspicion against muslim communities, detailed political and cultural analyses on potential radicalisation of jihadist-oriented groups polarise an utterly different dichotomy of opinion between those who consider islam a threat for the public realm and those who insist that islam per se does not represent a cultural barrier for a sustainable multicultural society. interestingly enough, while this dichotomy has epitomised islam for many european-born muslims, in southeast europe it has replaced the communism-religion standoff in the post-cold war era. decades onwards the dissolution of the so called eastern bloc, while political and economic externalities have garnered greater attention than religion-related issues over identity (trans-)formation in the balkans, the cultural confrontation over the islamic legacy and the “return to europe” have become centrally paramount among those newly independent former yugoslavian and communist republics. within this, external factors such as the rise of global pro-jihadi ideological organisations (e.g., islamic state, al-qaeda, boko haram, al-shabeb) have impinged on islam through process of confessional reconstructions. contrary to west europe where muslims are ethnic minority members who increased social tensions in the second half of the twentieth century due to migratory phenomena from postcolonial africa, middle east and central asia, southeast europe has remained “homeland” for a large number of autochthonous muslim communities. yet despite all the criticism, it has also become fashionable to speculate and argue about statements such as “islam is a religion of peace” or “islam is a religion of war”, which continue to be both too general and meaningless for the whole spectrum of islam. in southeast europe, neither a specific group nor a certain organisation can claim a pristine islam on behalf of its peaceful or violent message (frog and orr-ewing, 2002) due to an institutional vacuum through which islam has historically survived. because of that, this paper seeks to offer an overall exploration of religious identity of balkan islam in order to shed light on a wealth of interwoven factors that are currently misleading the notion of islam itself within the region of southeast europe. in order to do so, this paper is not concerned with the societal role of ethnic minority groups over the political spectrum, nor with the pro-jihadi message that media discourse have overwhelmingly used to report phenomena of radicalisation and disloyal behaviour from within the region, such as in bosnia, albania or kosovo. rather, this paper is concerned with an attempt to re-define the notion of balkan islam through an interdisciplinary approach that aims to: prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 116 a) analyse briefly the balkan islam by overlapping its ottoman legacy in the so called “european turkey” namely all states emerged from of the ottoman domination, e.g., albania, bulgaria, kosovo-serbia, macedonia -, and majority-minority identity relations; b) look beyond the ghost of the former ottoman realm haunting the substantial muslim population by taking into account max weber’s “sultanism”. this is employed here to underpin how a set of strategic military rules and high level of taxation were narrowly maximised to take control over the empire territory rather than forcedly imposing a newly defined branch of religious state. hence, this historical reference shall unravel how literature, conflicting memory and ethnically defined stereotypes have unilaterally shaped a pathological desire for revenge against “the turks”, letting a vivid form of banal nationalism raise in bulgaria, serbia and greece, among others; c) introduce the theoretical approach of concentric circles by which maajid nawas frames the islamic groups worldwide in the attempt to point out an idiosyncratic form of balkan islam and open up a further debate about europe’s religious future in the perspective of the western balkans accession to the european union. in this regard, i employ the term “idiosyncratic” in accordance with its literally greek origin: idiosunkrasia, explaining its trifold meaning to the sphere of islam. i. idios – “own” or “private” – which brings to light a self-identification with islam among balkan muslims that is acquired in the private sphere, e.g., family, madrasas, mosques, ethnic political parties and so forth; ii. sun – “with” – namely the “bridge” with all below-described aspects of balkan muslim population; iii. krasis – “mixture” – which comes to lay out a wide range of cultural, linguistic, ethnic, historical and political facets of today’s form of islam in southeast europe. in conclusion, this paper shall briefly unravel to what extent such newly (re-)shaped form of “idiosyncratic islam” may turn its traditional societal role in the balkans into controversy that can potentially permit radical outsiders and their pro-jihadi demands to manipulate muslim communities through an overwhelming rhetoric. the theoretical framework shall open up the question whether balkan muslims can take for granted such (under-)development of islam in the spirit of its time, or, on the contrary, whether they perceive a risk for their theology in practice (frog and orr-ewing 2002, 75) far from that traditional islam around which previous generations have peacefully gathered in southeast europe. 2. balkan islam through history according to the historical and socio-political (under-)development of islam across the balkan region, attempts to unravel communitarian identity of balkan muslims cannot take for granted the prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 117 much-discussed and externally imposed negative discourse that has survived and nowadays flourishes in western europe. at the same time, a history of islam in europe cannot overlook the presence of muslim groups in the balkans (g. shenk 2006, 20) in order to build up a counter-narrative in opposition to intense fear, hatred and negative attitudes towards islam as a whole. in southeast europe, islam-related issues and their definitions demand a greater precision and accuracy. without any doubt, islam began to shape southeast europe’s religious milieus after the ottoman conquest which, however, did not come to impose a forced conversation for non-muslim populations throughout its long-presence. perhaps not incidentally, this explains current balkan muslims’ inclination toward turkey as the only one country of reference to address over the islamic world, as well as legitimate heir of the ottoman heritage. thus far, the so-called “european turkey” began to label all successor states of the ottoman empire (e.g., albania, bulgaria, kosovo, macedonia, partially southern serbia) as members of a region where autochthonous groups (e.g., today’s regional minorities) have firstly adopted islam and kept its legacy after the demise of the ottoman turks. at a time when analysts and commentators are unsure about turkey’s pivotal role of “contractor” 1 or of ağabey (e.g., “big brother” in turkish language) and its future strategy to intervene on behalf of their turkic ancestors to better leverage its journey to eu accession, a valuable contribution on ankara’s interests and influence over southeast europe is again twofold. on the one hand, the “strategic depth” elaborated by the former prime minister of the republic of turkey ahmet davutoğlu is considered a win-win instrument to succeed in the journey towards the eu integration. on the other hand, today’s ankara and brussels relations seem to have fallen into a definitive blockade as a result of the 2016 turkish coup d'état attempt and aftermaths of the military operations alongside the turkish-syrian border. in addition, it remains arguable that kemalist and islamic intelligentsia in turkey would culturally understand the former ottoman rumelia as the place of the turkish transition towards a universal modernity. in between, a hostile language against muslims and turkish communities is winning ground in bulgaria (emilova 2017, pp. 127-143), as well as lack of interethnic well-living in contested societies, such as in bosnia and herzegovina and kosovo among others, are currently carving out an anti-turkey historical narrative and growing sense of islamophobia. the former, however, does not seem to be defeated by misleading affirmations such as davutoğlu’s address to bulgarian muslims with a proud shriek: yes, we are the new ottomans (leview-sawyer 2015, 110). 1 see more the balkans and the middle east: are they mirroring each other? published by the patriarchate of peć and university of belgrade, faculty of security studies, october 14-15, 2012. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 118 besides, a de-contextualised and not static time analysis on islamic identity all over the balkans with the exception of slovenia, croatia and romania -, opens up more intriguing questions. do balkan muslims identify themselves with turkey and the ottoman heritage because of the islamic faith? to what extend it is possible to consider balkan islam as a historically consequent phenomenon of the ottoman experience? more importantly, to what kind of manipulations and reinterpretations balkan muslims have been exposed throughout regional de-territorialisation? similarly to nicolò machiavelli’s affirmation on the essence of the ottoman empire, which was described as the whole monarchy of the turks […] governed by one lord [while] the others are his servants (n. macchiavelli 1532, 34), today’s reference to islam among balkan peoples has (unsurprisingly) maintained a negative allusion. due to the rise of balkan romantic nationalisms triggered before and after the anti-ottoman battlegrounds at the end of the nineteen century, the (mis)/conception regarding islam began to increase an idea of “religion of the occupants” through real and perceived images of “slaughters”, “slavery” and “poverty”. historically, such anti-islam narrative began to take place after the congress of berlin in 1878 at first, when the orthodox church began its overwhelming campaign in defence of the european bulwark of christendom and against the “muslim occupants” in support of a “christian common wealth” within the region. by drawing a divisive remark along christian and non-christian communities, muslim people, mainly turks, and those locals who forcedly and spontaneously converted to islam (e.g., slavs, vlachos, albanians and bulgarians) were recognised as “turks” even without proper evidence of their ethnicity and belongingness. a widespread anti-turkic discourse aroused in the sphere of art, literature and politics accordingly, paving the way toward more detailed discussions on the cultural role and political usage of islam as an instrument of power in the central regions of the balkans and anatolia. in this regards, max weber defines the ottoman empire as a curious mixture of modern and patrimonial elements that decayed when they entrenched themselves at the expense of the modern ones (shenk 2006, 7). in his argumentation, weber tries to smoothly redefine the concept of ottoman administration by using the term “sultanism” as a neologism to depict a set of strategic rules aimed at keeping control over an extremely extended territory through a narrow maximization of taxation and military state system. within the ottoman empire, indeed, high level of taxation in tandem with a military state system, whose management was entrusted to the sihapi (e.g., ottoman cavalry corps) and the zaim (e.g., military governor of the land tenure of empire), were established to pursue financial and strategic advantages from the provinces of the empire. in few words, both high taxation prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 119 and compulsory military service were a pure instrument of the master, namely of the sultan, fully integrated to a reasonably consistent set of rules aimed at guaranteeing a good-neighbourly interethnic relations between turkish-ottoman settlers and balkan locals, i.e., komşu, which literally means “neighbour” in turkish language. however, the devshirme tax, also well-known as “blood tax”, was a heart-breaking price to pay for non-muslim families, in time recognised as one of the most repressive instruments of the turkish ottoman power against non-islamic communities. despite everything, a conspicuous growth of conversations to islam were registered throughout the ottoman administration, mainly in the poorest rural area of the kosovar millet, in which 70% of ethnic-albanian dwellers got used to turkish ottoman heritage, in bosnia and southern bulgaria. this is why weber’s “sultanism” seems to correctly describe a political system that allowed pluralism even though strongly centralised, and in the meantime, it recalls the francis fukuyama’s idea about the power limitations that ottoman central power faced by allowing confessional laws to pertain to personal and collective cases within each millet. for instance, whether legal disputes and further trials were conducted in ottoman courts according to the sharia law for muslim residents, equally orthodox christian institutions were allowed to apply their judicial standards in a wide range of legal cases, i.e., marriages, inheritance and so forth. orthodox patriarchs were indeed officially responsible in front of the sultan for “their” people’s behaviour within the millets and even for themselves since they could get married and have children in accordance with the priestly form of nicholaism (fukuyama 2011, 256). therefore, both weber’s and fukuyama’s viewpoints strengthen the idea about an overall lack of direct implication of islam as a dominant policy for keeping non-muslim identities at check. conversations to islam were likely decided to avoid the payment of taxes as well as for politically oriented interests of non-muslim élites to which turkish ottomans provided dominant positions in their outlying regions, mainly in albania and bosnia, in order to balance domestic affairs from within. thus, to put it simply, religion – no matter if islam, orthodox christianity, catholicism, or judaism -, was only used as a yardstick to identify as individuals and collective groups within the millet system. at this point, weber’s “sultanism” has become highly arguable in academia. stefan pavlowitch associates the concept of millet system with “religion” indeed, instead of using “sultanism” or the prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 120 common translation related to topography, i.e., “province”, “state” and so forth. in other words, religion per se did not interplay in terms of religious faith, whereas it was a relevant reference for a cultural and social norm of conduct within each millet. similar to pavlowitch, the political analyst and expert in albanian affairs miranda vickers remarks that religion was one of the most important factors through which turkish ottomans established their concept of governance all across the empire (vickers 1998, 19). in general, islam was neither an imposition of something alien nor an instrument to promote and impose a new branch of religious state whose central power did not square local experiences and different heritages. while weber’s “sultanism” could serve to understand at least the reasons behind the ottoman foreign policy and further long-term fiscal distress that weakened the administration prior to its definitive collapse, islam does not offer a unique paradigm for how ottoman empire should be historically recollected. in fact, the ottoman collapse in southeast europe was partially triggered by a series of antisocial behaviourisms and bandit revolts that turkish-oriented and islam-converted communities carried out, such as albanians’. in addition, un-political islam has predominantly challenged the positive quality of social interactions in mixed-religious localities, alike the large turkish-style bazar of baščaršija in sarajevo, in which the identity formation along ethnic lines began within the yugoslavian regime and brought the latter to implode and ending up in gross violation of human rights and ethnic cleansings. hence, it becomes even clearer that phenomena of “forced conversations” to islam were not imposed on non-muslim communities, and that islam became part of a cultural and political rivalry between those élites prompt to manipulate collective identities in order to divide and rule in the vacuum left by turkish ottomans. for instance, the so-called “albanian question”, namely the albanian issue regarding a communitarian claim over a (mother-)/land twice larger than today’s recognized territory of the republic of albania, has never come to shape the albanian religious consciousness. by contrary, a national awareness aroused among ethnic-albanian peoples and took place on the basis of the sense of ethnic belongingness. the albanian writer pasko vasa, whose call for all “muslim, catholic, orthodox christian albanians, no matter where and no matter how many”, remains in the history of albanian literature, together with his term “albanism”, which he coined to lay out the religion of albanians2 and that gained popularity not only among albanians. yet another example in bulgaria, islamic identity has always misled the notion of islam as it incorporates a mixture of christian and pagan elements together with muslim lifeworld that muslim communities have kept 2 see more albania and the albanian identities, published by international centre for minority studies and intercultural relation, 2000, sofia. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 121 together with a bulgarian-speaking attitude and other folk traditions. bulgarian muslims have been historically misrecognised as “turks”, and the artificial attempt of the “revival process” (19841989), which the communist regime set up to force bulgaria’s turks to change names (marinov 2017, 70-74) in order to convince them to have bulgarian descendants who had been islamised by ottomans, has shown the extended degree under which islam has been threated. a continuous exposition to political manipulation and confessional reconstructions that have brought the majority of bulgarian muslims to currently live into a rocky marginalisation and exclusion from the core society, without a sufficient level of education and a decreasing proficiency of bulgarian language. almost four years onward the controversial case of the “roma radicals”3 in southern bulgaria, the recent decision of the local council of stara zagora to “bulgarise” 838 place-names with a clearly turkish or arabic origin has not only inflamed a socio-political issue related to an endless debate in the post-communist history of bulgaria. in retrospect, such name-changing policy has given more credentials to a perception of fear and mistrust toward muslims – no matter if refugees or autochthonous members of muslim minorities -, which is currently salient within the public sphere. however, islam per se has never created an oasis of persistent hatred and violence as some continue to portray (velikonja 2003), even though such religious identity has never succeed to build up an oasis of peace, tolerance, and comprehension between different ethnic groups on the balkans. in this case, whether an overview on the ottoman empire brings “what really happened” to light and facilitate analyses on today’s role of balkan islam, the essence of the religious is at stake. in retrospect, since balkan islam has historically comprised collective groups that belong neither to arab nor to middle eastern origin, they are exposed to misleading reinterpretations of sacred texts, confessional reconstructions and political manipulations able to trigger perilous changes in the traditional branch of the balkan islam, that is, the islamic hanafi school. the ottoman empire’s vacuum has been constantly replaced by different forms of practising and teaching, coming from muslim-majority societies in middle east, in which islam remains tightly connected with national, ethic, moral and social values that are foreign to balkan muslims. in the past few years, externally religious reverberations have put “under fire” the traditional form of islamic practicing in the balkans, meanwhile weakening their volatile religious identity in a profound and grove identity crisis. this explains the diffusion of jihadi-propaganda of ultra-conservative and transnational religious-political 3stoilova zornitsa. the roma and the radicals: bulgaria’s alleged isis support base. balkan insight [accessed 11/01/2016] available at http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/the-roma-and-the-radicals-bulgaria-s-alleged-isissupport-base-01-10-2016-1#sthash.i0powsdr.dpuf. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 122 salafism4 within bulgarian roma groups and the dissemination of wahabbism in the bosnian education system aimed at shaping a “new muslim being” (ajzenhamer, 2012). 3. a balkan muslim community from within within this, the socio-cultural and political role of islam in the balkan peninsula is no longer easy to unravel. perhaps not incidentally, a look at the bigger picture disentangles the notion of balkan islam from the current state of affairs as it shows “in-group loyalty” and an “out-group hostility” that manipulates the debate, leading it to catastrophic vision that anti-islam movements convey in their description of islam as a potentially staging ground for terrorism and disloyalty. in this case, i borrow the theoretical approach of concentric circles by which maajid nawas frames the islamic groups on a world scale (nawas and harris, 2015, 17-20) in order to counter such mainstream discourse and projection. in the balkan region, in my opinion, the centre of each muslim community (no matter if majority or minority within the country) is composed of the smallest, peripheral and first circle within which members may be externally influenced by jihadi-movements, such as islamic state, al-qaeda, boko haram, al-shebab and so forth. their incitements to war and interethnic enmity, which had found a fertile ground after the balkan wars in the 1990s, have been paramount for self-proclaimed islamic state’s continuous attempts to target balkan muslims and definitely turn a pathological hotspot into their “terrorist haven”. around this, there is another semi-peripheral and larger circle, the second one, in which muslims are involved in islam despite the fact that they appear less eager to kill on behalf of allah and willing to be killed for allah. within this, while muslims are more oriented towards following and supporting islam financially, philosophically and morally, concepts such as secularism, democracy and reinterpretation of qur’an appear an assault upon islam and their collective identity. among muslim women who are part of this circle, for example, the result of the secularisation of islam in the liberal society is seen through the negative picture of too many broken marriages, women left without the security of their men, and deteriorating relations between men and women (frog and orr-ewing 2002, 65). in other words, the members of this second circle are not inclined to get their hands dirty for or on behalf of allah. they follow styles of belief and practices that would not flourish under strict or puritanical regime even though they live in accordance with an old-fashioned islamic 4 in relation to islam and interpretation of the sacred text of quran, the transnational religious-political ideology of salafism is an ultra-conservative reform branch or movement within sunni tradition developed in arabia in the first half of the 18th century. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 123 tradition. at the end, there is a yet another community space, the third, broadest and largest circle, which is composed of those non-observant “cultural muslims” (jenkins 2010, 122) to whom it “happened to be muslims” throughout history. in southeast europe, they represent the majority of those involved either in today’s campaigns for political and cultural recognition within majoritarian cultural systems (e.g., bulgaria, macedonia, greece), or engaged in processes of policy-making aimed at “sharing religions to shape nations” (e.g., bosnia and herzegovina, kosovo). in my opinion, nowadays it would be possible to define members of this third circle in terms of “muslims-by-choice”. they are anything but religious in any approved or institutionalised regime indeed, and their communitarian self-identification and affiliation with islam do not follow those of their parents, which is linked to a culture that is no longer theirs in the present-day. they account for a large segment of an autochthonous muslim population in southeast europe, and their “being muslim” refers to a set of social practises and moral rules they traditionally follow more within the private sphere rather than in the public one. despite the fact that they do not possess a secular looking, they do not straightforwardly practise islam in its orthodoxy, nor they are in agreement with projihadi propaganda within and above muslim communities they belong to. interestingly enough, they possess a very low understanding of islam as a whole, of its sacred texts of qur’an, and arabic fluency is generally lacking or oftentimes very poor. within this circle, the so-called idiosyncratic form of islam, or “being muslim”, is more salient. in other words, their idiosyncratic identity of “being muslim” is tied and more likely subordinated to a soft-identity that lacks serious and well-defined understanding of boundaries related to cultural, religious and political patterns of islam. because of that, it is seriously difficult and theoretically challenging to come up with a common definition. above all, the generational change among balkan muslims related to islam and its vague definition are both quite problematic from within southeast europe. in the political arena, while majoritarian cultural systems project their cultural values to tackle muslim minority issues, minority leaderships get advantages of such idiosyncratic form of islam by keeping local muslims under their control. in addition, majoritarian cultural systems confound religious and political aspects of islam, whose application to everydayness is instrumentally manipulated by the most marginalised members of the community, e.g., first circle, but at the same time most organised and vocal within the vast majority of the same community, e.g., second and third circle (nawas and harris 2015, p.75) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 124 4. conclusion the above-mentioned approach of concentric circles does not only denote a “minorities-within-aminority” paradigm. rather, in its interrelated scenario, it may question whether balkan muslims can consider an already existing form of idiosyncratic islam within which they can take only steps to encompass religious discourse and practices without civil unrest or political actions. if so, it would be interesting then to understand – in contrast to western approach – whether this idiosyncratic islam can de-politicise islam in accordance with the spirit of its time in the balkan region, or at least paving the way to a new mixture of political and religious facets of it, and for an islam to come. this is basically a challenge that overlaps the current attempts to deal with a sacred scripture, e.g., the qur’an, which remains hermeneutically difficult to convey to interlocutors as it contains passages and practicing that even muslim scholars and experts would consider extremely problematic. in the past few years, this so-called “idiosyncratic identity” has succeeded partially within the second and completely within the third group to maintain the balkan peninsula untangled from a deep islamist and jihadist intrusion, whose attempts have been truncated by local security in cooperation with international intelligence. to a certain extent, self-identification of this volatile and ongoing (trans-)formative identity of islam has been useful to unmask the contemporary “outside confessional (re-)construction” and attempts of political manipulation that began to impinge on interethnic relations by exposing muslim communities to a wealth of misconceptions, stereotypes and discrimination. regardless, balkan muslims remain the most unvoiced and the weakest community in the form of minority group across the region, unlike those charismatic recruiters and religious leaders from the smallest and first circle that paradoxically are able to endorse reinterpretation of islamic identity(-ies). in this instance, marginalised position in society and phenomena of ghettoisation trigger more self-segregation and antisocial behaviour on behalf of a “cultural authenticity” and “cultural protection” that bring muslims to increase a sense of reflexive solidarity with other muslim brothers and sisters – no matter how barbaric their commitment might be – and satisfy (unconsciously) religious leaders’ aspirations accordingly. in other words, such idiosyncratic identity may expose balkan islam at the risk of intrusive projects (e.g., saudis’ pan-islamic identities and causes) through reconstruction of minority groups’ ontological status pertaining to the broad spectrum of self-governing rights, in which charismatic recruiters and their power-related dogmas of ideological superiority and political authority may impose over and above a given muslim community. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 125 in conclusion, islam remains “under fire” in the light of a general high level of marginalisation and exclusion that facilitate the access and intrusion of local figures and “recruiters” to the community, showing a parallel phenomenon of confessional reconstruction and manipulation of religious identity. both could not only potentially expose balkan muslims to endless identity crises in space and time, namely affected by a real or perceived grievance narrative of exclusion, but also it could degrade post-war scenarios in which religion has played a critical and oftentimes negative role of distinction and hatred among populations. in my opinion, in the southeast europe and beyond, islam per se – even in all its idiosyncratic form(s) of religious and political faith -, cannot be considered as a threat for the public sphere. although islam’s volatility and malleable features seem to remain far from balkan muslims’ religious consciousness, it would be correct to lay out their confessional being as a religious identity socially connected with a different set of rules, norms and everyday practices that do not describe a pristine and monolithic form of faith. thus, while integration policies might disempower potential recruiters to manipulate the balkan muslims through an arbitrary usage of their volatile identity, allocation of self-governing rights might come to cut stifling ambitions of religious leaders out of the muslim minorities entirely by including them into the public sphere. an interesting topic, that, however, is another and different issue. references ajzenhamer v. (2012) “the western balkans and the islamic schisms. the case of bosnia and herzegovina” the balkans and the middle east: are they mirroring each other? the patriarchate of peć and university of belgrade, faculty of security studies, october 14-15, 2012, p. 107-123. albania and the albanian identities (2000) sofia, international centre for minority studies and intercultural relation emilova s. (2017) islamophobia in bulgaria. national report 2017, european islamophia report (2018) (eds. bayrakli e . and hafez f) © seta – foundation for political, economic and social research, pp. 127-143. frog and orr-ewing a. (2002) holy warriors. a fresh look at the face of extreme islam, authentic lifestyle fukuyama f. (2011) the origin of political order, profile books ltd. leview-sawyer c. (2015) bulgaria: politics and protests in the 21th century, sofia, riva. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 126 machiavelli n. (1532) the prince, planet ebook.com [accessed 02/08/2018] available at: https://www.planetebook.com/free-ebooks/the-prince.pdf marinov m. (2017) religious communities in bulgaria, blagoevgrad, south-west bulgaria university publishing house mitja velikonja (2003) religion in eastern europe, college station texas – university press. nawaz m. & harris s. (2015) islam and the future of tolerance. a dialogue, harvard publishing. shenk g. (2006) “what went right: two best case of islam in europe” religion in eastern europe – christian associated for relations with eastern europe, vol. xxvi n°4 – november 2006, p.7-20. stoilova z., “the roma and the radicals: bulgaria’s alleged isis support base”, balkan insight, [accessed 11/01/2016] available at: http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/the-roma-and-theradicals-bulgaria-s-alleged-isis-support-base-01-10-2016-1#sthash.i0powsdr.dpuf. the balkans and the middle east: are they mirroring each other? (2012) published by the patriarchate of peć and university of belgrade, faculty of security studies. vickers m. (1998) between serb and albanian: a history of kosovo, new york, columbia university press prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 47 the effects of metacognitive learning strategy in writing enhancement of english students nazli tyfekçi university of gjakova “fehmi agani” nazlityfekqi@gmail.com erenik dujaka university of gjakova “fehmi agani” abstract this study investigates the effectiveness of metacognitive learning strategy in writing enhancement of english language and literature students in kosovo. the research examined students’ metacognitive knowledge and regulation about their priorities regarding drafting, planning, organizing, summarizing, composing, reviewing and later on evaluation. divided into two phases to first measure their awareness towards metacognition, and then to evaluate their capability in composition through learning strategies, the results of the research suggest that, contrary to the traditional view, in kosovo, that places its importance on the teacher and not the student, the experimental participants proved that by utilizing metacognitive learning strategy enhances their writing efficiency and effectiveness. findings also suggest that students’ attitude towards new and modern learning strategies is potently positive and welcoming. keywords: metacognition, learning strategies, english language, mai, advanced. 1. introduction according to nunan (1999), writing is the most challenging skill for all language learners. it, as nunan (1999) asserts, does not develop naturally. the demanding nature of writing is attributable to the fact that it requires complicated cognitive, metacognitive and linguistic skills and strategies (peregoy&boyle, 2005) that help transpire it do the desired levels. hence, the mailto:nazlityfekqi@gmail.com prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 48 ability to produce a coherent piece of writing, simply does not develop by itself. it needs to be deliberately taught and learned from time to time. the reason for this is that writing is not an automatic process that happens overnight. rather, it is a complex process that needs a skill from the moment a writer starts to think about what to write until the written text is produced (richards, 1990). in the current years, composition (writing) strategies has been one of the major research subjects in linguistics. particular attention was given to cognitive aspects of writing, as flower and hayes (1981) have attempted to understand the thought processes underlying the compositions of students according to these two researchers, writing skill requires composing, which implies the ability either to tell or retell chunks of information in the form of narratives or description, or to transform information into new texts, as in expository or argumentative writing. then, it considered as a continuum of activities that range from the more mechanical or formal aspects of writing down on the one end to the more complex act of composing on the other end. so, based on flower and hayes model, composition is primarily viewed as a problem-solving action. in this model, problem-solving implies that the writer needs to handle the progressing issue of formulating, organizing and producing the text on its own. simply put, the objective for a writer is the act of composing the text for which he has to set goals and find a solution. as such, in the light of flower and hayes’ model, writers need to continually settle on choices regarding their cognitive resources. this requires the utilization of a higher order process which appears to control cognitive processing. along these lines, in spite of the fact that not unequivocally expressed in the model, the model plays the role of metacognitive learning strategy. this study reveals the impact and influence that metacognitive learning strategies have on writing development, disregarding the division between novice or students struggling with writing and expert or skilled students in writing. it should be noted that due to time and resource management restrictions, the study is only focused in gjakova, specifically in university of gjakova. this paper also indicates the significant importance of new trends in education. recently, almost all contemporary frameworks of proficient writing skill acknowledge the role of metacognition processes explicitly. by shining a light in three main metacognitive learning strategies in writing, this study develops a critical idea of this trend. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 49 the structure of this study contains insight of metacognitive mechanism and its exponential usage in modern education and linguistic. the first chapter elaborates on previous studies of other renowned linguistics and psychologists of last century. it introduces definitions and samples of flawell, zimmerman and reisemberg, and schraw. the study also contains theoretical background of writing skill and other compositional structures. three forms of knowledge contributing in metacognitive regulation, are also elaborated, in order to assert a bodywork for understanding metacognition. following theoretical background of the first chapter, the second chapter indicate the research questions and the methodology used for conducting this study. this chapter, following apa guidelines, also mentions participants, instruments of the study and procedures, since it is the main aspect of the study. the third chapter displays results and discussions, divided into two phases, according to the nature of the study. again, following apa guideline, research tables are used to analyze the results. the final chapter (fourth) serves as a recapitulation of the whole research and gives recommendation on how to improve and enhance the quality of composition. 2. literature review metacognition one of the recurring problems of “metacognition” is the confusion with its abstract concept that it introduces and with its constituents. according to klein’s comprehensive etymological dictionary of the english language the word ‘meta’ is characterized as a preposition of a greek origin with few implications, for example, ‘after’, ‘along with’, ‘behind’ or ‘beyond’. if the prefix is added to the name of a subject, the meaning of the original subject is designated at a more theoretical or higher degree. the word metacognition has been defined in many different ways over last decades. the first original definition was created in the late 1970s by john flawell, a founder of social cognitive developmental psychology, as “cognition about cognitive phenomena” or “thinking about thinking” metacognition is frequently characterized as cognition about cognition, essentially thought about the thought. metacognition refers to one’s knowledge of their cognitive process and products and anything that is related to them, such as learning organization of information (flavell, 1979). briefly, metacognition refers to a person’s awareness of their capability and level of their knowledge. in education, it has to do with students’ awareness of their actual capability of understanding a certain topic. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 50 flavell (1979) refers to a person’s correct knowledge as the inter-relation between the person, task and strategy, which he coined it as metacognitive knowledge. for example, a student may think that he (person) is good at biology (task), therefore he does not put too much emphasis in making assignments (strategy). on the other hand, researchers such as schraw (1995), allude that, the concept of metacognitive knowledge is just declarative knowledge, which he deduced that this theory may undermine students’ competence. thus, metacognitive knowledge poorly reflects learning capabilities because a large amount of this knowledge is embedded in one’s belief system, which they are often considered personal and subjective. one of the components of metacognitive knowledge is metamemory. metamemory refers to one’s awareness of his/her memory processes. it has gained exponential attention during 1970s, with flavell’s theory of metacognition and the recent studies on theory of mind. the second component of metacognition is conditional knowledge, which, as opposed to declarative knowledge, it refers to the awareness of one’s metacognitive strategy of when to apply it and to what purpose. for instance, a bad learner usually does not know which metacognitive strategy to choose or when to employ a specific strategy. metacognition is a form of cognition and a high-level thinking process that involves active control over cognitive processes. also, it is considered as the “seventh sense” and one of the mental characteristics that successful learners possess. the model of metacognition strategy has been perceived as having a significant effect in learning, and education, in general. studies have contended that learners that are metacognitive aware can monitor, adapt and control their learning effectivity and exponentially have control over their problem-solving skills. metacognitive strategies for learners can deliberate as they vary from subject, domain or task. strategies on reading a text for academic purposes, for instance, require reading the title and subheadings, skimming and scanning the text to get a general overview, activating factual knowledge, setting goals and limits for reading and getting a general idea of text expectations. or, during problem-solving task, a learner should read the problem stated, actualize factual knowledge, set goals, make a representation of the problem (chart flow or drawings are often employed) and envision an outcome by expectations. these two instances follow a certain pattern that encompasses every metacognitive strategy. they systematically follow the scheme of task performance, planning, monitoring, and time management. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 51 there should be a clear distinction between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive skills. while the first one deals with one’s factual knowledge about learning strategies and person, task and strategy characteristics, the latter deals with self-regulative task strategies which are active during learning and problem solving. 3. writing skills though extensively researched upon, writing skill rarely gets defined by researchers. multiple researches investigated writing skill in different angles, concerned from influences on writing to elements of writing, but few provided a clear-cut definition and often it was left implied inbetween. langan (2013), undoubtedly, argued that writing, as a skill, can and should be forged through determination and patience. according to him, many students, especially efl students, undermine themselves into thinking that writing is a “natural talent/gift”, and, as such, they do not have this “gift” or they fear that it is hard to master. writing is not an automatic process, it is not something that is calculated and factual. generally, writing skills are categorized into two broad groups: basic skills and advanced skills. on the contrary, a lot of other skills contribute to properly developed writing skill, such as, good handwriting, spelling, content, organization, language use and language mechanics. o’neill, et al (2009) viewed writing skill in the historical context, implying that writing is crucial to college entrance examination because it assesses all the fields of a language. he, then, claimed that students undergoing a writing examination are prone to complications as the knowledge that they are “being tested on their skills, abilities and attributes, how these relate to the composition curriculum and course structure, how the construct is distinct from other constructs (e.g., the ability to compose an essay versus the ability to read the prompt) and what other factors maybe influencing the student’s performance of the test (e.g., time allowed for the test or writing in longhand instead of on a computer, when the test is given.” (o’neill et.al, page 49) while this applies to the whole, generalized group of students’, it should be noted that there are other individual circumstances, like the medium, audience, environment or instructions given. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 52 although brown (1989) gives a distinct chart of 3 stages of writing process: 1. preparing to write 2. writing 3. revising , she goes further to expand that the process is extremely more dynamic and complex, and that there is not ultimate framework to the process. she suggests that imposing questions such as who, why and what, regarding the reader, are determinants to a successful writing process. nowadays, students that struggle with writing and adults that do now engage in active writing, are at significant disadvantage. by the time a learner passes the elementary school system, writing skill becomes a tool for expressing his/her ideas and a tool for showing how much he has learned. thus, writing is crucial to preserving, gathering and transmitting information, making ideas promptly accessible for assessment, and advancing in personal development. subsequently, students that exhibit poor writing skills, fail to realize their personal, academic and educational potential. a research done by national assessment of educational progress by the us, in 2003, showed that during 1998 and 2002, students of 8th and 12th grade lacked the mastery of composition. from statistics of this survey, only 25% of the sample was categorized as competent writer, thus, alluding that the majority of us students find writing challenging. every author that has researched on the area of writing has considered that writing is a complex process and that is bound to other language and cognitive domains. writing, as a skill, exhibit two major problems in efl teaching environments; that of, motivation and assessment. researchers that has been occupied in the field of composition has been plagued with the dilemma of student motivation and how the skills come together to compose the writing task. one of the writers demonstrating high proficiency in metacognitive strategies in writing (conscious planning, monitoring and evaluating) is irving wallace. he indicated this proficiency by recording the number of written pages of every day, producing a specific chart for his daily progress, creating outlines for the scenes and characters and scheming story problems that need elaborated attention and addition, making revisions and even, re-reading the entire manuscript. (wallace, 1977) 4. metacognitive awareness in writing writing consists of a wide scope of skills intertwined to achieve the final outcome. these are comprised of linguistic and semantic knowledge (such as vocabulary, language structure and content structure), content knowledge and vital understanding (such as prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 53 arrangement of pertinent data). as stated by oxford studies (2011) students who unequivocally know about their own learning process and what makes it viable, perform better and learn more. the study also discovered that peer collaboration prompts an improvement of students’ understanding and a general development of their writing capabilities. these researches additionally recommend that enacting the reader’s cognition processes is advantageous to the promotion of students’ argumentative and organizational skills. moreover, metacognitive skills are applied in a wider array than just in schools or professional career; they are used throughout learners’ whole life. this is the reason why metacognitive learning strategy plays a significant role in the process of foreign language acquisition and learning. first, in metacognition, a student is aware that he has to write and he has the knowledge to consider himself a writer, which encompasses other aspects such as, experience – a student recollects factual memories of previous writing forms that he/she employed (un)successfully, motivation – which form and elements, he/she feels comfortable to use, and so on. after establishing his/her status as a writer, the knowledge of writing prompt takes hold. this knowledge encompasses planning, organization, mechanics and specific strategies on how to persuade audience or even developing a thorough tone. later we will be mentioning three forms of metacognitive knowledge, but for the sake of gradient literature review leveling, the notions of three forms will be used as of now. during this task, the student during a writing task activates declarative knowledge by being aware of his/her own affect, or, in other words, their motivation to complete the task given, selfefficiency and how these self-actualizing processes affect and influence his/her writing. on the other hand, procedural knowledge on writing tasks help a student applying declarative knowledge practically and reaching its expectations on the task. this is achieved by optimizing the usage of certain writing strategy and writer’s general knowledge on forms, strategies and skills that he/she knows and needs. lastly, conditional knowledge enables when, where and why to use the above-mentioned knowledge. during this decisive phase, the writes determines which skills, strategies and forms, out of all the alternatives that come before drafting, is needed and is fit to accomplish the writing task. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 54 the researchers, zimmerman and reisemberg (1997) suggested that metacognition in writing processes is regulated by ten different processes: 1. environmental structuring belonging to the self-regulative environmental processes, environmental structuring deals with organizing and creating efficient writing setting. 2. self-efficacy models it belongs to the same group process as the first one, and it is the source of writer’s skill and knowledge of writing task. for instance, writers may appeal to learn from a specific style of writing or text. 3. self-monitoring self-monitoring writer’s own performance belongs to behavioral processes group. it encompasses elements such as, recording sections that he/she has completed writing, recording number of pages that he/she has written, and so on. 4. self-consequences as the notion states, this process actualizes the writer into evaluating himself. for instance, formulating a system of punishing his/her poor performance for not meeting the goal, or rewarding it. 5. self-verbalization belonging to behavioral processes group, self-verbalization serves as a tool to evaluate and help a writer. reading the source text aloud in order to assist on task-completion. 6. time management it belongs to personal processes group, this process plans and estimates the time needed to complete a written task. 7. goal setting goal setting includes envisioning quality and characteristics of the written outcome, specifying the expectations set beforehand, specifying resources needed while writing, and so on. 8. self-evaluative standards self-evaluative standards is pretty explanatory. it is the process that sets certain standards such as, setting criteria for personal satisfaction or professional requirement. 9. cognitive strategies cognitive strategies are strategies that organize, transform or produce written outcome. 10. mental imagery in order to establish a potent written outcome, writers undergo mental imagery, to facilitate a vivid imagery of characters or setting. metacognition gained popularity in research during the second part of the twentieth century, though metacognition in writing still remains an unexplored territory in linguistics. one of the prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 55 most prominent research done in the effect of metacognition in writing is examined by hayes and flower (1980). their model on writing, which we elaborated briefly above in the introduction section, is concise and as such, it paved the way for researching in this field. during late 80s, researchers bereiter and scardamalia (1987) yet another complex model in writing, transpired by hayes and flower model. they research wanted to examine closely on the far-end differences in novice and expert writers. interested in investigating processes that two groups used, they established a writing model that comprises of four main phases: 1. mental representation of the written task, 2. goal setting and analysis of the problem, 3. problem translation; and, 4. knowledge telling. according to this research, expert writers undergo all the phases, while novice writers only translate general content knowledge (in other words, the knowledge that the writer possesses on the certain topic) to discourse knowledge (knowledge possessed about the type of the text needed to be produced.) improvising from novice writers but mastering from expert writers, bereiter and scardamalia formulated a new model of writing, based on how these two groups transformed knowledge. the knowledge transforming model involves planning the written outcome rhetorical (style, audience), communicative (scope of outcome), and pragmatic (environment and time of writing) restrictions. as following, first a mental representation is developed, then the writer engages on analyzing the problem/task and goal setting, in order to determine what, how and who to say it to. enclosed by these processes, the writer transforms the knowledge about what they envisioned on saying through goal setting and rhetorical planning – content knowledge, and, on the other hand, the knowledge on their audience and how to present it – discourse knowledge. 5. metacognitive learning strategy according to centre for innovation and excellence in learning, and based on flawell’s theory of metacognition, there are two simultaneous activities happening when a student engages on learning. though usually unaware of these processes, students undergo through these activities: one called knowledge of cognition and the other, regulation of cognition. knowledge of prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 56 cognition engulfs items such as awareness of factors that directly influence the output of learning, knowing and understanding that there are different strategies used for learning and choosing the appropriate strategy for the specific learning situation, in order to improve themselves. on the other hand, regulation of cognition deals with other items, right after the learners’ awareness of their cognition. these items are, for example, setting goals and planning, monitoring and controlling learning and evaluating own regulation, in other words, assessing if the strategy that they chose to learn is the one that fits the learning situation. evaluating the learning strategy also means making adjustments to the strategy or scraping it completely, and trying something different. in 1994, two psychological researchers, schraw and dennison complied a self-assessment test called metacognitive awareness inventory (mai) for the purpose to bring awareness of metacognitive knowledge and regulation to adult learners. the sole concept of mai is to enable individuals to better manage their cognitive skills and to determine their weaknesses that can be corrected by constructing new cognitive skills. the test has fifty-two (52) statements with true/false evaluation that are further divided into seven (7) categories: declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, conditional knowledge (all three belonging to knowledge of cognition); then, planning, information management strategies, comprehension monitoring, debugging strategies and evaluation (the latter five belonging to regulation of cognition). through this test, along with other previous researchers, they found out that the test was a strong indication of these two factors. furthermore, they found out that knowledge of cognition is significantly more easily improved than regulation of cognition, reason being the lack of the chance to practice learning strategies outside of the classroom experience and they constantly need teaching strategies provided by the teachers, which as noted, cannot be used always outside of the classroom. declarative knowledge declarative knowledge deals with factual knowledge that students possess in order to critically think regarding the specific tasks or topics. statements like “i know what kind of information is most important to lean.” or “i have control over how well i learn.” are used to assess this prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 57 item. declarative knowledge also helps with measuring students’ skills, intellectual resources and abilities as a learner. declarative knowledge also refers to the knowledge related to skills and strategies needed to effectively finish a task. recently, researchers have included one’s understanding affective state, such as, motivation, in declarative knowledge. with other words, declarative knowledge engulfs self-actualization, one’s task capability and strategies applicable to the task. these certain strategies also “involves awareness of one’s strengths and weaknesses with regard to a task, as well as other affective dimensions such as self-efficacy and motivation.” (waters, p.228) also, it is important to note that “writers understand their levels of proficiency with respect to various forms of writing as well as compositional processes…. their environmental preferences, their attitudes toward writing, their levels of writing self-efficacy, and their writing motivation.”. procedural knowledge procedural knowledge is more practical item, in the sense that, it measures the applicability of knowledge acquired for the purpose of completing a task or strategy. this is that kind of knowledge that is defined as “how to do it.” statements like “i try to use strategies that have worked in the past.” or “i am aware of what strategies i use when i study” are used to maintain this knowledge. there are only 4 statements regarding this knowledge because it requires a direct assessment of one’s knowledge. in addition, procedural knowledge assesses one’s curiosity and capability to acquire and discover new information. it requires students to assess themselves when to understand that which strategy they’re using to learn is working as well as when to apply a new strategy in the rise of a different situation or task. according to waters (2010), examples of procedural knowledge within the writing context includes planning strategies, like outlining, brainstorming, drafting, arguing and detailing in specific essays (argumentative and persuasive essays). referencing wong (1999), waters argues that spelling, grammar, handwriting, sentence construction and punctuation, belong to lower order cognitive skills and as such, they do not affect the realm of procedural knowledge. conditional knowledge prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 58 conditional knowledge plays the significant role of determining when to transfer the skill or strategy, depending on the situation or task. it is the knowledge about “when” or “why” to use a specific learning strategy. mia tests this knowledge with statements like “i can motivate myself to learn when i need to.” or “i know when each strategy i use will be most effective.” conditional knowledge, as the notion suggests, is the knowledge one obtains through stimulation. this way, it merges the applicability of both, declarative and procedural knowledge, with certain conditions presented. mastering and coordination these three forms of knowledge differentiate between learners due to other variables such as age, motivation and experience. effective learning strategies depend on successfully engaging declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge, especially in writing. planning planning, belonging to regulation of cognition, assesses one’s goal setting, planning and allocating focus priority prior to learning. it is assess by statements, such as, “i set specific goals before i begin a task” or “i think of several ways to solve a problem and choose the best one.” information management strategies this item deals with selecting the appropriate manner of processing information and other useful resources prior to learning. organizing, summarizing, elaborating, and selective focusing are considered manners of processing information and they are assessed by statements as follows: “i create my own examples to make information more meaningful.” or “i ask myself if what i’m reading is related to what i already know.” comprehension monitoring simply put, it assesses one’s learning strategy use. statements like “i periodically review to help me understand important relationships.” or “i ask myself if i have considered all options when solving a problem.” are considered crucial on measuring one’s comprehension monitoring. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 59 debugging strategies debugging strategies are a group of strategies used to correct comprehension and performance errors. “i re-evaluate my assumptions when i get confused.” or “i stop and go back over new information that is not clear.” are statements that help us clarify the appropriate debugging strategy. evaluation lastly, evaluation helps the regulation of cognition through analyzing the performance and strategy effectiveness after the learning session. in order to assess this item, statements as “i ask myself how well i accomplish my goals once i’m finished.” or “i ask myself if i learned as much as i could have once i finish a task.” are used. 6. research methodology research questions this research is primarily aimed at answering these questions: is there any enhancement in writing when using metacognitive learning strategy? is there an effect by undergoing this procedure overtime? what is the attitude of the students toward metacognition learning strategy? 7. participants the study involved 26 students majoring english language and literature in university of gjakova. all of the participants were chosen randomly, disregarding their gpa, sexuality, age, race, religion or any other variable since it does not correlate and it does not impact the study directly. two groups of 13 students were proportionally divided, one experimental and one controlled. most of the students selected were seniors, meaning that the study sample’s english proficiency level ranged from intermediate to advance. the reason for choosing students majoring only in ugj was that the researcher could not have access, means and time to access other institutions. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 60 8. instruments of the study the metacognitive awareness inventory (mai) from harford community college, with slight modifications, was employed as the first instrument handed out to the experimental group. this instrument was utilized to collect the data needed to find answers to the research questions, especially the first one. the test consisted of 52 true/false type items divided in 8 categories (as explained earlier in literature review). the questions were all mixed in the final edition of the survey in order to prevent testees’ guessing and only the researcher had the access to the categorization of the questions. another instrument was administered to test the writing skills of both groups, experimental and controlled one. the test chosen was chosen according to j.b. heaton (1975) “longman handbooks for language teachers. the researcher chose type 3 of testing writing skills, meaning that the testees had to read a letter carefully and then write a reply to the same letter. the task chosen can be very useful in providing a basis for the most basic composition work, because students have to demonstrate their ability to change the form of the text from one mode to another. the tests were assessed by the same examiner, the researcher. procedures after randomly selecting the participants and diving them into two groups, the study comprises of two phases. in the first phase, 13 students majoring in english language and literature, belonging to experimental group, were asked to be administered mai test, in order to examine their metacognitive knowledge and regulation of writing strategy use. after three days of administering this test to the experimental group, both groups were called, at the same time, in ugj, in order to initiate the second phase of the research. in the second phase, the participants had to partake a composition test, administered at the same time. both were given the same instructions by the examiner, erenik. after this phase, the examiners had to score the students’ writing on a banding system scale employed in us. it should be mentioned that the researchers focused on this rating scale that assessed content, organization, vocabulary, language use and mechanics. the impression method was used to evaluate the examination. also, the researchers decided that there should be a cap between how many words should the prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 61 composition have. the participants had to write no more than 150 words, where the maximum writing score was 50 (0 to 10 for each category assessed). 9. results and discussions phase i: metacognitive awareness inventory (mai) tables and results since mai is divided into 8 categories, each category has a certain number of statements. also, since the test is a true/false test, in order to measure the results, a score of 0 for false and 1 for true was employed for each category, as seen below: table i: declarative knowledge participants (experimental group) 13 number of questions 8 mean 4.76 results of table i indicate that the participants partially agree on the importance on their declarative knowledge, being part of their learning strategy, hence metacognitive knowledge. table ii: procedural knowledge participants (experimental group) 13 number of questions 4 mean 1.92 the results of table ii show a concerning view of ugj students’ unwillingness to apply their knowledge for the purpose of completing the task or process. though having a small pool of resources (only 4 questions for this item), the results are drastically a reflection of how we do not implement learning strategies, especially metacognitive one. table iii: conditional knowledge participants (experimental group) 13 prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 62 number of questions 5 mean 3 contrary to the procedural knowledge, the participants showed an exponential response towards conditional one. through these results, the participants know when to use the appropriate learning strategy, including metacognitive one. table iv: planning participants (experimental group) 13 number of questions 7 mean 3.30 same as with procedural knowledge, the participants lack the regulation of cognition. they show weak response and desire for planning, goal setting and problem-solving. table v: information management strategies participants (experimental group) 13 number of questions 10 mean 4.84 the results for ims show a positive response towards data processing. by this, we understand that the participants are somewhat great at organizing, elaborating and summarizing the certain tasks given. the results have certainly been reflected on the phase two of the research. table vi: comprehension monitoring participants (experimental group) 13 number of questions 7 mean 1.76 prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 63 since planning and comprehension monitoring, are two items of regulation of cognition, that stand interchangeably, the results prove that too. the participants prove that they are not capable of assessing their learning strategy use. table vii: debugging strategies participants (experimental group) 13 number of questions 5 mean 3.07 when it comes to debugging strategies, the participants show a tendency of improvement. they can spot the errors of their comprehension and composition, even though they cannot assess their learning style. table viii: evaluation participants (experimental group) 13 number of questions 6 mean 4.53 though a bit biased by their some psychological biases and self-assessment procedure, the results for evaluation after a learning session are very promising. the participants show a prominent view that they can reflect and analyze the learning strategy effectiveness after the learning session. table ix: overall results of experimental and controlled groups in composition number of participants individual score overall score mean experimental group 13 50 344 26.46 controlled group 13 50 271 20.84 the results of the phase two clearly show and prove our research question: yes, there is a positive effect in writing enhancement if students or learners, in general, employ metacognitive prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 64 learning strategy. according to the statistical analysis, experimental group, that had their metacognitive awareness evaluated, performed slightly better (17%) than controlled group that was not evaluated by mai. 10. conclusion and recommendations as noted earlier, research in writing still continues to impact, seize and expand, not only in teaching, but in learning as well. although a significant research is done in metacognition impact on linguistics and education, activities regarding writing are left aside, due to a numerous implication imposed during the process or writing, as elaborated earlier, in literature review. the problem with metacognition strategy in writing arises when this strategy is merged with writing strategies, diluting the line between those two, therefore becoming subconscious to a writer, as an automation process that is understood “between-the-lines”. this debate of whether writing assignments trigger metacognition or if there is a subconscious undertone to it, has got researchers of this decade divided. simply put, the core of this research made the distinction between metacognitive strategies in writing enhancement as an automatic cognitive process, i.e. a skill and deliberate process, i.e. a strategy. this study examined the effectiveness of metacognitive learning strategy in english students in kosovo. based on schraw and dennison’s metacognitive awareness inventory and heaton’s composition test type to collect the data needed for examination, the researchers found that among the 8 categories of metacognitive learning strategy, the most effective one, by its mean, is clearly debugging strategy (with mean of 3.07 out of 5). thus, it can be inferred for this research that english students lack metacognitive skills but they pervade it with data resourcefulness and error spotting analysis. they can easily spot an error and correct it by using strategies for comprehension and learning performance. a concerning issue is distinctly noticed when we run data analysis. students seem to not cope with new trends of learning strategies and when to shift to another one when needed. we found that the experimental group performed better because we, in the role of facilitators, teachers prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 65 and examiners, instilled in them the idea and notion of metacognitive learning strategy, and not only that, but learning strategies in general. on the other hand, the lowest mean from the research of the phase one, undoubtedly is comprehension monitoring. this may be due to lack of necessary information regarding metacognition and learning strategies. it seems like our educational system does not put emphasis in developing students as individuals, focusing on their learning style and enhancing them. another issue worth noticing is the fact that the controlled group was unaware of metacognition of the experimental group. while the experimental group paid attention, and were aware of the role of organization, punctuation and other language use, hardly anyone from the controlled group paid attention to such issues and importance. most of them were only interested in correcting common grammatical errors. references applebee, a. n., & langer, j. a. (2011). a snapshot of writing instruction in middle schools and high schools. bereiter, c., & scardamalia, m. (1987). the psychology of written composition. hillsdale, nj: lawrence erlbaum. brown, k., & hood, s. (2007). writing matters. cambridge: cambridge university press. flavell, j.h. (1976). metacognition and cognitive monitoring: a new area of cognitivedevelopmental inquiry. american psychologist, usa. hayes, j. & flower, l. (1981). identifying the organization of writing processes. hillsdale, new jersey: erlbaum. heaton, j.b. (1975). longman handbooks for language teachers. lik, london, uk. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 66 langan, j. (2011). college writing skills. new york: mcgraw-hill. nunan, d. (1999). second language teaching and learning. usa: newbury house. o'neill, p., moore, c., & huot, b. (2009). guide to college writing assessment. oxford, r. (2011). teaching and researching language learning strategies. harlow, england: longman. peregoy, s.f. & boyle, o.f. (2005). reading, writing and learning in esl: a resource book for teaching k-12 english learners. usa: pearson publications. richards, j.c. (1990). the language teaching matrix. cambridge: cambridge university press. schraw, g. & rayne, a.s. (1994). assessing metacognitive awareness. nevada, usa. wallace, a., wallace, i., & wallechinsky, d. (1977). the people's almanac presents the book of lists. new york, ny: bantam. waters, h., & schneider, w. (2010). metacognition, strategy use, and instruction. new york: guilford press. zimmerman, j. & risember, r. (1997). becoming a self-regulated writer: a social cognitive perspective. department of educational psychology, graduate school and university center, city university of new york. microsoft word 17.docx prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x determination of number of arriving tourists and night spent in accommodation relations with economic growth: the case of turkey ress. asst. seda karagoz zeren trakya university karagozseda@hotmail.com abstract the tourism-based growth hypothesis (tlgh), which indicates that tourism is the determinant of economic growth and provides economic growth, suggests a positive relationship between tourism expenditures and economic growth. within the context of the tourism-based growth hypothesis, it is known that several of the factors affecting tourism expenditures are the number of tourists coming to the country and the length of their stay. this study is aimed at determining the relationship with this context in 2000-2015 years with 81 provinces of data from arrivals tourist numbers and night spent in accommodation in turkey with variables gross domestic product per capita depending on this purpose, the horizontal and cross-sectional dependencies of the variables are first analyzed with the cd proposed by pesaran (2004) and the ba-lm tests proposed by pesaran, ullah and yamagata (2008). according to the test results, the null hypothesis, which suggests that there are no horizontal-section dependencies, has been rejected. then, the cips panel unit root test, which is sensitive to horizontal-section dependency, was performed and the stationarity of the variabilities was determined. in addition, the cointegration test, which is sensitive to horizontal-section dependency, was applied and a cointegration relationship was found between the number of arriving tourists and the length of stay and economic growth. the slope heterogeneity test results, which are sensitive to horizontal-slice dependence applied to variables, show that slope heterogeneity is present in the variables. dynamic ccemge (dynamic common correlated effects mean group estimator) model was used to test the tlgh hypothesis because our variables have horizontal-section dependencies on one side and slope heterogeneity on the other. dynamic ccemg model results indicate that the results of tlgh hypothesis applies to the provinces of turkey. moreover, the relationship between the number of tourists and the length of stay and economic growth varies according to the results of the study. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x key words: number of incoming tourists, accommodation time, economic growth, tourism-led growth hypothesis, dynamic ccemge model 1. introduction prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x the advanced hypothesis that international tourism constitutes the main source of economic growth is the tourism-based growth hypothesis (brida, sanchez carrera, & risso, 2008: 1). this economic link is in the ratio of tourism capital import to growth (tkig) (cortesjimenez, pulina, prunera, & artis , 2009:4). the growth of imports of investment goods by increasing tourism revenues. the economic growth of countries is possible by developing international tourism as non-traditional exports (chang, khamkaew, & mcaleer, 09.08.2018). tourism is an invisible export pen (bahar , 2006: 140). in the tourism-based growth hypothesis, tourism is considered to provide economic growth in the long run (balaguer & cantavellajorda, 2002: 878). in other words, tourism expenditures made by foreign tourists in another country are an export effect as they are in exports of goods, in terms of foreign exchange income provided to that country (çağlayan, güriş, & öskönbayev, 2012: 107). tourism is the whole of the events that occur as a result of the accommodation and the accommodation of the goods and services produced by the tourism enterprises, so that the individuals are permanently residing and traveling outside the places where they work and not aiming to settle in the area and gain profit (barutçugil, 1998). according to the data of 2015, foreign tourist traffic increased by 4.4% to 1 billion 184 million. in 2016, the tourism sector is expected to grow by 4% (unwto (world tourism organization), 09.08.2018). in this context, the figures show that the tourism sector has become a constantly developing and growing sector in the world economy. in this study, tourism-led growth hypothesis, 2000-2015 year the number of tourists coming to turkey and their stay provinces with data, economic growth has been tested using variables. panel data studies performed in the tourism sector in turkey is to test the existence of cointegration between provinces generally related variables. aslan (2008) study made by the turkey's long-term economic development in the tourism role of the 1992-2007 period of growth hypothesis based on tourism by examination to examined johansen be confirmed by cointegration and granger causality tests. according to the study variables of tourism in turkey has determined that the impact on economic growth (arslan, 2008: 1). kaya and canlı (2013) is the work they have done investigated the determinants of international tourism demand for turkey. 1990-2018 / 2010 for the period of 24 selected oecd countries towards turkey have made an analysis of international tourism demand. within findings they obtained that determine the demand for international tourism to turkey from oecd countries have determined that the prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x variable income. in this context, the increase in the income levels of oecd countries leads to an increase in the demand for tourism to turkey (kaya & canlı, 2013: 43). 2. data and method the number of tourists and accommodation for the duration provinces of turkey between the years 2000-2015 in the study was attempted to test whether there is a relationship on economic growth. working tourism enterprises located in 81 provinces in the number of tourists coming to the certificate of accommodation facilities with municipal certificate accommodations for their stay and turkey were examined with per capita gdp falling in each province separately. tourism data and falling gdp per capita in the provinces turkey statistical institute (tüi̇khttp://www.tuik.gov.tr) was obtained from the database. descriptive statistics of the data used in table 1 are presented below. table 1. descriptive statistics variables observation mean standard deviation min. max. lg (gsyh per capita) 1296 10.039,25 7.493,607 455 43.645 ttg (number of tourists coming to accommodation facilities with tourism operation certificate) 1296 336.052,51 1.216.467,581 148 14.657.471 btg (number of tourists coming to municipal licensed 1296 206.679,52 435.180,035 658 3.642.438 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x accommodation facilities) tg (number of nights spent in accommodation facilities with tourism operation certificate) 1296 1.060.511,29 5.508.824,294 366 70.527.186 bg (number of nights spent in municipal certified accommodation facilities) 1296 445.042,98 1.294.190,872 697 11.920.172 source: tüi̇k, https://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/, 01.06.2018. in order to determine the relationship between the number of arriving tourists and the length of stay and economic growth, the model presented in equation (1) is used: 𝑳𝒈𝒊𝒕 = 𝝀𝒊𝒅𝒕 + 𝜶𝟏𝒊𝑻𝒕𝒈𝒊𝒕 + 𝜶𝟐𝒊𝑩𝒕𝒈𝒊𝒕 + 𝜶𝟑𝒊𝑻𝒈𝒊𝒕 + 𝜶𝟒𝒊𝑩𝒈𝒊𝒕 + 𝒖𝒊𝒕 (1) 𝒖𝒊𝒕 = 𝜽𝒊𝒇𝒕 + 𝜺𝒊𝒕, i=1,2,…,n and t=1,2,…,t in the equation, lg-per capita gdp, ttg-number of tourists coming to accommodation facilities with tourism operation certificate, btg-number of tourists coming to municipal licensed accommodation facilities, tg-number of nights spent in accommodation facilities with tourism operation certificate, bg-number of nights spent in municipal certified accommodation facilities, 𝑑6 and 𝑓6 are observed and unobserved joint effects, and 𝜀96 is the error term. in the applied analysis, it was investigated whether or not there is horizontal section dependency among variables. whether horizontal section dependency is an important problem in panel data analysis. in traditional first-generation panel data models, it is assumed that there are no horizontal section dependencies between the error terms and the slopes are homogeneous. not investigating the horizontal section dependency can lead to many problems. one of these problems is that in the case of horizontal section dependency between error terms, prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x it is shown that reaching many dimensions in the results of traditional first generation unit root tests and using fixed and changing effect models to reach inconsistent and misleading results (atılgan, ertuğrul, & basar, 2017: 425). the cd test proposed by pesaran (2004) and the lm (bias adjusted lm test) proposed by pesaran, ullah and yamagata (2008) were used to analyze whether there is horizontal section dependency. because of the horizontal section dependency between the variables, the cips unit rootstocks recommended by pesaran (2007) were used. once the series were found to be stationary in the first order, the cointegration relation was examined using the gauss 10 program. after determining the existence of cointegration between the variables, the slope heterogeneity test proposed by pesaran and yamagata (2008) was applied. the slope is the assumption of slope homogeneity in traditional first generation panel data models that are due to the application of the heterogeneity test. if there is no slope homogeneity, the estimation results in the constructed model can be misleading. the dynamic common correlation effects mean group estimator-dinamic ccegm model developed by chudik and pesaran (2015), which takes into account both horizontal and vertical gradient heterogeneity, is used. the dynamic ccegm model is set up as shown in equation (2) below. 𝒚𝒊𝒕 = 𝜶𝟎𝒊𝒚𝒊𝒕 − 𝟏 + 𝜶𝟏𝒊 + 𝜷𝒊𝒙𝒊𝒕 + ∑ 𝜽𝒊𝒚@𝒊𝒕a𝒋𝒏𝒋d𝟏 + ∑ 𝜽𝒊𝒙@𝒊𝒕a𝒋 + 𝒏 𝒋d𝟏 𝝋𝒊𝒇𝒕 + 𝝐𝒊𝒕 (2) in the equation, the 𝑦96 dependent variable is the fixed effects of the time-invariant heterogeneity among the 𝛼i9 groups, the 𝑥96 descriptive variables vector, �̅�96al 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦p96al delayed horizontal section averages, 𝛽9 the specific slopes of the observed variables, 𝑓6 common factors that can not be observed with the heterogeneous factor𝜑9, and the 𝜖96 error term. in the applied analysis, ccegm and amg (augmented mean group) models were predicted in addition to the dynamic ccegm model. 3. estimation results prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x in the study, firstly, it is examined whether there is horizontal section dependency between variables. for this purpose, the cd test proposed by pesaran (2004) and the bias adjusted lm test proposed by pesaran, ullah and yamagata (2008) were used. the horizontal section dependency test results are presented in table 2 and table 3. table 2. horizontal cross section dependency test resultscd test p value cd test lg 0.000 226.71 ttg 0.000 143.88 btg 0.000 64.96 tg 0.000 144.29 bg 0.000 77.06 the values show a level of significance of 5 percent. the null hypothesis is that there is no horizontal section dependency. table 3. horizontal cross section dependency test resultslm / bias adjusted lm test statistic p value lm 5318 0.000 lm adj. 32.75 0.000 the values show a level of significance of 5 percent. the null hypothesis is that there is no horizontal section dependency. when table 2 and table 3 were examined, the null hypothesis that there was no horizontal section dependency in the cd and lm tests was rejected. horizontal section dependency exists between variables. the results of the cips tests proposed by peseran (2007) are shown in table 4 for the unit root examination after the horizontal cross section dependence. table 4. cips unit root test results prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x level first difference fixed fixed + trend fixed fixed + trend lg -2.005 -2.022 -3.402 -3.502 ttg -2.343 -2.685 -3.735 -3.795 btg -2.517 -2.616 -3.864 -3.819 tg -2.317 -2.779 -3.702 -3.739 bg -2.647 -2.657 -3.799 -3.931 the values show a level of significance of 5 percent. the basic hypothesis for the cips test is that the unit is root-containing. when table 4 is examined, the variables become stable after the first difference is taken. analysis of the cointegration relation between the variables after the series were determined to be stationary was carried out by westerlund durbin-hausman test in the gauss 10 program and the critical value at the 5% significance level was found to be 1.645> 0.05. the results of the cointegration analysis showed that the number of arriving tourists and the duration of accommodation were cointegration with gdp. following this analysis, the slope heterogeneity test proposed by pesaran and yamagata (2008) was applied. slope heterogeneity test results are shown in table 5. table 5. slope heterogeneity test results value swamy 𝑆u 911.083 ∆w 25.323 ∆w𝒂𝒅𝒋 31.481 ∆w 23.063 ∆w𝒂𝒅𝒋 1.736 the values show a level of significance of 5 percent. the basic hypothesis is slope homogeneity. the results of the slope hetoregion tests show that the slope, which is the main hypothesis, is rejected as being homogeneous. in other words, it is revealed that the slope in the model is heterogeneous and the estimators considering the heterogeneity of slope should be used. for prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x the coefficient estimates, dynamic ccegme estimator which considers these problems have been used since both the horizontal section dependency and the slope heterogeneity exist in the model. the dynamic ccegme estimator results are presented in table 6, table 7, table 8 and table 9. table 6. dynamic ccemg estimator resultslg dependent variable ttg independent variable dependent variable (lg) coefficients lg (-1) 0.397 ttg 0.003 lghorizontal section mean (-1) -0.042 ttghorizontal section mean (-1) 0.000 c -124.624 the values show a level of significance of 5 percent. table 7. dynamic ccemg estimator resultslg dependent variable btg independent variable dependent variable (lg) coefficients lg (-1) 0.355 btg 0.001 lghorizontal section mean (-1) -0.388 btghorizontal section mean (-1) 0.002 c -29.217 the values show a level of significance of 5 percent. table 8. dynamic ccemg estimator resultslg dependent variable tg independent variable dependent variable (lg) coefficients prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x lg (-1) 0.385 tg 0.002 lghorizontal section mean (-1) -0.420 tghorizontal section mean (-1) 0.000 c -96.392 the values show a level of significance of 5 percent. table 9. dynamic ccemg estimator resultslg dependent variable bg independent variable dependent variable (lg) coefficients lg (-1) 0.326 bg 0.002 lghorizontal section mean (-1) -0.369 bghorizontal section mean (-1) 0.000 c -52.297 the values show a level of significance of 5 percent. the coefficients of the independent variables ttg, btg, tg and bg were found to be positive and statistically significant in the expectation direction. the fact that this coefficient is positive and meaningful indicates that there is a relationship between the number of tourists and the length of stay and gdp. the dynamic ccegm model gives the coefficients for each province. the coefficients obtained for the 81 provinces examined are presented in table 10. table 10. provincial coefficients obtained from the dynamic ccegm model province coefficients ttg btg tg bg erzurum 0.017 -0.002 -0.003 -0.001 erzincan -0.015 -0.017 0.018 0.018 bayburt 0.320 0.006 -0.270 0.008 agri -0.004 0.010 0.032 -0.009 kars 0.011 0.011 -0.011 -0.004 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x igdir -0.007 0.008 0.019 -0.001 ardahan 0.073 0.117 -0.042 -0.007 malatya 0.011 0.000 -0.004 -0.002 elazığ 0.001 0.011 0.014 -0.006 bingöl 0.108 0.005 -0.038 -0.016 tunceli 0.044 0.014 -0.016 -0.017 van -0.023 -0.003 0.001 0.001 muş -0.002 0.123 -0.010 -0.047 bitlis -0.086 -0.002 0.078 -0.018 hakkari 0.001 0.014 -0.004 0.006 gaziantep 0.035 -0.008 0.002 0.926 adıyaman 0.002 -0.022 -0.021 0.664 kilis 0.228 -0.025 -0.135 0.042 şanlıurfa 0.008 -0.006 -0.007 0.004 diyarbakir -0.016 -0.001 0.009 0.001 mardin -0.023 0.031 0.021 -0.022 batman 0.001 0.113 -0.008 -0.094 şırnak 0.021 0.018 -0.007 -0.013 siirt -0.971 -0.112 1.267 0.086 i̇stanbul 0.003 -0.001 -0.002 0.001 tekirdag -0.058 -0.007 0.022 -0.001 edirne -0.019 0.008 0.016 -0.001 kirklareli -0.034 0.011 0.012 -0.002 balıkesir -0.005 0.001 0.003 -0.001 çanakkale -0.005 -0.002 0.001 0.002 i̇zmir 0.001 0.001 -0.001 -0.001 aydin 0.000 -0.001 0.000 0.000 denizli 0.004 -0.002 -0.005 0.000 mugla 0.001 -0.001 0.000 0.000 manisa -0.049 -0.005 0.009 0.002 afyonkarahisar 0.002 0.003 -0.002 -0.001 kütahya 0.000 -0.001 0.004 0.000 usak -0.023 0.029 0.008 -0.061 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x bursa -0.006 -0.002 0.003 -0.003 eskisehir -0.041 0.011 0.035 -0.021 bilecik -0.152 0.298 0.123 -0.103 kocaeli 0.052 0.064 -0.023 -0.038 sakarya 0.018 -0.003 -0.008 -0.061 düzce -0.119 -0.009 0.067 0.007 bolu 0.020 0.004 -0.011 0.003 yalova 0.005 -0.042 0.011 0.038 ankara 0.033 0.004 -0.017 -0.005 konya -0.003 -0.009 -0.006 0.007 karaman -0.001 0.207 0.032 -0.204 antalya 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 isparta 0.514 -0.028 -0.048 0.009 burdur 0.075 0.016 -0.097 -0.017 adana 0.001 0.000 0.002 0.001 mersin 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 hatay 0.003 -0.005 -0.001 0.005 kahramanmaras 0.003 0.001 0.000 0.000 osmaniye -0.063 0.081 0.072 -0.067 kirikkale 0.111 0.023 -0.151 0.028 aksaray 0.014 -0.018 -0.004 0.016 nigde 0.020 -0.047 -0.008 0.048 nevşehir -0.004 -0.001 0.002 0.002 kirsehir -0.019 0.026 0.002 -0.026 kayseri -0.019 -0.015 0.018 0.001 sivas 0.009 0.001 0.000 0.001 yozgat 0.016 0.012 -0.009 -0.013 zonguldak 0.082 0.052 -0.034 -0.028 karabük 0.027 -0.024 -0.018 0.024 bartin -0.031 0.003 0.013 -0.004 kastamonu -0.020 0.007 -0.005 -0.007 çankırı 0.049 0.013 -0.039 -0.014 sinop -0.079 0.011 0.054 -0.007 prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x samsun 0.007 0.001 -0.004 -0.001 tokat 0.029 -0.011 -0.021 0.016 çorum 0.021 0.019 -0.014 -0.003 amasya 0.165 -0.015 -0.098 0.012 trabzon 0.002 0.002 -0.001 -0.002 ordu 0.001 0.001 0.002 -0.005 giresun -0.030 0.009 0.016 0.007 rize 0.016 0.013 -0.014 -0.012 artvin 0.008 0.000 -0.008 0.004 gümüshane -0.133 0.031 0.077 -0.034 result in this study, there is a positive relationship between the number of arriving tourists and the length of stay and economic growth. number of tourists and duration of stay were examined separately for tourism certified enterprises and municipal certified enterprises. also applied to the variables under study ccegm dynamic modeling results in terms of the number of incoming tourists and their stay in turkey's 81 provinces have been shown to have different effects on economic growth. references arslan, a. (2008). türkiye’de ekonomik büyüme ve turizm i̇lişkisi üzerine ekonometrik analiz. erciyes üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, 1(24), 1-12. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x atılgan, e., ertuğrul, h., & basar, d. (2017). sağlık harcamaları ve ekonomik büyüme i̇lişkisi: oecd ülkeleri için bir uygulama. internatıoanl economics research and financial markets congress proceedings (s. 423-430). edirne: ierfm. bahar , o. (2006). turizm sektörünün türkiye’nin ekonomik büyümesi üzerindeki etkisi: var analizi yaklaşımı. yönetim ve ekonomi, 13(2), 137-150. balaguer, j., & cantavella-jorda, m. (2002). tourism as a long-run economic growth factor: the spanish case. applied economics, 877-884. barutçugil, i̇. (1998). turizm i̇şletmeciliği. i̇stanbul: beta basın yayın dağıtım a.ş. brida, j., sanchez carrera, e., & risso, w. (2008). tourism’s impact on long-run mexican economic growth. economics bulletin, 3(21), 1-8. chang, c.-l., khamkaew, t., & mcaleer, m. (09.08.2018). estimation of a panel threshold model of tourism specialization and economic development. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1583242. adresinden alınmıştır chudik, a., & pesaran, m. (2015). common correlated effects estimation of heterogeneous dynamic panel data models with weakly exogenous regressors. journal of econometrics, 188(2), 393-420. cortes-jimenez, i̇., pulina, m., prunera, c., & artis , m. (2009). tourism and exports as a means of growth. research institute of applied economics, 1-28. çağlayan, e., güriş, b., & öskönbayev, z. (2012). turizme dayalı büyüme hipotezinin kuzey kıbrıs türk cumhuriyeti için geçerliliğinin analizi. trakya üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 14(2), 105-122. kaya, a., & canlı, b. (2013). türkiye’ye yönelik uluslararası turizm talebinin belirleyenleri: panel veri yaklaşımı. anadolu üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 43-54. pesaran, m. (2004). general diagnostic tests for cross section dependence in panels. esrc working paper. pesaran, m. (2007). a simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence. journal of applied econometrics, 22(2), 265-312. pesaran, m., & yamagata, t. (2008). testing slope homogeneity in large panels. journal of econometrics, 142(1), 50-93. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x pesaran, m., ullah, a., & yamagata, t. (2008). a bias-adjusted lm test of error crosssection independence. the econometrics journal, 11(1), 105-127. tüi̇k.(01.06.2018). https://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/bolgeselistatistik/degiskenleruzerindensorgula.do?durum=a ckapa&menuno=273&altmenugoster=1&secilendegiskenlistesi=. unwto (world tourism organization). (09.08.2018). annual report 2017. www.unwto.org. adresinden alınmıştır algorithmic financial trading with deep convolutional neural networks: time series to image conversion approach 1 ceramic works in sahi̇p ata foundation museum mine erdem selcuk university, faculty of fine arts, department of ancient tile repairs, mina_rdm@hotmail.com article info a b s t r a c t article history: accepted 26 september 2018 available online 31 december 2018 keywords: art, architecture, hankah, ceramic. konya sahip ata social complex is one of the most outstanding monuments that have reached today with both the architectural structure and the works it contains. we started our research with a general information about sahip ata social complex and hankah section and continued with examination of ceramic works that are being exhibited in hankah section of the complex. the repairs, techniques and applied motives of the ceramics are mentioned. there are other artefacts in hankah than ceramic artefacts however, only the ceramic artefacts have been dealt with in order to limit the matter and make examinations in detail. ceramic artefacts that are believed to belong to the seljuk period continue to be exhibited in the sahip ata hankah (foundation museum) section. such studies must be given importance in order to examine and document the art of turkish tiles and to make them accessible. for this reason, the ceramic artefacts exhibited at sahip ata foundation museum in konya province have been identified as research subjects. 1. introduction sahip ata social complex, in meram district of konya, is located in the south of alaeddin hill of furgandede neighborhood. the social complex is also named larende mosque because of its location, which was called larende gate of the city walls during konya seljuk period. the complex is also named henergah (energe) mosque in some texts owing to the hangah in the south (karamağaralı, 1982: 49). in this complex, built by sahip ata fahreddin ali, the seljuk vizier, there are mosque, hankah, tomb, bathhouse, fountain and shop. the construction of the museum started in 1258 and continued until 1283 due to the additions made to the tomb (parlak, 2008: 516). photo -1: konya sahip ata hankah general view 2 photo -2: konya sahip ata hankah plan (from konya cultural assets protection regional committee archive). hankah, built in 1279, is entered from the large crown gate (photo 1) made of stone on the eastern facade (konyalı, 1997: 929). when the crown gate is passed through, a hall covered with vault is seen. there exists a gate on the right and a window on the left. from here, middle hall of the hankah with a dome and a lantern is arrived. the middle hall is octagonal and there is an octagonal pool right in the middle. opposite the entrance gate of hankah (west side) and on the north and south sides, there is iwan1. there is a mihrab2 in the eastern iwan, which is the one with three wans. in the north, there is a window seeing the tomb. on each side of the walls, there are doors opening to the room (photo-2). photo-3: hankah chamber where ceramic works are exhibited 1 vaulted or domed space recessed from a central hall or court (eyvan) having undergone repair at different times, hankah was opened in 2006 as sahip ata foundation museum (şimşir, 2014: 32). in the room to the left of the entrance to hankah there exist the works of seljuk, beylik and ottoman periods made of wood, tile, ceramic, stone and plaster (photo-3). five ceramic products were identified in these works. 2. ceramic works exhibited in sahip ata foundation museum there are four ceramic artefacts displayed at sahip ata foundation museum. ceramics most of which belong to the seljuk period consists of a bowl, a bowl base, and three lamps. it appears that the works were damaged in their present condition. work-1: ceramic bowl photo -4: different aspects of the ceramic bowl 2 niche of a mosque indicating the direction of mecca https://www.seslisozluk.net/niche-of-a-mosque-indicating-the-direction-of-mecca-nedir-ne-demek/ 3 description: inventory no: 191, the bowl, which was found during the restoration works at sahip ata social complex, the period of the bowl was not stated in the inventory slips (photo – 4). it is 11cm tall and 27cm width. the bowl, which has a rounded base, expands towards the mouth. sahip ata foundation museum stated that according to the information in the old inventory slips, the bowl could not be completed because it was assembled in fragments but some pieces were missing. the bowl made of cream coloured ceramic paste is coloured with a glaze in a single-color brownish tone. it is seen that only the inner surface of the bowl is glazed and the outer part is not glazed. it is worth noting that there is a glaze flows on the outer surface. when we look at the decoration of the ceramic bowl, it seems to be very plain. the ornaments made by scraping (sgraffitto) technique were applied to the glazed inner surface of the bowl. two linear strips were applied to the outermost edges of the mouth portion of the bowl. two more linear strips were applied under these strips with an estimated distance of two to three centimetres. immediately below these strips, the bowl was decorated with seven circular strips to our guess. there is no ornamentation in the centre of the bowl. work-2: bowl base photo -5: ceramic bowl base, two different photographs description: inventory no: 217, the bowl found in the excavations of şerafettin mosque restoration belongs to the seljuk period (photo-5). height is 12,5cm and the width is 9,5 cm. the mouth of the bowl is broken to a large extent and it has a rounded base with red dough. there are no ornament or glaze applications seen on the outer side of the bowl. the inner surface is coated with a cream-colored primer with a single colour, and geometric embellishments are applied with scraping technique. there is no ornamentation in the centre of the bowl, but two circular strips form a circle. a thick border is seen around the abstract geometric motifs. it seems that the geometrical ornaments are very intense. the decorations were painted with a single colour green and purple glaze brush. a completely transparent glaze was applied to the inner surface of the finished bowl. work-3: ceramic lamp without glaze photo -6: ceramic lamp without glaze description: inventory no: 216, the lamp which was 4 found during sahip ata hangah is the work of seljuk period (photo -6). the lamp made of red dough with 9cm height and 8cm width is a ceramic without glaze. according to the information from the old inventory slips of sahip ata foundation museum, the lamp, which had been two pieces, was made retention. the handle and the mouthpart of the lamp are broken, and the pointed conical embossing is applied to the surface of the lamp. work-4: green glazed ceramic lamp photo -7: green glazed ceramic lamp description: inventory no: 622, the glazed ceramic lamp found in the restoration excavations of karaman alaeddin bey tomb is the work of the seljuk period (photo-7). the oil lamp was made of red dough with 7,5 cm height and 15cm width. the inside and outside of lamp are covered with a single colour pistachio green glaze. the mouthpart of the circular lamp extends forward. on the surface of the body, there are four different sizes of circular raised ornaments. the handle of the lamp with broken neck is easily selectable. work-5: turquoise glazed ceramic lamp photo -8: turquoise glazed ceramic lamp description: inventory no: 155, the glazed ceramic lamp found in the excavations of konya ali gav madrasah restoration is the work of the seljuk period (photo-8). the oil lamp was made of cream-coloured dough with 7,5-8 cm height and 13cm width. lamp’s neck and mouth part are seen to be broken. when we look towards the base of the oil lamp, which is covered with the inner and outer single-color turquoise glaze, it is seen that there are glaze flows. it is understood that the lamp with no ornamental elements other than the linear strips seen on the neck part is quite plain. conclusion there are five ceramic artefacts exhibited in konya province sahip ata foundation museum (hankah section). when we examine the functions of ceramics, it is seen that those consists of bowls, bowl bases, and lamps. ceramic products produced from red and cream coloured pastes; scraping (sgraffitto), single colour glazing and embossing techniques were applied. scraping and glaze dyeing were applied with brushes to the ceramic bowl and the bowl base. as for the lamps, unglazed, single-colour turquoise and single colour pistachio green glaze and embossing ornaments were applied. these works, which are the works of the seljuk period except for the ceramic bowl seen in the work-1, are brought to the sahip ata foundation museum from different places and exhibited. we have worked on this research topic in order to make it easy for everyone to have information about our works exhibited in the museums and to be able to see them. we anticipate that we will be able to learn more about our ceramic artefacts in different geographical regions by increasing similar works. keeping our values alive, emphasizing their importance is the basis of our work. 5 references 1. karamağaralı, haluk (1982), “sahip ata camii’nin restitüsyonu hakkında bir deneme”, rölöve ve restorasyon dergisi, sayı. 3, vakıflar genel müdürlüğü yayınları, ankara, s. 49-75. 2. konyalı, i̇. hakkı (1997), âbideleri ve kitâbeleri ile konya tarihi, burak matbaası, ankara. 3. parlak, sevgi (2008), “sâhib ata külliyesi”, türkiye diyanet vakfı i̇slam ansiklopedisi, c. 35, türkiye diyanet vakfı yayınları, i̇stanbul, s. 516-518. 4. şimşir, zekeriya (2014), “sahip ata manzumesinin süsleme özellikleri”, yeşilin ve medeniy 1. introduction references algorithmic financial trading with deep convolutional neural networks: time series to image conversion approach 63 life contribution of academic prof. dr. gjovalin shkurtaj to the albanian language university texts prof. ass. flamur shala prizren “ukshin hoti” university, faculty of philology, flamur.shala@uni-prizren.com article info a b s t r a c t article history: accepted 1 december 2018 available online 31 december 2018 keywords: 1. literature review of dr. gjovalin shkurtaj contribution to albanian language the work of prof. gjovalin shkurtajt is of a research type dealing with research and studies in the field of linguistics, pedagogical, which has to do with the application of pedagogical textbook methods as a prerequisite of effective teaching, university teaching, which has to do with higher education texts in linguistics, and academic, which is related to texts of a high theoretical and scientific level which responds to the elaborated scientific requirements in the field of linguistics. his studies in the field of linguistics have left indelible traces that will be followed as an example of the vital contribution to albanian language and culture. a legacy for all those who will be dealing with language studies and not just them, textbooks and university textbooks of prof. gjovalin shkurtaj are a synthesis of language knowledge devoted to pupils and students dependent on the level of education. prof. shkurtaj is known as a dialectologist and researcher of language culture issues, including academic writing. he is also a researcher of sociolinguistics issues. he has been dealing with albanian onomastic for many years. in recent years, he has been devoted to the problems of language-society relations, deepening in the phenomenon of the ethnography of the spoken albanian. albanian language, one of the most advanced fields of albanian science, is shaped out into science and knowledge thanks to the contribution and study of prominent linguists who had one purpose: unifying and enriching the albanian literary language. prof. gjovalin shkurtaj for five decades worked hard for this contribution, texts, university, sociolinguistics, language culture, academic writing. this paper includes the contribution of prof. gjovalin shkurtaj to the albanian language university textbooks, who is known as a dialectologist and a researcher of language culture issues, sociolinguistics and albanian onomastics. this paper also covers his contribution to the collection of the dialectal albanian language to better understand the spoken albanian language system: in phonetics, morphology, syntax and in its lexicon. gjovalin shkurtaj is wellknown for writing university textbooks such as "sociolinguistics", "dialectology", "language culture", "how to write albanian", which are related to: dialectological studies, one of the basic requirements to achieve standardization and enrichment of the albanian literary language; sociolinguistic studies, based on the study of language in relation to society; language culture, based on the standardized language norm as an issue of today's sociolinguistics; academic writing, based on language culture and using literary norms accurately. 64 purpose, so that the use of standardized albanian language extends not only for scientific and academic purposes, but also to be popularly used by masses. the basic requirements and principles for achieving the unification of the albanian standardized language were the collection and arrangement of dialectical data of the albanian language, in order to better understand the entire phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical system of the spoken albanian. scientific research and publishing activity of professor gjovalin shkurtaj is vast and goes to several hundred titles of studies, publications and scientific articles as well as textbooks and university textbooks. his contribution is in the development of university textbooks such as "dialectology" (2003), "sociolinguistics of albanianfrom dialectology to speech ethnography" (co-author with jorgji gjinarin, 2009), "culture of language" (2006) "how to write albanian-academic writing basics" (last 2017), and so on. given the methodological-scientific aspect and the didacticpedagogical purpose of the university textbooks, among other things, we find in these texts some of the study aspects, which relate to: • the knowledge of albanian dialects, dialectical researches and dialectical studies of albanian dialects, sub-dialects, folk groups, dialects of the arberesh diaspora and of other diasporas dissociated from the balkan albanian trunk. • sociolinguistic studies as a requirement for language study in relation to society. • language culture as a high degree of knowledge of language and the use of literary language. • the academic writing that is high-level writing of an analytical text or synthesis. 1. the albanian language data are presented to highlight the linguistic structure within the spoken language system everywhere the albanian language is spoken, as one of the basic requirements and principles to reach the basic system of unity and enrichment of the albanian literary language. professor gjovalin shkurtaj has put this premise in front of himself, that a standardized albanian should be based on dialect variants, based on the actual state of spoken albanian and in the tradition of written albanian. the university textbook dialectology (2003) is a systematic summary of knowledge based on studies of albanian dialects, groups, sub-dialects, including the arberesh-albanian diaspora, summarized and sorted materials according to a methodological and scientific, and didactical and pedagogical textbook. as in other previous books by jorgji gjinari (1963 to 1988) with the same subject which wanted to provide knowledge for the same subject, according to the respective high school programs, and as the authors themselves claim "this version varies not a little the former ones" (gjinari-shkurtaj, 2002, p. 7.), gives us a new situation of dialectology according to recent studies. this university book, from the informational point of view, has fulfilled the program requirements of the subject of dialectology, breaking down and simultaneously synthesizing all dialectal material with general theoretical explanations and concrete data on dialects, sub-dialects, spoken form groups and albanian language spoken forms. albanian dialectology as a science is summarized in this book with theoretical and concrete data according to dialectal distribution. this course shows the factors that influence the creation of dialectal divisions to make it easier to define the differences and similarities between dialects, the sub-dialects, and the spoken forms. studies of the folks like: kastrati (shkurtaj, "philological studies", 1967, no. 2-3.), hoti (shkurtaj, "d. sh.", 1971, voll. ii.), kelmendi (shkurtaj, "d. sh", 1975, vol. iii.), mbishkodra (shkurtaj, e folmja e rranxave të mbishkodrës, "d. sh", 1982, vol. iv.) and lezha`s (shkurtaj, "philological studies", 1981 and 1984.) spoken forms, all monograph of the author gjovalin shkurtaj, as well as dozens of works for the language of the arbëresh of italy, such as: notes to the arbëresh language of stmarcanos (shkurtaj, "st. fil", 1979, no. 4.), notes to arbëreshë language of mrseduza (shkurtaj, "st. për a. xhuvani", 1986.), the verbal system of arberesh language in the province of kozenca (shkurtaj, "st. fil.", 1975, no. 2.), etc., reflect the studies on the albanian language of the northern sub-dialect of gege , as well as of arbëresh of italy language of the most original arbëresh settlements. the monographs and scientific articles of the language studies and language system in both albanian dialects became the basis of the dialectology text, it`s compilation and elaboration of the subject with the didactical and pedagogical methods of planning a university text such as this. dialectology is a textbook that gives an insight into the dialectical division and proximity of the albanian language, based on 65 spoken forms, to the distinctive and common features of the two albanian language protagonist dialects. thus, dialectology marks the beginnings of sociolinguistic studies. the real language situation in the different spoken forms of albanian, presented, collected and systematized by the linguistic material, is the "modeled" realistic state of the verified "representative" individual of a territory. along with others, the individual provides language-based material and further promotes the study of the common features and individual differences of speakers to develop linguistic conformity from individualism. conformism means the individual sociolinguistic modeling of the individual, from experience and by listening to the others. dialectology is already assisted by sociolinguistics (shkurtaj, 2009, p. 194). the impact of "conformism" has a natural impact in community reports between the speaker and the social community. 2. the link between language, culture of language and culture of society (sapir, 1980, p. 235, 236.) is the relation between the speakers and the social community. speaker-community relations have a "normative character" (rrokaj, 2010, p. 222.) of community practices, which are imposed to the individual will of the speaker. these remind us that language by being collective and outside of the individual it becomes its own in the dimensions of "conformism", in a nutshell the adaptation of the individual's language to his collective linguistic experiences. speaker-community reports emerge on the basis of the main units, "base of dialectal or generally linguistic scale" (shkurtaj, 2009, p. 197.), ranging from tribe, province, people, nation, and state. professor shkurtaj sees the discourse as a part of the socially-deciphered behavior (shkurtaj 2009, p. 18.) defined in sociolinguistics. social behavior changes and over time changes the language towards "unity". social change has an impact on language (martine, 1983, p. 224.) and is a consequence of changing linguistic individuality to each and every one from generation to generation. this change is influenced by social development. thus, the individual language differences go hand in hand. these differences are found everywhere with the tendency that "conformism" will model and sculpt them. it is precisely the social, economic, cultural and educational development that marks a success on the development of this "conformism" with the tendency towards linguistic unification of the smaller units to the larger ones to the national language standard. dialectology marks a series of realization of the general investigation of all dialectal areas of albanian "within balkan land and in many parts of the arberesh diaspora" (gjinari shkurtaj, 2002, p. 8.), described by almost all linguistic aspects of the albanian system, in particular of dialectal albanian. in the other hand sociolinguistics except for the fact that is related to dialectology, elaborates lingual ``individualism`` and ``conformism``, linguistic influences and differences, language inequality and prejudice, the social nature of language, and "speaking as a signal of social identity." (hudson, 2002, p. 121). the albanian language is very rich in various segments of communication. the language of the various vital activities for society has been built over the time. this communication has its own characteristics in the field of lexicon, phraseology, toponymy and language in general as a communication tool with which deals sociolinguistics. changes in phonology, in grammar and lexis between "dialects" are linked to different language functions and new language status (ismajli, 2003, p.19.). professor shkurtaj does not ignore the standardization of language as a general problem of today's sociolinguistics, he deals with it by breaking the "process" from regional varieties into national standard language as a nation's objective orientation (shkurtaj, 2009, p. 156, 157.). standardized language is seen as a problem of sociolinguistics by many linguistics, they base their opinion on sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic parameters (paҫarizi, 2011.). while dialectology deals with the linguistic description of the current linguistic situation in dialects, sociolinguistics marks more linguistic individuality to linguistic conformation according to a sociolinguistic development of speakers and communities in the real language world where speech as interaction is of a social nature. prof. shkurtaj entitled his book” sociolinguistics of albanian from dialectology to spoken ethnography”, which from the didactic-pedagogical point of view of a text discusses the subject from where the dialectology ends and continues with the sociolinguistic treatment of the individual's linguistic development "and the way how individualism (and individuality) and conformism (or solidarity) appear in the discourse" (shkurtaj, 2009, p. 195.). this "is understood only in the context of an analysis that goes from the speaker to the community of speakers where he/one is involved" (shkurtaj, 2009, p. 195). linguistic diversity aspects intertwine with each other, they interact by being modified and altered, which means you cannot define a closed circle of areas of the application of sociolinguistic, says prof. gjovalin shkurtaj, by referring to eight study areas of sociolinguistics. these study fields (shkurtaj, 2009, p. 49.) such as historical ethnolinguistics, historical semantics, sociology of language, sociolinguistics, sociology of knowledge, diachronic sociolinguistics, synchronic sociolinguistics and didacticpedagogical aspects of sociolinguistics are interrelated as long as 66 sociolinguistics considers all aspects to reach its objectives. furthermore, the relationship between the fields of study is mentioned by duckrot-todorov; he adds: "the existence of two separate entities takes place in discourse and society, and it is studied one through another" (dykrotodorov, 1984, f. 94.). with the interconnection between the basic units of dialectical hierarchy such as neighbourhood, tribe, people, nation, and state, and if analyzed from the dialectical point of view, we deal with a dialectical hierarchy such as speech, folk groups, sub-dialects, dialects, and a unified literary language. the latter, the literary language, is related to the general social development of linguistic emancipation and language culture, on which lies the standard language, namely the spelling of the albanian language. the didactic-pedagogical aspect of sociolinguistics, according to the latin saying, as mentioned by prof. gjovalin shkurtaj: "uses norma loquendi" means "the norm of the language is its usage” (shkurtaj, 2009, p. 58.); learning to use language in a speech situation includes linguistic individuality towards conformism and modeling use of language as a social convention. 3. language culture marks a level of progress, use, and institutionalization of the standard language. the scale of use marks the level of language culture of its users, especially students, teachers, artists, public administration employees, television, radio, etc. the use of language, according to spelling rules as an institutional, university, official and state need is applied by an "idealized native speaker" (shkurtaj, 2009, p. 58.). besides learning and increase the degree of language culture, according to him we need scientific, sociolinguistic and didacticpedagogical course interconnection. language culture itself with its essential elements of learning and using the linguistic standard analyzes and summarizes aspects of language development, based on the relation between individual-language-society. the unified literary language is the highest degree of writing spoken and written language, language culture, and knowledge of the sociolinguistic development of language-society relations. thus, the use of language according to the academic text writing rules represents a high degree of learning and language culture, which require skills and individual interest. the ''language culture'' book, according to the author's own preface, includes general aspects of language that are needed by students, teachers, speakers in public, radio, and television (shkurtaj, 2006, p. 9.). the literary norm, as one of the elements of language culture, implies sociolinguistic knowledge of the development of equality and "conformism" in language, as well as the degree of competence and linguistic communication of the speakers. language culture covers the literary norm, correct language use, spelling errors, as well as the importance of the right use of language as the best indicator of the knowledge level of the user. there is no use of standard language without a high level of language culture, which implies university language knowledge. in line with the previous programs and current program of the albanian language and literature (raporti i vetëvlerësimit, universiteti i prizrenit, 2017.), language culture leads and is followed by how to write albanian (academic writing) to continue with dialectology and sociolinguistics. according to the program list, including other basic courses such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and lexicology, it is considered that students with pre-knowledge of language will gain new knowledge of language system and its function. this course measures the general knowledge of standard albanian, consistently updates the unified language, albanian literary norm, and the spelling rules of writing words. it is essential that this course examines the principles of language spelling, including principles such as phonetic, morphological, lexical-meaning, and historical-traditional. almost, these four principles regulate the spelling of the words in the albanian language. from the didactic-pedagogical point of view, written discourse, norm, text, and in line with the functions of the language, there is another book titled how to write albanian (academic writing) written by professor gjovalin shkurtaj. 4. academic writing means writing at the highest level, either analytically or synthetically, creating a planned text based on prior knowledge, and doing research by accurately using the literary norm. this course is helpful to students because it increases the level of knowledge on how to write a text, applying the writing techniques, on a paper, and for scientific purposes. the didactic-pedagogical aspect of linking these university textbooks to the courses of the curriculum is supplemented with the course of academic writing summarized in the book how to write albanian (academic writing). fulfilling a student's knowledge of written language, using and applying writing techniques of a text with a certain theme, implies the implementation of a program-related to other courses, according to the curriculum planning of language learning. 67 writing these course-related textbooks requires scientific knowledge; the methodological and didactic-pedagogical part of their design is the main part of the synthesis of knowledge addressed by these books dedicated to students and more. besides books for scientific research nature, monographs, articles, publications and other texts, there are also four university books that are used as the first literature courses: dialectology, sociolinguistics, language culture and how to write albanian (academic writing). these books are useful for learning and understanding language formation. from the pedagogical point of view, these courses fulfill the program requirements for the linguistic and scientific formation of students. knowledge of dialects and language-society relations, based on social change and linguistic "conformism", completes knowledge of the language culture and use of language in spoken and written discourse. conclusion and suggestions the contribution of acad. prof. dr. gjovalin shkurtaj in academic textbooks of the albanian language is a sublimation of scientific, pedagogical, university and academic commitment. known as a dialectologist and researcher of sociolinguistics and language culture, albanian onomastics as well, he has also devoted himself to the problems of language-society relations, mostly focused on the phenomenon of the albanian speaking ethnography. the contribution of acad. gjovalin shkurtaj is found in university textbooks such as "sociolinguistics", "dialectology" (co-author), "language culture", "how to write albanian" and so on.in these texts, we can distinguish three study aspects of the albanian language. dialectal studies are one of the basic requirements and principles for understanding the system and structure of the albanian language. to better understand the entire spoken albanian system, in phonetics, morphology, syntax, and in its lexis, his collection of the dialectical data of the albanian language helped in the unification of the albanian literary language. his opinion is that the unified literary albanian should have been done on the tradition of the written albanian language, dialect variants, referring to the real state of the albanian language. sociolinguistic studies as a requirement for language study in relation to society, language relations, and culture of society highlight the interconnection of the standard language as a general problem of today's sociolinguistics. sociolinguistic studies still help to analyze the "process" from regional varieties into the national language, as a nation's objective. the language culture as a university course derives from the requirement for language learning use based on the literary norm and the need to avoid mistakes that might happen during the written or spoken language. the basics of academic writing imply a high level of expression of written opinion; rely on prior knowledge of the language, language culture, and the proper use of the literary norm, thus as a necessary course for students. academic writing enhances the level of knowledge of how to write a text, how to write a scientific paper, in line with the academic writing techniques. this university textbook marks the contribution of acad. prof. dr. gjovalin shkurtaj to the albanian language and culture. references 1. dykro, o. todorov, c., encyclopedic dictionary of the sciences of language, prishtinë, 1984. 2. gjinari, j. shkurtaj, gj., dialektologjia (dialectology), tiranë, 2003. 3. hudson, r., sociolinguistics, tiranë, 2002. 4. ismajli, r., standarde dhe indentitete (standards and identities), dukagjini, peja, 2003. 5. kosovo accreditation agency, self -evaluation report, albanian language and literature program, university of prizren, 2017. 6. martine, a., elements of general linguistics, prishtinë, 1983 7. paqarizi, rr., shqipja standarde në parametrat psikolinguistikë" (standard albanian on psycholinguistic parameters), prishtinë, 2011. 8. rrokaj, sh., filozofia e gjuhës (philosophy of language), tirana, 2010 9. sapir, e., language: an introduction to the study of speech, prishtinë, 1980. 10. shkurtaj, gj., e folmja e hotit, në "d. sh.", 1971, vol. ii. e folmja e kastratit, "philological studies ", 1967, e folmja e kelmendit, në "d. sh", 1975, vol. iii, e folmja e qytetit të lezhës, published in "philological studies " 1981 and 1984, e folmja e rranxave të mbishkodës, in "d. sh", 1982, vol. iv. 11. shkurtaj, gj., kultura e gjuhës (language culture), tiranë, 2006. 12. shkurtaj, gj., si të shkruajmë shqip baza të shkrimit akademik(how to write albanian-acadmic writing), 68 tiranë, 2017. 13. shkurtaj, gj., sistemi foljor i të folmeve arbëreshe të krahinës së kozencës, published in "philological studies", 1975, shënime për të folmen arbëreshe të shën-marcanos, published in "philological studies", 1979, shënime për të folmen arbëreshe të mrçeduzës, published in "studime për nder të a. xhuvanit", tiranë, 1986. 14. shkurtaj, gj., sociolinguistika e shqipes nga dialektologjia te etnografia e të folurit (sociolinguistics of the albanian language: from dialectology to ethnography of speaking), tiranë, 2009. 15. simonini, a., la sociolinguistika, calderini, 1976. references prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 15 women in the labor market and decision making in kosovo dena arapi faculty of law university of prishtina, republic of kosovo denaarapi@hotmail.com luan vardari university of prizren "ukshin hoti", republic of kosovo e-mail: luan.vardari@uni-prizren.com rrezarta gashi faculty of economics college aab rrezartag@gmail.com abstract gender equality is defined as a prerequisite for european integration and as such the action plan for european partnership is listed on political criteria. the government of kosovo in april 2008 approved the kosovo program for gender equality general six goals and eight specific objectives. with this objective case for women in the labor market and decisionmaking requires a greater commitment of all stakeholders. this study provides an overview of the rough that evaluates the legal framework and crosssectoral policies and positioning of women in conformity with their school preparation in decision-making positions. economic independence remains as one of the main key to the realization of the equal right to decision-making positions. although kosovo with gender representation in decision-making level of the seventeenth in the world counted in the labor market situation remains a challenge that requires a great commitment to the local factor and even international. therefore, the research enables the opening of discussions, improving the working environment and the implementation of the action plan for empowering women in economy as a key factor of the welfare of family and society key words: women, labor market, decision making, kosovo jel code: l1, l12, r11 1. laws and regulations on the participation of women in decision-making process in kosovo employment mailto:bekim_@hotmail.com prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 16 kosovo legislation provides a good basis for encouraging and supporting the participation of women in the workplace, but also in decision-making positions. legislation in kosovo strongly promotes the principle of gender equality. the constitution of the republic of kosovo, the highest legal act and policy of the country, except in language and its structure has a gender balance, it respects and promotes the principles of gender equality, which are recognized internationally (article 71). furthermore, the constitution prohibits any form of discrimination, including discrimination based on gender. one such principle is further sanctioned by the law against discrimination, which promotes the principle of gender equality and gender discrimination (article 2), envisaging sanctions for natural and legal persons who violate the provisions of this law (article 9.2). the scope of this law covers not only public institutions, but also private ones, including the acts or omissions of natural persons (article 4). law on gender equality, which specifically aims to protect, treat and establish gender equality as a fundamental value for the democratic development of kosovo society, with equal opportunities for participation of women and men and their contribution to the political, economic, social, cultural and all areas of social life (article 1.1). the law defines a set of legal measures to achieve full equality of women and men in society, which provide specific priorities that enable the members of a certain gender to enable equal access to all areas of social life, to avoid inequality existing gender, or obtain rights that previously were not met (article 2.9). table 1. comparison of data to employed in the municipal level source: opm/arm, 2011 this comparison was done relying on the data provided mps / dcsa of employed in the kcs on the municipal level. these statistics contain data provided up to december 2008, respectively, in september 2009. also, the law determines the extent of 40 per cent prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 17 participation of one gender in particular social fields as a condition for the achievement of gender equality (article 2.12). table 2. comparison of data to employed in the central and municipal level source: opm/arm, 2011 official statistics mps / dcsa out that the employment rate in central and municipal level or management positions and management, between men and women is different if compared 2008 and 2009. on the management level (central and municipal) are 50 women in 2008, while 67 in 2009. here, seen an increase of just over 15% of women in management positions. while, on the managerial level, reported membership of municipal and central level, the number of women seen growing for these two years. women are a total of 528 in 2008, while in 2009 are 560. this increase appears to be tried nearly 7% in favor of the cement women in managerial positions. on the other side, men are represented with four digit numbers in both years compared on the managerial level. while at the management level also outnumber women up to 7 times. 2. research methodology this report provides an overview of the results and provides interpretation and analysis of data from quantitative research conducted through a structured questionnaire with a sample of 50 respondents selected deliberately. the research was conducted with institutions at central and local government, private enterprises and non-governmental organizations in kosovo. the report also provides an analysis of primary and secondary legislation that guarantees and promotes opportunities for women's participation in work and decision making process. analysis and interpretation of the data presented research are quantitative and structured around seven broadly defined categories. the first category focuses on the respondents' opinions about economic and social indicators of education, which are the level of education, financial support and moral support of family education. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 18 3. gender discrimination in the workplace in a wider sense, gender discrimination at work, occurs when a person or group of persons not treated equally in the context of work because of gender. unequal treatment can affect the level of payment, such as when a woman is paid less for equal work with a man. gender discrimination can occur also in terms of opportunities, as well as the manner of handling the job. kosovo's labor code provides: prohibition of discrimination, prohibition of sexual harassment, health and safety in the workplace. the fact is that employment is a problem of discrimination in kosovo. the level of unemployment is high, regardless of employment promotion programs undertaken by the employment offices. instat data show that women are more affected by unemployment. about 21% of women able to work are unemployed. women still face discrimination in both segregation horizontal and vertical. most of them continue to be employed in sectors where women traditionally work, such as health and education. an important measure to improve the situation of women is the existence of good-quality jobs for women in managerial positions or higher management levels, with higher participation rates. women still represent a distinct minority in such positions throughout the world holding only 28.3% of these jobs (alite, 2009). "in the eu, women have increased their share of senior positions over the past decade by 3.1%, reaching a current level of 30.6%." 5 (meniku, kapllanaj, 2009). women face difficulties in reaching managerial positions. according to a report developed on equality between men and women, it noted that the presence of women managers in companies is progressing very slowly and remained at 33%. in the private sector management of businesses by women is low. according to instat statistics, only 17% of private business managers are women and girls, where the majority of them is concentrated in urban areas and 85% less in rural areas by 15% (alite, 2009). so, low representation is conditioned by social and cultural factors, but also by the impact of lower state and financial institutions, which do not create opportunities or adequate support favoring business entrepreneurship by women and girls. a study conducted at harvard showed that professional women yields are better than those of male colleagues. in fact, the only banks that are not included in the credit crisis are those that have women in leadership positions, explains heather mcgregor, a finance specialist at the bank "city" in prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 19 london (gazeta shqip "if businesses run by women, 2012). women have a more rational with money, are less emotional and more inclined toward savings. this is the conclusion that has reached the icelandic government, which on top of the two largest banks in the country, has decided two women (gazeta shqip "if businesses run by women", 2012). despite the changes that have followed the development of women today not only in korea but also in the world, there is still a gap between capacity and their needs and resources available to them; education, employment, involvement in decision making. the low level of representation of women in decision making is a matter affected by many factors sociocultural, economic, structural, social, etc. "today, after nearly 100 years of gaining the right to vote and the right to choose, women in albania have a very low level of representation in decision-making level. thus, the percentage of women in parliament in 2008 is 7.1%, which ranked us at the international level to 114 from 130 countries (92% of the world population). the low participation of women and girls in decision making appear at low levels in leadership positions in the central government with only 11 posts and only 2% of managers in local government while in any publication or literature not "dare" to discuss the possibility albanian women, as head of state (prime minister or president), because history shows that we have no such case" (erbd, 2014) all these inequalities in decision-making are conditioned by economic factors. in 60 countries, women earn about 50% less income than men; they constitute about 39% of paid employees, but 62% of unpaid family workers. gender equality is not a women's issue, it is considered, it is a matter of equality between men and women's groups, and between them equal opportunities in all areas of life from the direction of the family to the state government. it is a process of integration aimed at the development of society, the level of human rights and fundamental freedoms, on the social level, at the level of civil and political rights having equal opportunity to exercise the right to vote and to be ' i was selected. gender differences in the workplace can be used as an indicator of gender equality. women are not treated fairly in the labor market and face indirect obstacles such as gender stereotypes and discrimination. discrimination is apparent behavior by which people are treated differently, and not favorably because of race, class, gender or cultural status of them. "in terms of the convention of the united nations" on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women "(cedaw) considered as an exception, barrier or distinction made on the basis of sex which prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 20 has the purpose or effect of denying the exercise of equal rights and fundamental freedoms in all fields of human endeavor. in article 11, the convention specifies the obligations of states parties in employment by requiring that states parties shall take all measures to eliminate discrimination against women in employment. 4. the analyticalwomen's participation in decision-making positions in addition to the aforementioned laws, the kosovo legislature also approved other laws that indirectly affect the sphere of gender equality in public life and in relationships at work. these laws are intended to encourage women to participate in public life and to provide its contribution to social development, but at the same time protecting their fundamental rights. for example, heritage law, reproductive health law, the law on termination of pregnancy, and some other laws and regulations despite this, the achievement of gender equality and women's participation in decision-making positions leaves much to be desired. law on gender equality has not yet found full implementation. the woman is still not sufficiently represented in leadership positions in public institutions and in private. in addition to the election law that sets a quota of 30 per cent participation of women in the legislature at national and local level, there is no other law that defines such a rate for other institutions. law on gender equality considers that gender equality is achieved when representation of one gender in a particular social field or in a segment of the field is lower than 40 percent (section 2.12), but that still does not impose any quote given to decisionmaking positions. to understand the actual situation in the field of gender equality and women's position in the workplace and decision making, below we present the results of research conducted on 50 respondents. the structure of respondents is composed of employees in public institutions and 73 private institutions 8, and extends to the whole territory of kosovo. while the gender structure of respondents is 65% female and 35% male. graphics 1. gender prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 21 of the respondents 73% were married and 27% unmarried. graphics 2. statute bridal of them, 35% of men were married and unmarried 5%. meanwhile, 40% of married women and 20% of never-married. graphics 3. education prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 22 the level of education of employed women is high. close to 74% have a university degree, while approximately 18% have a masters title and only 5% have finished high school. in the group of around 3% of accounts where the education level is low or the third degree (doctorate). graphics 4. occupation in most cases, education is crucial in securing a job or a certain position. of the respondents, 73% work in view of whom are educated, while 25% work a similar profession. only about 2% work outside their profession. graphics 5. sector and work experience prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 23 sector where women have been successful in securing a job remains further public sector. according to the survey, 58% of women work in the public sector, while 26% of women employed in the private sector. also, a sector where women have been able to secure a job are international organizations where around 14% of women, while non-governmental sector which is usually assumed that provides greater opportunities for women, has employed only about 2 % of women. the graph below clearly illustrates the work experience and employment sectors. graphic 6. poste decision-making however, the majority of employed women do not hold decision-making positions in institutions where they work. from research conducted on this question, and taking into prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 24 account only two variables, close to 42% of women surveyed decision-making position, and about 58% of them hold positions non-decision-making, including all institutions surveyed as public institutions, private companies, international organizations, and ngos. on the other hand, data from mps / dcsa for the years 2008 and 2009, the number of women in management positions in local and central level is 50 women in 2008 and 67 in 2009. while in managerial positions in 2008 are 528, while in 2009, 560 are women. graphic 7. jobs easier than women / men also, there are discriminated, nor any kind of favoritism pronounced in case of delegation of tasks, with some exceptions. among them, 81% said that delegated work easier than the other sex, 14% say that sometimes you delegated easiest job, and only 5% said that they have been delegated the job easier than the other gender. graphic 8. how many women involved in the decision of your institution? prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 25 respondents think that women are involved in decision-making in the institutions where they work. and 28% of respondents think that say that women are more involved in decision making. while 45% believe that women are moderately involved. and, 28% believe that women are less or not at all involved in the decision-making process, or enough to meet the criteria of representation. graphic 9. socio-economic impact it is worth mentioning is that none of employed women stated that they do not have poor or very poor economic showing that female employment has a direct impact on the economic and social situation. about 80% point out that the economic situation affects and average participation of women in employment and decision-making, while close to 20% do not have any kind of impact. graphic 10. financial conditions of employment prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 26 terms and conditions of employment seem to be somewhat enjoyable. around 51% of respondents said they were moderately satisfied with the opportunities offered by the institution, and close to 39% express satisfaction. while, from 9% together they are less or not at all satisfied with employment opportunities. generally, working conditions appear to be satisfactory for employees. 5. conclusions and recommendations while the role of women in the decision-making process in relatively good family, her participation in decision-making positions in institutions and public life is still below the satisfactory level. even when women occupy decision-making positions feel challenged by their male colleagues in different forms. such as neglect of authority, neglect of duties delegated, etc. nepotism, recruitment procedures, political affiliation roads also remain prevalent in career advancement or merit professionalism towards work that should be the main criteria. women face many challenges towards the men on their way to career. in addition, initiatives for the establishment of women in leading positions are scarce and come mostly from women in their institutions. economic and social situation is also a factor that affects the achievement of gender equality and advancement of women especially in decision-making positions and career. women who have better economic conditions have little commitment to their work place, and thus affect their performance and career advancement. prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 27 in addition, other problems such as the lack of the greatest number of gardens, or high price of private gardens, or problems with transportation, in general disturb employees in urban as well as rural areas, impact on jobs. reference kosovo for gender studies center. 2011. “women’s property inheritance rights in kosovo.” pristina. agency of gender equality planning. 2012. “kosovo action plan for the economic empowerment of women 2011-2013.” alite r., (2013). “diskriminimi gjinor në menaxhimin e karrierës”. universiteti aleksander moisiu. shqiperi. ebrd western balkans women in business programme. (2014). european bank for reconstruction and development. http://openaid.esteri.it/media/documents/italy_ebrd_wib_programme_albania__project_document.pdf ligji për ndërprerjen e shtatzënsisë, nr. 03/l-110, http://ks-gov.net/gazetazyrtare/documents/shqip-52.pdf ligji për shëndetin riprodhues, nr. 02/l-076, http://msh-ks.org/sq/legjislacioni/shendeti-riprodhues/40-pershendetinriprodhues.html ligji për policinë, nr. 03/l-035, http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2008_03-l035_al.pdf ligji per forcën e sigurisë së kosovës, nr. 03/l-046, http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2008_03-l-108_al.pdf udhëzimi administrative i mshp/dashc/2003/01, http://map.ks-gov.net/userfiles/file/document_page/nr.mshp.dashc.2003.01-2.pdf http://openaid.esteri.it/media/documents/italy_ebrd_wib_programme_albania_-_project_document.pdf http://openaid.esteri.it/media/documents/italy_ebrd_wib_programme_albania_-_project_document.pdf http://ks-gov.net/gazetazyrtare/documents/shqip-52.pdf http://msh-ks.org/sq/legjislacioni/shendeti-riprodhues/40-pershendetinriprodhues.html http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2008_03-l035_al.pdf http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2008_03-l-108_al.pdf http://map.ks-gov.net/userfiles/file/document_page/nr.mshp.dashc.2003.01-2.pdf prizren social science journal volume 1, issue 1; september-december 2017 28 ligji për mbështetjen e ndërmarrjeve të vogla dhe të mesme, nr. 02/l-5, http://mtiks.org/repository/docs/2005_02-l5_al.pdf ligji për pagat e nëpunësve civil, nr. 03/l-147, http://ks-gov.net/gazetazyrtare/documents/%28shqip%29.pdf ligji për siguri në punë, mbrojtje të shëndetit të punësuarve dhe ambientit të punës 2003/19, http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2003_19_al.pdf programi i kosovës për barazi gjinore, http://stopvaw.org/uploads/kosovo_program_for_gender_equality kushtetuta e republikës së kosovës, http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/kushtetuta_sh.pdf ligji për barazi gjinore, nr. 2004/2, http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2004_2_al.pdf ligji për familjen nr. 2004/32, http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2004_32_al.pdf ligji për trashëgiminë, nr. 2004/26, http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2004_26_al.pdf ligji për shërbimin civil i republikës së kosovës, nr. 03/l-149, http://ksgov.net/gazetazyrtare/documents/ligji%20per%20sherbimin%20civil%20%28shqip%29.pdf ligji kundër diskriminimit, nr. 2004/3, http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2004_3_al.pdf ligji i punës, nr. 03/l-212, http://ks-gov.net/gazetazyrtare/documents/ligji%20i%20punes%20%28shqip%29.pdf ligji për zgjedhjet e përgjithshme në republikën e kosovës, nr.03/l-073, http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2008_03-l073_al.pdf http://mti-ks.org/repository/docs/2005_02-l5_al.pdf http://mti-ks.org/repository/docs/2005_02-l5_al.pdf http://ks-gov.net/gazetazyrtare/documents/%28shqip%29.pdf http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2003_19_al.pdf http://stopvaw.org/uploads/kosovo_program_for_gender_equality http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/kushtetuta_sh.pdf http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2004_2_al.pdf http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2004_32_al.pdf http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2004_26_al.pdf http://ks-gov.net/gazetazyrtare/documents/ligji%20per%20sherbimin%20civil%20%28shqip%29.pdf http://ks-gov.net/gazetazyrtare/documents/ligji%20per%20sherbimin%20civil%20%28shqip%29.pdf http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2004_3_al.pdf http://ks-gov.net/gazetazyrtare/documents/ligji%20i%20punes%20%28shqip%29.pdf http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2008_03-l073_al.pdf 6 risk management in banking sector: empirical data from commercial banks in kosovo isuf qabrati, msc. c. prizren university “ukshin hoti, faculty of economics, isufqabrati@gmail.com article history: accepted 11 january 2019 available online 30 april 2019 keywords: commercial banks, risks, liquidity, credit, equity, profitability a b s t r a c t financial institutions are an important source of financial system functioning of a country and include banks, pension funds, insurance companies, microfinance institutions, and so on. while the risk of financial institutions presents their ability to lose, consequently the change of the actual cash flow from the planned one. among the major risks facing financial institutions are credit risk, market risk, operational risk and liquidity risk. the purpose of this paper is to investigate the risk management in financial institutions by making a survey with the banking sector, which accounts for most of the financial activities. for this reason, eight financial indicators are used to calculate the financial performance of the eight commercial banks involved in the research, which operate in kosovo, taking into account the last two years of their operation. from the data derived from these indicators, using the one-way anova analysis, differences between banks were investigated according to their performance. as a result, it has been found that there are significant differences between banks according to liquidity risk, credit risk, equity risk and profitability risk. in addition, a linear regression model was also performed, which shows that the change in the return on equity (roe) depends almost entirely on the change in the other seven indicators included. introduction commercial banks represent the largest category of depository institutions and are the most important financial intermediary holding most of the deposits. the depository attribute speaks about the fact that these institutions generate their financial potentials mainly in the form of public deposits, by individuals, businesses and governments (govori, 2010). banks transform the saving of citizens (saver’s wealth) into mortgage loans (bank assets). the process can also be described so that "the bank lends the property to the third person for a short term and lends it to another person for a longer term" because it provides long-term loans and finances it by issuing short-term deposits (mishkin & eakins, 2009). the purpose of this paper is to assess banks' financial risk. based on literature, it measures the level of this risk to assess whether there are significant differences between banks according to financial risk and as a result to derive a pattern of financial risk regression. 1. literature review risk is defined as uncertainty, that is, as the deviation from an expected outcome (schroeck, 2002) or some of the more widely discussed definitions of risk include the following: the likelihood an undesirable event will occur; the magnitude of loss from an unexpected event; the probability that “things won’t go well”; the effects of an adverse outcome (apostolik & donohue, 2015). good risk management involves planning successive activities in identifying, analyzing, assessing, accepting and managing potential risks. the main objective of risk management is to achieve the right balance between risk and return, as well as to reduce the unexpected effects on the bank's financial performance (economic bank, 2017). risk management is a cornerstone of prudent banking practices. undoubtedly, all banks in today's volatile environment are facing a number of risks, such as credit risk, liquidity risk, exchange rate risk, market risk and interest rate risk, among others risks which may threaten the survival and success of the bank. in other words, mailto:isufqabrati@gmail.com 7 banks are a risk business. for this reason, effective risk management is necessary (al-tamimi & al-mazrooei, 2007). the acceptance and management of financial risk is inherent to the business of banking and banks’ roles as financial intermediaries. risk management as commonly perceived does not mean minimizing risk; rather the goal of risk management is to optimize the risk-reward trade-off (kanwar, 2005). the ultimate goal of bank management is to increase the institution's earnings and market value. this requires the bank to create a positive difference between the asset return rate and the cost of its obligations. if a negative spread continues, the institution will face bankruptcy. to avoid this disaster, financial managers should carefully evaluate and manage the default risk (burton, nesiba, & brown, 2015). ongore & kusa (2013) have studied determinants of financial performance of commercial banks in kenya, by using bank performance indicators. they have found that capital adequacy, asset quality and management efficiency significantly affect the performance of commercial banks in kenya. the effect of liquidity on the performance of commercial banks was not strong. the relationship between bank performance and capital adequacy and management efficiency was found to be positive and for asset quality the relationship was negative. this indicates that poor asset quality or high non-performing loans to total asset related to poor bank performance. thus, it is possible to conclude that banks with high asset quality and low non-performing loan are more profitable than the others. the other bank specific factor liquidity management represented by liquidity ratio was found to have no significant effect on the performance of commercial banks in kenya. this shows that performance is not as such about keeping high liquid asset; rather it is about asset quality, capital adequacy, efficiency and others. but, this doesn't mean that liquidity status of banks has no effect at all. rather it means that liquidity has lesser effect on performance of commercial banks in the study period in kenya. wanjohi (2013) has analyzed the effect of financial risk management on the financial performance of commercial banks in kenya. they have evaluated the current risk management practices of the commercial banks and linked them with the banks' financial performance. return on assets (roa) was averaged for five years (2008-2012) to proxy the banks' financial performance. the study found out that majority of the kenyan banks were practicing good financial risk management and as a result the financial risk management practices mentioned herein have a positive correlation to the financial performance of commercial banks. olamide, uwalomwa, & ranti (2015) examined the relationship between risk management and financial performance of banks of 14listed banks in the financial sector of the nigerian economy over a period of 6 years (2006-2012). the findings revealed that management of risk does not often translate to positive financial performance of banks. although effective risk management in financial institutions reduces the occurrence of systemic and economic breakdown, but this does not guarantee increase in the returns on equity. 2. methodology the purpose of this paper is to make an examination and overall assessment of banks' financial risk in kosovo, to measure the level of this risk, assess whether there are significant differences between banks according to financial risk and as to derive a financial risk regression model. to accomplish the objective of this research, the study obtained data from banks’ annual reports listed in kosovo’s central bank. banks in kosovo account for approximately 70% of financial institution activities, that’s why this research is focused on banking sector. considering the limitations of the financial statements of the ten banks operating in kosovo, the following banks are included in the sample: raiffeisen bank, procredit bank, nlb bank, teb, national commercial bank, kosovo economic bank, bank for business and is bankasi. from these data, we calculated financial ratios to assess the financial risk of banks and made comparison between banks. research hypotheses: according to the literature, banks face different risk, but in general we can speak about liquidity risk, credit risk, equity risk and profitability risk. therefore, we can propose our hypotheses as following: h1: there are significant financial differences between banks according to liquidity risk. h2: there are significant financial differences between banks according to credit risk. h3: there are significant financial differences between banks according to equity risk. h4: there are significant financial differences between banks according to the risk of profitability. 2.1. data analysis and research findings the data processed by the bank's annual financial reports were analyzed using the spss 23 program. hypotheses were tested using one-way anova analysis. 8 table 1. descriptive statistics table 1 gives a summary of the descriptive statistics of the research sample. the sample consists of eight banks and minimum, maximum, average, standard deviation and variance for each financial indicator used are reported. 2.2. research findings below is the test of established research hypotheses. h1: there are significant financial differences between banks according to liquidity risk. table 2: multiple comparisons for the credit to deposit coefficient table 2 presents the results of multiple comparisons between banks. the most plausible difference is the difference between teb bank and all other banks, raiffeisen bank, procredit bank, nlb, bkt, bek, bpb and is bankasi. according to these differences, the teb bank has a higher liquidity ratio compared to all other banks, except for the bank is bankasi, which has a higher liquidity ratio than the teb bank. another important difference that is also apparent is the difference between the is bank and all other banks, raiffeisen bank, procredit bank, nlb, teb, bkt, bek and bpb. according to these differences, is bankasi has a higher liquidity ratio compared to other commercial banks. as a result, there are significant differences between banks according to the liquidity ratio and from here, h1 hypothesis has been successfully accepted. h2: there are significant financial differences between banks according to credit risk. table 3: multiple comparisons for the credit risk report 9 from table 3, it can be seen that there is a significant statistical difference between bpb bank with all other banks, raiffeisen bank, procredit bank, nlb, teb, bkt, bek and is bankasi. according to these differences, bpb bank has a higher positive ratio of non-performing loans to total loans compared to other banks. as a result, there are differences between banks according to the credit risk ratio and h2 hypothesis has been successfully accepted. table 4 summarizes the results of the differences between banks and other parts of the table are the jodilities are deleted due to the size of the table. as can be seen from the table, there are differences between raiffeisen bank with nlb, bkt, bek, bpb and is bankasi banks according to the capital adequacy coefficient. according to these differences, raiffeisen bank has a higher capital adequacy coefficient compared with these banks. in addition, there is also a difference between is bankasi with raiffeisen, procredit, nlb and teb banks. it can be seen that is bankasi has a weaker capital adequacy ratio than the abovementioned banks. the last difference according to this coefficient exists between teb bank and bkt. teb bank has a stronger capital adequacy ratio than bkt bank. regarding the capital coefficient to total assets, there are significant differences between teb bank with bkt, bek, bpb and is bankasi banks. teb bank has a higher capital coefficient to total assets compared to these banks. as a result, we conclude that there are significant differences between banks according to the equity ratio and h3 hypothesis has been successfully accepted. h3: there are significant financial differences between banks according to equity risk. table 4: multiple comparisons for the capital report h4: there are significant financial differences between banks according to the risk of profitability. 10 table 5: multiple comparisons for the profitability report table 5 shows only the existing differences between banks according to the profitability ratio. regarding the net interest income ratio coefficient, the most pronounced difference is between nlb bank and teb, bek and bpb banks. these differences show that the nlb bank has a lower interest rate net income compared to these banks. another difference according to this coefficient exists between is bankasi with procredit, teb, bek and bpb banks. these differences point to the fact that is bankasi has a lower interest rate net income compared to these banks. regarding the rate of return on assets, there is a single significant statistical difference between teb and is bankasi. accordingly, the teb bank has a higher rate of return on assets compared to is bankasi. meanwhile, according to the rate of return on equity, there are differences between is bankasi bank with teb and bpb banks. from here, is bankasi has a lower emphasized ratio of the return on equity compared to these two banks.the other differences between banks according to these coefficients are not significant. as a result, because of these differences, h4 hypothesis is accepted successfully. 2.3. linear regression model for banks risk after researching the differences between banks according to financial performance, a regression model for banks was derived, considering the last two years of bank operations. for carrying out regression, the return on equity (roe) has been taken as a dependent variable and other financial ratios are obtained by independent variables. table 6: summary of the modelb table 6 presents the most important regression analysis table. the value that is interpreted is the adjusted r square value, which indicates that the change in the return on equity varies from 98.5% to the change in the other independent variables. thus, independent variables affect 98.5% at the rate of return on equity, which is quite high. the following table presents regression coefficients. the linear regression function will be written in this way: 11 roe = 0.075 + 0.025 (loans / deposits) + 0.002 (nonperforming loans to total loans) + 0.020 (nonperforming loans to total capital) + 0.130 (capital adequacy) 1.490 (total capital / assets) + 0.089 of net interest income) + 10,802 (roa). table 7: regression coefficientsa the constant value is 0.075 which indicates that when all these indicators are taken constant, the banks will have a return rate of 0.075 units. with the growth of a unit in the loan-to-deposit ratio, roe will increase by 0.025 units; with the growth of a unit in non-performing loans to total loans, roe will increase to 0.002; with the increase of a unit in non-performing loans to total equity, roe will increase by 0.020; with the increase of a unit in the capital adequacy ratio, roe will increase by 0,130 units, with the increase of a unit in the capital coefficient to total assets, the roe will be reduced by 1,490 units, with the increase of a unit in the margin of net interest income, roe will increase to 0.089 and with a unit increase in return on assets, roe will increase to 10.802 units. conclusion and further discussion financial risk indicates the potential for a bank's loss. the aim of this paper was to make a general review and assessment of banks' financial risk, measure the level of this risk, assess whether there are significant differences between banks according to financial risk and as a result to derive a risk regression model financial. for risk assessment, research has been conducted with commercial banks operating in kosovo, as a result of higher activity in the financial sector. the banks that were involved in the research in general showed good financial performance and had a satisfactory level of financial indicators, thus reflecting the financial health of the banking sector. from the analysis conducted it was found that is bankasi has a higher liquidity ratio compared to all other commercial banks. regarding the credit aspect, bpb bank has a higher positive ratio of non-performing loans to total loans compared to other banks. according to capital adequacy, raiffeisen bank has a higher capital adequacy coefficient compared with nlb, bkt, bek, bpb and is bankasi banks. the profit-based analysis showed that the nlb bank has a lower interest income net interest rate compared to the teb, bek and bpb banks. based on the return on assets, there was a single difference that showed that the teb bank has a higher rate of return on assets compared to is bankasi. meanwhile, according to the rate of return on equity, is bankasi has a lower emphasis on the rate of return on equity compared with teb and bpb banks. banks should be careful to keep their business stable and also comply with the minimum requirements of the cbk parameters. from the reviewed banks, in terms of liquidity, they must always have sufficient liquid assets to meet the needs of their own depositors (clients) within a day and be able to pay their own operating expenses. based on asset quality indicators, given that banks maintain a reserve for loan losses, this reserve should result in a lower level, as the high level of these reserves for the bank presents an increased level of risk. it is preferred that banks have the necessary capital, which should be in an acceptable proportion with risk exposure. regarding the profits, since the indicators were in a satisfactory level in general then the factors that have influenced not only the profit trend but also the sustainability of these profits should be looked at. sustained gains absorb current and potential lending losses, which also contributes to increasing public confidence in the bank and are also needed for a balanced financial structure. bank financial managers should take into account all the reviewed financial indicators. particularly be careful in providing a higher rate of return on equity as this is a main objective of management, therefore increase shareholder wealth. the higher the coefficient, the higher the return on equity 12 (roe). but managers need to be attentive to the resources of a high roe, because an increase in this indicator as a result of the increase in the leverage ratio (bank debt relief) implies that financial leverage, namely the risk of insolvency or bank failure has increased. further more, this research provides important information for those who will research this topic later in kosovo. future research may also include other operational indicators and then explore relationships between them and make comparisons between banks. another regression model based on these financial and operational indicators can also be extracted. references 1. al-tamimi, h. a., & al-mazrooei, m. f. (2007). banks’ risk management: a comparison study of uae national and foreign banks. the journal of risk finance, 394-409. 2. apostolik, r., & donohue, c. (2015). foundations of financial risk. new jersey: john wiley & sons, inc. 3. burton, m., nesiba, r., & brown, b. (2015). an introduction to financial markets and institutions. new york: routledge. 4. economic bank, k. (2017). annual report of the economic bank. retrieved august 8, 2018, from economic bank website: http://www.bekonomike.com 5. govori, f. (2010). financë. prishtinë: instituti për financa dhe menaxhment. 6. kanwar, a. a. (2005). risk management for banks. paf-karachi institute of economics and technology, 1(1). 7. mishkin, f., & eakins, s. (2009). tregjet dhe institucionet financiare – pjesa ii. prishtinë: kolegji victory. 8. olamide, o., uwalomwa, u., & ranti, u. o. (2015). the effect of risk management on bank’s financial performance in nigeria. ibima publishing journal of accounting and auditing: research & practice, vol. 2015 (2015), 1-7. 9. olamide, o., uwalomwa, u., & ranti, u. o. (2015). the effect of risk management on bank’s financial performance in nigeria. journal of accounting and auditing: research & practice, 7. 10. ongore, v. o., & kusa, g. b. (2013). determinants of financial performance of commercial banks in kenya. international journal of economics and financial issues, 3(1), 237-252. 11. ongore, v. o., & kusa, g. b. (2013). determinants of financial performance of commercial banks in kenya. international journal of economics and financial issues, 237-252. 12. schroeck, g. (2002). risk management and value creation in financial institutions. new jersey: john wiley & sons, inc. 13. wanjohi, j. g. (2013). the effect of financial risk management on the financial performance of commercial banks in kenya. university of nairobi. introduction 1. literature review 2. methodology 2.1. data analysis and research findings 2.2. research findings 2.3. linear regression model for banks risk conclusion and further discussion references 61 analysis of teacher certification policy implementation through edward iii approach in aceh tamiang regency, indonesia nurbaiti nurbaiti* humaizi beti nasuti̇on *universitas sumatera utara, master of development studies , nurbaity.903@gmail.com article history: accepted 20 may 2019 available online 10 july 2019 keywords: policy implementation, certification, teacher’s professionalism, edward iii approach a b s t r a c t this paper aims to study and analyze the implementation of teacher certification regulations in kuala simpang, aceh tamiang regency. this analysis uses several factors found by edward iii in the form of communication, resources, disposition, and bureaucratic structure. a qualitative descriptive approach is used in this paper. the results found showed that in the process of applying certification at the aceh tamiang education office, it had not yet proceeded effectively demanding several constraints such as lack of facilities and infrastructure, and inconsistent regulations that made it difficult for teachers. this has caused teachers to be unable and ineligible in completing lesson plans, there are still some teachers who are found to lack discipline and bad attitudes and certification are only considered for welfare and personal gain. thus it can be stated that the certification program has not played an important role in teacher professionalism. introduction education is considered as the construction of knowledge, competency, and potential development, where it has transformed drastically. besides, students are expected to be able to learn without the limitation of time and place. another important issue in education is the means to provide opportunities for students to make them think while they are solving problems, analyzing, and synthesize their knowledge at every level of their studies (prasertcharoensuk, somprach, & ngang, 2015). to be able to meet the objectives of education, the teacher has an important role as individuals who devote themselves to the world of education. teacher plays a pivotal role in the entire academic educative process and pupil academic achievement (fahmi, maulana, & yusuf, 2011) (khan, 2013). an excellent quality of education is closely related to the professionalism of the teacher and their performance in educating the students.the acknowledgment of the position of the teacher as a professional as referred to is evidenced by the educator's certificate. teachers are required to have academic qualifications, competencies, educator certificates, physical and mental health, and have the ability to realize national education objectives (kusnandar, 2018). the indonesia’s law number 14 of 2005 regarding teachers and college teacher (dosen), forcefully argues that teachers are professional educators with the primary task of educating, teaching, guiding, directing, training, assessing, and evaluating students who may be in the school-age informal education, primary education and secondary education (bakar, 2018). teacher certification has become the basis for ensuring the establishment of professional teachers to realize the goals of national education. the implementation of teacher certification is expected to be a solution in achieving the standards of qualified and professional teachers (kurniawan, 2011). the program of teacher certification was started in 2006 with a target of certifying around 2.3 million elementary and secondary (middle school) teachers in 2015. with this large-scaled certification program, all teachers in indonesia will eventually be certified by2015. the budgetary cost of this program is estimated to be about us$460 62 million. to the best of our knowledge, with this program’s magnitude, this could be the biggest teacher certification program in the developing world, if not in the world (fahmi, maulana, & yusuf, 2011). in terms of implementing regulations specifically the teacher certification program regulation. these factors are communication and socialization, availability of resources, the attitude of the officer, regulation procedures and coordination between the parties involved. these four factors are the benchmarks for a successful implementation of teacher certification which will be discussed in the next chapter. of these four factors, we will be able to assess whether the implementation of teacher certification has gone according to the direction of the regulation or not, and in terms of professionalism, there are three competencies that must be fulfilled by certified teachers, namely pedagogic competence, professional competence, and personality competence. the implementation of teacher certification which refers to the minister of national education regulation number 5 of 2012 regarding teacher certification in occupations is carried out in several stages to adjust with the availability of funds, both the funding for certification and funding for professional educator additional allowances for the teachers who pass certification. at the beginning of its implementation, which began from 2007 to 2017, many obstacles were found both in terms of regulations that were inconsistent and the technical implementation in the field which of course involved several parties, namely the district education office, and the certified teachers. the formulation of teacher certification regulation that sounds ideal can build hopes for a better quality of education by improving the teacher’s professionalism and the quality of education. this paper will discuss the matter in a more depth discussion regarding the implementation of certification regulation in the professionalism of teachers, especially in the kuala simpang district of aceh tamiang regency. 1. methodology the data for this paper were collected using descriptive methods through a qualitative approach, therefore, it will describe and explain the implementation of teacher certification policy in the kuala simpang district of aceh tamiang regency. this region has criteria as a data source for the reason that this region has a teacher who has had certification from 2007 to 2018. in addition, the author chose elementary school considering that the institution is the fundamental basis of the education process at an early stage which portraits the teachers in elementary schools as ones who will determine the ability of students in the next stage of education. the informants in this paper consisted of the management committee of the teacher certification in the tamiang district education office (of 2 people), elementary school teachers who had received certification (5 people) and 1 school supervisor. 2. result and discussion 2.1. analysis of implementation of primary school teacher certification policies in kuala simpang district, aceh tamiang district edward iii (edward, 1980) states that policy implementation is the stage of policy-making where policymaking is a part of legislative action, issuance of executive orders, submission of decisions or result for the inferior, or the promulgation of regulations and policy consequences for the people affected. referring to the theory by edward iii, the implementation of the policy is influenced by five factors, namely: communication, resources, disposition (attitudes of theimplementer) and structure of bureaucracy. 2.1.1. communication in teacher certification, communication is where the policymakers deliver information towards the policy implementers and then forwarded to the certification participants. these ways of information delivery from the policy implementers to the certification participants are in the form of socialization. in the next section, three communication factors will be discussed, namely the delivery of messages, clarity and consistency. 2.1.1.1. delivery of message message delivery is the initial stage of communication. in the implementation of the teacher’s certification, the information is delivered through socialization. if the socialization runs smoothly, the implementation process will run effectively, and vice versa. the data found shows that since 2007 the education agency of tamiang regency has carried out socialization on teacher certification. the socialization activities were conducted twice a year from 2007-2011. the source who delivered the socialization activity was able to convey information clearly and had experience with the teacher certification program. from 2012 until now, the socialization has not been conducted again, therefore, the certification candidates must be active to find information about the certification through friends, the internet and the website of the ministry of national education. 2.1.1.2. clarity a policy made by the policymakers must contain clear objectives. the clarity of policy objectives needs to be communicated properly with the implementers. implementation of the policy must be accepted by all personnel and those must understand it 63 clearly and accurately regarding the purpose and objectives of the policy made. the certification program in tamiang regency is intended to asses the professionalism of the teachers by taking the test with the targeted value in order to obtain an educator certificate stating that the teacher is professional. but this statement has contradiction with the one stated by the teacher who has gone the certification process who said that the purpose of the certification policy is unclear, because if you want to asses the professionalism of teachers only from their competency test scores, the officer from the headquarter office should immediately come to review the performance of the certification candidates, because there are still many teachers with adequate quality but are not certified. based on the experience of an informant who is a certified teacher, the information obtained is as follows: "the information given at the time of socialization is quite clear, but we were not given the certification manual, and indeed the purpose of this certification is to see the professionalism of the teacher, but not necessarily from the initial competency test and after the plpg test, in my opinion, it is better for the authorized officers to come down to schools to directly reviews the performance/expertise of a teacher when they teach in the class. 2.1.1.3. consistency according to edward iii, the order given in the implementation of the policy must be consistent and clear to be stipulated or implemented. if the order was given often changes or inconsistent, it may cause confusion for the implementer. therefore consistency must also receive attention in a communication. consistency in this study can be seen from the implementation of the regulations applied. it can be stated based on the data above data that in the implementation of the teacher certification policy in the kuala simpang district, aceh tamiang regency is still not consistent where the regulations themselves still change frequently every year. these changes lead to inconsistent policy and are overwhelming for the policy implementers and teachers who receive the certification. there are several problems which might be causing this inconsistency in certification policies, namely consistently change regulations and implementation which are happening every year and the longer the regulation is the more difficult it will be for teachers, where the competency test score standards are high and difficulties of using computer-generated exams while there are still many teachers who are not able to use the technology. as mentioned by a certified teacher in the interview as follows: "certification regulations often change without being previously socialized to us every year thus creating confusion and the regulations are increasingly complicated, where the test scores have to be high and test using computers, where there are still teachers who are confused about using the computer during the test" 2.1.2. resources resources are useful for supporting the implementation of a policy. without adequate resources, the implementation of a policy will be disrupted. 2.1.2.1. staff resources are one of the factors that must be present in the implementation of the policy if the staff of the policy implementer is lacking in terms of their amount, then the wellbeing of the policy will be disrupted. likewise, if the staff does not have the competence, the policy will not be optimally run. resources in implementing the teacher certification policy are in the staff whose carry out the teacher certification program. in the context of this paper, the staff in question were the staff of the aceh tamiang education agency. the staff of the aceh tamiang education agency is responsible for the successful implementation of the teacher certification program in the kuala simpang district. the number of staff in this area can be considered to be insufficient and sometimes lead to long lines of the queue when submitting the teacher certification files. whereas for the service of the resources is quite excellent where each work is conducted properly but there is still embezzlement of funds and bribery conducted by the certification committee staff in the education department in collecting the certification files. 2.1.2.2. information all information regarding the certification program should be obtained by the teacher through the regional education agency. the teacher is the object of the certification policy and the aceh tamiang education agency is the regulator and board of the teacher, therefore the agency must play an active role in providing information for the teachers. from this factor, it can be stated that teachers receive get information quite well, even though the information they obtained must be received through the principal or operator. the process of delivering information carried out by the education agency is carried out with assistance from the operator /principal. 2.1.2.3. authority authority is one an important component in implementing policy. the implementing board of the teacher certification policy has a certain authority in order to be able to implement the policies imposed. the implementing board must not violate the authority of other implementing agencies. implementers of teacher certification policy must get rid of their desire to take advantage of individuals or groups. currently, the staff from the education 64 agency have used their respective authorities in accordance with their positions. 2.1.2.4. facility facilities are an important factor in implementing policy. an organization which has sufficient and competent staff if it is not supported by adequate facilities, the implementation will be hampered. the facilities in the implementation of the teacher are computer rooms, as well as ac, which is a facility to held the socialization for the certification participants, as well as facilities in the plpg (teacher professional training and education) training in the headquarter for competency tests for the certification participants who must receive attention therefore the implementation of the policy can be implemented well. the facilities of the aceh tamiang education agency to for the socialization are still lacking where there is still no airconditioning equipment available and with the number of participants, it may set back the comfort of participants of the socialization. in implementing the teacher professional training and education (plpg), the learning room facilities are adequate, the module is provided by the implementer, as well as accommodation, consumption, and transport facilities are funded by the certification organizers, but as time goes on, the teachers who take plpg in 2015 the transport costs were no longer covered by the certification organizer. and for the year 2018 the facilities for the certification participants have been significantly reduced, one of which is for accommodation costs where teachers must pay for their own lodging during the training held for 3 months, as well as for the transportation costs, to the point where there are teachers who resign as certification participants due to the facilities which are alarmingly inadequate. 2.1.3. disposition disposition plays an important role in the success or failure of the implementation of a policy. disposition is the attitude or character of the implementor. disposition will determine the success of policy implementation. if the implementer has a positive attitude, he/she may be able to run the policy well. a positive attitude is shown by the ability to conduct tasks properly, responsibility and sincerity in carrying out their duties. and if the implementer of the policy has a negative attitude, they won't be able to implement the policy with correct, the implementation of the policy will also be hampered. these negative attitudes usually pose as lazy attitude, lack of motivation and lack of awareness of their responsibilities. the disposition is divided into three parts, namely: disposition effects, placement of staff, and incentives. 3.1.3.1. disposition effect the effect of the disposition in this paper is focused on commitment. commitment is proven by how the implementor in implementing the policies, goals or changes as well as changes that have been achieved by the implementors for the teacher certification program policies. if the implementation has been conducted effectively, then the implementers must acknowledge what to be done and the ability to implement it. the staff has committed to working properly thus the implementation of the teacher certification policy is going well, besides that the staff also support this policy, therefore, the teachers can live in a better life and as a motivation for the teacher's enthusiasm in their professional life. the teachers argue that there are still some parties who reluctant with the tasks and the rules set by policymakers. with this attitude, the teacher cannot work optimally. as mentioned by one of the certified teachers below: "i am very supportive of this policy, as a teacher who received the certification i have the obligations such as required to teach at least 24 hours a week, must complete the syllabus, as well as making lesson/learning plans. indeed, after the certification, there are many teachers with improved living standards but also the certification comes with many demands and responsibility, or in other words, the workload is increasing, and some teachers also complain the same. 2.1.3.2. placement of staff the policymakers must arrange and place their staff appropriately and selectively. appropriate placement of staff will ensure good policy implementation. in order for the implementation of the policy to run optimally, staff who are in the implementation of the policy must be placed according to their respective expertise. in the implementation of the teacher certification program, the staff placement in question is the staff placement of the aceh tamiang regency education agency. in the aceh tamiang that staff placement has been adequately placed according to their respective expertise and fields, the staff are not selected but instead the leader directly appoints who is placed in the field of the certification program, then is given a letter of assignment to carry out the teacher certification program, then the staff is given training they required. 2.1.3.3. incentives incentives are given to encourage one's motivation to carry out tasks. in a teacher certification program, incentives are given to the teachers who have received an educator certificate. providing incentives for the teacher certification program is referred to as a professional allowance. professional allowance is obtained by teachers who have received an educator certificate. teachers who have received an educator certificate are given benefits to improve their welfare. the provision of these benefits is intended 65 to motivate the teachers in increasing their professionalism. based on the results of interviews regarding the incentives, the official staff received the incentives right from the regional budgetary funds. the incentives are given with the amount of equal to one-time salary for every 3 months, the certification allowance fund is indeed received by the certification teachers at each period but the allowance often given late. 2.1.4. bureaucratic structure the bureaucratic structure according to edward iii is divided into sops (standard operating procedures) and the sharing or disposition of responsibilities. sop is very useful in order to make the bureaucray system run consistently, effectively, efficiently, and not conflicted with the existing regulations. 1. standard operational procedures the sop is a list of governance in conducting certain matters which contains the instructions and regulation within the organization. implementers of the policy must carry out their activities based on exist the sops consistently, effectively and efficiently. in the context of implementing teacher certification policy, the sop is replaced with technical guidelines. technical guidelines are similar to the sop, which regulates the teacher certification process to be implemented properly. 2. distribution of responsibility the availability of clear regulation regarding the authority and responsibility of implementing the teacher certification program has already been provided by the district education office specifically on the main tasks of each staff. the disposition of authority and responsibility run well along with the coordination of each party. 2.2. the role of ceritification for elementary school teacher’s professionalism in kuala simpang district in order to become a teacher with a high level of professionalism, real efforts are needed as expected for the improvement of the students and national education. through certification, teachers are required to become professionals because certified teachers mean they have fulfilled the competencies in both pedagogical, professional, and personality competencies. teachers who have received certification are ones who have the expertise in their respective fields of education, therefore, they are referred to as professional teachers. teachers who already have the certificate are expected to carry out their duties professionally. various tasks conducted by the certified teachers are a form of the teacher’s commitment to continue to improve their quality. this commitment can be demonstrated through consistent or improvement in performance in accordance with the expectations and goals of national education. when an educator already has a certificate, people will assume that the educator is a professional educator. the indication is because the person has passed the competency test. however, there is no guarantee that an educator who has passed the competency test will become a professional educator. professionalism is a term obtained after going through a certain process. based on law number 14 of 2005, the purpose of teacher certification is to see the professionalism of the teachers. but in reality, based on the data found it shows that certification has not played any role in the professionalism of the elementary school teachers in kuala simpang district, aceh tamiang. this can be seen from the lack of teacher’s quality in their professional competencies such as the teachers' ability to work on the learning plan, even though the plan is very important for the teachers to teach in class, but in reality there are many certification teachers who employ other people to work on their learning plan. the current change in the curriculum from ktsp to curriculum 13 caused the teachers to have difficulties in making their learning plan. then teacher lack of ability in the use of technology has led to unprofessionalism in creating lesson plans and obtaining subject matter. based on the data found, it stated that there are still some teachers who have not fully mastered their subject matter even though they have received certification. this is because the teachers only rely on their existing knowledge without trying to obtain new information or knowledge from other media and there is no motivation for the teachers to seek more, even other data shows that when teaching hours are empty many teachers prefer to open their gadgets rather than learning further or gaining knowledge. certification also has not played a significant role in the teacher’s professionalism in the field of personality competence. one of the inhibiting factors in teacher professionalism for personality competence is a lack of discipline, where without supervision from their supervisor there are still teachers who are found to be late and have lack of responsibility in conducting their job. until now there a quite number of teachers who have done the certification process. but not all of them have the quality of education personnel in accordance with the predetermined competencies, for field namely pedagogic, professional and personality competencies. additionally, no matter what policy being implemented by the government, if the educator hired is unqualified then the purpose of the policy itself will not be 66 achieved, and no matter how excellent the proposed curriculum is if the educators are not able to implement it well then it will be a useless measure. besides having a great skill of teaching, teachers are also required to have extensive knowledge, wise attitude and socialize well, therefore, there is no guarantee that an educator who has received certification will become a professional educator. 3. conclussion the implementation of the elementary school teacher certification policy in kuala simpang district of aceh tamiang regency has not been run effectively, this is due to poor facilities and infrastructure for its socialization and from 2012 until now there has not been any socialization of teacher certification. the related party from the aceh tamiang district education office has not been able to provide the best solutions towards the problems faced by the teachers, especially in responding to the inconsistent regulation in almost every year in the implementation of the candidates for teacher certification. some of the obstacles found such as the inability of teachers to access information through the internet. now, along with the development of the internet media (through the website) which has become more dominant for delivering and obtaining information rather than for face-to-face socialization. in the socialization of teacher certification, it is found that the guidebook for the teacher certification has not been distributed/ or not distributed equally to each teacher. the distribution of this guidebook is one of the jobs of the aceh tamiang district education office in terms of sharing information. additionally, inconsistent regulations that are always changing has become an obstacle for teachers in participating in teacher certification. based on these constraints, it can be stated that certification has not played a significant role in the professionalism of the certified teachers. references 1. bakar, r. (2018). the influence of professional teachers on padang vocational school students achievement. kasetsart journal of social science, 39, 67-72. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2017.12.017 2. edward, g. c. (1980). implementing public policy. washington dc: texas a&m congressional university: congressional quaartterlt press. 3. fahmi, m., maulana, a., & yusuf, r. a. (2011). teacher certification in indonesia: a confusion of means and ends. center for economic and development studies, 1-20. 4. khan, z. n. (2013). need for improvement of teacher education in the new millennium. international journal of secondary education, 1(2), 4-7. doi:doi: 10.11648/j.ijsedu.20130102.11 5. kurniawan, b. d. (2011). implementasi kebijakan sertifikasi guru dalam rangka meningkatkan profesionalitas guru di kota yogyakarta. jurnal studi pemerintahan, 2(2). doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/jgp.2011.0015 6. kusnandar, i. (2018). analysis of certificatiion policy implementation. journal of education, teaching and learning, 129-134. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.26737/jetl.v3i1.602 7. prasertcharoensuk, t., somprach, k.-l., & ngang, t. k. (2015). influence of teacher competency factors and students life skills on learning achievement. procediasocial and behavioral science, 566-572. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.021 8. supriatna, e. (2006). administrasi birokrasi dan pelayanan publik. jakarta: nimas multima. algorithmic financial trading with deep convolutional neural networks: time series to image conversion approach 69 investigation of the solutions of prizen university, education faculty teachers mathematics problems prof. ass. münevver muyo yildirim*, prof. dr. hülya gür** *prizren “ukshin hoti” university, faculty of philology, munevvermuyo@gmail.com **balıkesir universty, faculty of education, hgur@balikesir.edu.tr article info a b s t r a c t article history: accepted 16 december 2018 available online 31 december 2018 keywords: 1. introduction 21st century. the characteristics expected from the human being have changed with the age (koenig, 2011). the basic objective is to teach problem solving and logical thinking, to create alternative solutions in the face of problems. it is impossible for mathematics education not to be affected by changing educational approaches (umay, 2004). the students who are trained with the traditional curriculum think that knowing a certain rule or formula will be enough to solve the problem, and how quickly they can show what they know with the paper pen. students memorize what they have learned at school, while preparing for examinations, while solving questions similar to exercise questions, blinding successful students. although the importance of creativity in mathematics education is emphasized, students think that mathematics learning is based on rote even though they want to solve similar problems without solving problems and then solve them (ersoy and gür, 2004). however, teachers are expected to have important tasks in the classroom where problemsolving approach education is given. teachers can understand the problems experienced by children in problem solving by observing in the classroom. teachers play a corrective and guiding role in providing students with an accurate perspective in the analysis of the problems they face. assessing problem solving in the classroom is a complex and difficult task. while some students determine the right answer with wrong logic, some cannot achieve the result of simple errors by using the most accurate strategies. the problem-solving process requires thinking at every stage of the problem. the problem-solving process shows that problem solving is not only a result-oriented worksheets, teacher trainees, problem solving, problem-solving skills, problem posing the aim of the study was to examination of mathematical problem-solving skills and to determine the relationship of between problem posing and problem-solving skills of teacher trainees in prizren “ukshin hoti” university, faculty of education in kosovo. the results of this study are important because there is no a similar work in teacher training in kosovo. for this aim, the case studies, qualitative research (case study), model was used. the research at the state prizren “ukshin hoti” university has been established by turkish teacher trainers. these teachers’ group was selected as a working group. the classroom teacher department nct=26, pre-school teacher department npst=27 and physics-chemistry teacher department npct=12 teacher trainees were participated. the total number of trainers was 65. the data were collected by semi-structured interview form and worksheets in this study. rubrik and descriptive statistics were used as an analyzing instrument. in conclusion, the levels of problem-solving skills of teacher trainees have been determined and recommendations for the development of these levels have been included. mailto:munevvermuyo@gmail.com mailto:hgur@balikesir.edu.tr 70 skill (çakmak, 2003). for effective mathematics teaching, it is important to know how students learn and to create environments where students can gain the skills necessary for the future and develop their skills. in this way, teachers should provide the students with the opportunity to express themselves in a comfortable environment, and to provide an environment for their personal development. such an environment is possible with qualified teachers (beşoluk and önder, 2010). a number of teaching strategies should be considered in the successful implementation of mathematics teaching. the student must be an active participant in the teaching process. the knowledge, skills and thoughts of the student should be used to make sense of new experiences and situations. therefore, the problems chosen in the mathematics lesson should be interesting and interesting about the subjects that students need in their daily life and the activities they do at school. students should be interpreted by interpreting the new information they have gained by associating them with their previous knowledge. in other words, environments should be created to provide the individual meaning of the students. class discussions should be used to create common mathematical truths and meanings. therefore, the teacher should come to the class by planning wellstructured activities (meb 2004). it is stated that the work sheets are important tools that involve the steps of the process in which the students specify what they should do, help them to establish their own knowledge in their own minds and at the same time ensure the participation of the whole class in the given activity. among the reasons that make the use of the worksheets attractive are the fact that the teachers move more easily in the classroom and allow the students to learn the basic information more actively, to allow students to work at their own pace, to eliminate the time loss, to meet the needs of the students in different abilities and to provide responsibility to the students. and to be effective on low motivated students (sharma, millar and seth, 1999). the work sheets can be applied both individually and as a group, and it is one of the funs learning materials of both student teachers and students, who takes the students out of passive knowledge as a buyer and constructs the knowledge of each individual. 2. teacher education in kosovo the republic of kosovo is a country where many communities live together and multilingual education is carried out. the communities in kosovo have lived together for a long time and have continued their right to receive education in their mother tongue, except for some periods in which they lived. it is of great importance for the communities living in kosovo to receive education in their mother tongue. today, the people of kosovo give more importance to education. improving the quality of education in kosovo and the great help of some countries, including the republic of turkey in particular for the development of human potential, and it is possible to see the investment project. in kosovo, there is a need to provide training in different fields in order to complete the missing cadres, and to have teachers who are different in their fields and not to have to give lectures in different fields. therefore, the upbringing and employment of teachers in different areas in kosovo has become an important issue (ergül, 2009). since kosovo became an autonomous region in 1990, it has worked in cooperation with the united nations and the european union on education and teacher training in kosovo. prizren “ukshin hoti” university is located in prizren which is the region where turks live in kosovo, was connected to pristina university in 2002. the faculty of education has trained teachers for 2 years until 2002 and then for 4 years after 2002 (saqipi, 2008). prizren “ukshin hoti” university, faculty of education is the first section of turkish education as "classroom teaching" section has been. the department is 4 years old and shows parallels with the albanian and bosnian classrooms in the faculty of education (çelik, 2009). as of the 2010-2011 academic year, the faculty of education in prizren “ukshin hoti” university, which is affiliated to the university of prishtina, is leaving the university of prishtina, under the name of faculty of education of prizren “ukshin hoti” university. in the faculty of education in the department is changed and the lack of attendance of the permanent staff. the aim of this study is to investigate the problem-solving skills of pre-service teachers, preschool teachers and physics and chemistry teachers. this study on teacher training in kosovo will be the first to be a source of similar studies on teacher training. 3. research significance and purpose mathematics course, memorizing the concepts seen in the course, the relationship between concepts and processes to be similar to a course out of the concept and the process of establishing a meaningful link between the relationship and to include the connection with the current examples. real learning is available with teaching environments that each individual adopts in his own mind. teachers and teacher candidates await important responsibilities to keep up with changing curricula. it shows the 71 importance of qualified teachers and pre-service teachers with the development and application of work sheets and activity papers to keep the students active. it is important for the students and teacher candidates to be inquisitive and thinking about the activities in the classroom environment in order to gain the ability of critical thinking. the education and training environment should be enriched with student-centered education, the teacher should act as a guide and an observer, the students should be in constant communication with their teachers and spend time in the classroom (çetinkaya, 2011). the aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between teacher candidates' skills in solving math problems and problem building. 4. research problem as case we take “prizren “ukshin hoti” university, faculty of education” which was investigated the effect of the teacher candidates studying turkish on the problem solving and problem forming skills of the learning activities based on the study sheets. 5. methods in this part of the study, the model of the study, the study group, data collection and analysis are included. it is a qualitative research by obtaining the work sheet file and semi-structured opinions applied for the examination of problem-solving skills of prospective teachers. the study model was selected and used. this model is considered as one of the relational survey models by karasar (1984). 6. study groups the study was carried out with a pilot study in a public prizren “ukshin hoti” university, where turkish language education was given, and in 2013-2014 academic years, turkish-educated (nt=174) teacher candidate. the study group of the study consisted of teacher training department of the department of primary school teaching, department of primary education nps=26, department of turkish language teaching npresch=27, department of preschool teacher education and department of physics-chemistry education nphc=12. 7. data collection a preliminary information seminar, interview (interview i and interview ii) and study sheets were used as data collection tools. the seminar is given on 4 hours course on "problem-based problem solving". at the seminar; the importance and importance of problem solving in mathematics teaching; strategies and techniques for problem solving in mathematics teaching; problem solving and benefits of installing, setting up and solving problems in the world and in turkey, studies, timss and pisa exam and contents, information is given about. at the end of the seminar, prospective teachers were interviewed. participants each of the three volunteers who participated in the seminar and participated in the seminar attended the seminar. interview i contain 4 questions with semi-structured open-ended. the aim of interview i was to express the opinions of prospective teachers about the problem solving and problem-solving seminar. interview ii was conducted with 3 people who were not willing to attend the first interview and who were willing to do the activities and who were also volunteers. interview ii consists of 3 semi-structured open-ended questions. the aim of interview ii is to determine the prospective teachers' views on problem solving and problem-solving instruction in mathematics education, and their opinions on the necessity of problem solving and how to make them better. interview with each pre-service teacher lasted for 10-15 minutes. nine questions were included in the pisa 2000, pisa 2003 and pisa (pisa-sq.acer.edu.au, 2010) questions. one question was created by the researcher. 10 working sheets were created. in preparing the questions, it is taken into consideration that they are intertwined with daily life and that they are one of the questions containing problem solving strategies. for each of the worksheets, they were consulted with expert opinions and prepared for implementation. table 1. rubric of working leaves wl-1: apple tree garden full score: examines the shape, visualizes the problem with a problem-solving strategy, achieves the correct result; partial score: rounding result without action and explanation table (1 point). zero points-blank: different answers-false-free (0 points). 72 wl-2: step model full score: draws the shapes for the desired steps how many squares are necessary to discover their own environment and use the formula for the fields and selecting the unit (reference 1br, 2 br) makes the calculation; the correct result is 10; with c = 4a and a = a2 (2 points). partial score: shapeless gives only the correct answer for step 4 other desired answers are missing or incorrect (1 point). zero score or blank: answer or blank (0 points). wl-3: let's make blocks full score: counting the small cubes in the figure, a, b, c, respectively, 8, 12, 27 small cubes are required for the field and the area, volume formulas with the reference measure makes self-selected. in the other question, it is expected that 120 small cubes are needed, and are expected to calculate surface area and volume similarly (2 points). partial score: the figure in the figure represents the first two or the first three correctly, but for others, incorrect answers and other actions are missing (1 point). zero points or blank: missing answer is missing (0 points). wl-4: bookshelf full score: considering the items in the carpenter's store, grouping and counting the required number of items for a library, giving the correct answer to 5 books with the correct result (2 points). partial score: those who express the correct result without any explanation (1 point). zero score or empty: those who are completely wrong result or blank (0 points). wl-5: carpenter full score: based on the environmental formulas of the shapes in mathematics, think of the appropriate design for the board of 32 m. yes, correct answer (2 points). partial score: the second design is confusing, only yes -? yes-yes can explain for three; the second is unanswered and without explanation (only 1 point). zero score or blank: two or fewer correct answers or blank (0 points). wl-6: numbered cubes full score: answers to explain this method as it uses a method which shapes the sum of opposite faces sevenno-yes-yes-no-yielded (2 points). partial score: it was able to answer at random without explanation and to give three correct answers. like yes-yes-yes-no ... (1 point). zero score or blank: unable to give up to two correct answers or empty (0 points). wl-7: staircase full score: the arithmetic operation in mathematics, using the necessary operations with the pythagoras relation, refers to the height of each of the 14 steps in the staircase as 18 cm; the right approach for other dresses (2 points). partial score: the process is incorrect or missing but the correct result is 18cm; description or answer missing (1 point). zero points or blank: missed path was followed and the response was incorrect or empty (0 points). wl-8: skateboard full score: the skateboard board lengths given in the table are given as 40,60,65,82,84, the width is expressed as the longest skateboard 1680, with the shortest skateboard with wheel set diameters of 20cm, considered to be 20cm for each length; the surface lengths are expressed on the basis of calculations with the formula (2 points). partial score: without processing, only the short and long skateboard is correct and other answers are missing (1 point). zero points or blank: incorrect result is missing or empty (0 points). 73 wl-9: rock concert full score: first, the rock concert area is calculated and is expressed in the correct order of reasoning with 20,000 followed by 5000 and 80,000 for the most recent situation (2 points). partial score: the correct result for the first two is incorrect for the last situation, the transaction may be missing (1 point). zero points or blank: incorrect result, one of which may be correct or missing operation (0 points). wl-10: sinan pasha mosque full score: minaret size, the ladder length of the correct calculated by proportion, self-selected reference size of the mosque's floor area and the surrounding area (2 points). partial score: the minaret is calculated by the ladder layer determined by itself, the mosque has failed to calculate or calculate the area around the mosque incorrectly (1 point). zero points or blank: completely incorrect or empty (0 points). 8. findings and comments 8.1. findings of study work sheets of teacher candidates from the qualitative data of the study, participants' answers to 10 study sheets were read and each stage of the problem was evaluated according to the level specified in the scoring key. candidates of physics and chemistry teaching from 10 related study sheets applied individually to teacher candidates 8; preschool teacher candidates 22 and 23 class teacher candidates completed the work sheets and a total of 53 pre-service teacher work sheets were collected. table 2. receive score chart from worksheets worksheets full points partial points zero points wl-1 19 25 9 wl-2 6 42 5 wl-3 1 28 24 wl-4 15 28 10 wl-5 25 6 22 wl-6 44 4 5 wl-7 0 49 4 wl-8 7 8 38 wl-9 18 25 10 wl-10 0 5 48 examining the study of wl-1, wl-2, wl-3 and wl-4; it was observed that pre-service teachers received a score between full score and partial score. the candidates are expected to realize the steps they will take to solve the work sheets; • set up a new problem based on the number and operations given, • hey can create a problem by changing open-ended problem expression, understand the problem, • identify the strategy while solving the problem, • it has been found that they can use more tables, shapes and graphics instead of using mathematical language. below are some examples of the work sheets of prospective teachers. 74 examples of apple tree garden activity of teacher candidates phc2 teacher candidate's answer: ps18 teacher candidate's answer presch8 teacher candidate's answer it is seen that phc2 pre-service teacher from physics-chemistry department takes the table for the first activity and produces solutions for the problem. the generalization and calculation process is shown on the same table by answering correctly. it is seen that ps18 pre-service teacher from the department of primary education produces a good solution for the apple garden activity and has reached the right result by tabulating the 5th and 10th steps in the problem. the solution of the preschool teacher candidate's answer with a simple, straightforward mathematical expression language can also provide solutions to other similar problems. the presch8 pre-school teacher had partially correct answers to the candidate's first activity. only for the 5th and the 10th step, using the demonstration solution strategy has reached the correct result. however, he could not reach a generalization. the candidate has difficulty in mathematically expressing the problem, n. it is seen that in order to produce mathematical form for apple and pi ne tree, it is weak. examples of candidates for carpenter activity phc1 teacher candidate's answer: presch8 teacher candidate's response ps23 teacher's answer phc1 teacher candidate from the department of physicschemistry teaching tried to explain the relations between the key 75 components of the problem and the designs by using mathematical operations. with the mathematical result approach, he produced the right solution for the designs. in the pre-school teaching department, presch8 pre-service teacher made the simplification required by the problem at a very good level, and it was seen that the figures were completed with drawing according to the data and answered by seeing whether they confirmed the result. the answers are also the desired solution to the problem. she drew the designs given by the department of primary school education by completing the shapes according to the 32 square meters board. he has dealt with all the components of the problem correctly and successfully completed them. similarly, for the sinan pasha mosque, which is in the problem of daily life, the prospective teachers had a hard time answering, 5 teacher candidates had made part of it, and 48 teacher candidates left them wrong or left blank. examples of teacher candidates related to sinan pasha mosque activity phc3 teacher candidate's answer ps12 teacher candidate's answer in the physics-chemistry teaching department, it is seen that the mosque activity given as phc3 pre-service teacher visually understands the problem, but it does not fully reflect it during the process. in the department of primary education, the ratio of minaret height to ladder and the minaret length in the direction of the process was divided into squares by the squared ps12 teacher candidates in the official mosque activity. since the mosque cannot determine the mathematical operations related to the floor area and its surroundings, it is seen that the interpretation is incomplete for the solution. sinan pasha mosque activity was the weakest work in the file. the overall number of teacher candidates did not reach the correct result. the study sheets of 53 pre-service teachers who completed and delivered the study sheets were examined. teacher candidates: • 3 pre-service teachers received 15-16 points out of 20; • it has been observed that 21 pre-service teachers score between 10 and 10 points. • there are 29 prospective teachers. the success points and percentages of teacher candidates according to departments are; • 8 out of 10 physics and chemistry teacher candidates scored 10 and over (63% success) and 3 scored less than 10. • 22 out of 10 pre-school teacher candidates have scored 76 10 and above (14% success) and 19 out of 10. • 16 out of the total of 16 primary school teacher candidates scored 10 points and above (70% success) and 7 out of 10 points. 9. findings from interview forms in this section, the analysis of the results of the prospective teachers' answers to the four open-ended questions in the interview-i form has been qualitatively interpreted and the reflective opinions of the prospective teachers are presented below. when the answers of the teacher candidates were examined, it was seen that the answers were collected in 6 categories. based on the expressions of prospective teachers, figure 1 below is formed. figure 1. teacher candidates' opinions on problem solving activities-i prospective teachers related the problem with mathematics, have understood the meaning, have learned about the problem-solving steps, and the types of problem solving. they did not understand the problem, did not know the problem-solving steps, cannot classify problems in mathematics to solve problems and therefore fear and anxiety and they did not like the result of mathematics. the analysis of the results of the pre-service teachers' responses to the three open-ended questions in interview-ii form was interpreted qualitatively. when the opinions of all the candidates are examined, it is contradictory with the opinion that the education they take about problem solving and problem solving in the university education is the problem of problem solving and problem solving in middle school and high school. based on the expressions of prospective teachers, figure 2 is formed. figure 2. teacher candidates' views on problem formulation and problem solving ii. candidates stated that they could not get enough information about problem solving and problem solving in university education. they stated that the pre-service teachers had focused on the verbal problems including the four procedures in the mathematics textbooks related to problem solving and problem solving in university education. it is seen that pre-service teacher candidates and pre-school teacher candidates and pre-service teacher candidates have similar opinions about the problem. in the views of the candidates, the students expressed the problem clearly and briefly in order for the students to understand the problem well, they understood the problem well, and stated that they would gain experience in forming similar problems while revealing the necessary knowledge-skills for the solution. result and conclusion after the seminar on problem-based, problem solving training in which was applied in the context of the research, the file containing 10 work sheets which were kept separate to each candidate, according to the results of the teacher candidates before and after the application of the 10 problem solving after in the views of the non-very high level of teacher candidates who have grown in their views it can be explained by the dominance of traditional education approach. in addition, in mathematics lessons that teacher candidates see in the school, it can be explained by the effect of the teacher's adherence to mathematics textbooks. undoubtedly, the study included prospective teachers. because of their long and specific educational background, it may mathemati̇k problem solving difficult fear anxiety love definition problem sloving steps classification of problem problem posing and problem solving relationship 77 be difficult to change the learning in this long-term education process. it is possible that the program to be implemented at earlier ages may lead to differentiation in the results. in the general evaluation of the study sheets applied to prospective teachers, it was seen that the performance of the teacher candidates of the department of physics-chemistry teaching and primary education department was higher than that of pre-school teacher candidates. at the end of the study, teacher candidate’s problem in the problem-solving process, thinking about what the process and when they read the problem, what information they need to reflect the information, although partially reflect the simplification form, logical explanation, prediction and control, systematic study and making table, problem solving strategies were effective. open-ended questions in the study of the problem of solving problems in the open-ended questions by considering the similarities and differences of the many steps to try to achieve only the result of the result, verbal interpretation of the different reasoning in the questions to be asked that the teacher candidates in the theoretical knowledge of the problem solving and found out the theoretical knowledge and practices although they have seen, the traditional teaching concept they have grown in is dominant and the problems solved during teaching are thought to be not related to real life. at the end of the work sheet, open-ended questions and modeling problems, the candidates try to reach the result by mathematical operations, they have difficulty in making necessary explanations, they cannot make enough interpretations about the reason, they give realistic answers in interpreting the problems and they have difficulty in forming similar problems because they cannot solve the problem. the fact that physics-chemistry teaching department cannot be realized is quite thoughtprovoking. candidates who work in different departments have been imitating each other and have similar deficiencies and errors in the work sheets. according to the results of the study, it can be said that there is no significant difference between the mathematics literacy levels of the prospective teachers in all three sections, and the experience of solving problems in mathematics will take time to develop mathematical literacy levels. this was found to be inadequate in questioning exactly what was required in the problem and lack of knowledge in mathematics. in the opinions of prospective teachers of physics-chemistry teaching department, the main reason for the difficulty of mathematics and problem solving is the fact that mathematics lessons are taught by traditional teaching method. teachers of physics-chemistry department emphasized that mathematics literacy should be given importance in mathematics education and that questions containing real life problems may contain more than one answer. because pre-service teachers were low in mathematics literacy in high school and lower grades, and the university was not offered any excuses, pre-service teachers had difficulty in expressing themselves in the application of mathematical worksheets. as a result, it was found that the study on mathematics literacy, which includes the development of mathematical problemsolving and problem-building skills of prospective teachers, was a first in kosovo and there was a positive effect on the problem solving and formation of pre-service teachers' mathematics literacy. according to the findings obtained in the research, some suggestions can be made to the researchers; • similarly, it may be the basis for teachers to work with teachers, to determine the problem-solving skill levels of teachers in the development process, and to develop curriculum for teachers according to these results. • a similar study could be done in order to support prospective teachers working in groups. • instead of giving information about problem solving and problem solving and work sheets to the trainees and teachers, studies can be carried out to prepare and evaluate the work sheets and thus to see their deficiencies. • in-class seminars should be given to all mathematics and mathematics teachers who work in primary, secondary and high school. • students who are considered to be unsuccessful in the mathematics course should be encouraged to improve their achievements with mathematical literacy related scenarios and activities and to develop a positive attitude towards mathematics. references 1. beşoluk, ş. ve önder, i̇. 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(2004). problem kurma ve çözme yaklaşımlı matematik öğretimi–i: öğretmen eğitim denemeleri ve bazı sorunlar. matematikçiler derneği bilim köşesi [online]. (21. 08. 2013) url: http://www.matder.org.tr/bilim/hgyepk.asp?id=82 7. karasar, n. (1984). bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri, 2. baskı, ankara: nobel yayın dağıtım. 8. koenig, judith a. (2011). assessing 21st century skills: summary of a workshop. washington, dc: national research council. 9. meb. (2004). milli eğitim bakanlığı. i̇lkögretim matematik öğretim programı [online]. (11. 03. 2014), http://www.meb.gov.tr 10. miles m. b. and huberman, a. m. (1994). qualitative data analysis, london: second edition. 11. pisa, (2010). [online]. (12.01.2014) www.oecd.org/pisa/home. 12. saqipi, b. (2008). teacher education in kosovo international influence in shaping it and obstacles in making it work in the local context. tepe ‘nd annual conference teacher education europe mapping the landscape and looking to the future. faculty of education, university of ljubljana, slovenia, (thursday 21saturday 23 february 2008). [online]. (31.07.2015), http://www.seeeducoop.net/education_in/pdf/high-educ-kos-enlt02.pdf. 13. sharma, d., millar, r. and seth, s. (1999). workshop tutorials: accomodating student centered learning in large first year university physics courses. international journal of scientific education., 2, 839853. 14. umay, a. (2004). matematik eğitiminde değişim. matematikçiler derneği bilim köşesi, [online]. (31. 07. 2015), url: http://www.matder.org.tr/bilim/aumed.asp?id=68. 15. yıldırım, a. ve şimşek, h. (2008). sosyal bilimlerde nitel arastırma yöntemleri, ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. http://www.matder.org.tr/ http://www.iacd.or.kr/pdf/journal/13/binder11.pdf http://www.matder.org.tr/bilim/hgyepk.asp?id=82 http://www.meb.gov.tr/ http://www.oecd.org/pisa/home http://www.see-educoop.net/education_in/pdf/high-educ-kos-enl-t02.pdf http://www.see-educoop.net/education_in/pdf/high-educ-kos-enl-t02.pdf http://www.see-educoop.net/education_in/pdf/high-educ-kos-enl-t02.pdf http://www.matder.org.tr/bilim/aumed.asp?id=68 references prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 182 education system in albania among changes and reforms phd. evis garunja university aleksander moisiu, albania abstract education in albania, as an important sector of the national development, aims to equip the future albanian citizens with the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities in order to educate and commit them to achieve the country’s economic and socio-cultural development. after the 90’s the albanian economic and social situation have significantly influenced the education and reforms. despite the political changes, education imposed profound changes in curricula or other components. emerging from highly politicized curricula, the reform has set new principles and modern requirements. other issues that constitute the reforms, includes the development of preschool education, reduction of illiteracy, avoiding the phenomenon of school abandonment, improving schools infrastructure, increasing the teachers professionalism, providing free textbooks, modernization of teaching methods, establishing evaluation standards. this paper will highlight the main problems based on the substantial education methods on international and national levels and the impact of reforms implementation in education system. key words: education system, reforms, changes, school abandonment, pre-school education. we worry about what a child will be tomorrow, yet we forget that he is someone today. – stacia tauscher http://www.quotes.net/quote/17901 http://www.quotes.net/authors/stacia+tauscher prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 183 1. introduction the rapid economic, qualitative, social, political and cultural transformation in the post communist albanian society, put the education system in a front of multidimensional necessities. in the temptation to solve the education problems, were taken different steps aiming to put schools in the condition to fulfill changes and the different needs of individuals, groups and society in general. the general perception is that, the quality of education system in albania is damaged after 90-ties caused by the loose of “security, stability and public order" pillars of this system. in this line, the post communist governs were engaged on providing principal reforms on education system to guarantee the improvement of the education system quality in albania. this reform consisted on three principal aspect: legislative administrative aspect – aims to finalize a juridical framework for a democratic and decentralized school, with a major involvement of the local authorities, with a close relation through schools and community and an important participation of all school partners like as: teachers, pupils, parents, community on the decision making process and school direction. the curricula – aims to reform the contents of the pre university education system, improve and projecting new programs which will consent to the school to be more close with the society needs. improving the quality of the human resources – aims to realize among the capacity building the implementation of the decentralize reforms of the education system and the competent curricula’s. 1.2. historical background for 45 years in albania was established the dictatorship of the proletariat, a single party system. in august 1946, the first educational reform was approved consisting in the establishment of a new education system built on so – called democratic and socialist principles, on the fundamental change of ideological, scientific and pedagogical criteria of teaching and education process, on the contents and methods, based on marxism –leninism. the fight against illiteracy undertook a wide spread. in that time more than 85% of the population was illiterate. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 184 based on educational reforms1, the structures of the primary education were defined as unique and general. primary education, and later on, the 7 – year education was proclaimed compulsory. the school was equal for all, boys and girls on towns and villages, as well. schools for adults were also set up at these levels (studying and working at the same time). the 7 – year school, on the basis of the law “on the reorganization of the educational system”, on 1963, became compulsory 8 – year school. all teaching plans and programs were reprocessed, leading to remarkable changes regarding the ideological content of school. productive labor was introduced into the high schools and was given priority to the communist education. the reformation of the education on ideological criteria was carried further by the law “further revolutionizing of school” approved on 1969. the entire teaching and educational work was built on the basis of three basic components: teaching, productive labor and physical and military training. the entire content of the school was permeated by the read thread of the marxist – leninist ideology and the state – party. hence, school politicization reached extreme limits. in the ‘80s and later on, efforts were made for the scientific modernization and qualitative strengthening of the school, but under the conditions of our country, they were done in an enclosed circle, within the same system, so, consequently they did not yield the expected success. the creation of the free market economy and the opening of borders led to a massive leaving of the teachers abroad or to other jobs, qualified or not, but better paid. during the years of communisms regime the education system makes important steps forward. the period from years 1944 to 1991, the preschool education was frequented in 60 %, the elementary education (which includes the children from the first till the 8 class) was frequented 100% and the secondary level from 80 %. the education system was the only way to connect practice with production in order to fulfill the requirements of a close economy like the albanian one. 1.3 the education system after 90ties the urgent needs of the educational system asked for immediate measures, first of all making operative the damaged network of the education institutions as prerequisite for further changes. in 1 in 1946, the higher pedagogical institute opened in tirana, the first higher school in albania. the state university of tirana was founded in 1957. in 1970, the institute of pedagogical studies was set up in tirana. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 185 1994 and 1995 laws of pre-university and higher education in the republic of albania were designed based on the democratic principles of the education system. foreign institutions undertook an assistance and aid program for the rehabilitation of entire education system, its infrastructure and content. the education system lost most of its values for marking the future life of each person after 1991 because of the graduated persons were paid less than a small entrepreneur. in the same economic position was the academic body, which has to faced even with the aggressive behavior and students attitude. education in albania is mandatory for children’s in the age from 6-16 yrs old. during 1990 the frequentation was on 102,3 %, for the elementary level affected by the fact that this service was gratis (for free) offered by the state. after 1990, the frequentation decreased. in 2001 the level of educated persons was 98 %. albania has always searched to achieve a higher level of education for the population in order to improve the economical and social situation. 80 % of the population has completed the primary education of 4 years (from grade 1 4). but the education conditions influenced directly the quality. the logistic missed, the infrastructure was damaged, books and other facilities missed, the schools in rural and mountain areas were in problematic conditions. according to the data’s from the ministry of education and science during ’91 – ’92, the level of abandonment of schools from the students were on the level of 6,3%, instead of 2001 were the level was 2,3 %. in 1990 the system has lost more than 132 000 students or 14 % of the total. from the 57 % of the population in 1989, which frequented the education pre – school, in 1992 this figure was 36%, and the level of frequentation of primary education system was decreased on 94% during 1992. the level of poverty of albanian families affected the level of school frequentation of their children’s. at the same time the logistical shortcomings in schools led to the need of individuals to carry out their incomes for the educational needs of their children. the gap between the education system in the village (where the % of school abandonment was higher) and cities was increased. the major shortcomings in rural areas was considerably increased accompanied with a much higher percentage of school abandonment. 2. albanian legal framework prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 186 the basic fundamental principles of albanian education are expressed in the constitution of albania, the important laws and legal acts and other important documents of parliament, government and the ministry of education and science. the albanian legislation in force, states that, education is a national priority, it’s mission is the spiritual emancipation, the material progress and social development of the individual. education is based on traditions, the achievements of the national schools and the international treaties ratified by the republic of albania. among the strongest democratic principles is the respect for the rights of children and adults. the citizens of the albanian republic enjoy the equal right to education at all levels of education, irrespective of their social status, nationality, language, sex, religion, race, political beliefs, health status and economic situation. the right of education creates the opportunities for the national minorities to develop their native language and culture while at the same time integrating and making them part of the country's life as a fundamental principle expressed in the law. "universal basic education" is the second millennium development goals, signed by albania as a signatory of the millennium declaration at the united nations summit in 2000. through its goals, till to 2015, all children, boys and girls, must have the opportunity to complete the basic education where they are. this will be achieved by increasing the attendance rates for elementary education, the % of students who started the first grade and reached the fifth grade and the % of those who know how to read and write. albania has all the means to achieve and accomplish this goal based on its legislation, policies and strategies with concrete actions to raise public awareness, financial contributions and the implementation of the decentralized system. part of the policies undertaken by post communist governments, year after year, was the constant harmonization of national legislation with international norms to guarantee the right to inclusive education for all albanian children and especially for those with disabilities. this right is expressed in international and national acts. the united nations convention on the child rights stipulates the obligation of the state to recognize the right to education in order to guarantee the equality between all children’s, making compulsory for them the basic education, accessible and free from the financial obligations for everyone2. this law obliges the signatory states3 to ensure that children's education is geared 2 the convention for the child rights (cdf), art. 28. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 187 towards the development of their personality, their talents, and the mental and physical abilities to achieve their full potential4. the united nations convention on the “rights of persons with disabilities5” emphasizes the obligation of member states6 to recognize the right of people with disabilities to education and to achieve this right without discrimination and on the basis of equal treatment. the education of children and especially those with disabilities in the albanian education system is closely linked to the legislative initiative of the state, such as a duty of the state to take care of these children at the highest levels of legal system. in the albanian constitution7, the right to education remains a constitutionally right. the right to education is presented itself as a duality of duty-right, which is well-harmonized in its article 57. the dual nature is shown on the one hand as freedom and on the other hand as a right-duty. the state itself can’t deny to anyone the right to education, or the right to take advantage of all the opportunities that he has the duty to provide. the contemporary parameters to exercise this right do not recognize the state borders. the protection of international law has led citizens to exercise and enjoy this right not only in their own country but also abroad, in countries where they live because of immigration, labor or otherwise. among the elements of article 57 of the constitution, which guarantee the protection of the right to education, we list: the education requirement generally defined in the constitution (article 57/2) and sanctioned in details by a specific law. the constitution is not set explicitly on the age limit for compulsory education in young people. when a society progresses, its educational needs grows. it’s the law that indicates a specific age for attending the educational system but represents a much more flexible system. 3 albania signed the convention for the child rights on 27 february 1992 4 the child convention, art. 29. 5 the convention for the disabled persons (cdpd) is not signed yet by the albania. for its ratification and signing, the associations for the disabled persons rights and their families are doing lot of efforts. 6 cdpd, art. 24. the states party are obbligied to guarantee an inclusive education system on all levels oriented on: (a) the general development of the human capacities, dignity and self evaluation, enforcement of the human rights respect and fundamental rights and human diversity; (b) the development of the personality, talents and creativity of the persons with disability, such as their physical and mental abilities in their full potential; (c) effective participation of disabled persons in a free society. 7 the constitution of the republic of albania (law no. 8417, of 21.10.1998, changed with the law no. 9675, of 13.01.2007, like the law no. 9904, of 21.04.2008) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 188 the albanian constitution guarantees every citizen the right of education in public schools, compulsory and general secondary education, vocational and socio-cultural education. the right to education is for free. children's rights are realized together with their right to education, especially in school institutions, the school legislation, the educational and training activities inside and outside the school, are regulating in details these rights. the article 122 of the albanian constitution stipulates that, ratified international agreements are part of the domestic legal system and prevail over national laws. in supports of international documents, the constitution8 provides "protection against discrimination based on sex, race, religion, ethnicity, language, political, religious and philosophical beliefs, economic, educational, social or parental affiliation", and also specifies that the protection of disabled people from discrimination is due to their social situation. the constitution9 provides education and vocational training in accordance with the capacities of children and young people10. parental responsibility parents are legally obliged to send their children to school, to complete compulsory education of 9 years. the state must respect the right of parents to provide such education in accordance with their religious and philosophical convictions. they have the right to choose the child's school, which can be public or private, religious or laic, according to their beliefs. in these selections’ parents should consider the natural abilities, natural inclinations and children desires. according to the law11, the right of parents to choose to educate disabled children in an ordinary or special school, is laid down. the state must respect the right of parents to ensure that education and instruction conform to their beliefs. at the same time, albanian legislation recognizes the spouses-parents responsible for fulfilling the education obligation of their younger children and provides administrative sanctions for those who do not complete this obligation, allowing children to abandon school. social reality shows that the administrative measures provided by law for parents, in cases of abandonment of school are not 8 the constitution of albanian republic, art.18/2 9 the constitution of albanian republic, chapter v, art. 59. 10 a) assistance and support for the disabled persons; b) health rehabilitation, special education and social integration of the disabled persons, as well as the continuous improvement of their life conditions. 11 law for pre university education system ”, no. 7952, of 21.06.1995. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 189 applied. however, is important to take political and social measures to prevent and reduce school dropouts. parental responsibility for child education is also foreseen in the case of divorced parents. in determining the amount of the food pension, the court also takes into account the costs that are needed for the education of the child. article 207 of the family code12 provides that, the person concerned may apply to the court for the reduction, removing or increasing of food obligation, provided according to the divorce verdict if the circumstances changed. one of these circumstances may be the increase of the child's education obligation when his / her needs increased. in addition, the family code provides the obligation of parents beyond the limits of compulsory and secondary education. this has been imposed when are established the food obligation for children in case of divorce. in this case, the alimony delivered by the parent will continue until the child has completed higher education, even though he has reached the majority. the law on “gender equality in the society13”, emphasized the principle of non-discrimination in education system. according to this law, discrimination cases are considered: firstly, the restrictive rules based on gender discrimination and hindering the necessary facilities to prevent discrimination in public or private education institutions (which provides education or other qualification and training services); secondly, there are generated several objectively unjustified possibilities for man and woman, for the selection of a particular field of study, training, qualification, graduation, as for the duration of the lessons too. as far as we are concerned, it is not considerate as a discrimination14 when during the selection process for the admission to an institution, the head of the school institution gives priority to the candidates from the gender less represented, for same results or peer levels. the admission of candidates in university education is a centralized process organized by the ministry of education and sports. it is unified for the whole country, through acts issued by the ministry of education and sports. furthermore, it is not a discrimination when the state, central and local authorities, take measures to ensure school continuity even after compulsory education. in rural areas, girls are privy to continue studies on these levels (especially for the secondary education) because of their parents mentality 12 law no.9062, of 8.5.2003 code of family of ra 13 law no. 9970 of 24.07.2008, “for gender equality in the society” 14 law no. 10221, of 4.2.2010 “for the protection against discrimination” prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 190 and the obstacles associated with their gender. these barriers are connected also with the far away placement of schools from their residential area, or from the city, or the lack of organized transportation or the higher costs of children’s studies. 3. the organization education system in albania the albanian educational system operates on the basis of the constitutional principles and legal framework. it is built on two levels: the public and private pre-university educational system and the public and private university system. the pre-university education system consists on three levels: pre-school, primary and secondary. the legal basis for pre-university education has gone through some improvements: the law on the "pre-university education system", no. 7952 of 21 june 1995, amended by law no. 8387, of 30.07.1998. as a result of legislative changes, the law no. 69/2012 for "the pre-university educational system in the republic of albania15", which repealed previous laws. this law constitutes the legal framework for implementing all measures envisaged by the ministry of education for the future improvements of operators in this sector. this law incorporates a large part of the normative acts issued by the ministry during the academic year 2002-2003, sanctioning the functioning of schools and other institutions of pre-university education and consists on 77 articles, grouped together in 16 chapters16. the university education law17 has been improved over the years till to the latest one that aspires to university autonomy which aims to give new insights into academic training and development in all university research areas. 15 this law is aligned with: the charter of fundamental rights of the european union (2000 / c 364/01) of 18 december 2000, nummero celex 32000x1218 (01) official journal of the european union, series c, no 364, 18.12 .2000, page 1-22 16 the chapters are: a) the general principles. b) the school obligations and its liberation. c) school registration. d) teaching and educational work. e) maturity examinations and the examinations of year-ending. f) activities and competitions during the competitions. g) the pupil. h) teacher, rights and duties. i) parents. j) collegiate bodies of the school. k) transfers, movement of teachers and pupils. l) training of pupils with special needs. m) the school authorities. n) the property, inventory and budget of the school. o) documentation, the history of the school. p) final dispositions. 17 the reform begins with law no. 7810, "for university education in the republic of albania" of 06.04.1994, law no. 8461 of 25.02.1999, supplemented by the amendments made on 28.07.2003, with the law no. 9576 of 03.07.2006, "on some amendments to law no. 8461, of 25.02.1999, "on university education in the republic of albania ". currently in prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 191 the law "for the pre-university education system" clearly states the obligation of the albanian state to educate all children and in particular those with disabilities (chapter xi / articles 63 et seq. 18). the law states the intention of the state to develop their intellectual, creative, practical and physical skills, their personality and to provide them with the basic elements of general culture and civic education19. this law also provides the education in private schools, which are established and functioning according to the law. special public education is also part of the education system. the albanian education norms, are in line with the international democratic standards, in particular with the actions of the united nations and european union norms20. article 1 of the law "for the pre-university education system" states that "education in the republic of albania is a national priority", “it is carried out in accordance with the principles established in international agreements and treaties ratified by the republic of albania and respects the rights of children and adults sanctioned in these document”. the new law, unlike the previous law, provides a better coverage for service to its followers, for the progress of the educational process, to provide complete and quality training, for a process of higher democratization and decentralization. contrary to the previous law of education, there is a complete definition of the educational system structure, the definition of actors that are part of this system with their well-defined competences and functions, the psycho-social services as an integral part of the educational service, specialized education services with specialists and specialized environments for children with social problems or disabilities. the law determines the modalities and format to be followed for granting licenses to private pre-university education institutions, core curricula, the rights and duties of pupils, parents and teachers, defines the powers of the bodies that monitor and resolve the ongoing problems or disputes or those that provided the relevant qualifications of the academic staff. force for the legal regulation of the system of university education is the law 9741 of 21 may 2007 "on university education in the republic of albania", amended by law no.9832 of 12.11.2007, and law no 10307 of 22.07.2010. the current law contains 101 articles governing the university education in ra, grouped under the following chapters: (a) general provisions. b) the organization of colleges of higher education. c) management and administration of university institutions, d) organization of studies at colleges of higher education, e) opening, modification and closure of public university institutions, f) private universities, g) staff of colleges of higher education. h) students. i) guarantees of quality in university institutions – accreditation, j) state relations with colleges of higher education, k) intermediate structure in university education, l) scientific research and services of colleges of higher education, ll) le property and financing of public education institutions, m) transitional and final dispositions. 18 the law no. 9741 of 21 may 2007 "on university education in the republic of albania" 19 art. 3, law no.9741, of 21.5.2007 "on university education in the republic of albania" 20 the law "for the system of university education", includes the international agreements listed and ratified by albania, in particular, the child's educational rights, according to the article 26 of the universal declaration of human rights, articles 27-28 of the convention on the rights of the child, articles 13-14 of the international covenant on economic, social and cultural rights, article 18 of the international covenant on civil and political rights, 9-12 of the european convention for the protection of human and fundamental rights, article 7 of the international convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination, article 10 of the convention "for the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women", articles 2-5 of the convention "on combating discrimination in education". prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 192 according to the law "for pre-university education", we can say that the albanian education system is divided into public and private. the public education system provided by the state, creates the conditions and guarantees equal opportunities for all pupils as part of this system. the public education system is laic. this system is based on the albanian tradition and is following legal norms related to the common values of contemporary education systems21. the albanian state guarantees and protects the rights of albanian citizens, foreigners or stateless persons for equal and consistent education and respect for the fundamental human rights guaranteed and sanctioned on laws. the public education system is based on two subgroups: mandatory elementary education (9 years) and upper secondary education (gymnasium). this system is offered free of charge and has an inclusive character (article 5). in order to achieve a friendly and orderly process, the albanian state is committed to ensuring basic conditions with standard services, logistics and adequate means for the qualitative process of learning and teaching. this is achieved by the availability of equipment and supplies for schools in the field of good progress and for a continuous qualification of academic teaching staff. the language of instruction is albanian, unless otherwise indicated by law (article 9). the state guarantees the de-politization of the system (article 8). in special cases, for statutory reasons, education can be offered in home conditions (these are children confined to their homes in the north due to the phenomenon of blood feud that is pervading since 1990) (article 17), or cases of distance education (article 18), involving cases of children’s in detention centers and impossible to attend classes in schools, or where education is offered through internet, on-line with new forms of technology for all those children who can’t be physically in the classrooms with the rest of their peers, for reasons of physical impossibility, school distance, or other similar cases. the educational system of albanian republic has inherited a structure that still offers the characteristics of the previous system, which in many other countries has already passed. pre-school education is followed by children aged from 3 to 6 years. from 6 years to 15 years, children attend the compulsory school, and from 15 years up to 18/19 years and attend secondary education. the school week is made up of 5 days. this system consists on the following levels: 21 law “for the pre university education” no. 69/2012 (art. 4) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 193 1. pre-school education (level 0) officially includes pre-school institutions or nursing homes. they depend on local government and the kindergartens are depending on the mes (ministry of education and science/sports). they are followed by a small number of children whose represented the unified system of public and private kindergartens. kindergartens operate whole year and can offer canteen service or not. the criteria for paying of the kindergarten service are determined by the council of ministers. the educational process in the preschool system "aims to the social, intellectual and physical development for each child, practicing basic rules of behavior and hygiene, values for cultivating values and preparation for primary education22," and developing programs approved by mes. preschool education is not mandatory. the attendants of this education are children aged from three to six years. "five-year-olds children can attend pre-school classes at primary schools aiming the integration of compulsory education23". the albanian government is making efforts to introduce a compulsory year (for 5-6 year old children’s) to follow this level. 2. basic education is one of the fundamental rings of the entire pre-university education system. this cycle is mandatory for all pupils up to the age of 16. he "focuses on social, intellectual and physical development for each pupil, mastering behavioral rules and cultivating values, healthcare, and adequate training to continue secondary education or access to the labor market" (article 22 / a). it represents the compulsory level of education followed by 6 to 16 years, unless otherwise stated by law. it is compulsory to attend this full-time education, except in the cases provided by law24, and by all children who are albanian citizens residing in the territory of albania. basic education includes primary school and lower secondary school cycle. since 2006, the duration of attendance at this level of education is 9 years (before that it was 8 years). the primary level of public education till 2005 consisted in 1-8 grades, while the average level consisted of grades 9-12 for general secondary schools, vocational training grades from 9-10 and 9-13 grades and 11-13 for professional technical schools. while according to the law for pre-university education (69/2012), the primary education is composed by six classes, from the first elementary to the sixth grade. lower secondary education is made up of three classes, from seventh to ninth. this system is constructed with a unique and integral conception, in the sense that the upper 22 art. 21/a “law for the pre university education” 69/2012 23 art. 21/b “law for the pre university education” 69/2012 24 the student has the right to continue the full-time basic education up to 17 years. the student, who has reached the age of 17-ties and has not finished the basic education yet, can continue to complete this following school year. the student, who has reached the age of 16 and does not complete basic full-time education, has the right to be enrolled in the elementary part-time schools (art. 22 / d, law 69/2012 ) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 194 cycle is the natural and logical continuation of the elementary cycle. materials have been designed with open cycles. every compulsory school system is able to provide full-time or part-time education. the latest one is provided to citizens of the age above the nominal age (16 years) of the compulsory school but free for whom have not yet completed the "whole cycle" for various reasons. this cycle, starting from the unique and integral concept of the compulsory school, joins the upper cycle in terms of school premises, as well as in its direction by a director and pedagogical teaching staff. in many cases, due to insufficient room, the lessons of this cycle take place in the second shift. in addition, in many villages with few inhabitants, there are so-called subordinate schools (only elementary schools). these schools have a common direction with the nearest nine-year school. students completing the primary cycle in these schools attend the upper middle school cycle of 9 years (lower secondary, according to the government decision). in the primary school all subjects are teaches by a single teacher, except when the pupils are taught a foreign language. in schools with collective classrooms, due to the inadequate number of pupils, the teacher takes a lesson at the same time with two classes (classes i and iii and ii and iv) or even with four classes at the same time. pupils with disabilities attend this level of education in special schools or classes. the pupils at the end of ix-th class are subject to two national exams, the albanian language and mathematics. the pupils at the end of this cycle are provided with a 9-years school diploma. the schools oriented to the education can start with some basic educational classes, ensuring an adequate training of pupils in general culture subjects. under article 10 of the law, people belonging to ethnic minorities have the opportunity to attend compulsory education in their mother tongue, either in special schools or in special education units within general schools25. these opportunities and curricula are provided according to the procedures approved by the council of ministers. 3. at the end of compulsory primary education, pupils are free to be enrolled and to attend secondary schools, which is also free of charge. the upper secondary education as one of the most important links of the university education system (articles 23-24), "aims to further develop the skills acquired from elementary education, the consolidation of the individuality of each pupil and all values and attitudes, the expansion and deepening in specific areas of knowledge, preparing them for the tertiary education or the labor market the council of ministers develop policies to create opportunities for each student who 25 the law specifies that the subjects of albanian language and literature, as well as albanian geography and history should be held in albanian language. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 195 completes the basic education of upper secondary school". (article 23, paragraph 1) the right of every albanian citizen to general secondary education is a constitutional right. the appropriate age for this full-time training is no more than 18 years, except for cases where the law specifically provides other terms26. the upper secondary education is composed by: (a) upper secondary schools (full-time and parttime) (gymnasium), (b) secondary vocational training and (c) secondary oriented education (article 24/1). until 1999, general secondary school (gymnasium) throughout the country was unique, uniform and the lessons were based on the same educational plans, with the same programs of materials and with the same texts. the studies at this level lasts at 3 years or differently in 3 classes, offering general education and deepening the knowledge gained by the compulsory school, ending with state exams. students can be enrolled in full-time schools up to the age of 16. those over 16 years old can be enrolled in the part-time system, which is provided by most of these schools. for all students who have reached the age of 21 and have not completed high school, part-time or distance attendance is allowed. in the 1999-2000 school year, started the experimentation of the separated general education profiles. in the first two years, the student taught with common curricula and in the third year the division of profiles was oriented in two directions, chosen according to the preferences and wishes of the pupils. in the academic year 2005-2006 was added a third direction, the general one. general public secondary school offers a general culture, which is the expansion and deepening of the culture and knowledge acquired in compulsory education school. the duration of these schools is 3 years, according to law 69/2012 (the previous was 4 years). secondary general education schools can be oriented differently from the educational plans and programs, enabling pupils to acquire the knowledge, skills and vocational training required for university studies or for specific vocational training. each student at the end of general secondary education is provided with a diploma of maturity, which lists all the subjects according to the educational program developed by the student during the three years of school with their grades. in addition, in a separate place, you can find the results of the mature exams completed at the end of three academic years. 26 the pupils till to 21 years old can continue the high school education of 3 years, but till to 22 years the education of high school of 4 year. the 21 years old pupil can continue the high school education of 3 years and the 22 years old pupil who doesn’t finished yet the education of 4 years can continue the started academic year. (art. 23/point 2, law 69/2012) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 196 b) professional education27 (ep) (isced 3b, 3c), as well as general secondary education, follows 9-year basic education. this level of education is intended to prepare specialists capable of working independently, but at the same time, the student can continue the university education. the structure of this level of education is composed of three levels, according to the international classification of education standards (cise), the albanian qualification framework (caq) and the european qualifications framework (qeq). the duration of the study at this level is up to 2 till 4 years for those who are studying to make skilled workers in all occupations 28. the second level, with a duration of 4 years after the compulsory school, or 3 years after the 10th class (general or vocational high school), qualifies technicians capable on working or managing various businesses. the enrollment in secondary schools is currently at a level of 59%29, which is far below the eu level. ga (government of albania) aims to improve this level, especially giving a priority of vocational schools accessing, among improvement of equality in providing vocational training for students from higher levels of poverty30. at present, the labor market structure is very 'fluid' and most traditional manufacturing activities have been replaced by different types of services, followed by 'changes' and 'extinction' of certain professions and the 'birth' of some others. the vocational trainings (vt), after 2000, responds and is adapted to the rapid and sharp changes of the country. the vocational training curricula has changed. new programs have been introduced in the vt or have been revised with the intention to their orientation towards practice. the practical content of vt programs has increased from 15-20% to 30-33% in recent years. however, the vt is still characterized by a low number follower students making it a low profile education system. today in albania are 58 public professional schools. there are also a number of professional private schools authorized by mes, which cover less than 10% of the vt sector. nearly two-thirds of public professional schools are run by the state budget, while one-third of them are considered "pilot" projects, and are "provided" with skills and material resources granted by foreign agencies and organizations. the strategy for the foundation of "professional pilot schools" has had a positive influence on the regeneration of the vt. 27 in albania, this type of education began in the 1920s. towards the mid-1970s, there was an extreme maximization of agricultural medium schools (about 350). this maximization was accompanied by a significant drop of quality. during the 1970s and 1980s, efforts were made to increase the quality of vocational education through the modernization of the scientific-pedagogical contents and learning process. in the period of 1990-1992, the attendance of industrial schools, especially agriculture, fell sharply, accompanied by a drastic reduction in their numbers. 28 this law does not mention the types of 'specialties’. 29 in 2005, in accordance with the inter-section strategy of social inclusion in 2008-2013. 30 according to the same strategy, since 2013, 40% of upper secondary education students attends the vocational education. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 197 c) socio-cultural education includes foreign language schools, fine arts, sports or schools for other areas of learning. depending on the direction of trainings, the duration of studies at this level is 3 or 4 years. 4. services offered by albanian education’s institutions a qualified education system is considered by the albanian government as an opportunity for the european integration. over the last few years, political, economic and social developments have dictated the process of revaluation of the entire education system and its reform, in order to ensure the formation of a person capable of living in a democratic society, of knowing and embracing the fundamentals values of democracy based on respect for human rights, tolerance and human solidarity, capable of exercising its rights and responsibilities31. the albanian government offers a high level of promotion, acquisition and implementation of children's rights, with particular attention to the strategies pursued by the ministry of education and sport. a) the development of an education system of quality with the motto "everything for the child32": an education system with an inclusive and coherent treatment that meets the needs of children for a modern education and training. • pre-school education aims at: 31 in this context, the medium and long-term strategies 2009-2013 and 2013-2015 for education’s development goals are oriented to four main areas: normalization of the education system increase the internal efficiency of the system providing and continually increasing quality the progressive integration of the system and its regional development levels and the european context. 32 this is achieved: consolidating and restructuring the quality and free public education system at all levels of pre-university education, the requirement for primary and secondary education and the increase of private education alternatives at all levels. promote interactive coherent methodologies that are focused on the child. developing new study programs and improving existing ones throughout the pre-university education system. providing teaching and research resources at all levels of university education, promoting and increasing the level of research, the effectiveness of formative the curricula. providing a contemporary level of training for undergraduate students during teaching process. increasing the quality of health and psycho-pedagogical services (doctors, social workers, psycho-pedagogues) for children at all levels of the education. establishing counseling centers that provide psycho-educational support for children with various problems. providing a functional network of school institutions across the country, particularly in rural areas, through the concentration of schools on the increasing of the teaching quality. reducing poverty for pupils from poor families with: school supplies, books for free, treatment with clothes, one meal a day. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 198 increase the number of 3-5-year-old children attending pre-school public institutions by enabling and providing alternative education through private nursing homes and home-based education programs. • the nine-year education aims to: good functioning of the administration of compulsory system, that, after the division into cycles, create spaces for the organization of morning lesson for children in early classes and provides greater flexibility in the educational process. decreasing the phenomenon of abandonment of school, meet the needs for special training, improve the conditions for the development of lessons, the qualification of teaching staff, the implementation of advanced learning methodologies. increase the level of teacher education in general and those without the necessary education until the gradual replacement of them, provide education to children with disabilities and social problems (isolated children due to blood feuded, abandoned children and other types of problems) • upper secondary education seeks to: expand higher profile education across the country's regions to better respond to the need for adequate training of students with individual talents and to meet the needs of the labor market and the university. increase the attractiveness of students who have completed compulsory education at upper secondary school. drafting of legal documentation to increase the autonomy of upper secondary schools in terms of curricula, school administration and funding. in order to meet the needs of the labor market and to provide an adequate training for children for their life, the vocational training will modify the ratio of the quota of students to education with general secondary education and vocational training in favor of professional training. b) an effective information system33: intended to provide a reliable and comparable system of detailed (according to age and sex) information, helping the identifying of education level and education of children or various socioeconomic problems that will affect the priorities of political intervention in education. 33 this should be achieved through: an information program on all statistical indicators for children who drop out of school, exploiting them to work, using drugs, exploited for prostitution, by installing a national database in collaboration with other state institutions and the civil society through the distribution of information, individualize children who drop out of school and develop programs that limit this phenomenon, all compulsory schools and kindergartens will introduce a school book for each student who will include: general information on their child's knowledge and abilities, general physical condition as well as information for their parents. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 199 c) study of children's rights in school’s curricula34 it will ensure the learning and mastery of the civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights of children included in the united nations convention, as part of children's rights and duties included in school’s curricula. the albanian government through the ministry of education and sports has directed its policy towards the decentralization of the education service from the center to the base, decentralization that corresponds to the decentralization of local government and its competencies. that is why we can say that decentralization (or de concentration) is relegated by the ministry of education and sports in collaboration with other ministries such as the local and finance authorities. 4.1 law 8652, dated on 31.07.2000 "on the organization and functioning of the local government", provides the basis for decentralization of power. from a situation where all actions and initiatives were undertaken by the central government, the law sanctions specific duties and responsibilities for the local government's autocracy. in this way we try to decentralize the local government and at the same time the educational system, in order to provide a suitable and qualitative comforting educational service for its citizens. although a difficult task to achieve this decentralization, the government has managed to reach consensus among all stakeholders. decentralization in the education sector aims to expand participation and increase the effectiveness of interest groups in delineating educational projects and their implementation. mes, in collaboration with other ministries, delegates responsibilities to districts, to regional education departments, education offices, communes and schools. the distribution of responsibilities between central and local government in the field of education. "central authority" are included: the government, central institutions, the ministry of education and sports and its administrative structures at the local level. "local government" means the local government in the municipalities, the city hall and the region, as well as the respective administrative institutions. 34 this is accomplished through: improving pre-school education and primary education in specific subjects such as history, geography, civic education, sociology, languages and literature for 9-year cycle and for upper secondary education. include in the curricula’s of all faculties of education and pedagogy at universities the study of conventions and most important declarations on human rights and the recognition of international organizations functioning dealing with the protection and promotion of human rights, which aiming the continuous training of teachers. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 200 "school" is the basic responsible structure and authority delegated by central and local government, which is the main chain of "contact" between the two powers. the distribution of competencies within the local administration is carried out in accordance with the local authorities in the municipalities and regions according to the law and their roles. the scheme will be as follows: a. pedagogical staff (teachers, teachers) include: a.1. career policy and criteria for change; promotions; transfer; funding central government teacher’s recruitment and their removal as part of school policies. the local government supports the educational staff with its financial resources. at the same time, local government pays the teachers salaries from the conditional fund, accorded by the central government for this purpose. the recruitment process is based on competition (open call). local governments can provide incentives for working conditions. maintenance and repairmen of the schools are made by the local government. schools are allowed to generate income by providing services such as renting school’s locations, community contributions and pupil’s parents. a.2 qualifications • initial preparation (prior to service); funding central • designing training during the service; qualification during the service decentralized centers (based on the specific regional institutions providing this service) a.3 workload and tasks national standards central determine the number of staff necessary for the institution / per year / per function; job description; curricula; publishing, printing and distribution of books and texts central / centralized for this division of powers, the law on pre-university education envisages as essential and basic task of the government, the continuous improvement of the education system quality for all students in public pre-university education institutions according to the law in force. (article 28) prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 201 the article 10 / paragraph ii / c, law no. 8652 of 31.07.2000 "on the organization and functioning of the local government", defined that "social services and administration of institutions such as nurseries, kindergartens, orphanages, etc." are part of the responsibilities recognized to the local government. article 1135 defines the common functions that are performed separately or together with the central government, where they also include: (a) pre-school education and pre-university education; dh) other common functions, as defined by the law. when the central government requires to the city council or city hall to achieve a common function or to achieve a national standard, the central government manages the local government financially and logistically. relations between local government and central government for the functions provided in this section are provided by special law or special legal regulations. the article 12 of the same law, provides for delegated functions and powers which, according to the definition provided by law, are binding or non-binding, as required by law. in this case, the central institutions authorize the municipality, town hall or region to perform certain functions, responsibilities of the central institutions, or a certain competence which determine the procedures of control and function. the commune, region and city hall can delegate other powers and function non mandatory, based on an agreement between the interested local authority and central one legally responsible for this competence/function. in this case, the central institutions guarantee the financial support necessary for execution of functions and powers related to the authority of local government. the law recognizes the discretion of local authorities (city, town hall, region), that can use their financial resources to exercise their delegated functions and powers, and to improve the level of service in the interest of the community. it follows these delegated powers from the central to the local level, also the decision no. 502, of 16.04.2008 "on the management of dorms of the university education system" (amended by the decision of the cm no. 1710 of 29.12.2008), which passes all dormitory management functions in the field of pre-university education, to the upper secondary education, basic education, secondary 35 law no.8652 of 31.7.2000 "on the organization and functioning of local government" prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 202 education and vocational training, national and local, based on their territorial location as a function delegated to local government units36. in co-operation with their respective local education units and public education institutions, the local government unit is responsible37 for enrolling pupils in public schools for the compulsory fulltime education service. this unit, after the proposal made by the local didactic units and the councils of teachers in the institutions, according to the criteria adopted by the municipal councils, are financially supporting: (a) children of families in economic or social difficulties; b) students with excellent results; c) employees of educational institutions for their professional development and curricula elaboration; d) providing to the educational institutions educational tools. e) offers a psycho-social service to students and employees in the educational institutions (article 20/1) 38. part of this decentralization is the delegation of powers from the center to the base, from the central government to the local government, from the ministry to its representative district or regional units. this tries to achieve a better allocation of skills, better and concrete division of powers, precise coordination of actions among the education sector. so, since the rights and duties of the local authorities towards the education system have been increased, it is much more present to create the 36according to the decision, the move is through the free transfer of state goods, including kitchen equipment and canteens, inventories in use, food and non-food items, all reservations to serve in dormitories and cans, in the university system, are passed to the local government. this structure will be transferred after the procedures of a mixed committee established by the education departments / regional education offices and municipalities. while the transfer of the dormitory buildings to the properties of the local authorities will be carried out pursuant to law 8743, of 22.2.2001 "on state property". local governments, in order to manage dormitory students of the basic education system, will have to add staff, which will be reduced by the total number of employees of the ministry of education and sports. local governments, for the dormitory administration of the universities will add to their organizational chart the educational employees, who were previously part of the ministerial organizational department. the financial impact for these workers is covered by the approved fund in the budget as part of the unconditional financial package for the budget of local government authorities. it will be under the jurisdiction of local authorities to elaborate an analytical structure, th e number of employees, the rules for recruitment, as for dismissal according to the labor code. 37 among the core competencies of the local government units are the following: (a) the construction and reconstruction of buildings of public educational institutions in accordance with standards adopted by the council of ministers, state budget funds or funds from unconditional transfers or proceeds; b) to ensure the integrity of educational institutions in their jurisdiction and environment; (c) the maintenance of public education institutions; d) to guarantee sanitary and heating conditions in public school buildings. 38 this psycho-social service is provided through psychologists or social assistants dealing with various issues of various cases, assessing cases of children with special psycho-social needs, planning prevention programs according to the needs of school’s community. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 203 comfortable conditions for this service and hence also the partner with whom it is possible to act, which is only the educational unit of local area. this unit recognizes the problems that afflict the community where the unit works and their needs and demands. it is expected that, the local teaching unit that, represents the mes in the region, is responsible for the functioning of the school institutions. to accomplish its functions for a full training, it collaborates with the local core unit for the design, implementation and maintenance of educational institutions as well as, the cases of abandonment of the school. (article 30 / c) we must say that, the mes, in collaboration with the relevant agencies (ministry of finance, ministry of local and decentralization, city hall and municipalities), will develop a set of standards for physical infrastructure of schools, equipment and their renewal, school maintenance, teacher / pupil collaboration, and the number of pupils in each class. the local unit manages to distribute part of its authority to the school institutions, that, under the new law on pre-university education, are responsible for planning, managing and improving the quality of the provided services. at present, the structures and staffs have limited ability to turn this into reality, because for many years this policy has been followed by regional educational units, excluding them from the generated process, collecting and managing the funds raised by them or be free with them about the selected services or on the curricula or the chosen books. this led to a greater autonomy for school leaders who are also the responsible authorities and who must cure to have an appropriate, democratic and autonomous environments in their institutions. the school director and teachers are key points to finalize the decentralization of the system. presidents will have the responsibility and authority to manage and evaluate the pedagogical and administrative staff according to the national standards, including the right to hire, promote, reward or dismiss them. for a harmonized process, they are assisted by the above-mentioned councils and committees that provide monitoring and the democratization of the process. local communities and parents in the past have been not so much involved in school activities or on solving problems raised during the learning process. this makes them irresponsible for developing and maintaining of the quality of the school’s services. this will be achieved by encouraging and supporting the participation of parents or school leaders in innovative initiatives, linked with the improvement of the working conditions in these schools39. 39 the school scheme, as an essential element of school autonomy, will help strengthening the capacity of schools and on regional level for planning and budgeting. these skills will be constantly developed during the three levels of preuniversity education. in the case of choice of curricula, the development of study programs will be the central function oriented by the ministry of education and sports. however, teachers will be able to suggest improvements and further development of teaching materials based on their specific experience. the central agency for curricula’s development will make 100% of the content for each class and subject. in some areas only 85% of this academic program will be prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 204 the main educational documents including: plans, programs and texts for public institutions, approved by the minister of education and sports and other bodies under his direction. the 9-year educational curricula40 of compulsory public education and those of the public school are drawn up by the curricula department at the ministry of education and sports and approved by the minister. the curricula are drafted by the curricula institute and the standards (cis), approved by the commission for learning programs (clp), the department of curricula at the ministry and then approved by the minister. the texts (books) are prepared by groups of specialists in the subject matter and teaching, while the choice of books is based on competitions. in 2006, for the first time, alternate texts were used at school, selected by the school committees, practice that was done every year. it should be noted that, with the public education, in albania the private education is having an important development, opening several pre-school institutions, compulsory pre-university education institutions and private universities too. the number of private pre-university schools of 9 years and the number of upper secondary schools across the country till to 2013 reaches more than 400. this increased the competition between public and private education institutions and brings to an improvement of services standards. the law on pre-university education in albania covers both public and private education and provides the legal framework, along with licensing procedures, rules and regulations, for the opening of private schools at all levels of pre-university system, as well as the law recognizes the discretion of the minister of education to order the opening and closing of public institutions in accordance with the requests made by the regional directories or the local government (article 41). all private schools must be authorized and accredited by the national center for accreditation, according to the law in force (article 42). if the school is established as a foreign, bilingual and / or religious school, it must obtain the approval of the mes and the council of ministers. this institution is obliged to offer in albanian language education in the main subjects like: albanian language and literature, history of the albanian people and the geography of albania. this compulsory. the rest (15%) will be conducted by the school consulting with the community. constant updating of curricula’s will be part of the suggestions for new editions. 40 since 2004, the compulsory education system has passed from 8 to 9 years. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 205 institution can only end its activity at the end of the year. the national center for accreditation inspects all private institutions and has the right to remove the license if the school does not meet the standards prescribed by the mes or close a school that operates without the due license. there is a sanction (about $ 1,500 for the pre-university school or the upper secondary school and 1,200 dollars for education / training centers), if the school starts an unlicensed service. the phenomenon of opening schools without the due license was part of the transition period, but some of them already opened, have remained on the waiting lists for a long time because of the followed administrative procedures (this process included between 3 and 6 months), and the license will be released by mes. now the ministry has delegated this right to the national accreditation center creating good conditions to improve the quality and to eliminate the long wait and to provide a proper service from the private education institute, avoiding long wait and useless impasse. according to the mes, private schools have contributed to decreasing: (a) public education spending (especially in terms of investment costs for the construction of new schools and rehabilitation of old ones); (b) the number of students in public schools (which are overcrowded mainly in cities), and; (c) the number of unemployed teachers (it doesn’t mean that the 4000 unemployed teachers are all occupied in the private system, but the qualified teachers in albania have found a job). the mes strategy states that: "about 70 private schools have been opened over the years, which have reduced public expenditure on education, overcrowded classrooms by pupils, thus reducing their numbers for each class and the employment of hundreds of unemployed teachers introducing the competition elements in the pre-university education system." this makes easier the entering in a school / business market, promoting and achieving the goals and the demands of service recipients, contributing to the establishment of new standards for the albanian education system. private school curricula are regulated by mes, so, private schools must use the same curricula as those used by public schools. although private schools are allowed to integrate curricula, if they wish, among those mandatory by law. 5. things to be improved: the centralized management model for governing the country in general, and in particular decreases the efficiency and effectiveness of public administration. perhaps, this can be explained by the fact that for many years the state provided for albanians and for this reason now they claim and blame the "state", the central government in case of failure on fulfilling the obligations. during formal prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 206 refurbishment, with decentralization are made significant progress in several areas, including the education sector, although the decentralization of responsibilities and decision-making power from the center to the local government in education needs more things to do. there is no complete and functional link between school and community as a democratic obligation to provide good education for all. there is no support from the family, the social character of the community to fully satisfy the educational efforts. this is based on an unsatisfactory level of participation and responsibility of all stakeholders. the consequences are caused by the lack of functioning of leadership, school management, content of school curricula, planning and financial management, school maintenance, staff management etc. as a result of the lack of decentralization and the transfer of responsibility and decision-making power from the center to the local government, the central government provides fragmented planning and development and creates gaps in planning of school’s development in all areas. the efficient use of available resources for the development, planning and management of the annual budget, finding and managing of additional funds, delivering of a quality education at all levels. reform the auditing and control of the educational system that didn’t change in many years. the content of these functions leaves much to be desired. the auditing aren’t playing the role of school development supporters, but their only concern is financial control and external oversight of legal and administrative procedures. the same can be said for the inspection in terms of standards, content and methods of teaching and administration. the school councils and the der / eu do not play the role they are created for. they serve as a kind of formal organization to run routine rules, or they are completely non-existent. at best, school councils appear as extras in school directors and their role is limited to securing financial contributions from local businesses. the establishment and the promotion of these bodies is a necessity for the development of school autonomy. another problem that arises as a result of poor organization and placement of tasks by each institution is linked to the management and scientific local planning in base of self evaluation and school self-assessment, pupil evaluation, the analysis of school plans. with the new albanian law on pre-university education, are encouraged the teachers to take the initiative to choose 20% of the curricula. this new practice makes teachers insecure to use this "window" as an autonomy in doing their profession, which will also directly affect school autonomy. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 207 the lack of an advanced education system to manage school information and its actual functioning. emis will help central government to analyze policy and strategic planning and will create a comprehensive and accurate database for the design and development of education policies. it should be stressed that the intervention and the need to improve the legal framework has been a great help for the individual / child and his family and community also, and the state itself is interested on "more individuals well educated the country's economic growth will be increased”. that is why it is important to take some measures that will affect the improvement and the approach of the education system to children’s as their fundamental right and part of the social services provided by the state for its citizens. reduce specific policies to increase the percentage of pre-school children in nurseries, nurseries, kindergartens, as may be the involvement of 5-6 year olds in compulsory education stipulate specific programs working at a class or school level, in order to raise awareness of the importance of education and to bring school back to school that they are out of the education system. create teams with renowned teachers guided by psychologists with parents and government representatives to work with parents of non-enrolled or abandoned pupils or working with the own pupils. the economic aid for families, in order to ensure a minimum standard of living and the benefit of this assistance is the condition that their children must attend the school. the installation of the psychosocial service with real full-time specialists in each school, especially in those schools that have problems of abandoning and therefore are suffering the phenomenon of illiteracy. (psychologists are currently working in schools on the basis of the number of pupils, which directly affects the quality of the service. the psychologist is selected by the regional education directorate on basis of the criteria established by the ministry of education and on three schools is a psychologist. the psychologist is paid by the local government budget). create the most suitable conditions for study and learning, classrooms and other environments, particularly in rural areas or in schools with a high number of students. reviewing of educational programs to be more relevant and closer to the needs of the community and the labor market. the expansion and upgrading of school autonomy which leads to a high interest by the actors involved in the school. prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 208 the implementation of complementary educational programs (the provision of alternative teaching staff, the amount of lessons learned and the determination of the remuneration of teachers working with marginalized students and children with disabilities). streamlining the reach of schools throughout the country to provide educational services in all areas, particularly there with low population density. provide transport for children with disabilities and for other children who live far from school. the construction of dormitories for compulsory school pupils, to create equal opportunities for access for pupils whose residence is far from school. the expansion of the dormitories network for upper secondary schools. finding opportunities to provide scholarships or other forms of economic assistance for many pupils of the compulsory education system. good cooperation with civil society and ngos focused on marginalized children and groups. monitoring and controlling of private institutions more frequently in order to avoid unfair competition with the public education system. there is a perception that the level and method of assessment and judgment of students and pupils during the academic and pedagogical activities in the private schools and university system are carried out on the basis of profit from economic interests. (to avoid losing pupils / students, evaluations or positive votes affect the seriousness and equality of the service and the right to benefit and guarantee an equal service to all beneficiaries). prizren social science journal / volume 2, issue 2; may august 2018 / issn: 2616-387x 209 references aleanca gjinore per zhvillim, “ndarja e jetes private dhe publike ne familjet shqiptare” qasje gjinoretirane 2008 anastasi aurela, e drejta kushtetuese, cikel leksionesh, tirane 2000 ceffa, tjeter vizion, centro informazione e educazione allo sviluppo, bashkia elbasan “perfshirja sociale permes integrimit ne punenje eksperience per fuqizimin e grave dhe te rinjve”, elbasan, albania, mars 2010. gomien donna, “udhezues i shkurter i konventes europiane per te drejtat e njeriut” –– botimi i trete komiteti shqiptar i helsinkit “barazia dhe ndalimi i diskriminimit ne kendveshtrimin gjinor dhe socialmanual per ojf-te”, tirane prill 2011 hysi, eris; zyba, entila (2008). diagnozë e hollësishme e kuadrit ligjor dhe rregullator e institutit të sigurimeve të kujdesit shoqëror (isksh) dhe e çështjeve juridike të tij. gtz, tiranë. qendra per nisma ligjore qytetare nr. 1, “ligji mundesi zhvillimi per grate – reviste 6 mujore”, mars 2008 qendra administrative per koordinimin e asistences dhe pjesemarrjes se publikut (qakapp) “kushtetuta dhe materiale shpjeguese”, tirane 8 dhjetor 1998 standartet per sherbimet e perkujdesit shoqeror per personat e trafikuar ose ne rrezik trafikimi ne qendrat rezidenciale – tirane 2008 unicef, shkolla e magjistratures, qendra avokatore per grate, “trajtesa juridike dhe sociale per mbrojtjen nga dhuna ne familje”, tirane 2005 algorithmic financial trading with deep convolutional neural networks: time series to image conversion approach 18 transformation of modernism in socialist yugoslavia architecture recep kerkezi trakya university, institute of social science article info a b s t r a c t article history: accepted 26 october 2018 available online 31 december 2018 keywords: yugoslavia, modernism, architecture, socialist the socialist yugoslavia regime, which was established after world war ii, led to innovations in many areas, spreading the modernism that yugoslavia inherited from the kingdom period to many areas. it also allowed freedom of expression and opened up to western european countries kel social, political, commercial and so on kel compared t o the soviet union and other eastern european countries. provided the development of relations. these openings also led yugoslav artists to explore various artistic movements abroad and to be inspired from abroad. in this study, it is aimed to examine the effects of the ideological background of the new regime on architecture. the effects of tito on the transformation of the modernist movement that emerged in the kingdom of yugoslavia through the tito period and the development and change of art and architecture. 1. introduction the first division of europe in the east and west is based on the division of the roman empire into two in the early 4th century. the territory of the two emperors (diocletian and constantine the great) who created this division was later called yugoslavia. after the collapse of the western roman empirein the 7th century the slavic tribes settled in the balkan peninsula were divided into two as eastern orthodox and western catholic church in 1054. northwest of yugoslavia, western catholic church (romanesque-gothicrenaissance-baroque); and the southeast of it was under the influence of the eastern orthodox church (kuliç mrduljaš and thaler, 2012). this division has also been effective in the six republics of yugoslavia. slovenia and croatia, western catholic; serbia, montenegro, bosnia and macedonia have adopted eastern orthodox teachings. the east-west contrast of yugoslavia, which was established after world war ii and observed in its own formation, is seen to continue the socialist ideology that yugoslavia gained from the east / soviet union by taking into consideration the cultural structure of its geography and society. however, in order to unite six different republics in yugoslavia under the same roof, they adopted an anti-historian approach of modernism and aimed to create a yugoslav identity independent of byzantine, ottoman and austro-hungarian influence. this ideology, which was formed under the leadership of tito, was continued in the name of ’titoism ı, which is a form of marxism, against yugoslavia and capitalism and stalinism. although tito was in the same communist regime as stalin, he pursued a liberal, libertarian, anti-stalinist policy. this regime is not only in politics; and in architecture and art. 2. tito's approach to art and architecture the communist party, led by josip broz tito, created a new yugoslav identity, followed its policy and ii. in 19 order to tell the stories of world war ii, he used concrete hero figures, graphic designs, films, monumental sculptures and architecture as tools in painting; tito also had an influence on this attitude. tito did not look at abstract art very much, he adopted the art of painting rather than abstract painting; however, he did not express his views explicitly. only miodrag protić, the founder and first director of the belgrade museum of contemporary art, said that he had visited the museum once and liked miljenko stančić's paintings (perović, roksandić, velikonja hoepken and bieber 2017). belgrade mayor architect bogdan bogdanovic said in an interview that ın although tito did not have a distinctive understanding of art, he realized the difference of the sculpture i had designed with the russian statue (headless bodies, wounded figures, weapons of war, etc.). 's abstract, expressionist statues allowed to build (dim, 2013). although tito did not approve of his abstract art, he did not censor other tendencies. censorship has been applied to critical studies of tito's personality. in fact, a law on the use of important symbolic values of the state (such as the flag, the emblem, the national anthem) and the face of the yugoslav leader in photography, painting and sculpture has been enacted. article 29 of this law, adopted by tito, states: yas the photographs of the president may be used in the property of the federal bodies; however, only photographs approved by the bodies of science and culture can be used (perović, etc., 2017). as a matter of fact, the opening of the exhibition of mića popović in 1974 was canceled due to the paintings of sveçanska slika (figure 1) and ričard titovog lika / ovivotinjsko carstvo (tito's richard face / animals kingdom) (figure 2) (perović etc.) 2017). the picture of sunchanska was taken from a newspaper photograph taken during a meeting of tito and his wife with the dutch royal couple; ričard titovog lika / (ivotinjsko carstvo was inspired by tito and american actor richard barton's photo taken in the zoo and was censored (perović, 2017). figure 1. sveçanska slika (ceremony picture), figure 2. ričard titovog lika / životinjsko carstvo belgrad, 1974 (rickard of tito's face / animal kingdom) the effect of tito in cinema ii. world war ii and partizans directed towards the withdrawal of the films; made suggestions to the directors, especially in the films about him; he also wrote some scripts himself. some of the films that were shot by mila turajliç, as quoted by the cinema komunisto documentary, sent some written notes to the scenarios sent by the directors ol not realistic; the directors also informed tito of the developments after the filming was completed. for example, he sent a telegram to tito: fil we are honored to show you the result of our work, and a copy of the film will be in your hands tomorrow. example; in world war ii theme, sutjeska (figure 3), he proposed the actor (american actor richard burton) himself (cinema komunisto documentary, 2010). this film also represented yugoslavia at the 1974 oscars. 20 figure 3. ‘sutjeska’ film poster, figure 4. first residence of tito as the yugoslav leader ‘white house’ (kuliç, 2009) in architecture, the white house (figure 4), the first official residence of tito, was also accepted as a symbol of his policy. this house was completed in 1936 for the dynasty of karacorceviç ii. tito, who settled in this structure after world war ii, was also aware of the intrinsic value of this structure, which symbolized the top position of the communist hierarchy. as a matter of fact, his use of royal property is now seen as a symbolic expression of his power in power. although there are many magnificent royal buildings to show its power, it is stated that the house is surrounded by a large park and it has a simple but universal line. it has also been suggested that this structure may have favored national serbian architecture. on the other hand, as a communist leader, it was a contradictory situation that he chose white house as a residence, which had decorative interiors, reflecting the serbian medieval architecture and created religious connotations due to the adjacent chapel (kuliç, 2009). in 1962, tito did not share much of his ideas of architecture, except in what he claimed were opposed to "regression" and "ultramodernism." he expressed his interest in modern architecture only in the form of glass and metal combinations. however, he did not like villa zagorje in pantovčak, which was designed for him by croatian architects (vjenceslav richter and kazimir ostrogović), with elegant, plain, glass and white surfaces built between 1963-64 (ridley conveyed by kuliç, 2009 (figure 5). he also criticized the new version of the central committee building, which was constructed in new belgrade with its glass and aluminium facades (kuliç, 2009) (fig. 6). figure 5. villa zagorje, zagreb figure 6. belgrade central committee building 1964 (mjerı obıteljskıh ku ća u hrvatskoj) based on the information given above, tito expresses his displeasure with abstract art but never bans this tendency; although he didn't like the modern villa designed for him, he did not oppose the modern architecture that emerged and gained momentum in socialist yugoslavia; although he exhibited a conservative attitude in the field of culture and art, it was seen that he freed the artists and architects in his designs. 3. architectural developments before the ii. world war in yugoslavia the serbian croatian slovenian kingdom, founded after world war i, united peoples who lived in different cultural regions for centuries, but managed to unite cultural and architectural differences; in the entire 21 kingdom, the serbian-byzantine architectural style represented the main feature of orthodox churches (perović, roksandić, velikonja, hoepken and bieber 2017). in the early years of the serbian croat slovenian kingdom, research was initiated to reveal the cultural heritage of the region. in order to create the common cultural phenomenon of the unification, research has been carried out on the medieval and ancient heritage, especially in the dalmatian and macedonian regions, and these works have been supported by king alexander karacorcevic. in addition to these works, at the request of king alexander karacorcevic, various sculptures were built in the classical style (perović et al, 2017). the approaches that characterize architectural identity, especially in the first years of the post-world war i period, have generally been historicisms and eclecticism (figure 2.1, 2.2). 2.1. zagreb bourse building, viktor 2.2. state bank of ljubljana, kovaciç, 1923, zagreb (www.cro-eu.com), ivan vurnik, 1921 (www.alamy.com) in the period of the karacorcevic dynasty, the architecture on the one hand displayed a historiographical and eclecticist attitude while the process of development and change also began. this development started the process of modernization and showed the kingdom's influence in major cities such as ljublana, zagreb and belgrade (dragutinovic, 2017). in the late 1920s, many young intellectuals and artists returned from the european centres where they were educated, bringing a new spirit to the traditionalist environment (dragutinovic, 2017). the leading croatian, slovenian and serbian architects worked with renowned modernists such as adolf loos, peter behrens, josef hoffmann and le corbusier. during this period, many apartments, private villas and schools were built especially in zagreb, the capital of croatia. apart from zagreb, the first modernist hotel examples were built in dalmatia region (figure 4.1.3). the croatian modernists have made new attempts to design their flat roofs, strip windows, and non-adorned corner balconies (milosevic, 2009) (figure 2.3, 2.4, 2.5). figure 2.3 hotel lonub dubrovnik n. dobrović 1934) (www.sometimes-interesting.com) figure 2.4. krizaniçeva primary school of zagreb, egon steinmann, 1932 (www.hiveminer.com) figure 2.5 trešnjevka primary school of zagreb, i. zemljaka, 1931 (www.skyscrapercity.com) http://www.cro-eu.com/ http://www.alamy.com/ 22 figure 2.6. zagreb podvinec house, i. zemljaka, 1937 (mahečić, 2008) figure 2.7. zagreb pfefermanni house, marko vidaković, 1930 (www.skyscrapercity.com) figure 2.8. zagreb kraus house, ernerst weissmann, 1937 (http://www.skyscrapercity.com) in ljubljana, joze plečnik, who is a student of ivan vurnik and otto wagner, has been the representative of slovenian modern architecture with both small and monumental building designs (milosevic, 2009). the building that he designed for cemetery workers and carpenters has been described as the only structure of the cemetery space defined in green and white, containing different colours (alangoya, 2014) (figure 2.9). the slovenian architecture was adapted to the modernist composition by using solid geometric volumes, reinforced concrete and steel structures, as well as irregular ground floor plans, strip windows, flat roofs, thin metal railings and roof terraces. figure 2.9. ljubljana carpenter house and service house figure 2.10. ljublana oblak house joze plečnik, 1930(alangoya, 2014), france tomažič, 1933 (kambič, 2014) the new architectural developments in zagreb, represented by zagreb, have also been influenced by slovenia, which ljubljana represents, and in serbia, which belgrade represents. these three cities were the scene of the pioneer and representative of modern architecture in the kingdom of yugoslavia (milosevic, 2013). in the capital city of belgrade, the architect milan zlokovićt designed his own private house in 1928 and was considered the first modernist residence in belgrade (dragutinovic, 2017) (figure 2.11). other housing examples built during the kingdom period in belgrade include; milan zloković has a house designed for him, branko and petar krstic's kumanovska street apartment, branislav kojić's đurić apartment and momčilo belobrk's momčilo belobrk apartment (figure 2.11, 2.12, 2.13, 2.14). 23 figure 2.11 milan zloković house, milan zloković, 1928 (dragutioviç,2017) figure 2.12. kumanovska street apartment, branko ve petar krstic 1931 (www.architectureweek.com) figure 2.13 đurić apartment, branislav kojić 1931 (www.beogradskonasledje.rs) figure 2.14. momčilo belobrk apartment, 1938 (www.skyscrapercity.com) construction of the university of belgrade children's clinic, designed by milan zlokovic in 1933. world war ii has been completed in years. before designing the structure in a simple modernist approach (figure 2.15), the architect visited switzerland, germany and the netherlands to examine modern pediatric clinics (architectuul, 2017). in belgrade ii. another modernist educational structure built before world war ii was the jagodina school (figure 2.16). figure 2 15. belgrad university, (www.sajkaca.blogspot.com.tr) figure 2.16. jagodini school and children's clinic, milan zlokovic, belgrad 1933, milan zlokovic, 1937, (www.superprostor.com) in addition to modernist developments, the use of architectural elements of the serbian middle ages was proposed in the capital, belgrade, which will represent the country on international scenes (djurić and şuvakoviç, 2003). there are examples in the kingdom of yugoslavia inspired by the european art deco of the 1920s (figure 2.17, 2.18). http://www.beogradskonasledje.rs/ 24 figure 2.17. an art deco apartment example from the 1930s in ljubljana 1928, (www.lumilanous.deviantart.com) figure 2.18. art deco post office building (miloseviç, 2013) the air force command building, designed by dragiša brašovan and built in 1935, is the first modern structure of zemun district of belgrade. as shown in figure 2.19, it shows the design concept of the building period which is among the classic style structures. in this design, architect braşovan used the forms of modern architecture extending to art deco (dabižić, 2012). figure 2.19. air force command building, dragiša brašovan, 1935 (foto:belgrade cultural heritage preservation institute, 2012) modernist approaches, which began to show themselves in the kingdom period, began to take their place on the international scene. in 1929, he designed the serbian croatian slovenian pavilion by architect dragişa braşovan to be exhibited at the international barcelona exhibition. inspired by historical cultures, this pavilion has attracted attention with its combination of art-deco style, irregular entrance floor plan and modern facades among the other pavilions in the exhibition (slivnik, 2014) (figure 2.20). due to the emphasis on the vertical wooden beams on the facades of adolf loos'un josephine baker house was evaluated as similar to the effect (zupančič, 2004) (figure 2.20). figure 2.20. serb-crtoat-slovene pavilion in bar, 1929 (mattie‚ 1998). 25 figure 2.21. kingdom of yugoslavia pavilion in milan, 1931 (dragutioviç, 2017) the pavilion of yugoslav kingdom, designed by dragişa braşovan in 1931 for the milan world exhibition, is another example of modern architecture using forms extending towards art deco (figure 2.21). in 1937, in the 1937 world exhibition in paris, the architect josip siesel tried to combine painting, sculpture and architecture in the pavilion of yugoslavia, which he designed. siesel combines the elements of classical architecture and modern architecture with the three elements: he tried to represent the serbian, croatian, slovenian kingdom (slivnik, 2014) (figure 2.22). also, in the mosaics on the façade, three female figures wearing traditional dress were included (blagojević, 2003). figure 2.22. kingdom of yugoslavia pavilion in paris 1937 (galić, 1991) only in ljublana, zagreb and belgrade in the serbian croatian slovenian kingdom were internationally accepted cities that initiated modernism. regions such as macedonia, bosnia, and montenegro, which were less developed than other regions, did not contribute much to yugoslav modernism (milosevic, 2013). the pavilions mentioned above and designed for international exhibitions are representative of the architectural understanding of both the country and the country. 4. investigation of architectural samples in the socialist yugoslavia after the second world war throughout the ages, art and architecture were seen as ideological tools by power; the effects of power are also reflected in the building scale. the space could implicitly carry the signs of the ideologies of man, and was also used as a direct propaganda tool. in socialist yugoslavia, especially in the first years, important projects were implemented under the control of the state, with the possibilities of the state. for example, government officials from belgrade to examine the project of the gjakova culture house have made small interventions in the project (figure 3.1). architect marko muşic also tried to show the victory of life on death in figured, which will express the ideology of the socialist regime in the concept of the revolution house which he designed (figure 3.2). for this purpose, instead of remembering the terrible suffering of war, it created an environment that will enable visitors to be excited about life by creating a social and expressionist environment. rather than being a monumental structure, it is seen as a flexible environment that, like the utopia of a united people, leads to a formation where life and actions are more adapted and developed (milosevic, 2009). janusevich commented on the chaotic mass of the house of revolution and the fact that it never opened to use: in what stage of time, we only perceive the wall-set as architecture? is it necessary to have a spatial value, to finish the building to have a soul? every revolution "blue"? the same expressionist attitude is also observed in the memorial house, which is designed to commemorate the establishment of the national antifascist council in kolasin, at the same time using the geometry devised by the roof shape of the traditional northern houses of montenegro, at different angles. (figure 3.3, 3.4). this approach of the architect is reflected in the form of architecture as traditional and 26 contemporary architectural codes (vuckovic and kujundzic, 2014). figure 3.1 gjakova culture house (gjinolli and kabashi 2015) figure 3.2 revolution house (labudovic, 2014) figure 3.3 monumental house of kolasin, (www.spomenikdatabase.org, 2016) 3.4 monumental house of kolasin, (google maps 2017) the boro & ramiz sports complex in prishtina (boro vukmirovich and ramiz sadiku, one of the yugoslav heroes of the second world war), is one of the important structures representing the regime's multiethnic, communal ideology (fig. 3.5). the example is the federal government presidential palace in belgrade (figure 3.6). the six large halls in this h-shaped structure are designed to symbolize the six republics that form socialist yugoslavia. the structure is also considered to be the most monumental structure of the early socialist period (simonovic, 2014) . figure 3.5 ‘boro ramiz’ sport centre figure 3.6 presidential palace of belgrad one of the most important goals of the socialist state was attempts to modernize yugoslavia. these initiatives have been instrumental in the acceleration of work in the architectural field, especially in the second half of the 20th century. in this period, activities such as the exhibition of painting, sculpture and architectural works of le corbusier in belgrade took place in belgrade in 1952, and artists and architects started to monitor the architectural developments closely by participating in both domestic and international activities. state authorities have approved the idea of establishing a competent institution to collect and study 20th-century yugoslavian and serbian art, and have initiated an appropriate building design work. however, the conclusion of this study did not take place in a short time. in the late 1950s, miodrag b. protić, who was the owner, painter, art critic and also the first director of the museum, initiated the ’modern gallery modern design competition. ivan antić and ivanka raspopović won the competition; in 1961, the construction of the museum was started to realize the winning design (simonovic, 2014). the main volume of the building forms a dynamic form with a crystal shape of 6 cubes placed diagonally to each other. 27 the construction of public buildings and the recognition of the work of modernists by architects have played a role in the increasing of the examples of international style and brutalism in yugoslavia. for example, in vitic skyscraper (figure 3.8) designed by ivan vitic, in the presidential palace (figure 3.9) completed by mihajlo janković, at the kosovo film building designed by sali spahiu (figure 3.10), le corbusier's five principles and traces of structures (such as horizontal strip windows, simple facades, raised heights from the ground through the carriers). this structure, which was designed by architect sali spahiu in 1987, was only able to maintain its first function in just 3 years. because in the process of the division of yugoslavia, between 1990 and 1999, there was no film activity in the country and in 1999, after the end of the kosovo war, kfor (nato kosovo forces) began to be used by its military forces (gjinolli and kabashi, 2015). figure 3.7 contemporary art museum of belgrad (r.kerkezi 2018) 3.8 national bank residental block (vitiç’s skyscraper) (fabijanić, 2016). figure 3.9 presidential palace of belgrad figure 3.10 “kosovafılm” building (gjinolli and kabashi 2015) apart from representing brutalist architecture, it is noteworthy that in the national library of kosovo (the cube module consisting of 99 different volumes are separated from each other at different distances), the functionalist attitude of modern architecture is followed (figure 3.11). the national library of kosovo also carries traces of paul rudolph's orange county government building. because, as in the orange county government building, the national library of kosovo has a mass created by combining different volumes. the effect of paul rudolph's façade designs is seen in the rilindja printing house (figure 3.12) designed by architect georgi konstantinovski and in the pristina institute of albanology, designed by miodrag pechic (figure 3.13). the minimalist approach of mies van der rohe, which guided the modern architecture, has shown its effect in the design of the museum of bosnia and herzegovina's revolution (figure 3.14). the rectangular prism-shaped mass of the museum and the glass-framed glass facades can be considered as an indicator of this effect. genex tower, which is designed by mihajlo mitrović, has a mass form, a vertical service circulation and not a part of the structure. the design of this structure suggests that erno goldfinger was inspired by the trellick tower in london, an example of grossism (figure 3.15). figure 3.11 national library of kosovo (r.kerkezi 2018) 28 figure 3.12 rilindja printing house (gjinolli and kabashi 2015) figure 3.13 albanological institute of pristina, (r.kerkezi, 2017) figure 3.14 bosnia & hercegovina_museum of the revolution https://www.navigator.ba/#/p/historicalmuseum-of-bih). figure 3.15 genex tower (www.archiexpo.com, 2017) on the other hand, there are also grossist examples produced without inspiration from any structure. in other words, the triangle balconies of the tobleron apartment in belgrade, designed by architect rista sekerinski, overlapped in each floor plan and were arranged to provide a consecutive console at the same level on all three floors. . although the plan of the 25 may sports centre restaurant designed by architect ivan antić consists of a single geometric form (triangle) and is built of gross concrete, its roof, consoles and single carrier are seen as a building example where the dynamism is provided by the fact that it is hanging on the air and hanging in the air. 3.17). the vjeverica kindergarten in zagreb, designed by the architect boris magas, can be shown as an expressionist example with the mass created by repeating the different dimensions of the same geometric module (triangle) (figure 3.18). in the structure, rather than the facades, the roofs of the units make it feel like they are the elements that characterize the structure. in fact, the curved and triangular roofs of the 5-unit building were designed in a similar manner to provide continuity in figured, and they were arranged in succession, extending the slopes in different directions and spreading over each other, giving a dynamic appearance to the structure. 3.16 toblerone apartment figure 3.17 restaurant of 25 may sport centre (r.kerkezi 2018) https://www.navigator.ba/#/p/historical-museum-of-bih https://www.navigator.ba/#/p/historical-museum-of-bih 29 figure 3.18 vjeverica kindergarten of zagreb (oris magazine 72, 2011) result in yugoslavia, the movement of modernism began during the period of yugoslavia, founded after the independent south slavic state. many architects and artists who returned from european countries (vienna, prague and berlin) at the end of the 1920s brought a new perspective to traditionalism. the modern approaches, which are accepted as new, have been particularly effective in ljublana, zagreb and belgrade, the three largest cities of the kingdom of yugoslavia. these modern approaches adopted before the second world war continued to influence tito after he founded the socialist yugoslavia regime. indeed, tito established a new regime by using the basic ideology of the eastern bloc countries (socialism), but it continued until the collapse of the western-style modernist movements, which began in the kingdom of yugoslavia, from the foundation of socialist yugoslavia. however, modernism, which began in the kingdom of yugoslavia after world war i, was under the influence of socialist realism, which could be regarded as stalin's antimodernist art and culture understanding during the period of stalin's alliance with tito (1945-1948). the term socialist realism, proposed for the first time in moscow at the 1934 soviet writers' congress, advocating the integrity of art and revolution, also aimed at presenting the idealism of socialist ideology. for this purpose, it has been proposed to choose revolutionary heroes as themes in the works of art. the works that brought the revolutionary spirit to the forefront have received great support. in short, socialist yugoslavia ii. it was under the influence of soviet policy in the short period from the end of world war ii to 1948; the main subjects of socialist realism were revolution, working class, soldier figures. the batina monument, erected on the instruction of yugoslav leader tito, in 1945, was considered the most important symbol of the short-term co-operation between stalin and tito, the closer rapprochement of yugoslavia with the soviet union, and a visual expression of the longevity of stalin's commitment and alliance. the posters and panels in which communist iconography and political propaganda in public spaces were exhibited were also other means of demonstrating the commitment of socialist yugoslavia to stalin. also in this period, socialist realism's art understanding was historicist and folkloric tendencies; modernism was seen as foreign to socialist realism. these tendencies are also under the influence of the soviet union. the main elements of socialist realism which he tried to implement in yugoslavia after world war ii. however, this architectural approach, which socialist realism has foreseen, was not welcomed by many yugoslav architects. the fact that most of the yugoslav architects were opposed to the socialist realism phenomenon (the sovietist and folkloric soviet aesthetics) that the soviet union was trying to dictate could be regarded as an indication that they adopted the teachings of modern architecture after world war i. it was supported by the soviet union that yugoslavia had a unified identity instead of a new identity, which symbolized its commitment to stalin. however, in 1948 yugoslavia completely broke away from stalin's ideology, arguing that he was dissatisfied with the centralized system under stalin, although he was in the same political regime as the soviet union. not accepting stalin's political superiority over the countries of eastern europe and yugoslavia, tito created his own socialist rule, independent of the western and eastern blocs, and maintained this administration under the name titoism. tito placed his name on three basic principles: titoism, brotherhood and unity under the single-party rule, and independence in foreign policy to achieve ethnic harmony. these changes in politics and economy have also been the turning point of yugoslavian art and architecture. in 1948, the architectural profession was also restructured towards a freer system than the centralized system of yugoslavia under the influence of stalin. the state has left architects to control the architectural profession and responsibility for the design process. after 1948, socialist realism began to give its place to the international style, which had previously been influenced by the kingdom of yugoslavia. the new policy introduced in the country also undertook the mission of defining the socialist yugoslavia community. in this mission, the connection between yugoslavian identity and modern 30 architecture was tried. because in the period of the kingdom of yugoslavia, despite the efforts of the karacorcevic dynasty, modernism was not developed outside the major cities of yugoslavia; in fact, cities have turned into ruins due to war. tito after world war ii, he also assumed the task of industrializing and modernizing the country and accelerated the construction of public buildings such as public housing, factories, institutes, hospitals and schools. in addition, modernism showed its influence in three major cities, such as ljubljana, zagreb and belgrade, during the kingdom, but in all cities in the socialist yugoslavia. as a consequence of this, tito's idea of equality, fraternity and unity in the governance ideology and local and regional balance can be put forward. after the division of tito-stalin and related modern architecture, the architectural profession became more open to the west. exhibitions that promote the works of modernists will be exhibited in the capitals of the republics; for the architects and students, educational trips to western european countries started. from the 1950s on, art and architecture were the main tools for tito's break with russia. in addition to the public buildings that exhibit international style features with their cubic forms, whitewashed facades, simple and simple views, the buildings inspired by the works of le corbusier, the grossest and expressionist structures, the large glass-faced office buildings were the buildings representing yugoslavia in the post-war european architectural arena. as a result, modernism in yugoslavia after the first world war (kingdom of yugoslavia) and ii. after world war ii (the socialist federal republic under the reign of tito); however, it can be said that more villas and apartments were built in the beginning, especially in the field of architectureby adopting the international style from the modern architectural approaches. on the other hand, the modern architecture, which was stopped by the soviet influence, was again supported in the period of tito; it has been observed that individual apartment buildings have been replaced by apartment blocks and the construction of public buildings has been focused on and other modern architectural approaches such as grossalism and expressionism have begun to be adopted. in addition, this transformation between two periods in yugoslavia is not only in the socio-political area but also in industry, education, socio-cultural, socio-economic etc. it can be asserted to be experienced in many areas. as a matter of fact, in the period of socialist yugoslavia, the formation of working-class unity and self-management in order to represent a kind of freedom can be accepted as an indicator of this situation. references 1. ariely, d. (2012). the (honest) truth about dishonesty. alangoya, f., (2014), “experiencing the sanctity of life in josef plecnik’s architecture“, megaron dergisi, cilt. 9 no. 2, doi: 10.5505/megaron.2014.43153 2. mrduljaš, m., kulić v. (ed.) (2012). "unfinished modernisations between utopia and pragmatism’’ publisher: croatian architects' association, zagreb. (isbn 978-953-6646-24-1). 3. dim, i̇., (2013), “how were the yugoslav war monuments a reflection of yugoslavia’s independence after the tito-stalin rift of 1948? “american community school at beirut extended essay. 4. perović, l., roksandić, d., velikonja, m., hoepken, w., bieber, f., (ed.) (2017). "yugoslavia from a historical perspective", helsinki committee for human rights in serbia. 5. turajlic, m. (2010) “cinema comunisto” documetary 6. kuliç, v., (2009). ‘’ land of the between: modern architecture and the state in the socialist yugoslavia, 1945-65, phd thesis, the university of texas, austin. 7. dragutinoviç, a., (2017), “modernism in belgrade: classification of modernist housing buildings 19191980“, iop conference series: materials science and engineering, belgrade, doi:10.1088/1757899x/245/5/052075 8. miloseviç., s. (2009).“seeking identity in former yugoslavia's socialist architecture“ master thesis at university of i̇llinois at urbana-champaign, chicago 9. djurić, d., šuvaković, m., (2003), “ impossible histories: historical avantgardes, neo-avant-gardes, and post-avant-gardes in yugoslavia, 19181991.cambridge, ma: mit, 2003. print. 10. slivnik, l. (2014). jugoslovanski paviljoni na svetovnih razstavah, raziskava 2007, ul, fakulteta za arhitekturo, ljubljana. 11. zupančič., b. (2004). “arhitekt josip costaperaria in ljubljansko moderno meščanstvo“, kud polis, 31 ljubljana 12. blagojević, l. (2003.), “modernism in serbia: the illusive margins of belgrade architecture 19191941“, mit press, cambridge, mass., london 13. vukovic, s., s, kujundzic k.(2015). “architecture of the 20th century as a cultural heritage: architectural communication – memorial hall in kolasin, montenegro” university of montenegro (doi: 10.7250/aup.2014.007). 14. simonoviç, r., (2014). “new belgrade: between utopia and pragmatism” dottorato di ricerca in architetturateorie e proget, sapienza università di roma facoltà di architettura dipartimento di arhitettura e progetto. roma 15. gjinolli, i., kabashi, l., (ed.) (2015). “kosovo modern: an architectural primer” publisher: “national gallery of kosovo”, pristina. 16. zagreb borsa binası, viktor kovaciç, 1923 zagreb (www.cro-eu.com) 17. ljubljana devlet bankası, ivan vurnik, 1921 (www.alamy.com) 18. ristić, s., (2009). “a house with a view “oris ('magazine for architecture and culture'), no:56, zagreb. 19. modrčin, l., (2011). “architectural graf”, oris ('magazine for architecture and culture'), no:72, zagreb. 20. dubrovnik’te hotel lonub, nikola dobrović steinmann, 1934 (www.hiveminer.com) 21. zagreb’te krizaniçeva, lisesi, egon 1932 (www.sometimes-interesting.com) 22. zagreb’te trešnjevka i̇lkokulu, ivana zemljaka, 1931 (www.skyscrapercity.com) 23. zagreb’te podvinec evi, (mahečić, 2008) 24. zagreb’te pfefermann evi, marko vidaković, 1930 (www.skyscrapercity.com) 25. zagreb’te kraus evi, ernerst weissmann, 1937 (http://www.skyscrapercity.com) 26. ljublana’da oblak villası, france tomažič, 1933 (kambič, 2014) 27. belgrad’ta kumanovska sokağı apartmanı, branko ve petar krstic, 1931 (www.architectureweek.com) 28. belgrad’ta đurić apartmanı, branislav kojić, 1931 (www.beogradskonasledje.rs) 29. belgrad’ta momčilo belobrk apartmanı, 1938 (www.skyscrapercity.com) 30. belgrad’ta belgrad üniversitesi çocuk kliniği, milan zlokovic, 1933, (www.sajkaca.blogspot.com.tr) 31. belgrad’ta jagodini okulu, milan zlokovic, 1937 (www.superprostor.com) 32. ljublana'da 1930’lardan art deco apartman örneği 1928 (www.lumilanous.deviantart.com) 33. sveçanska slika (tören tablosu) ve ričard titovog lika / životinjsko carstv (tito’nun richard yüzü/ hayvanlar krallığı tablosu), http://www.riznicasrpska.net/likovnaumetnost/index. php?topic=182.0 34. sutjeska filminin afişi https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0070758/mediaviewer/r m3292217088 35. villa zagorje, zagreb1964 (mjerı obıteljskıh ku ća u hrvatskoj), 36. belgrad merkez komite binası http://sajkaca.blogspot.com/2008/07/nato-targetusce-tower-ck-building_30.html 37. kolasin evi (www.spomenikdatabase.org, 2016) (google maps 2017) 38. federal hükümet başkanlık sarayı https://www.flickr.com/photos/my_lala/5107011856) 39. bosna hersek devrim muzesi (https://www.navigator.ba/#/p/historical-museum-ofbih) 40. geneks kulesi (www.archiexpo.com , 2017) 41. tobleron apartmani;https://i.kinja-img.com/gawker media/image/upload/t_original/fah54gl4bssgnpqhre mo.jpg http://www.cro-eu.com/ http://www.alamy.com/ http://www.hiveminer.com/ http://www.sometimes-interesting.com/ http://www.skyscrapercity.com/ http://www.skyscrapercity.com/ http://www.architectureweek.com/ http://beogradskonasledje.rs/ http://www.skyscrapercity.com/ http://www.sajkaca.blogspot.com.tr/ http://www.superprostor.com/ http://www.lumilanous.deviantart.com/ http://www.riznicasrpska.net/likovnaumetnost/index.php?topic=182.0 http://www.riznicasrpska.net/likovnaumetnost/index.php?topic=182.0 https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0070758/mediaviewer/rm3292217088 https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0070758/mediaviewer/rm3292217088 http://sajkaca.blogspot.com/2008/07/nato-target-usce-tower-ck-building_30.html http://sajkaca.blogspot.com/2008/07/nato-target-usce-tower-ck-building_30.html https://www.flickr.com/photos/my_lala/5107011856 https://www.navigator.ba/#/p/historical-museum-of-bih https://www.navigator.ba/#/p/historical-museum-of-bih http://www.archiexpo.com/ https://i.kinja-img.com/gawker-%20media/image/upload/t_original/fah54gl4bssgnpqhremo.jpg https://i.kinja-img.com/gawker-%20media/image/upload/t_original/fah54gl4bssgnpqhremo.jpg https://i.kinja-img.com/gawker-%20media/image/upload/t_original/fah54gl4bssgnpqhremo.jpg 1. introduction references 78 independence, sovereignty, preponderance – the prevalence and the territorial expansion of state power dardan vuniçi, phd. c. prizren university “ukshin hoti, faculty of law, dardan.vunici @uni-prizren.com article history: accepted 20 february 2019 available online 30 april 2019 keywords: independence, sovereignty, preponderance, prevalence, territorial expansion a b s t r a c t state is society’s need for the existence of an organized power, equipped with the right equipments of coercion and able to run the society, by imposing the choices that seem reasonable to them, through legal norms. state is an organization of state power; it is an organized power which imposes its will to all the society and has a whole mechanism to execute this will. the state realizes its functions through power, which is a mechanism to accomplish its relevant functions. the power’s concept is a social concept, which can be understood only as a relation between two subjects, between two wills. power is the ability to impose an order, a rule and other’s behavior in case that he doesn’t apply voluntary the relevant norm, respectively the right. using state power is related to creation and application, respectively the implementation of law. to understand state power better, we have to start from its overall character. so, we notice that in practice we encounter different kinds of powers: the family’s one, the school’s one, the health’s one, the religion’s, culture’s etc. the notion of powers can be understood as a report between two subjects, two wills. power is an order for other’s behavior. every power is some kind of liability, dependence from others. in the legal aspect, supremacy of state presents the constitutive – legislative form upon the powers that follow after it. supremacy, respectively the prevalence, is stronger upon other powers in its territory. for example we take the highest state body, the parliament as a legislative body, where all other powers that come after it, like the executive and court’s one, are dependable on state’s central power. we can’t avoid the carriage of state’s sovereignty in the competences of different international organizations. republic, based on ratified agreements for certain cases can overstep stat e’s power on international organizations. the people legitimate power and its bodies, by giving their votes for a mandate of governance (people’s verdict). it is true that we understand people’s sovereignty only as a quality of people, where with the word people we understand the entirety of citizens that live in a state. the sovereignty’s case actualizes especially to prove people’s right for self-determination until the disconnection that can be seen as national – state sovereignty. national sovereignty is the right of a nation for self-determination. sovereignty’s cease happens when the monopoly of physical strength ceases as well, and this monopoly is won by another organization. a state can be ceased with the voluntary union of two or more states in a mutual state, or a state can be ceased from a federative state, where federal units win their independence. in this context we have to do with former ussr’s units, separated in some independent states, like czechoslovakia unit that was separated in two independent states: in czech republic and slovakia. former yugoslavia was separated from eight federal units, today from these federal units seven of them have won their independence and their international recognition, and the republic of kosovo is one amongst them. every state power’s activity has legal effect inside the borders of a certain territory and inside this territory the people come under the relevant state’s power. territorial expansion of state power is 79 three dimensional. the first dimension includes the land inside a state’s borders, the second dimension includes the airspace upon the land and the third dimension includes water space. the airspace upon inside territorial waters is also a power upon people and the power is not universal, meaning that it doesn’t include all mankind. state territory is the space that’s under state’s sovereignty. it is an essential element for its existence. according to the author juaraj andrassy, state territory lies in land and water space inside the borders, land and water under this space and the air upon it. coastal waters and air are considered as parts that belong to land area, because in every case they share her destiny. exceptionally, according to the international right or international treaties, it is possible that in one certain state’s territory another state’s power can be used. in this case we have to do with the extraterritoriality of state power. the state extraterritoriality’s institute is connected to the concept of another state’s territory, where we have to do with diplomatic representatives of a foreign country, where in the buildings of these diplomatic representatives, the power of the current state is not used. these buildings, according to the international right, the diplomatic right, have territorial immunity and the relevant host state bodies don’t have any power. regarding to inviolability, respectively within this case, we have two groups to mention: the real immunity and the personal immunity, which are connected with the extraterritoriality’s institute. introduction the state is a materialized organized form of political organization in every society, influenced in first place from economic relations, which are translated in a natural way in dominance relations. state is an expression for the need that society feels for the existence of an organized power, equipped with the right coercive equipment and the ability to run the society, by imposing choices that look reasonable in first sight, through juridical norms. state is a political power organization, it is an organized power, and it imposes its will to the society, having a mechanism to apply this will (omari 2017). the term “state” is used in two meanings: in the meaning of a political organization in society and in the politico-geographical meaning. this notion interlocks three elements that a state should have: the territory, population and public-legal power that has legal effect on an assigned territory and the people that live there. the state, in one way or another represents a general organized politic. the main feature of the state is the fact that it is a specified organization. from the past until nowadays we have: slave states, feudal states, bourgeois states, socialist states (l.omari 2017). and the current states based on international rules. to study them easier, we classify the states by type and form. the evolutionary basis for development of state concepts is supported in the legal theories of ancient greece. based on sociological theories, the state is a social organization created by us for the general good. this theory was developed by plato and aristotle, by treating the state as a community of people that have to protect common interests. said otherwise, the sociological theory considers state as a product of some kind of differentiation between the government and the governed and as a cooperation of public services that are controlled by the government(l.omari 2017).. lenin thinks of the state as an organization. we do also have another theory, the one of ferdinand lasal, which says that the state is a union of individuals. according to him, only state has a big civilization impact on the development of education, culture etc. but, on the other hand, if we take a look on leon dygui’s idea about the state, he treats the right as powerless without pressure strength, or that strength without right would be barbarity. this strength should be lead by right1. along with these theories, the legal theory is more considerable because state has some legal elements and the legal sciences deal with state exclusively, as a special social organization, political organization. we can’t eliminate other sciences that also contribute in this special political organization. in our everyday life, we often come across the meaning of state, for example, when we go out we’ll see the traffic policeman, who gives orders about traffic and these orders should be respected, and in case they aren’t, then penalties are given from relevant state authorities. in this case the policeman is represented as an official state person (omari 2017). the state administration 80 orders us to pay taxes and in case we don’t, the payment will have to be done,violently. here we can see the conception of state acting violently against those that do not follow the rules – legal dispositions. it is worth mentioning that behind every state authority – official person – policeman, the judge or the prosecutor, is the state with a very strong mechanism to complete the duty. we have to point out that we can’t talk about state outside the right. state counts lots of norms that together compose the right. with other words state can’t be understood out of the right, but even the right, on the other hand, can’t be understood out of the functional aspect of state existence. 1. state power and sovereignty state is always identified with practicing its authority, and through this it produces and modifies the right. state executes its relevant state functions by dint of power, which is a mechanism to fulfill these functions. the concept of power is a social concept that can be understood only as a relationship between two subjects, between two wills.5 power is the ability to enforce an order, a rule, other’s behavior, in case they don’t follow willingly the relevant norm, respectively the right. practicing the state power is nothing else but the relation between creating and application, respectively obeying the right. to get to know state power better, we should first know its overall character. we can see that in practice we encounter different kinds of power: the family one, the school’s, the health’s, religion’s etc. the notion of powers can be seen as a report between two subjects, two wills. the power is an order for the other’s behavior. every power is some kind of liability. while having to do with state power we should think of it as some kind of state power that is available to use physical restraint, which is a special mechanism, and with this restraint realizes the dedicated purpose(l.omari 2017). power’s liability can be double: with moral means without using voluntary strength, voluntary behavior against legal norms and on the other hand the liability can be in compliance with the order, with and without using physical strength. 2. the state power sovereignty concept state sovereignty is one of the most important state issues. the word “sovereignty” originates from latin “supremus, superanus” meaning supreme and from the french right “sovran” and has to do with the fact that it marks the subject’s meaning as sovereign – supreme, respectively independent from others. in ancient greece plato and aristotle had been dealing with this issue. according to the first thinker, the bearers of state power are philosophers, while according to the second thinker, aristotle, the sovereign power within the state, belongs to the law. they gave big importance to this issue – the sovereignty issue, especially with the democratic revolution in france, where we mention jean jacques rousseau as a worthy representative in its writings about social contract, where based on this theory the monarch is not sovereign anymore as an absolute monarchy but as the general will of people and that will is exclusively expressed through the democratic bodies of the nation, through the parliament. sovereignty is a basic concept of the right, especially of the international and constitutional right. the concept of state power sovereignty, as a concept of right, has two meanings: as a concept in the inner right, regulated with the constitutional right and as a concept in the international right that treats this phenomenon – category by the international public right. as a rule, sovereignty is one of the state power issues without which we can’t even talk about the term “state”, in the internal and external meaning. state power is based on the monopoly that means a bigger, sovereign, supreme from others, independent. as a rule the sovereignty notion connects with state – state power, where lojesau, french author, says that “state sovereignty is the one thing that gives state spirit”. if we refer to the political dictionary of oxford, with the notion of sovereignty we understand “a request to be the last political authority that is not subjected to any higher power in terms of receiving and implementing political decisions” (oxford political dictionary, 2005). state sovereignty usually is considered as sovereignty in three necessary elements: in the independence against any power of other states, the lack of any formal restrictions about state power in extracting those provisions that are seen as reasonable and the preponderance that state power has in the territory which he extends, upon every other poker (omari, 2007). the state power sovereignty has two attributes of state power: state power on its territory, possessing strength to impose the realization of its goals on one side, but state power possesses outside sovereignty as well if that state is a member of united nations, than the state has “equal sovereignty” because this equal sovereignty is guaranteed and is known with the united nations card. 81 the sovereignty of state power can be explained in the legal and political aspect. in the legal aspect state sovereignty means a power that is independent from outside, from external factors that can’t affect in certain state issues on one side, but we have the preponderance of this power towards all the internal factors. in the political aspect, in terms of state power sovereignty, we have to do with the report between political power and state power. the international right treats the state power sovereignty issue as one of the main categories of state and its independence. independence without sovereignty would be too decorative and declarative, and the state power’s actions wouldn’t have legal effect. based on the thoughts of different authors about the sovereignty of state power, it is resulted that state has a high – supreme position in decision-making through the highest state bodies, where in the legal and political aspect doesn’t depend from anyone in implementing every decision. 3. state power’s independence from any other power this notion means that the state power is free in making its own decisions without external interfering, meaning that the state power works independently in its relations with other states, of course always being supported in its own authority and strength, free to use it based on the international right, respectively international agreements which are dedicated to the internal right, as a national right. setting the legal order is an exclusive right of state power. no other political organization inside the country and no other organization of other countries have this right inside the territory of a sovereign state. in this context state power is independent from any other power in different decision-making, doesn’t listen nor is submissive from external orders(omari, 2007). this means that while releasing the decisions, state power is not obliged to listen or to comply with orders from any external power. external states can’t mix in internal state issues and every interference of any external power in the internal power is seen as risky for the sovereignty. 4. the preponderance that state power has on the territory where it lies, upon every other power (supremacy – prevalence) in the legal aspect the supremacy of state presents the constitutive – legislative form for all the powers which follow after it (malko, chapter 1 ). the state apparatus is created and organizes its activity regardless of other social powers inside the country(omari, 2007). this means that in its territory, the state is supreme and above all other powers, meaning that the highest power imposes its will to the other powers and dominates against them. in this context all other powers are obliged to listen to the central power. supremacy, respectively the prevalence is stronger over other powers because of its territory. for example we take the highest state body – the parliament as a legislative organ, where all the other powers that follow after him, as the executive and judiciary one depend on the central state power. we can’t move on without talking about the transfer of state sovereignty in powers of different international organizations (constitution of republic of kosovo,2008). republic, on the basis of international ratified agreements can pass the state power on international organizations for certain cases. if a membership agreement, ratified from the republic of kosovo for participation in international organizations explicitly asks for direct implementation of the norms of this organization. the law with which the membership agreement is ratified is approved with the two thirds of votes (2/3) from all the deputies of the assembly and those norms have priority on the republic of kosovo laws. lately, the restriction of state sovereignty is grown with the accession of a lot of european countries in supranational organizations, for example the european union (eu). the member states transfer sovereignty always and more, by attributing them the power of creating legally dependent norms, as well as the power to adopt mutual politics, that have always been reserved from the sovereign decisions of member states. until now we have mutual monetary, agricultural politics etc. 5. juridical boundarylessness of state power the concept of power is a social concept that can be understood only as a relation between two subjects, between two volunteers. the power is the ability to impose an order, a rule or other’s behavior, no matter if he obeys it with or without intention (gurakuqi,2009). the establishment of legal order and the organization of its protection is an exclusive right of state power. no other political organization inside the inner state right has this benefit. with this we can say that state does always have full independence from other organizations. in terms of the principle we mentioned above, it turns out that only state mechanism is available to use the adequate means to force this will, and this is an exclusive right of state power and no other organization has it. we have an exception here with the case 82 of dissolution of former yugoslavia – first in bosnia and herzegovina, where the local power was under the supervision of the united nations, second in kosovo, where nato forces intervened military in march 1999, after belgrade government didn’t sing the agreement that was prepared in rambouillet – france, by continuing the genocide against albanian people in kosovo(omari, 2007). after the military victory of nato, an administration of un was placed in kosovo, disconnecting practically and finally kosovo from the jurisdiction of former yugoslavia and replacing this administration with the administration of released acts from the relevant authorities of kosovo, currently republic of kosovo. the sovereignty of state power of republic of kosovo is a legal expression of the monopoly of politic will for the people of kosovo. said otherwise, the state sovereignty is equal with the human rights and freedom. state sovereignty contains other aspects as well, as: the economical aspect as state sovereignty, political aspect as state sovereignty and the legal aspect that presents the constitutive form regarding to legislature. said otherwise, state power is the strongest one from all the other powers in society, because it can vanquish them by using the monopoly of physical strength(ismajli, 2011). after the armed conflict, from 12 june 1999, kosovo is under heterogeneous and unconsolidated administration of unmik, kfor, and osbe15 as international institutions, where the 1244 resolution of 1999 presented the big need to define the final status of kosovo into an independent republic(omari, 2007). with this we can say that the subjects of law’s behavior are regulated and sanctioned with relevant norms that have to be respected and fulfilled. state sovereignty also includes the basis of the dispositions of legal order, which can’t be contested from anyone. this is imposed to others by the sovereignty of state power in organizing and applying the right through the highest legislative mechanism towards the other dependent mechanisms. 6. demotic and national sovereignty the demotic and national sovereignty is ranged right after the state sovereignty. the demotic sovereignty means the realization of politic will of people through the concept of the majority’s governance, which is put in place directly from the citizens(s. fishkin, 1192) or through the representative bodies, chosen directly from the citizens. power’s legitimacy emantes from people and law. the people legitimate the power and its bodies, by giving them their votes for a mandate of governance (people’s verdict), (omari, 2007). it is true that we understand the national sovereignty as a quality of the nation, and with the word nation we understand the totality of citizens that live in a state.18 the sovereignty issue is put in action especially to testify the right of people for self-determination which can be seen as national – state sovereignty. national sovereignty is the right of a nation for self-determination until the disconnection in case he’s part of a federal state, until the formation of the independent state( omaari, 2007) in unitary states, where numerically a nation constitutes the overwhelming majority, as in the case of albania, italy, france, germany, greece, and portugal. as a rule, these countries sovereignty is identified with the nation’s sovereignty.20 the population is the entirety of citizens that belong to the same state power. the nation is a permanent communion of a considerable number of people that have lived together for a long time and have mutual features: in language, culture etc. in one state the population can be composed from several nations, for example one federal unit interconnected in the federative state, with different nation and nationalities. with national sovereignty we understand the nation’s right to decide if they want to create their own country or if they want to join another nation’s country. the nation is and should be sovereign because it has the right of self-determination about their future regarding to the decision of that nation to be independent, an independent state or if it wants to join in a multinational country, as is the federative state. earlier, nations as communions have been subjected so tuning to the state sovereignty, wanting to keep their identity safe, knowing that the priority of self-determination will be respected till the disconnection, so the right to disconnect from the mutual state to realize their right to create a new, independent(ismaili, 2011) and sovereign state. this right also includes the right to disconnect from the country with which a nation lives with other nations(ismajli, 2011). in federal or composite states this case is solved depending on the character of the federate, because the federate can be two types: mandatory and voluntary. in the federal states that are formed or kept by dint of strength, since once they could have been formed with the free will of the participants, the state sovereignty if just form of sanction of the preponderance of the ruling nation. we’ve had these kinds of cases with the yugoslav federation during the antifascist national liberation of the nations of yugoslavia, created voluntary with the consent of the representatives by taking the status of republic and in this context albanians were discriminated, by being denied their right to be an equal subject with the other nations that were part of the republic of yugoslavia.22 we also have similarities with the union of soviet socialist republics, where in their creation and destruction, respectively gaining the national sovereignty, former units of ussr most of which won their sovereignty and were accepted in 83 the family of the internationally recognized states, have won their international subjectivity. if we take a look at the self-determination institution, as a high value for the state of the right, it results that everyone has the rights and freedoms enacted, without any differences, so that any recent notion in the human history wasn’t more privileged to bear the mission of the human future and the expression of human rights. as a rule, the principle of the right to self-determinate is supported in the united nations organization card and gives the documents practical values that regulate this. the principle of people’s self-determination23 should be applied to kosovo as well. self-determination, as an institution and as a legal-political category, is one of the fundamental principles of the international right and one of the collective crucial rights that refers to the creation nation authority. “people’s will is a crucial and supreme priority for settling the statute of kosovo (berisha, 2013)”. self-determination, as the main institution that is supported on nation sovereignty, has the highest value of democracy and should be a permanent and comprehensive process in which, every person, regardless of its conviction, religion or race should have his human dignity respected. in another country the state and national sovereignty can be realized at the same time, because it is consisted from different nations and nationalities that may agree and live together in a country. the national state, respectively the national sovereignty, unites the communion of the nationals of a nation that live in that state under the same administrative regime with mutual interests. one of the crucia (klimovski, 2007.) elements that constitute national sovereignty, we can reckon two more important: creating a political will of people and actualizing the political will (llukiq, 1981) which presents self-governance and national sovereignty, respectively demotic sovereignty. the requirements for the people’s selfdetermination happen because the encroachment of human freedom and rights and because of the equal mishandling in politics, culture etc. compared with the major nations in a common state(kryeziu, 2016). this causes discontent and contradiction in relation with the numerically largest nation with which it sets its affection through formal governance on the smaller nations or human communities, by exerting violence and state terror, as we have the serbian nation supremacy against the former yugoslavia nations. the cause for the yugoslavian federate collapse comprised by different nations, was domination, the governance with serbian colonial rule against the other nations of former yugoslavia, the majority of which actually won their right for self-determination, their sovereignty, sovereignty which was upheld the international community. 7. the cease of sovereignty and the recognition of states the cease of sovereignty will be done when the monopoly of physical strength ceases of existing, and this monopoly is won by another organization(llukiqi, 1981). in this case, we bring the question: who does the sovereignty belong to? of course, the sovereignty belongs to the new state, while the existing state loses the monopoly of power, stops existing as a state. in this case, the sovereignty of power in the new state is a legal power and the legitimacy is won by the new organization that is called state. so, the superior organization has the legitimacy which overthrows the old power and that is declared by the new organization. as a different way of ceasing the state sovereignty we mention the invasion or occupation. with occupation (invasion) we understand the situation where a part of a territory or the entirety of that territory is captured from another international subject. in this case we have to do with state’s sovereignty depravity and with the submission of the relevant nation to the newly created state. the newly created state does the relevant structuring of the organized state structures in the occupied territory. associated with this case we have to do with the disappearance of states as a result of the occupation of a state’s territory and it’s fully conquest. states can annex another state even without invasions and war. for example, prussia and sardine have annexed (attached) without war different countries and by doing this they have realized their national unity. a state can be disappeared with the voluntary union of two or more states in one mutual state. thus, montenegro has ceased to operate as a state organization and as a particular international subject, when its assembly has announced the union with serbia in 1918, as syria and egypt (gruda, 2007). the state disappears when its territory is separated between other states, thus in 1829 – 1830 great columbia was separated in venezuela, ecuador and new greenland; in 1993 czechoslovakia was separated in the czech republic and slovakia; in 1991 soviet union was separated after baltic republics regained their independence and other republics gave voice their will and won their sovereignty. differently from czechoslovakia and the soviet union, the dissolution of former yugoslavia was characterized from a lot of agreements and disagreements until the war between federal units of former yugoslavia to gain their independence, supported by the selfdetermination right. the security council, as a special body of the united nations organization, has clearly said in 1992 that “the state formerly known as the republic of yugoslavia has ceased to exist.” these states cease and transform into another 84 state or organization. europe and former ussr. this declaration was used as the basis to recognize these republic’s independence. with other words the sovereignty is won by another stronger organization and becomes carrier of the rights, obligations and responsibilities, especially those in the international right, of legal-political legitimacy. 8. territorial expansion of state power the activity of every state power expands and has legal effect inside the borders of a current territory and inside this territory the population is subjected to the relevant state power. territorial expansion of state power is three-dimensional. the first dimension includes the land inside the borders of a state, the second dimension includes the airspace on the land surface31 and the third dimension includes the marine area. the airspace upon internal territorial waters is also a power upon people, meaning that the power is not universal, does not include the whole mankind. state territory is the space that’s under a state’s sovereignty. it is an essential element for its existence. according to the author juaraj andrassy, state territory lies in the land and water surface inside the borders, land and water under this surface and the air upon it(andrassy,1971). coastal waters and air are considered as a part that belongs to the land space, because in every case they share its destiny. some authors consider as state territory even the naval ships and river boats, aircrafts and the official headquarters of diplomatic representations. according to some authors the airspace is endless, but the general international practice considers the part where the state power can be provided. but, the underground is also considered as territory, territorial expansion of state power, respectively until the point where state power has effect and it is said until half of the terrestrial globe (omari, 2007), but effectively only where this power can be used and this is exclusively hanged on technological achievements. in the territory that includes the water dimension we can mention rivers, lakes and marine, areas that according to the international right is determined from every coastal country’s legislation, relying on the international right the area goes from 3 to 12 miles. if we analyze albanian legislation about this case, state power has a territorial expansion at a height from 12 miles from sea coast. in this context, by excluding corfu channel, our waters expand until half of the distance between two coastlines. this marine area constitutes territorial waters. with this we feel the need to set borders between powers and relating to this we have a spatial – territorial union of state power, so in this power are all the people that live in that territory. state’s territory is the territorial space in which the state uses its power and where the state borders are accurately set. within the state territory there are: landmasses, waters and airspace. in the constituent parts of territory there are: the land, including the underground, waters, air and ships. regarding to waters, within them we have territorial waters (sea), port waters, internal rivers and waters, waters of bays, internal seas, internal rivers etc. in the air category we mention the air upon the sea and the land. regarding to the ships, that are counted as constituent parts of state territory we have: sea ships, river boats and aircrafts. as a rule ships constitute as part of state territory. these are fictitious parts of state territory: “floating” parts, “flying” parts are mainly subjected to the laws and jurisdiction of the origin country. but for these aboard ships to be considered as “floating” territory they have to keep their country’s flag and emblem and this regardless if they are in territorial waters or in free marine waters, open sea. this rule applies to the airplanes too. regarding to the territorial expansion of state power, respectively certain countries border’s expansion are assigned easier in landmasses – land, and harder in water spaces. nowadays it’s some kind of a rule that only a narrow strip of sea near the sea coast, and only several miles from the sea coast is considered as a territory under that state’s sovereignty. outside this space the sea is free, it doesn’t constitute a state’s territory and these are called free marine waters or high seas that are everybody’s and nobody’s. this case is regulated by the international public right. every state uses its power in this marine territory, in free marine waters. this has to do with their vessels. it is considered that state has territorial sovereignty, thus supreme power or with other words the highest power on citizens in its territory. according to international right rules it is a state’s power area as sovereign power and includes every part of the area where its jurisdiction has effect. state power uses several liability measures against these persons – citizens if they act contrary with the state rules, whether citizens or foreign. in order to enjoy their rights, the citizens also have responsibilities to that state. exceptionally, according to the international right or international treaties, it is possible that in a certain state’s territory, another state uses its power. in this case we have to do with extraterritoriality of state power. the state’s extraterritoriality institution is connected with the concept of another state’s territory, having to do with diplomatic representatives of a foreign country, where in the building where these diplomatic representatives are placed, the power of the relevant state can’t be used. these buildings, according to the international right, the diplomatic right, have territorial immunity and the relevant bodies of the host state do not pursue any power act. in terms of 85 inviolability, respectively within this case, we have two groups that can be separated: the real immunity and the personal immunity, which are connected with the extraterritoriality institute. the real immunity theory was programmed by hugo grocius, and according to this theory the diplomatic mission, the buildings of this mission are an enclave within the other state and being so they are integral parts of the state that sends it. the first and second category of the immunity is related with the extraterritoriality institution of state power, where this one is also expanded outside its factual territory. this principle – rule also goes for the warships and military aircraft wherever they are, that are part of that state’s territory, the flag of which they are forced to keep. in this context we also have to do with the commercial ships at open sea, that are part of the state’s territory, while when they enter the territorial waters of another state, they must come under that state’s jurisdiction, for example the extraterritorial territory as: different diplomatic representatives, foreign heads of states, navigation of vessels in free waters etc. all these cases and issues are regulated in detail exclusively by the international public right (grud 2007). references 1. prof dr. m. dimitrijeviq, uvod pravo, belgrade, 1983. 2. prof dr. osman ismaili, the university of pristine, law faculty, pristine, 2011. 3. prof dr. sc. fejzulla berisha, “e drejta – law” magazine for legal and social issues, nr. 2 – 4 – 2006. 4. entrance in the public right, lectures prepared by: romeo gurakuqi, arenca trashani, shkodër – tirana, 2009. 5. european union declaration about the criteria for the acceptance of new states in eastern europe and former ussr. this declaration was used as the basis to recognize these republic’s independence. european union declaration about the criteria for the acceptance of new states in eastern europe and former ussr. 6. james s. fishkin, three democratic conditions, new york, 1991, p. 29-42. 7. juraj andrassy “medjunarodna pravo”, zagreb, 1971. 8. prof dr luan omari “parime dhe institucione të së drejtës publike”, the tenth edition, publishing house “elena gjika”, tirana, 2007. 9. prof dr kadri kryeziu, abc-ja e shtetit dhe se drejtes prizren, 2016. 10. melvin i urofsky, basic readings in u.s democracy, united states information agency, washington, 1992. 11. prof. upendra baxi. from inhuman injustice and human’s rights. 12. prof.ass.dr. fejzulla berisha, “hyrje në të drejtën”, pristine, 2011. 13. the republic of kosovo’s constitution, 2008. 14. zejnullah gruda “e drejta ndërkombëtare publike”, publishing house “furkan”, skopje, 2007. introduction 1. state power and sovereignty 2. the state power sovereignty concept 3. state power’s independence from any other power 4. the preponderance that state power has on the territory where it lies, upon every other power (supremacy – prevalence) 5. juridical boundarylessness of state power 6. demotic and national sovereignty 7. the cease of sovereignty and the recognition of states 8. territorial expansion of state power references 38 investigation of classroom applications for multicultural education in terms of various variables prof. ass. soner yildirim*, prof. ass. münevver muyo yildirim** *prizren university “ukshin hoti, faculty of education, soner.yildirim@uni-prizren.com **prizren university “ukshin hoti, faculty of education, munevvermuyo@gmail.com article history: accepted 17 april 2019 available online 30 april 2019 keywords: multicultural education, classroom practices for multicultural education, teaching cultural differences . a b s t r a c t in this study, it was examined whether the teachers' in-class practices towards multicultural education in kosovo differ according to gender, professional seniority, mother tongue, level and branch variables. descriptive screening model was used in the study. the study group consisted of 975 turkish, albanian and bosnian teachers working in the provinces of prizren, pristina, mamusha, reçane and restelitsa in the 2016-2017 academic year. the education in-class practices scale developed by the researcher as a data collection tool to determine the classroom practices of teachers for multicultural educational practices was applied in this study. the results of the study showed that some variables differed significantly on classroom teaching practices. these are the mother tongue, the level and the branch variables. on the other hand, it was determined that gender and professional seniority variables did not cause a significant difference in classroom practices. as a result of the study, it has been suggested that in-service training for teaching cultural differences for turkish, albanian and bosnian native language teachers, the number of activities aimed at teaching cultural differences in activities related to different cultural values in schools’ textbooks should be increased and new program designs for multicultural education should be developed. introduction living together with different cultures in different societies, knowledge, skills and experiences gained throughout life enrich the perspective of man. at the same time, it opens the door to a quality life opportunity both socially and economically. individuals who have a habit of living in a society with different cultures have the opportunity to be more open-minded, tolerant and alive. respect for differences, people living in harmony with various cultures, people gain experience in the differences, they can make their lives easier and colorful life experiences can become more colorful (çiftçi and aydın, 2014; malik, 2002). the concept of multiculturalism and multicultural education emerged in terms of individual and cultural differences in education process and started to take part in education (cırık, 2008). nowadays, multicultural and multicultural education represents multicultural education. multicultural education; argues that all individuals from language, religion, gender, social class, race and different cultures should have a fair and equal education opportunity (marangoz, aydın and adıgüzel, 2015; chisholm, 1994). aydın (2013) states that people living in a harmony with different races, religions, languages are rich, that these values enrich society and produce solutions to the social problems that may arise in the future. in addition, education for cultural differences is seen as a means of producing solutions to problems related to education (cırık, 2008). according to banks and ambrosio (2002), multicultural education is an effort to promote equality and fairness among students from different cultures in schools. the most important goal of multicultural education is to “restructure the schools and education system and thus to provide students with the knowledge and skills to be treated in different ethnic groups” (aydın, 2012: 36). multicultural education has a significant impact in educating students who are sensitive, respectful and tolerant to cultural differences in countries where cultural differences are important and effective. mailto:soner.yildirim@uni-prizren.com 39 individual characteristics and differences that are important in education process are among the factors that make multicultural education compulsory. because the students in the educational environment with different gender, mouth, language, learning styles come with features. students are considered to be important in terms of social welfare by accepting it naturally in the development of knowledge, tolerance and sensitivity related to different cultures (gay, 1994; polat, 2009; yurdabakan, 2002). therefore, many countries have developed training programs for multicultural education. however, because of the differences in the socio-cultural conditions of each country, there are differences in the approaches and programs of multicultural education (keskin and yaman, 2014; polat and kılıç, 2013). this reveals the necessity of evaluating each country within its own conditions and shaping the practices based on socio-cultural differences. teacher characteristics are more important in terms of the importance of multicultural education and effective education in societies where cultural differences are high. it is more difficult and complicated to meet the learning needs and preferences of these students in schools and classrooms where students with different language, religion, tradition and tradition are common (brown & kysilka, 2002; gay, 1994; toprak, 2008). although the cultural differences mentioned in each society are more or less, these differences are more evident in some countries and the social structure is built on this cultural diversity. naturally, this diversity is reflected in schools and classes. one of the countries with the most cultural differences is kosovo. sıra different communities of ethnic origin, such as “rom, gorani, serb, in kosovo, along with turks, albanians, bosnians”, live together (koro, 2008: 17). the multicultural social structure of the republic of kosovo requires cultural and individual differences in education (koro and topsakal, 2007). in this context, in order to develop a multicultural and different ethnic democracy society in kosovo, new structure and program work has been started in the kosovo education system after 1999. in 2002, the new program was put into practice and the system was changed to bologna in higher education (safçı & koro, 2008). in order to reflect the characteristics of the communities living in kosovo into educational programs, special commissions are being created from different communities for language, history, music and fine arts. apart from serbs, a unified education system has been developed by giving importance to the language, history, art and traditions of all other ethnic communities living in kosovo (safci and koro, 2008). multicultural education in societies where cultural diversity is high is important in terms of meeting the learning needs of students and developing the culture of living together. the existence of multicultural education program schemes does not mean that this education is implemented effectively. the program design is as important as multicultural education takes in practice. therefore, it is important for multicultural education to determine the classroom practices of the teachers who are the implementers of the programs and the demographic variables (gender, professional seniority, mother tongue, level, branches) affecting these practices. 1. method in this study, relational scanning model was used. screening models are research approaches that aim to describe a situation that exists in the past or the present. the subject, subject, or object, which is the subject of the research, is tried to be defined as it is and within its own conditions. there is no attempt to change them in any way asar (karasar, 2008: 77). to determine whether turkish, albanian and bosnian teachers working in high schools and elementary schools differ in terms of various demographics (gender, mother tongue, ethnicity, religious affiliation, professional seniority, stage and branch) a causal comparison study was conducted. in the causal comparison model, it aims to determine the causes and consequences of the differences between groups of people without any intervention on the conditions and participants (büyüköztürk et al., 2011: 15). in this research model, cause and effect relationships can be determined. it can be determined in the natural environment (gay and airasian, 2003) which are the independent variables or variables that are effective on a dependent variable (gay and airasian, 2003). 1.1. working groups the study population consists of 4760 teachers in schools in kosovo (prizren, pristina) and its districts (recane, restelisa, mamusa) who teach in turkish, albanian and bosnian languages. in the sample selection, easy-to-reach sampling method was preferred for schools in provincial and district centers. because, in this method, the researcher chooses a situation that is close and easy to access (şimşek & yeardırım, 2006). 1005 teachers from the study population were included in the study, the obtained forms, 30 of them were not included in the study and a total of 975 people were included in the sample. a sufficient size sampling is required to ensure that the sample is adequately representative of the universe (balcı, 2005). 556 (57.03%) of the teachers in the sample were female and 419 (42.97%) were male. there are no turkish and albanian teachers in the districts of reçane and restelitsa. in pristina, the number of turkish teachers was taken because of the low number of students. 40 1.2. data collection tool in order to determine the in-class activities of teachers for multicultural education, the literature on the subject was searched. in this context, the questionnaires and scales used in the programs, teacher guides and similar researches, which were developed for the purpose of developing multicultural education in the world, were examined. in the light of the data obtained, item pool of 5-point likert-type teachers for multicultural education scale consisting of 29 items, which includes the basic activities of teachers about the cultural differences within the class and the way in which these activities are included, has been formed. the pool of substances was converted into scale after passing the expert opinion. is used likert scale, 5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = undecided, 2 = disagree and 1 = strongly disagree. 1.3. data analysis a total of 975 teachers participated in the çe classroom practices i̇çi scale for multicultural education prepared for this research. in the analysis of the data, analysis was done by using descriptive and one way analysis of variance to determine whether the classroom practices of teachers about teaching cultural differences are differentiated by various variables. the kruskal wallis h test was used to determine the differences in the cases where the variances were not homogeneous and the mann whitney u test was used for the difference. descriptive analysis and mean and standard deviation were examined. the values of table 1 were used to interpret the means. for all analyzes, significance was taken .005. the analyzes were performed using spss program. table 1. average interval rating value range value review 1.00 – 1.79 i strongly disagree negative 1.80– 2.59 disagree negative 2.60– 3.39 undecided negative 3.40– 4.19 agree positive 4.20– 5.00 strongly agree positive 1.4. findings in order to determine whether teachers' practices related to multicultural education differ in terms of gender, professional seniority, mother tongue, level and branch, they were analyzed by independent groups t-test, levene station, kruskal wallis h test. analysis results are presented in the tables below. table 2. independent groups t test analysis results of the classroom practices of multicultural education gender n x̄ ss levene test t sd p f p method-technical use female 556 4.11 .63 .085 .770* -.205 973 .837* male 419 4.12 .63 event design female 556 4.09 .63 .090 .764* -.663 973 .507* male 419 4.12 .65 considering individual differences female 556 3.78 .77 3.303 .022* -2.013 931.213 .044* male 419 3.88 .72 overall average female 556 3.99 .56 .001 .971* -1.204 973 .229* male 419 4.03 .58 *p>.013 when table 2 is examined, a significant difference (t = -1.204; p <.05) was not determined between female (x̄= 3.99) and male (x̄= 4.03) in general practices of teachers regarding multicultural education. the results of the study showed that gender difference is not an important factor other than “considering individual differences”. 41 table 3. the descriptive analysis of teachers' classroom practices for multicultural education in terms of professional severity variables and the results of homogeneity test of variances scale mesleki kıdem n x̄ ss levene i̇statistiği f p* method-technical use 11-5 year 178 4.16 .54 2.360 .052* 26-10 year 208 4.08 .72 311-15 year 144 4.08 .56 416-20 year 115 4.11 .59 520 years and up 330 4.10 .64 total 975 4.11 .62 event design 11-5 year 178 4.10 .56 1.824 .122* 26-10 year 208 4.13 .71 311-15 year 144 4.01 .60 416-20 year 115 4.04 .60 520 years and up 330 4.13 .64 total 975 4.10 .63 considering individual differences 11-5 year 178 3.97 .65 2.386 .051* 26-10 year 208 3.86 .78 311-15 year 144 3.77 .67 416-20 year 115 3.82 .80 520 years and up 330 3.75 .78 total 975 3.82 .75 overall average 11-5 year 178 4.08 .49 1.738 .139* 26-10 year 208 4.03 .64 311-15 year 144 3.95 .50 416-20 year 115 3.99 .52 520 years and up 330 3.99 .59 total 975 4.01 .56 *p>.05 according to the results of the descriptive analysis in table 3, the highest mean score (x̄ = 4.08) belongs to teachers with 1-5 years of seniority, while the lowest average (x̄ = 3.95) belongs to teachers who have a seniority of 11-15 years. in the analysis of levene statistic, it was determined that the variances were homogeneous both in the scale and in the sub-dimensions. one way analysis of variance was performed to determine whether the difference was significant. tukey analysis was performed to determine the differences between the groups. the results of the research are presented in table 4. table 4. the results of one-way analysis of variance in terms of professional seniority variable of teachers in multicultural education scale squeare totalı sd squeare mean f p tukey method-technical use between groups .741 4 .185 .468 .759* fark yok in-group 383.890 970 .396 total 384.631 974 event design between groups 2.083 4 .521 1.282 .275* fark yok in-group 394.147 970 .406 total 396.230 974 considering individual differences between groups 6.259 4 1.565 2.792 .025* fark yok in-group 543.610 970 .560 total 549.869 974 overall average between groups 1.418 4 .355 1.103 .354* fark yok in-group 311.751 970 .321 total 313.169 974 42 according to the results of the study, there was no significant difference between the scores obtained from the overall scale (f4;970=1.103; p>.013) and the sub-dimensions of multicultural education in terms of teachers' professional seniority variable. table 5. the descriptive analysis of teachers' classroom applications for multicultural education in terms of mother language variable and the homogeneity of variances test results scale mother touge n x̄ sd levene statistic f p* method-technical use 1-turkish 196 4.14 .57 1.028 .104* 2-albanian 606 4.11 .65 3-bosnian 173 4.07 .59 total 975 4.11 .63 event design 1-turkish 196 4.00 .64 .430 .268* 2-albanian 606 4.15 .62 3-bosnian 173 4.03 .67 total 975 4.10 .63 considering individual differences 1-turkish 196 3.95 .67 .962 .305* 2-albanian 606 3.75 .80 3-bosnian 173 3.94 .62 total 975 3.82 .75 overall average 1-turkish 196 4.03 .56 .794 .452* 2-albanian 606 4.00 .57 3-bosnian 173 4.01 .54 total 975 4.01 .56 *p>.05 according to the results of the descriptive analysis in table 5, the highest mean score (x̄ = 4.03) was for teachers with turkish mother tongue and the lowest average (x̄ = 4.00) was for teachers with albanian mother tongue. tukey analysis was conducted to determine the differences in which groups. the results of the analysis are presented in table 6. table 6. the results of one-way variance analysis of the classroom applications of multicultural education of teachers in terms of mother language variable scale total square sd squares mean f p tukey method-technical use between groups .470 2 .235 .594 .552* fark yok in-group 384.161 972 .395 total 384.631 974 event design between groups 4.432 2 2.216 5.497 .004** 1<2 in-group 391.798 972 .403 total 396.230 974 considering individual differences between groups 8.930 2 4.465 8.023 .000** 1,3>2 in-group 540.939 972 .557 total 549.869 974 overall average between groups .103 2 .051 .159 .853* fark yok in-group 313.067 972 .322 total 313.169 974 *p>.05; **p<.013 according to the results of the analysis, there was no significant difference in terms of the mother tongue variable in methodtechnical use dimension (f2;972=.594; p>.05). when bonferroni correction was performed (p=.05/4=.013) no significant difference was observed (p>.05). in the “event design” dimension, a significant difference was found in terms of the mother tongue variable ((f2;972=5.497; p<.05). when bonferroni correction was performed (p=.05/4=.013), there was a significant difference (p <.013). in the tukey analysis to determine the source of the difference, it was found that the average of teachers in albanian native language (x̄ = 4.15) was higher than the average of turkish teachers (x̄ = 4.00). 43 significant differences were found in terms of the mother tongue variable in “considering individual differences” (f2;972=8.023; p<.05). when bonferroni correction was performed (p=.05/4=.0125), a significant difference was observed (p<.013). in the tukey analysis to determine the source of the difference, the average of the turkish native speaker (x̄ = 3.95) and the teachers in bosnian as the mother tongue (x̄ = 3.94); it was determined that the teachers with albanian native language were higher than their average (x̄ = 3.75). there was no significant difference in terms of overall averages of teachers' practices on multicultural education (f2;972=.159; p>.05). when bonferroni correction was performed (p=.05/4=.013) there was no significant difference (p>.013). table 7. descriptive analysis and variance homogeneity test results of classroom teachers in multicultural education classroom scale school grades n x̄ ss levene statistic f p method-technical use 1basic training 337 4.22 .57 2.688 .069* 2lower secondary education (6-9 class) 320 4.17 .58 3upper secondary school (high school) 318 3.93 .68 total 975 4.11 .62 event design 1basic training 337 4.23 .58 4.660 .010** 2lower secondary education (6-9 class) 320 4.13 .58 3upper secondary school (high school) 318 3.92 .70 total 975 4.10 .63 considering individual differences 1basic training 337 3.90 .73 2.283 . .102* 2lower secondary education (6-9 class) 320 3.88 .71 3upper secondary school (high school) 318 3.68 .78 total 975 3.82 .75 overall average 1basic training 337 4.12 .50 3.777 .023** 2lower secondary education (6-9 class) 320 4.06 .52 3upper secondary school (high school) 318 3.84 .63 total 975 4.01 .56 *p<.05; **p>.05 according to the results of the study in table 7, the highest average (x̄ = 4.12) is the teachers working in basic training while the lowest average (x̄ = 3.84) is the teachers working in the upper secondary education. in all sub-dimensions and across the scale, the average of teachers in all teaching levels is high. in the analysis of levene statistic, it was determined that the variances in the scale differ method-technical use and considering individual differences was homogeneous. in the mean of others, variances are heterogeneous. table 8. one-way analysis of variance in terms of the variable in the classroom of teachers in multicultural education scale squeare total sd squeare mean f p tukey method-technical use between groups 15.433 2 7.717 20.316 .000* 1,2>3 in-group 369.198 972 .380 total 384.631 974 considering individual differences between groups 9.661 2 4.830 8.691 .000* 1,2>3 in-group 540.208 972 .556 total 549.869 974 *p<.025 according to the results of the analysis, değiş method-technical use 2 dimension was found to have a significant difference in terms of the classroom variable where teachers work (f2;972= 20.316; p <.05). when bonferroni correction was performed (p = .05 / 2 = .025), a significant difference was observed (p <.025). in the tukey analysis conducted to determine the source of the difference, it was determined that the average of the teachers working in basic education (x̄ = 4.22) and the average of the teachers working in lower secondary education (x̄ = 4.17) were higher than the average of the teachers working in upper secondary education (x̄ = 3.93). 44 in the anlamlı considering individual differences 91 dimension, a significant difference was found in terms of the school grade variable (f2;972=8.691; p<.05). when bonferroni correction was performed (p=.05/2=.025) it was observed that the difference was significant (p <.025). in the tukey analysis conducted to determine the source of the difference, the average of the teachers working in basic training (x̄ = 3.90) and the average of the teachers working in lower secondary education (x̄ = 3.88) were found to be higher than the average of the teachers working in upper secondary education (x̄ = 3.68). kruskal wallis h test was applied to determine whether there is any difference between us event design is in which the variances are not homogeneous and the practices of the teachers towards multicultural education in the classroom. the mann whitney u test was used for the analysis. the results of the analysis are presented in table 9. table 9. kruskal wallis h test analysis results in terms of the tier variable of the teachers in multicultural education classroom practices section n order average x2 sd p source of difference event design 1basic training 337 544.47 34.707 2 .000* 1,2>3 2lower secondary education (6-9 class) 320 499.09 3upper secondary school (high school) 318 417.00 total 975 overall average 1basic training 337 538.10 34.365 2 .000* 1,2>3 2lower secondary education (6-9 class) 320 508.77 3upper secondary school (high school) 318 414.01 total 975 *p<.025 according to the kruskal wallis h test results, = event design iştir dimension was found to be significantly different in terms of the teacher's variable (x2=34.707; p<.05/2). in order to determine the source of the difference, in the mann whitney u analysis, the average of the teachers working in the basic training (rank = 544.47) and the lower secondary education (sequence = 499.09) was higher than the rank average of the teachers working in the upper secondary level (order = 417.00 it was determined to be larger. a significant difference was found in terms of the classroom variable of the teachers (x 2=34.365; p<.05/2). in the mann whitney u analysis to determine the source of the difference, it was found that the average of the teachers who worked in the basic education (rank = 538.10) and lower secondary education (order average = 538.77) was higher than the rank average of the teachers working in the upper secondary level (order = 414.01 it was determined to be larger. 45 table 10. descriptive analysis of classroom applications of multicultural education of teachers in terms of branch variables and results of homogeneity test of variances scale branşlar n x̄ ss levene i̇statistiği f p* method-technical use 1-pre-school teaching 41 4.28 .54 .988 .439** 2-classroom teaching 289 4.21 .58 3-turkish teacher 87 4.25 .64 4-math teaching 89 3.94 .64 5-english teacher 101 4.14 .52 6-natural science teacher 139 3.96 .69 7-social science teacher 99 4.04 .71 8-others 130 4.03 .60 total 975 4.11 .63 event design 1-pre-school teaching 41 4.29 .60 .595 .760** 2-classroom teaching 289 4.22 .58 3-turkish teacher 87 4.21 .62 4-math teaching 89 3.96 .66 5-english teacher 101 3.99 .67 6-natural science teacher 139 3.98 .64 7-social science teacher 99 4.08 .63 8-others 130 4.00 .67 total 975 4.10 .63 considering individual differences 1-pre-school teaching 41 4.13 .59 .818 .572** 2-classroom teaching 289 3.87 .75 3-turkish teacher 87 3.89 .79 4-math teaching 89 3.67 .78 5-english teacher 101 3.73 .78 6-natural science teacher 139 3.78 .72 7-social science teacher 99 3.82 .71 8-others 130 3.80 .75 total 975 3.82 .75 overall average 1-pre-school teaching 41 4.23 .48 .853 .543** 2-classroom teaching 289 4.10 .51 3-turkish teacher 87 4.12 .61 4-math teaching 89 3.86 .61 5-english teacher 101 3.95 .55 6-natural science teacher 139 3.91 .57 7-social science teacher 99 3.98 .60 8-others 130 3.95 .57 total 975 4.01 .56 *p>.05 according to the results of the descriptive analysis in table 10, the highest mean score (x̄ = 4.23) was used for pre-school teachers while the lowest mean (x̄ = 3.86) was for the mathematics teachers. 46 table 11. the results of one-way variance analysis of the classroom applications of multicultural education of teachers in terms of branch variables scale squeare total sd squeare mean f p tukey method-technical use between groups 12.494 7 1.785 4.638 .000* 2,3>4,6 in-group 372.136 967 .385 total 384.631 974 event design between groups 12.431 7 1.776 4.474 .000* 2>4,5,6,8 in-group 383.799 967 .397 total 396.230 974 considering individual differences between groups 8.178 7 1.168 2.086 .043** fark yok in-group 541.691 967 .560 total 549.869 974 overall average between groups 9.705 7 1.386 4.418 .000* 1,2>4,6 in-group 303.464 967 .314 total 313.169 974 *p<.013; **p>.013 according to the results of table 11, method-technical use 7 (f7;967=4.638; p<.05), significant differences were determined in terms of “event design” (f7;967=4.474; p<.05) and teachers' overall mean scores of teaching practices on cultural differences (f7;967=4.418; p<.05). in the tukey analysis to determine the source of the difference, it was determined that the average of the teachers in the method-technical use dimension (x̄ = 4.21) was higher than the average of turkish teachers (x̄ = 4.25), mathematics (x̄ = 3.94) and science teachers (x̄ = 3.96). in the “event design” dimension, it was determined that the average of the teachers (x̄ = 4.22), the mathematics teachers (= 3.96), the english teachers (x̄ = 3.99), the science teachers (x̄ = 3.98) and the in “others” teachers were higher than the average teachers (x̄ = 4.00). in terms of overall average, it was determined that the average of preschool (x̄ = 4.23) and class teachers (x̄ = 4.10) was higher than the average of mathematics (x̄ = 3.86) and science teachers (x̄ = 3.91). discussion, conclusion and recommendations a total of 975 turkish, albanian and bosnian teachers from prizren, pristina, reçana, restelitsa and mamuşa provinces participated in this study. in-class practices scale l for the teaching of cultural differences was developed and applied to teachers in the context of this research. in order to determine the validity and reliability of the scale, firstly, expert opinion was given and linguistic equivalence was provided because it was prepared in albanian, bosnian and turkish. 490 teachers were pre-tested (pilot). the cronbach alpha coefficient was calculated to determine the reliability of the data. the cronbach alpha reliability analysis coefficient of the scale is .87. according to the results of the research, it was determined that teachers' practices for multicultural education were high in both general and sub-dimension averages. there is also homogeneity among teachers' opinions. in his study, banks (2013) stated that multicultural education is an approach that advocates that all individuals, regardless of gender, social status, language, religion, race and culture, benefit from equal educational opportunities in the school environment. in this context, in the multicultural education process, it is inevitable that teachers should create an effective learning environment that includes cultural differences for students who have different language, religion, ethnic groups and culture in the classroom (başbay et al., 2013). it is important for teachers to have high class practices for multicultural education and to have low diversity among teachers' practices, to be respectful and tolerant to different cultures and to ensure equality of opportunity. in her study, vassallo (2012) found that gender was not an effective variable in teaching ability. bulut and başbay (2015) reached the same conclusion. the results of the study partially support the researches in the literature. in the classroom practices of multicultural education, there is no difference in terms of the teachers' seniority in terms of scale and the meaning of the scale. there is no difference in the practices of teachers regarding multicultural education according to the seniority of teachers, and teachers having low and high seniority in the same environment can be explained with the information and experience sharing about the teaching-learning process to be applied for the multicultural education, the activities to be designed and the method-technique to be used. fox and gay (1995), teachers often do not share different cultures, experiences and cvs in multicultural classes, argued that the process of education and teaching may be a major obstacle. akkoyunlu (1995), in his study, stated that nowadays teacher roles have changed, and teachers return to the state that is not the teacher but to the students and their colleagues how they reach the information. 47 in the multicultural education practices of teachers, activity design and individual differences consideration “dimensions were significantly different in terms of native language variable. the fact that the teachers with turkish native language are lower in the activity design than in the teachers with albanian mother tongue shows that they need more education in this subject. according to kaya and aydın (2014), in order for teachers to be effective multicultural educators, they must first continue to develop, research and change themselves. ladson-billings (2000), in the context of multicultural education in order to be effective in the classroom to be a teacher in the individual differences of students, learning styles, taking into account the culture and at the same time, students can be trusted by providing confidence in them. in this context, researchers emphasized the importance of providing the knowledge and skills necessary to work with multicultural content and student communities with ethnic, cultural, social and racial diversity (banks, 2013; gay, 2002). on the other hand, it was determined that teachers with turkish and albanian native speakers took more attention to the teaching practices for dikkate taking individual differences into consideration than the teachers with bosnian mother tongue. the fact that teachers with bosnian native speakers are more likely to work in rural areas and have less experience because they meet students from a smaller number of different cultures may have an impact on this difference. heidari et al. (2012), in their studies, stated that they have an impact on the activities to be applied in the classroom environment by working in the existing institutions in cultural richness societies. it is seen that the variables of school level are a factor that influences teachers' classroom practices related to multicultural education. according to the results of the analysis, it was determined that the teachers working in basic education (1-5 grade) and the teachers working in lower secondary education (69 classes) were more in-class practices towards multicultural education and the teachers working in upper secondary education (high school) were higher than in-class practices. the differences in the practices of teachers towards multicultural education can be explained by the fact that teachers who work in basic education, and partly in lower secondary education, spend more time with their students, considering individual and learning differences, but also by observing cultural differences more. the religious, linguistic, sexual class and cultures of the teachers working at the primary level have the potential to affect the activities of multicultural education, method-technical knowledge, vocational seniority and classroom practices (brown, 2007; polat, 2009). in studies (banks, 2007; gay, 1994; neuharth-pritchett et al., 2001) will apply the program, the appropriate methods and techniques for multicultural education, selecting and diversifying tools and tools to create a learning environment and has measure learning teachers. according to the results of the study, it can be said that the branch variable is a factor affecting the classroom practices of multicultural education. according to the results of the analysis, the applications of preschool and class teachers towards multicultural education are higher than those of mathematics and science teachers. this difference can be explained by the effect of the fact that preschool and classroom teachers are graduates of education faculties. if teachers want to teach cultural differences and effectively, students with linguistic, religious, ethnic and cultural diversity need to understand how they learn (gay, 2014). studies conducted in this context (middleton, 2001; valentiin, 2006) showed that there are positive changes in multicultural education, positive and self-efficacy, and in-class activities of multicultural education in professional life. according to the results of this study, it is possible to prevent the pre-service teachers from teaching the cultural differences during the undergraduate period and to be partially affected by the disadvantages of the pre-service teachers in the multicultural education process due to lack of professional experience and lack of knowledge. the provision of in-service trainings for the teaching of cultural differences for turkish, albanian and bosnian-speaking teachers can lead to an increase in the quality of in-class practices of teachers for multicultural education. this study was conducted in accordance with the data obtained from turkish, albanian and bosnian teachers working in the provinces and districts of prizren, prishtinë / priština, reçane and restelitsa. at the same time, teachers from all over kosovo who have different ethnic backgrounds (serbian teachers working in the mitrovica region) will be able to provide a comprehensive perspective on multicultural education in kosovo. in-class activity levels of teachers about the teaching of cultural differences can be examined through observations and research can be done to reveal the different dimensions of multicultural education through qualitative data. references 1. akkoyunlu, b. 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(2012). am i culturally competent? a study on multicultural teaching competencies among school teachers in malta. the journal multiculturalism in education, 8. 39. yurdabakan, i̇. (2002). küreselleşme konusundaki yaklaşımlar ve eğitim. eğitim araştırmaları, 6, 6164. introduction 1. method 1.1. working groups 1.2. data collection tool 1.3. data analysis 1.4. findings discussion, conclusion and recommendations references 50 bicycle usage in the urban transportation: pristina example dr. sc. beni kizolli*, prof. asoc. seda hatipoglu** *ubt college, benikizolli@hotmail.com **gazi university, sedab@gazi.edu.tr article history: accepted 03 april 2019 available online 30 april 2019 keywords: urban traffic, transportation demand management, bike lane, pristina a b s t r a c t the aim of the research is to provide suggestions for increasing the use of bicycles, which are part of the modern transportation policies. the methodology in the research was developed according to the physical characteristics of the city center in pristi na and the new regulations of the pristina development plan. in this context, in the questionnaires, the approach, demand and application possibilities of the passengers against the other transportation systems (except private vehicles) were evaluated. the field research questions were asked to get the thoughts of public transport passengers about these issues. the responses of 782 passengers that are directly or indirectly related with bicycle usage. as a result of these recommendations, pristina will have two-way bicycle lanes with a length of 16 km to complete the cycling network. in this context, it was emphasized that the suggestions for the urban bicycle network in pristina were evaluated in order of priority. recommendations are given in accordance with the infrastructure of the route and it is expected that a regular transportation type will be provided to the urban transportation of pristina by carrying out the arrangements on a 16 m wide road between the two sidewalks (platforms). in the new regulations, a two-way 4 km bike lane is proposed in the central ring of pristina, as a result of the bicycle lanes that will form the bicycle network in pristina to implement the bicycle public transport integration strategy in the future. approximately 8.5 km two-way bicycle lane in central ring, 1.5 km two-way bicycle lane in the southwestern region and 2km bicycle lane in the southeastern region has been proposed for pristina. introduction in urban areas, urban settlements are mostly preferred due to the population increase in developing capitals, while urban transportation has a key role due to the diversity of functions in the city center. within the scope of daily necessities, urban transportation affects daily life and social order both materially and socially. within the borders of pristina municipality, transportation between the urban and rural areas is carried out by means of private vehicles and public transportation and in this context, private vehicles are preferred primarily. some sanctions of the government of kosovo have been effective in this regard, for example, due to the ease of importing second-hand vehicles from europe and the budget provided by the state border taxes of vehicle fuel imports, the increase in the use of special vehicles for political will does not cause a problem. within the framework of this situation, when the demands are answered, the supply is created simultaneously. for example, in 2002-2007, 163 road construction projects were realized and 12.6 million euros were invested. a different proof of this understanding is the investment of 22 million euros in 2010-2011 for road projects in pristina.and as a result, theusage of mailto:benikizolli@hotmail.com 51 privatevehicles are continuouslyincreasing. 300 thousand vehicles are being used in kosovo.as a result of the sanctions imposed by the current management approach, it is seen that different approaches are needed to produce new solutions.despite the fact that the urban traffic problems in the developed and developing countries of the world are solved within the framework of new understanding, problems such as road network issues and lack of parking in the city of pristina can only be solved by increasing the roads, interchanges and parking areas. furthermore, the temporary relief provided by the new roads and intersections in line with this planning leads to additional demands. therefore, in the framework of a strategic planning, the most efficient use of the existing road network should be ensured. the idea behind the tdm approach is to increase the diversity and efficiency of the transportation system. transportation demand management (tdm) is a general term used to increase the efficiency strategies of transportation systems by considering motor vehicles. if the tdm method is implemented efficiently, it will have effective benefits over traditional transport management systems. in this study, the application possibilities and benefits of cycling strategies will be examined by means of the transportation demand management strategies which are considered as new approaches to solve urban traffic problems. within this framework, bicycle usage improvements that can be used according to traffic infrastructure among the tdm strategies in the city of pristina have been evaluated.in the context of bicycle usage improvements, bicycle lanes are recommended in areas suitable for urban cycling in pristina. a two-way bicycle lane along the route has been proposed in the new regulation throughout pristina city center ring. in addition, bicycle lanes have been also proposed for the southwest and southeast of pristina.during these applications, it is expected that a regular type of transportation will be provided for urban transportation in pristina. in the process of bicycle usage improvements, traffic density will be reduced especially in neighborhoods and so the need for private parking in the urban center will also be reduced. the reason why the city of pristina was chosen as the study area is because as the capital of kosovo since the expansion of the settlements in the recent years, the majority of the young population and the use of private vehicles has an impact on air pollution and so there has been a need for a different transportation in terms of economy and health. the favorable conditions provided by topography and climate can play an important role in the widespread usage of bicycles. in the study, the urban transportation plan is presented with examples of the decisions to be taken regarding the bicycle transportation.the aim of the research is to provide suggestions for increasing the use of bicycles, which are part of the modern transportation policies. when examined carefully, although significant technical developments are seen in the brief history, the traditional approaches to the solution of the transportation problem appear to be the product of a medium policy: developing the transportation infrastructure to meet the demand for passenger traffic. the problem in the whole approach is the obstruction of traffic, which is one of the surface aspects of transportation.in these approaches, the aim is to increase the accessibility of vehicles on blocked roadsand not the people (elker, 1999). critical aspects of the traditional approaches to transportation can be grouped into three main groups: distorted efficiency understanding, lack of social content and indifference to environmental problems (kılınçaslan, elker andsutuciffe, 2012: 255). initially, these approaches to transportation supply generally improve traffic conditions; however, this leads to more widespread use of vehicles, resulting in new blockages.the new ways to overcome these new blockages and the temporary relief provided by the intersections create new additional demands and this creates additional capacity needs for urban area (kılınçaslan, elker andsutuciffe, 2012: 254). the traditional approach which is known as “increasing the supply by increasing the demand ”, not that it doesn’t solve the problems but on the contrary, it has been entered into a growing vicious circle, and therefore, it has been searched for a new approach (çelik, 1999). the main objective of tdm is to reduce the number of vehicles using the road network and to provide a wide range of mobility opportunities for those who wish to travel.the term tdm includes both alternatives to the use of automobile alone and a support strategy that makes it attractive to use (yüksel, 1998: 27) in the study, the complementary aspects of different types of transportation are explained by mentioning the place of bicycle transportation among other alternative transportation types.by increasing bicycle use, it is aimed to reduce infrastructure costs (condon and isaac, 2003) and to create healthy communities in habitable environments (brigham, 2002; corsi, 2002; kaplan and ulvi, 2005). in the case of short or medium-distance journeys, the use of bicycles in the city is encouraged and increased in order to reduce the vehicles and to offer an alternative. the use of bicycles comes into prominence in other transport systems, as a system that is necessary for the integrity of the society and enhances the social convergence between the people and human relations in general. the positive effects of bicycle use on human's physical (physical and physiological) and mental 52 (psychological) health has favorable impact in social relationships of daily life (i̇yinam andi̇yinam, 1999). as with automobile journeys, the cyclist can travel at any time without waiting for a timetable (without waiting for the departure or transit time of the vehicle, such as the bus, tram and service vehicles).the user can determine the route himself / herself, go to the point that wants to reach in his / her own way and make a direct journey as in the car.this flexible and non-waiting structure in the route and schedule of bicycle trips ensures that bike trips are fast, without delay and reliable (mert andöcalır, 2010). climate and weather conditions do not affect bicycle use altogether, but it leads to some changes. in extreme climatic conditions such as extreme cold, extreme heat, rain and snow, the use of bicycles becomes difficult;the comfort of the journey decreases and due to wet, ice-like reasons, the road surface becomes dangerous and security problem arises (alpkökin and elbeyli, 2012). the usage of bicycles considered as a different alternative requires less space compared to other types of transportation, therefore there is more efficient use of roads and parking areas.for example, in a 1 meter band,it can reach a capacity of 1000 people per hour (table 1). table 1. hourly capacity of separated bicycle strips bicycle strip with capacity (bicycle/hour) 1m 1000 2m 2000 3m 3000 source: bundesminister für verkehr, 1980, forschungsgesellschaft für stra βenwesen, 1984 in addition, cycling from the point of view can be considered as a more affordable type of transportation with the lowest cost in the purchase, use and maintenance of sales compared to other types of transportation. urban topography is another factor affecting bicycle use.in areas with high slope, people are less willing to choose bicycles. but with the developments in cycling technologies, the use of bicycles with gear, electric and light can be taken against these adversities. travel distance is another factor that affects bicycle transport. time and distance are important when making a choice between bicycles and other means of transportation. the average bicycle journey is 15-16 km / per hour. intervals when cycling is most intense are usually 20 to 30 minutes or5 to 8 km journeys. but, when traveling on longer distances, cycling option is mostly reduced. therefore, it can be said that the bicycle is a very convenient way of transport for short and medium-distance journeys (alpkökinand elbeyli, 2012). bicycle which does not need any fuel and engine does not have any negative effect on the environment; it is preferred as environmentally friendly transportation method with pedestrian access as it does not create noise and air pollution. as a result of physical fatigue, the bicycle, which is mostly used for short and medium-distance journeys, it can also serve for the journeys made for different purposes (öcalır, 2010). table 2. changes in selection of transportation types distance bicy cle (%) public transpor tation(%) pedestria n(%) automobile( %) other(%) 0-2 km 16,8 2,4 54,5 23,5 2,8 2-3 km 17,3 11,3 18,6 48,6 4,2 3-4 km 12,7 16,8 9,8 5,8 4,9 4-5 km 9,0 18,1 7,5 7,5 60,8 4,6 5 km above 3,2 16,4 1,0 71,8 7.3 source: kontıv82, 1984 bicycle networks are supported that physically identify or separate medium and long-term lanes that can be proposed to improve the bicycle usage. bicycle networks make a significant contribution to the widespread use of bicycles in the countries and cities where they are used. in european countries such as the netherlands, germany, england and sweden, bicycle networks are separated from vehicle traffic and the first pass are for bicycles. in contrast to short and broken cycling corridors in us cities, bicycle networks in european cities consist of uninterrupted urban and regional networks that integrate daily action centers (mert & öcalır, 2010). in addition to physical factors, there are social factors affecting bicycle use.in some societies, including our country, there is a negative perspective towards bicycle transportation, and the bicycle is placed in an underestimated position. it is considered as a mean preferred for children with low income and there is no esteem showed. there is also a negative view of women's cycling. bicycles are considered as a type of transportation by the 53 managers and bicycle arrangements are not taken into account in transportation planning. this negative perspective causes people not to prefer cycling. apart from all these general factors, personal factors such as bicycle user's age and health status also affect cycling (alpkökin & elbeyli, 2012). 1. materials and methods 1.1. material after the 1999 kosovo war, the population of pristina had a major migration and population change. the population structure by age and gender is of great importance for the economic and demographic development of the country. in accordance with the age group of 0-4 age and age group of 95, information is given about the population structure. the graphic shows that the 0-4 age group constitutes the majority of the population compared to other age groups. population distribution by gender is 50.7% male and 49.3% female (mmph, 2010: 21). additionally, the information about the population in pristina is given according to the three age groups (kp, 2013a: 31). figure 1. population of pristina by age groups source: kp, 2013a: 31 the law of spatial planning is not a defined format. the strategy plan for urban planning and developing have been drawn up since 2004-2020 and so the city of pristina has been formed under these charts.the strategy plan for urban development in pristina is not the same as the spatial planning law, it has only been the basis for the development of pristina, and so far, urban planning schemes have been designed on the basis of this study. regulatory plans in the urban area of pristina are at the stage of completion. so far 22 regulatory plans have been approved. the city of pristina is expanding in the south and east (figure 2). figure 2: regional city plan source: kp, 2013a: 73 in the aftermath of the 2000s, inter-city transportation was advanced, while irregular and insufficient investments were realized in the urban traffic infrastructure due to the budget and management approach. the urban roads in pristina are divided into different categories: intercity roads: • it provides inter-citytransportation through the city, • city roads: it provides transportation between urban and surrounding settlements, • urban roads: it provides urban transportation (figure 3.13.) (kp, 2013a: 96). according to the 2004-2020 strategic plans, a three-stage road ring is envisaged: • city center ring road • inner ring path covering cityborderline • outside ring road covering the borders of the municipality of pristina (figure 3.16.). “pristina urban development plan”, was realized after the decision of the municipal assembly of pristina and the preparation of the field surveys and development plan was realized with the cooperation of three different companies. in the development plan consisting of a total of five sections and 251 pages, where the urban traffic conditions were also evaluated. in the section of urban spatial development framework, information is given about the investments and corrections to be made by 2022, taking into account the current conditions and infrastructure conditions under the heading of urban traffic system where four stages were identified for the realization of these studies. within the framework of these stages, it was stated that which investments and corrections should be realized. first of all, it is stated that traffic should be redirected and it is foreseen that there will be one-way traffic flow especially in a 6 km city center road ring (figure 3). 54 figure 3. one-way traffic route foreseen in city center ring source: kp, 2013a: 152 with this new arrangement, the former two-way total fourlane road network is envisaged as a lane, in particular as a public transport lane, while the three lanes of the unidirectional flow are anticipated to the general vehicles. on the public transport lane, a tram system was proposed but because of the financial means the use of this lane by buses was pointed out as an alternative option (figure 3.18.). figure 4. physical road section of the one-way traffic road network foreseen in the city central road ring source: kp, 2013a, 154 there are two different types of traffic management in kosovo. while municipalities are responsible for urban traffic management and roads, ministry of transport and infrastructure is responsible for theinter-city traffic management and roads. therefore, urban regulations are designed from the municipal assemblies that comply with the central laws. each municipality is preparing its own regulation, requirements and policies. 1.2. methods the methodology in the research was developed according to the physical characteristics of the city center in pristina and the new regulations of the pristina development plan. in this context, in the questionnaires (figure 4, survey questions and forms of public transport passengers in pristina), the approach, demand and application possibilities of the passengers against the other transportation systems (except private vehicles) were evaluated. the field research questions were asked to get the thoughts of public transport passengers about these issues. the responses of 782 passengers that are directly or indirectly related with bicycle usage are as follows: the results of the question “frequency of participation between the age groups”:55.6% of passengers between 19-35 years old, 36.7% of passengers between 0-18 years old, 5.8% of passengers between 36-65 years old, 1.9% between 66-100 years old (table 3). table 3. frequency of participation between the age groups sort by highest frequency nr . age frequenc y percentage (%) 1 19-35 435 55.6 2 0-18 287 36.7 3 36-65 45 5.8 4 66-100 15 1.9 total 782 100 in line with these results, 782 public transport passengers are physically suitable for bicycle use, needing frequent transportation in terms of social aspects, and financially considering the use of bicycles more economically; which it constitutes 98% of the general population of the 0-18, 19-35 and 36-65 age groups and so this suggests that the potential for cycling may be quite high. the result of the question “evaluation of monthly family income distribution”: %56,6 of the passengers with 0 to 250 € income per month, %28,1 of the passengers with 251 to 500 € income per month, %10,1 of the passengers with 501 to 800 € income per month, %5,1 of the passengers with 801 to 1500 € income per month (table 4). table 4. evaluation of monthly family income distribution ranking by highest monthly income holder nr. family monthly income frequency percentage (%) 1 0-250 443 56.6 2 251-500 220 28.1 3 501-800 79 10.1 4 801-1.500 40 5.1 total 782 100 in line with these results, due to the fact that 84.7% of public transport passengers havea monthly income of 0 to 500 €, and 55 considering that cycling is more affordable than other transportation systems, it is safe to say that the use of bicycle is considered to be more advantageous. the results of the question “evaluation of preferences for the purpose of transportation”: it is seen that 88.6% of the passengers representing the majority are using the transportation forbusiness and education (table 5). table 5. evaluation of preferences for the purpose of transportation ranking of the highest preferences according to the purpose of transportation nr. transportation purpose frequency percentage (%) 1 education 353 45.1 2 business 247 31.6 3 education / business 94 12 4 none 49 6.3 5 social and health needs 19 2.4 6 education&social and healthneeds 7 0.9 7 education & business &social and health needs 6 0.8 8 business& social and health needs 4 0.5 9 social &healthneed and none 3 0.4 total 782 100 in line with these results, it is shown that students and workers outside the public transport have the potential to prefer cycling. the result of the question “why did you choose this type of transportation?”: 59.5% of passengers preferred for the economic reasons (table 6). table 6. “why did you choose this type of transportation?” highest ranking according to transportation purpose n r. transportation purpose freque ncy percentage (%) 1 more economical 465 59.5 2 fast 140 17.9 3 lack of parking 46 5.9 4 more economical&fast&parking fees 30 2.4 5 more economical & fast 26 3.3 6 more economical&lack of parking 25 3.2 7 parking fees 19 1.8 8 more economical&parking fees 14 0.1 9 lack of parking&parking fees 13 1.7 10 more economical & fast&lack of parking 2 0.3 11 fast&parking fees 1 0.1 12 more economical&fast&parking fees 1 3.8 total 782 100 in line with these results, public transport passengers prefer a more affordable way of transportation and the sub-qualification shows that the use of bicycles is an option. the results of the question “what are your preferences instead of public transport?”: 24.3% of the passengers declare that other than public transport, they do not prefer car or business services (table 7). table 7. “what are your preferences instead of public transport?” highest ranking according to transportation purpose nr . transportation purpose frequency percentage (%) 1 automobile 426 54.5 2 business service 160 20.5 3 none 190 24.3 4 automobile&business service 6 0.8 5 total 782 100 in line with this result, cycling can be preferred most likely as a different type of transportation other than public transport. as a result of the implementation of this method, it can be proved that the pristina development plan has the possibility to implement the main route which will form the bicycle network in the framework of the new regulation envisaged in the central ring. in addition, it is possible to apply the cycling lanes in the central ring and in the southwest and southeast settlements of the city, and within these strips, it is possible to apply a two-way bicycle network with a length of 16 km and a width of 1 m. 2. research findings the rate of bicycle usage in kosovo is much lower than in developed countries. in our country, bicycle is generally considered as a sport activity. the most important reasons for lack of bicycle demand in kosovo are lack of infrastructure and bicycle culture. the fact that municipalities do not have enough knowledge and experience about cycling are also very important 56 reasons. a different reason that affects the bicycle usage is the lack of safe travel conditions in traffic. there are no specific regulations or arrangements related with bicycle usage in the municipality of pristina. one of the cities that is suitable for bicycle usage in the kosovo topography, it is the capital of country, especially in the southwest and southeast of the city of pristina, where the new settlements have been expanded, and the infrastructure of the central regions arealso very suitable for cycling. at the same time, as a low-cost way of transportation, interest in cycling may increase as the population of pristina is composed of young people and the unemployment rate is known to be above 50%. another element that is different in terms of bicycle usage is the weather conditions. there are four seasons in kosovo during a year. so, cycling conditions are suitable in 8 months of the year. one pillar of the tdm strategy is to promote cycling. bicycle, which is considered as an important mode of transportation all over the world, should be promoted as a means of transportation in pristina city center as well. for this to happen, a healthy bicycle network should be built. pilot routes will be evaluated in different regions, considering the needs of the city's bicycle users and the city's characteristics. priority was given to the bicycle network in physical arrangements made in public transport arrangements. a bicycle lane has been proposed in both directions of the route, which is approximately 4 km long, on the central ring route (figure 5). there is also the possibility for the development of a central ring cycling network, followed by the conditions and feasibility for the construction of bicycle lanes in the southwestern and southeastern regions of the city of pristina. by evaluating all these opportunities, the citizens will be provided with a different type of transportation, which will be built first in the central ring, inner central ring and in the southwest and southeast regions of the city. the type of bicycle transport is a means that can be used by all young and old, female and male in the city of pristina. due to these characteristics, sanctions that encourage the use of it should be brought up by the local authorities. it should also be considered as a solution for air and noise pollution from pristina's urban transport. bicycle services for urban transport should be part of municipal duties in pristina. as soon as possible, the municipality should initiate a campaign relevant with non-governmental organizations. as the advantages show, bicycle will have an important position in the future world. in table 7, the problem-strategy-action plan of the municipality of pristina was proposed. table 7. suggestion: the problem strategy action plan of the municipality of pristina problem strategy action indicators no importance on bicycle in transportation supporting bicycle use as a type of urban transport it should be given priority to the bicycle usage plan in the scope of development plans. legal arrangements to be made development master plan, having an independent transportation master plan and have a cycling strip plan included priority should be given to bicycle routes in the urban development plan. city-wide cycling network creation increasing the total length of the urban bicycle paths (lane-km) special incentive sanctions for the use and distribution of various types of bicycles establishment of an infrastructure that will ensure the safer and advantageous movement of bicycles in urban traffic supporting the construction of separate bicycle paths increasing the total length of the urban bicycle paths (lane-km) the recommended cycling stripes during physical arrangements of the central ring are strips which can be distinguished only by bicycle users, in a color different from that of the normal road surface (ek33). 57 the urban cycling network in pristina will include four distinct regions: the central ring route, the inner central ring, the southwest and the southeast of the city.in these regions, the proposed bicycle lanes are shown on the routes that will be applied by the figures 5, 6,7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19. figure 5. recommended bicycle lanes within the central ring route figure 6. road section and position of bicycle lanes as a result of rearrangement of the central ring route figure 7. theinner central ring bicycle network figure 7.1 7.10 shows the routes and sections of the roads that form the inner central ring bicycle network. figure 7.1. road: boulevard dëshmorët e kombit (route and cross section) figure 7.2. road: xhorxh bush (route and road section) figure 7.3. road: bill clinton boulevard (route and road section) figure 7.4. road: lliyaz kodra (route and road section) figure 7.5. road: 28 nëntori (route and road section) figure 7.6. road: garibaldi (route and road section) 58 figure 7.7. road: luan haradinaj (route and road section) figure 7.8. road: kosta novakoviç robert doli figure 7.9. road: zahir pajaziti – nënë tereza boulevard (route and road section) figure 7.10. road: pristina university campus (route and road section) figure 8. bicycle route in the central southeastern region of pristina road: shefqet jakupi – rexhep krasniqi figure 9. bicycle route in the central southwestern region of pristina road: muharrem fejza – rruga b – agim ramadani figure 10. urban bicycle network in pristina with the generalization of the above mentioned situation, evaluations and suggestions offered for urban bicycle transportation in pristina, it is possible to reach the latest table on this issue in line with a swot analysis. by means of this analysis, it will be possible to make the bicycle a means of transportation by using the powerful sides of it, to determine the weaknesses and to correct them, to determine the opportunities and to evaluate these opportunities and to identifying the threats and thence the necessary measures should be taken into consideration in order to prevent the potential negative effects of the threats. opportunities 59 • the proposed cycling network along the center ring is consistent with the route • high number of young population • economically advantegeous • existing local government to support bicycle transport advantages • a large part of the urban topography in pristina allows the spread of the bicycle network • advantage of using bicycles for business, school and sports purposes during the short distance threats • reaction of private vehicle users • current bicycle use and culture weaknesses • lack of awareness of the public for bicycle as a means of transport • the lack of infrastructure for bicycle transportation • no importance given to bicycle policies • the hill side settlement in the eastern region of pristina in order to increase bicycle use, bicycle parks should be built at many points of the city and especiallyat public transportation stops, so that this type of transportation will be integrated with public transportation. in countries that have made progress in bicycle transport, there are transport facilities for public transport, thus facilitating integration between bicycle and public transport. the use of bicycles should be encouraged by similar practices to make it attractive, but the vehicles serving in the city of pristina do not have the opportunity to do so and this issue hasn’t been discussed.the location of this type of service will be closed by stops at public transport stops. with this strategy, the use of bicycles in the city of pristina may increase, and traffic congestion in the city center will be reduced. if arranged correctly, main street and street traffic flow will also be positively affected. table 8. pristina cycling network evaluation status evaluation comments traffic reduce 2 it is a cost-effective way to reduce vehicle transport, since conditions are appropriate in the southwest, southeast and central parts of the city of pristina. reduce of peak clock traffic 2 the choice of bicycles for passengers living in the southeast and southwest of the city will contribute to the reduction of urban traffic density. traveling by car shifts to alternative methods 3 the southwestern part of the city of pristina supports the public transport by bicycle, with passengers living in the southeast. increase in public transportation 3 the southwestern part of the city of pristina supports the public transport by bicycle, with passengers living in the southeast. increase in bicycle use 3 the southwestern part of the city of pristina supports the public transport by bicycle, with passengers living in the southeast. increase in bicycle use 3 the southwestern part of the city of pristina supports the public transport by bicycle, with passengers living in the southeast. conclusions and recommendations in the last 50 years, in many countries, every municipality carries out some projects on its own scale and on the basis of its possibilities, based on the discussions, but the traffic problems are still not solved, and only getting more and more complicated. various factors indirectly affect this situation. the main source of the problem can be conceded as a management approach, it is possible to grasp the essence of the problem and to make healthy diagnoses and to overcome the problems of urban traffic with the right policy approaches.in this study, tdm strategies, which are considered as new understanding for the solution of urban traffic problems, have been evaluated.priority has been given to cycling improvements over the existing infrastructure and facilities 60 through the pristina example. in the basis of the strategies we mentioned, priority has been given to principles such as using existing infrastructure facilities more efficiently, producing solutions without high cost investments in a sustainable manner and providing a fair transportation service to all segments of the society. suggestions are made in accordance with the infrastructure of the route and new regulations are shown with proposed drawings. this arrangement will take place on the 16 m wide road between the two pedestrian paths (platform). three lanes for special vehicles with a width of 3 m and two lanes for bicycles with a width of 1 m were proposed. bicycle lanes, which form the bicycle network in pristina, will give meaning to bicycle transport integration strategy. approximately 4 km of bicycle lanes have been proposed for the new two-way center ring. approximately 8.5 long bicycle lanes in the central ring of pristina have been proposed. a two-way cycling route of about 1.5 km was proposed to complement the pristina cycling network in the southwestern region of pristina. in the southeastern region of pristina, approximately 2 km two-way bicycle lane was proposed. as a result of these proposals there will be a two-way cycling network in pristina with a total length of 16 km. as a result, in accordance with the tdm approach, flexible but easily realized projects from irrevocable high budget investments, light physical corrections from operating investments operating understanding-legal mechanisms are preferred as solutions for this issue.within the framework of this understanding, short-term solutions come to the fore. urban bicycle network in pristina: recommendations should be evaluated in priority order of the following projects: • construciton of bicycle lanes, • extension of bicycle network, • making bicycle paths and necessary markings, • priority should be given to bicycle paths in settelement planning, • training of drivers and traffic policemen on the rights of cyclists, • arrangement of intersections suitable for cycling, • construction of bicycle parking areas, • slowing down the traffic flow rate • investments encouraged by the local government to promote bicycle use, • organizing educational campaigns in schools. references 1. alpkökin, p., elbeyli, ş. (2012). kentiçi ulaşımda bisikletin konumu ve şehirler i̇çin bisiklet ulaşımı planlaması: sakarya örneği, yüksek lisans tezi, i̇stanbul teknik üniversitesi, fen bilimleri enstitüsü, i̇stanbul. 2. bundesminister für verkehr (1980) forschungsgesellschaftfürstraβenwesen, 1984. 3. condon, pm; isaac, k. (2003) green municipal engineering for sustainable communities, proceedings of the institution of civil engineersmunicipal engineer, 156 (1) 3-10. 4. corsi, m. (2002) the child friendly cities initiative in italy, environment and urbanization, 14 (2)169-79. 5. çelik, f. (1999). geçmişte ülkemizde uygulanan yolculuk talep yönetimi yaklaşımları ve bu yaklaşımların kalıcılığına ilişkin alınması gereken önlemler. ii. ulaşım ve trafik kongresi sergisi, ankara. 6. elker, c. 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(1998). kentiçi ulaşımda talep yönetimi. yüksek lisans tezi, yıldız teknik üniversitesi, fen bilimleri enstitüsü, i̇stanbul. introduction 1. materials and methods 1.1. material 1.2. methods 2. research findings conclusions and recommendations references 43 maternal and child health services in the border area of indonesia-east timor-based on community empowerment aplonia pala, phd. c. endang larasati, phd. c. sri suwitri, phd. c. ngalimun ngalimun, phd. c. diponegoro university, faculty of social and political sciences, prodidap@gmail.com article history: accepted 20 april 2019 available online 28 may 2019 keywords: public health, north central timor regency, empowerment, community health health resources a b s t r a c t health care is a human right for communities who arranged mandatory organized by government mandate bases on constitution 1945. maternal health services include antenatal, childbirth services and parturition. while children's services are, include the ministries of the newborn, baby and toddlers. in north central timor regency (ttu) in the last five years maternal mortality (aki), infant mortality (akb) and mortality toddler (akaba) is very fluctuating. this illustrates that the district health degree requires revamping ttu regency thoroughly of all aspects related to it. the acceleration of the decline in the mortality rate of mothers, babies and toddlers will improve public health degrees in north central timor. this done through community empowerment approach in the field of maternal and child health in which the community does not placed as health development destinations but placed as subjects of health development to enhance the knowledge, attitudes and behavior as well as self-reliance community for healthy living. community empowerment in the health field can be encouraged through the health efforts resource of community (ukbm) such as the village health post, a postal village, the construction of an integrated, unified service and post maternity huts are scattered in the whole area villages of north central timor. through community empowerment in the health community field, getting involved is active in the health service because the public join the plan, monitor, evaluate and keep maternal and child health services according to applicable minimum service standard. it can also increase public awareness in the mindset and behave clean living and healthy because of the maternal and child health issues in north central timor regency not only just the responsibility of the department of health of north central timor, but also be the responsibility of all elements in society. therefore, it takes cooperation of crossprogram and cross-sector, i.e. government sectors, private sector, community and health care in this area so as able to increase the degree of maternal and child health in north central timor regency. introduction health care is a human right for every citizen who arranged into mandatory government organized by the appropriate mandate of constitution 1945 article 28 h subsection (1). it stated "everyone has the right to live prosperous and inner, resides and get good environment condition and healthy as well as has the right to obtain health services" and article 34 paragraph (3) "the state is responsible for the provision of health facilities and decent public service facilities". health care is every effort being held alone or together in an organization to maintain and promote health, 44 prevent and cure disease and restore the health of individuals, families, groups and or community (azrul, 2010). the purpose of national development in the health field in fact is to increase awareness, willingness and ability of healthy living for everyone in order to materialize the optimal degree of public health (departemen kesehatan republik indonesia, 2015). public health degrees could see, among others, of the mortality rate, the number of pain and nutritional status. death rate used is the maternal mortality (aki), infant mortality (akb) and toddler mortality (akaba). the higher of these mortality rates of mothers, infants and toddlers in this region indicates that the area of health degrees does not fullfil the expectations of countries. therefore, the government should continue to work better in order to suppress the decrease in maternal mortality, infant and toddler. north central timor regency (ttu) is a county located in the indonesia-timor leste border has a mortality rate of mothers, infants and toddlers are still fluctuating in the last five years (2013-2017) where the year 2017 in north central timor regency going 2 cases of maternal death or equivalent 39.50/100,000 live births. maternal mortality tends fluctuate that shows that maternal mortality has not well controlled. after soaring in 2012, maternal mortality gradually declines until 2014, but increased in 2015 and to decline again in 2016. maternal mortality in north central timor regency of 39.50/100,000 live births had already reached the target of its medium term development plan area i.e. 192.95 deaths per 100,000 live births. within the last three years, the case of exogenous infant mortality in north central timor regency has decreased significantly in 2013 where there were 101 cases of death of 5,124 live births being 61 cases of live birth amount 5,101. infant mortality in 2016 is 18 per 1,000 live births or 98 cases of death. therefore, in total, the number of infant deaths in 2017 is as many as 29 cases or 5.73 deaths/1,000 live births. toddler death rate in north central timor regency is decline within the last three years of which in the year 2013 as much as 23 cases (4.5 per 1,000 live births) and the year 2014 as many as 17 cases (3.32 per 1,000 live births). in addition in 2015 up again into 54 cases (10.59 per 1,000 live births) in 2016 down again to 28 cases (5 per 1,000 live births). the case of the death of the toddler and the mortality rate of toddlers (akaba) are per 1,000 live births. fluctuation of maternal mortality, infant and toddler in north central timor regency government requires continued effort to press and maternal mortality, infant and toddler. efforts have been made by north central timor regency government is improving the quality of health services for mothers and babies who reaffirmed in a regulatory region number 4 in 2012 on health of mothers, newborn babies, infants and toddlers ( infant mortality rates). although these efforts have done but up to now the mortality rate of mothers, babies and toddlers would still fluctuate. therefore, it is necessary to other efforts so that this problem can be resolved. the limited infrastructure consist of such as public transportation, a highway connecting the villages, districts and counties, means of communication and information, the resources of health care personnel, budget, facilities and health equipment, geographical conditions and topographic and quality of human resources. north central timor regency is a barrier factor for north central timor regency government in maternal and child health services are in the area of the border of the indonesiatimor leste. therefore the issue of maternal and child health services in east north central is an issue that is very complex so that the necessary cooperation of cross-program and crosscutting. because the maternal and child health services not only just the responsibility of the health services north central timor but also the responsibility of all the elements that are in the area, namely the government, the private sector and the community. bases on the number of restricting factors of maternal and child health care services in north central timor then these health services need to be adapted to the conditions of the area and residents of north central timor. this implemented by the empowerment approach the community. community empowerment is the way to foster and develop norms that make the community able to behave to live clean and healthy or process helps targets/beneficiaries. in order transformed into known/aware, willing and able to carry out the activities and programs of health through increased knowledge and skills followed by a change in behavior so that it can cope with the problems encountered. this strategy aimed at primary targets those who exposed to health problems or those of knowledge and behavior about altered (nugraha, 2009). thus, it concluded that with the empowerment of the community in the field of health are able to change the mindset of the people to clean and healthy life behaved. 45 conducting maternal and child health services are which include as follows: 1) health services antenatal care of pregnant or mothers. 2) maternal maternity medical services 3) health service maternal childbirth or post-delivery; 4) newborn health services; 5) toddler health services in north central timor regency has done minimum service standards (spm) of health care but have not managed to optimally because it still puts the community as objects. it is not as the subjects of health development so the knowledge, attitude and behavior as well as self-reliance community for healthy living is still not adequate. therefore community empowerment in the areas of health need to put as the subject of community health development so as to enhance the knowledge, attitudes, behavior and independence community to behave a life clean and healthy. 1. reserach method this research method using in depth interviews and the technique of purposive sample (buchari lapau, 2012). the informant was the patient pregnant women, maternity and childbirth clinics from napan and wini community health centre, and public hospitals area of kefamenanu. interviews also conducted with a midwife, nurse, doctor, medical specialists and other health care personnel including cadres of maternal and child health services as provider of health in the border region as well as the head of department of health north central timor regency and the head of the field of public health as health policy makers. the number of informants as many as 40 people comprising elements of the leadership organization of the health districts, sub-districts and villages. those elements of leadership become the informant consists of as follows: head of department of north central timor, head of public health agency of north central timor regency, director of the regional public hospital at kefamenanu. moreover, head of napan and wini community health centre, head space of peninatologi general hospital, regional general hospital of kefamenanu, head of space an obgyn at kefamenanu’s regional general hospital. to find out about maternal and child health services in north central timor regency informant also extracted from the patient is pregnant, birthing mother, mother childbirth and contraception acceptors. whereas in observing about community empowerment in maternal and child health services starts from an effort of community health ventures (ukbm). informants were taken from maternal and child health services known as (posyandu). supporting data done through observation in the field and study the documents on the website of research related to maternal and child health services across the wini and napan community health centre, as health centers that is located directly adjacent to timor leste, regional general hospital of kefamenanu and health service of north central timor regency. 2. result and discussion public health service in north central timor regency has implemented bases on standardize of public health minimal service applied. in addition, health services are also mothers, infants and toddlers have done according to applicable health service standardize. it seen from the maternal mortality (aki), infant mortality (akb) and childhood mortality (akaba) in the last five years in a north central timor slightly reduced though still fluctuates due to maternal mortality, infant and toddler it is one of the indicators to see the degree of public health in north central timor regency. maternal mortality is the death of a woman in while pregnant or within 42 days after the end of pregnancy, without considering the long gestation, and the location of all the causes that relate to or caused by pregnancy and its condition but not because the cause of the accident or incident (retnaningsih, misnaniarti, & ainy, 2012). while infant mortality is, the death that occurred between the times after the baby is born until the baby has not aged exactly 1 month (28 days). broadly speaking, from the side of the cause, infant mortality is comprised of two kinds, i.e. endogenous (neonatal) and exogenous (from 1 month up to 12 months ahead). there are three kinds of delay must be prevented so as to reduce the cases of maternal mortality are. 1) the delay in the level of family in recognizing the signs of danger and made the decision to get help; 2) delay in achieving health care facilities; 3) delay in healthcare facilities to get the help needed (kementerian kesehatan ri, 2013) . low level of education of the mother in north central timor regency and flow of decision-making must involve the family because the local culture a factor causes high mortality of pregnant women, maternity and childbirth. the delay in taking such decisions have an impact on health facilities reached late because the mileage to clinics and hospitals pretty much with the limited means of transportation and the impact of this is belatedly got the help is needed. this is because the limited health facilities and medical personnel in handling patient pregnant women, maternity and childbirth. in 2016 the infant mortality was above 28 days in north central timor regency high enough for example as much as 67 cases while babies aged 28 days as many as 132 case while cases of maternal deaths by as much as 7 cases. the high factors cause infant mortality in 2016 in north central timor regency are: 1) the low level of public awareness for checked myself into a health worker during pregnancy; 2) pregnant women who have been 46 missing sometimes origin of the trail since resettled or returned to areas of origin at the time of giving birth; 3) pregnant women who should be referred to the health facilities still have to wait for the permission of the family despite her condition is critical so that pregnant women who will give birth late tackled. to address this preventative efforts as party north central timor regency of health service in continue gives to community outreach through education to the villages. the efforts increased healthcare quality standards in north central timor regency in continue and continuously carried out by the health service at north central timor regency. one effort to improve health services to the community of north central timor regency is to accredit health infrastructure. from 26 clinics in north central timor regency, only eight clinics that already accredited such as five clinics graduated with basic level clinics, 3 graduated with associate level. currently the processes of accreditation of clinics in north central timor regency keep it running so that it becomes the target of health service north central timor that later in 2019 all clinics in north central timor already accredited. as for the basis of accreditation of clinics doing this for the fulfillment of the service standard of quality health care to the community as this will, affect the fulfillment of standard services namely services clinics, individual health businesses, health the community or the community and the administrative management service. with the accreditation of some clinics in north central timor regency of community health needs fulfilled in public health because when it accredited the clinic already means any clinics have two doctors so that medical services will better. in the long term development plan abbreviated as (rpjp) of health during the period 2015-2025 explained that challenges the future health development is community empowerment in the field of health in general is still putting the society as an object, not a as subjects of health development. in addition, a knowledge attitude and behavior as well as self-reliance community is still not adequate. community empowerment is in fact involve the community to be active in public service (to serve), active in the implementation of health advocacy (to advocate) and active in critiquing the implementation efforts of health (to watch). a model of community empowerment in health are categorized in 3 models of empowerment according to (rothman, erlich, & tropman, 2001) in (anggraeni diah kurnia; sulaeman, endang sutisna, 2013), namely: 1) model of planning social (social planning models): 2) models of social action (social action model) ; 3) model development environment (the locality development model). social planning model has the objective to plan, compose, create, serve and work on the problems of the society in finding solutions in a variety of wellness activities program. social action model has the purpose of carrying out the transformation (the fundamental changes) that is thorough in many areas of public life, organize the structure of power, sources of decisions making and customs the community. the locality development model is a process-oriented activities with the aim to provide active learning experience to society, pointed on the importance of consensus (agreement) and cooperation between citizens, build identity and pride as citizens of the community. it is as well as caring as a part of the community or in brief that the process of community empowerment in health can take optimal if public participation in set goals and implement the actions can be grown. the locality development model is a suitable model applied in the maternal and child health care services in north central timor regency because the model can bring change for people in life behave clean and healthy through participation active local communities with development potential and local assets (sociocultural values). program community empowerment in the health field has been done by the department of health in north central timor regency cooperate with probe indonesia vision (wvi) that implement the global partnership projects for social accountability (gpsa) since 2014. this program supported by the world bank through his voice and citizen-focused government accountability to improve basic services maternal and child health. north central timor regency is one of the areas of implementation of the project and there are 20 villages became the location of this program. through community empowerment approach in the field of the health related services changes the basic maternal and child health in north central timor regency occur starting from the community involvement in monitoring and assessing the facilities services birthing. these are such as health village centre known as (polindes), village health post known as (poskesdes), post construction (posbindu), associate (pustu) clinics and community health centers (puskesmas). the community empowerment approach able to strengthen health centers as the central role of the community and society as well as north central timor became know about standard medical services in each health facility. with understanding and insight which is owned by the public about the health service standard is certainly the community get involved in directing and escorting the existing health services so that health services are appropriate minimum service standard. it can be seen from the degree of health, decline, where maternal mortality cases in 2016 of maternal mortality reaches seven cases whereas in 2017 decreased to 2 cases of maternal deaths. 47 table 1. the health level in north central timor regency during the period 2013-2017 no health level indicators 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1 the number of infants death 101 122 61 98 80 2 the number of toddler death 23 17 54 28 8 3 the number of maternal death 14 7 11 7 2 4 infant mortality 19,7/1.000 23,81/1.000 11,96/1.000 18,69/1.000 15,80/1.000 5 mortality toddler 4,5/1000 3,32/1.000 10,15/1.000 5,34/1.000 1,58/1.0000 6 maternal mortality 273,22/100.000 136,64/100.000 215,64/100.000 133,49/100.000 39,50/100.000 source: health profile of ttu in 2017 data table one above shows that maternal mortality (aki), infant mortality (akb) and mortality toddler (akaba) in north central timor regency still fluctuate in the last 5 years (20132017). therefore need increased community empowerment approach through the efforts of health community resources (ukbm). where the community involved and actively participate in the activities of health in the village idle, poskesdes, posbindu, polindes, and community health centre abbreviated as posyandu of this maternity health unit society abbreviated as ukbm because of the community, by the people and for the people. through these community ukbm can plan, implement, monitor any existing health services in the community health service so that the agreed standards. as the county border with timor-leste, the health service of north central timor regency and society continues to strive to increase the degree of maternal and child health through community empowerment-based health resources community. there are currently 88 villages in standby, 16-post health village, 144 maternity village centre, 58 posts; the construction of integrated and integrated service of 498 posts. not all villages in east north central regency of health resource have a business community like a village, this health post standby and integrate coaching post since the formation of the agreement and in accordance with the needs of the community. maternity village center consist of evenly on each village across the north central timor regency because average people in these villages more use maternity village center as the nearest health services facilities. community health centre abbreviated as posyandu is a type of business health community with the most resource and there is not only the village but until neighboring area in accordance with the settlement. based on the quantity of health community resources effort which is in north central timor regency adequate in terms of quality while still not adequate due to the efforts of the community not yet sourced health provide positive benefits for the public in accessing information about health care services. a lot of effort of health community resources formed due to the interest element of government without considering the elements of community empowerment approach so that community who don't have a sense of belonging as a result the community apathy in the presence of community health resources efforts. the apathy communities because of the community have not yet understand about the existence of health community resources and the benefits gained from the effort of health community resources. therefore, being the duties and responsibilities of government, the private elements, the element in the health care community and the north central timor regency in providing knowledge and understanding to the public is the importance thing of health community resources around health service activity for this community. integrated service post in north central timor regency amounted to 498 areas of community health centre known as posyandu, active as many as 463 posyandu or 92.97% and there are evenly distributed on the settlement are still not functioning to its full potential. most people have understood the role of posyandu in kia's service but there are also some people still do not understand the benefits of posyandu as community health resources. integrated service post in north central timor regency community is seen as the only place of the activities of 48 the mothers become pregnant, nursing mothers, and infants and toddlers are done routinely every month to weigh the baby and vaccine or immunization only. many mothers who do not follow the activities in integrated service post after her son finished getting full immunization of the motherhouse once it started dropping off her child mingier to the integrated service post. integrated service posts servicing target is infants less than one year, toddlers ages 1-5 years old, pregnant women, nursing mothers, mother childbirth and women of fertile age/age pairs lush (wahid iqbal mubarak: 2012). community health centre activities include: 1) maternal and child health; 2) family planning; 3) immunization; 4) improved nutrition; 5) combat diarrhea; 6) basic sanitation; 7 essential drug supply). community empowerment approach in the health field implemented through activities at community health centre known as posyandu so that people can change the mindset and behavior in increasing clean and healthy life patterns. north central timor regency has 59,886 households, the number of which is monitored by the health services and clinics in north central timor regency as much or as much 51,107 85.3% households, the number of households with clean and healthy lifestyles known as (pbhs) is still very low i.e. 17,520 households or as much as 34.3%. this data shows that the public are still not aware of ttu patterns and behavior of living clean and healthy because of household air-clean living and healthy behavior just revolved around 34.3%. therefore community empowerment needs to be enhanced continuously through the efforts of community resources such as health alert village of health post, a postal village, the construction of an integrated, unified services and post maternity village community have an understanding of the importance of living behavior patterns as well as clean and healthy. need the cooperation of cross-sector and cross-program in north central timor regency in health services in east north central public health issue because it is not only just the responsibility of the ttu health service but also the responsibility of all the elements related such as the government sector, the private sector and the community. conclusion and suggestion 1) maternal mortality, infant and toddler in north central timor regency are still fluctuating in the last five years (2013-2017). due to the low level of public awareness for checked myself into a health worker during pregnancy, pregnant women are already origin. sometimes the lost footsteps since resettled or returned to areas of origin at the time of childbirth, pregnant women who should be referred to the health facilities still have to wait for the permission of the family despite her condition is critical so that pregnant women who will be giving birth late tackled. 2) the limited infrastructure resources of the health workforce (doctor and specialist doctors, midwives, nurses and other health care personnel), budget, facilities and health equipment, geographic and topographic conditions and the quality of human resources becoming a barrier to maternal and child health care services in north central timor regency. 3) the society still placed as an object, rather than as subjects of health development. 4) knowledge, attitude and behavior as well as selfreliance community for healthy living is still not adequate. 5) the village health post, a postal village, the construction of an integrated, unified services and post maternity huts of the village as a business of health community resources yet underutilized by the public in accessing health services. 6) integrated service post only used once a month and is limited to the weighing weight baby and immunization for pregnant women, babies and toddlers. this research also consists of various suggestions as follows: 1. health service of north central timor regency do need guidance about the maternal and child health continuity, integrated and sustainable in villages throughout north central timor regency. 2. north central timor regency government needs to increase the quality and quantity of infrastructure, medical and non-medical, health facilities and tools, increased health budget from the budget of income and expenditure and an increase in human resources quality of north central timor community. 3. communities should placed as an object health development with a community empowerment approach. 4. it still needed to improve the community quality of health resources such as the village health post, a postal village, the construction of an integrated, unified services and post maternity village through community empowerment approach so that community health resources can provide positive benefits in the services especially in villages. 5. integrated service post should be utilized in appropriate health care functions, namely: 1) maternal and child health; 2) family planning; 3) immunization; 4) improved nutrition; 5) combat diarrhea; 6) basic sanitation; 7) essential drug supply. 6. it needs increased cooperation of cross-sector and cross-program in north central timor regency in maternal and child health services. 49 references 1. anggraeni diah kurnia; sulaeman, endang sutisna, l. p. m. (2013). hubungan antara kecemasan dengan frekuensi bangkitan pada penderita epilepsi parsial di rsud dr. moewardi. nexus kedokteran klinik. 2. azrul, a. (2010). pengantar administrasi kesehatan. jakarta: binarupa aksara. 3. buchari lapau. (2012). desain dalam penelitian kesehatan. in metode penelitian kesehatan: metode ilmiah penulisan skripsi, tesis, dan disertasi. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trsl.2012.09.001 4. departemen kesehatan republik indonesia. (2015). profil kesehatan indonesia 2014. kementerian kesehatan republik indonesia. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173 5. kementerian kesehatan ri. (2013). pedoman penyelenggaraan puskesmas mampu poned. kementerian kesehatan ri. 6. nugraha, a. (2009). pengembangan masyarakat pembangunan melalui pendampingan sosial dalam konsep pemberdayaan di bidang ekonomi. jurnal ekonomi modernisasi. 7. retnaningsih, e., misnaniarti, & ainy, a. (2012). kajian kelayakan badan layanan umum dan alternatif bentuk penyelenggaraan jamsoskes sumatera selatan semesta sesuai undang-undang sistem jaminan sosial nasional. jurnal manajemen pelayanan kesehatan. 8. rothman, j., erlich, j. ., & tropman, j. . (2001). strategies of community intervention. journal of community practice. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trsl.2012.09.001 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173 11 political constellation and decision-making – case study: two leaders in the negotiation process for the normalization of relations between serbia and kosovo dr. agon halabaku * dr. nuredin lutfiu * mr. valbona fisheku – halabaku ** *ubt college, faculty of law, halabakuagon@hotmail.com **gymnasium “kongresi i manastirit”, philosophy, english language, albanahalabaku@hotmail.com article history: accepted 22 april 2019 available online 18 may 2019 keywords: negotiations, decision – making, political constellation, transparency, political consensus, unity group. a b s t r a c t in representative democracy, citizens with free vote, mainly political parties, elect their representatives to legislate, supervise, protect and make decisions that are in their interest. given this, political leaders express the thoughts, wishes and will of the voters and act as their representatives when defending interest and making decisions that are related to the quality and the fate of their lives. supporting their decisions can often be decisive for success and failure in their political career. thus, in this paper work, it will be given views on how their decision-making is influenced by: leadership position and support from the coming party, constellation of political forces in parliament, achievement of a common platform and political consensus among political actors, constitutional norms, and broad civic support. the methodology used will be in harmony with the purpose of the study. here will be an analysis of the behavior and actions of the two leaders within the constellation built in their country. in the course of this, this study will be oriented to the analysis of the political circumstances prevailing in the respective countries, the position of leadership within the party, the position and constitutional functions that favor one or the other, the distribution of political forces in the respective parliaments and many other moments. for this purpose, the interviews of the two leaders, the statements of the opposition leaders in the respective countries, the statements of prominent politicians, the other political and legal documents will be analyzed with which they will provide sufficient evidence on how they can be influenced in the process of the decision-making process during the serbia-kosovo normalization negotiations. introduction after the end of the cold war, the number of wars between sovereign states has decreased, but the same cannot be said of wars within states, the number of which has increased and today they are the largest number of armed conflicts in the world. nowadays, for international peace and security, the threat to peace and world security are sub state conflicts. these are armed conflicts within the borders of the state where certain ethnic groups under the umbrella of the principle of self-determination aim at secession and the creation of their state. mailto:halabakuagon@hotmail.com 12 from the start of 1990 to the end of 1999 there were 118 armed conflicts worldwide, involving 80 states and two para-state regions and resulting in the death of approximately six million people (smith, 2004). holst has defined conflict as “a situation involving incompatible collective objectives and the possibility of armed conflict between two or more governments” (holst, 1995). unlike holst, goldstein has defined the conflict with the following words: “conflict may be defined as a difference in preferred outcomes in a bargaining situation” (joshua, 1994). from the abovementioned definitions, we note that conflicts are the result of disagreement and opposition of the parties on certain issues, whereas the negotiations imply the process of approximating the opposite positions by favoring the solution by peaceful means. in international relations, the attempt to resolve conflicts peacefully represents one of the most acceptable settlement processes between the parties. during this process, the parties are oriented towards finding a solution by creating a relaxing climate followed by the reduction of tensions by favoring the solution by peaceful means. this assertion is contained in article 33 of the charter of the united nations, which states that "any dispute that endangers international peace and security would at first be tried to be resolved through negotiations, arbitration, judicial remedy and several other such means" (un charter, art, 33). nowadays, negotiations are the simplest and most up-to-date way of solving post-conflict situations. according to pillutla, negotiations are “the process through which two or more parties who are in conflict over outcomes attempt to reach an agreement. it is a constructive, positive alternative to haggling or arguing; it is aimed at building an agreement rather than winning a battle” (pillutla, 2004). meanwhile, former us secretary of state, henry kissinger defined the negotiation as "a process of combining conflicting positions in a common position under a decision rule of unanimity" (kissinger, 1969). odel et al, conceptualize negotiation “as a process in which actors take steps to agree on an outcome, and every actor seeks to make that outcome as good as possible from their own perspective” (maldonato, 2010). from the above definitions of negotiating by different authors, we conclude that negotiating involves the efforts of contradictory parties that have substantial differences between them to reach final solutions acceptable to both parties. aristotle in his work nicomachean ethics‘defines the decision making process as a deliberate appetition, “which is a logical and psychological sequence that starts with desire, continues with violation and concludes with the act of choice” (maldonato, 2010). seckler-hudson, emphasize that “decision making in a government is a plural activity. one individual may pronounce the decision, but may contribute to the process of reaching the decision. it is part of the political system" (laxmikanth, 2011). roth and mullen the decision-making process considers as “a technique that is designed to help arrive at the best possible choice that satisfies that higher order values and goals that have been selected” (byron, myllen, 2002). during the negotiation process, leaders are in a situation where they need to make difficult decisions. not always their decisions are welcome and sometimes even outdated. “there are on occasion leaders whose rationality may be questioned, but there are far fewer such individuals than those who are commonly labeled irrational. hence, when seeking to explain foreign policy decisions, it is more fruitful to start with the assumption that the leaders who made these puzzling decisions were rational human beings trying their best to make “good” foreign policy decisions for their countries” (tetlock,2004). of course, when we carefully analyze the above statement, we will get an answer (though perhaps incomplete) of what motivates these leaders, what is the impact of the circumstances and which factors are determinants that have driven them to take these decisions. 13 during the negotiating process, the main goal of decision-making is to get the best out of this process, to reduce the losses to a minimum, and finally, the most important issue to solve the problem. often decision-making means choosing the right options but, “skeptics of good judgment in foreign policy decision making argue that the world is very complex and that, as a result, decisions often have many unintended consequences” (tetlock,1992). according to jensen, "the impact of personality on decisionmaking is perhaps the most contentious (jensen, 1982). the role of personality in foreign policy encompasses cognitive processes, background, personal characteristics, motives, and beliefs, and assumes that decision making is the result of individual ‘human agency’; that is, that ultimately, it is individuals who make decisions, not states” (jensen, 1982). “foreign policy decision making (fpdm) refers to the choices individuals, groups, and coalitions make that affect a nation’s actions on the international stage. foreign policy decisions are typically characterized by high stakes, enormous uncertainty, and substantial risk” (jonantan, renshon, 20008). from the definitions made above, we can conclude that decisionmaking is a process of choosing the best option, among the possible solutions taking into accounts the costs and consequences. so decision-making is a very important moment for every politician's political career and for the country's destiny. according to lin, decision-making is a common behavior that is present in economic, political life and is a form of practice that often occurs in management activities whose ultimate purpose is to attain a specific goal (lin, 2016). therefore, the solution for which leaders are determined must be endorsed by individuals, institutions, political parties, even the citizens themselves, so when they are determined for a solution, they certainly consider this fact. it can be said that from political psychology researchers, a general consensus has been reached that politicians' decisionmaking relies on their personality as "their individual pattern of integration of processes of perception, memory, judgment, goalseeking, and emotional expression and regulation " (winter, 2009), but what this paper seeks to offer is that the political constellation in which they operate is also of great importance as it has a decisive significance in the behavior and decision-making of political leaders during the negotiations. the political decision-making process has to do with decisions on important political issues or social issues that affect both internally and internationally, so the decision-making subjects that are leaders of a political party, state or government leaders, or even military leaders, should have a strong support when making their own decisions. leadership, studies of its role and importance in negotiations are numerous and theories have been raised. our goal in this seminar paper is to show that the negotiation process is very complex, does not depend solely on the attitudes and behavior of the leader, but they are influenced by both; domestic and international circumstances and factors. in his work “the eighteenth brumaire of louis bonaparte”, marx wrote, “men make their own history, but they do not make it as they please; they do not make it under self-selected circumstances, but under circumstances existing already, given and transmitted from the past” (marx, 1852). meanwhile, spencer argued, “[we] must admit that the genesis of a great man depends on the long series of complex influences which has produced the race in which he appears and the social state into which that race has slowly grown... before he can remake his society, his society must make him”(herbert, spencer, 1986). during the negotiations, putnam points out that the leaders, “[at] the national level, domestic groups pursue their interests by pressuring the government to adopt favorable policies, and politicians seek power by constructing coalitions among those groups. at the international level, national governments seek to maximize their own ability to satisfy domestic pressures, while minimizing the adverse consequences of foreign developments”(putnam, 1984). the purpose of this paper work is to show that in the serbiakosovo negotiation process, the behavior and actions of the two leaders are influenced by the political constellation built in their countries. as such, this study will be oriented to the analysis of the political circumstances that reign in the respective countries, the position of leadership within the party, the position and 14 constitutional functions that favor one or the other, the distribution of political forces in respective parliaments and many other moments. with the sole purpose of contributing to filling the gap in knowledge about the influence of political constellation in leadership behavior and decision making, i expect this paper to provide sufficient evidence of how both leaders are influenced in their decision-making process during the process normalization of serbia-kosovo relations. the subject of the study is two presidents; serbian president aleksandar vučić and kosovo president, hashim thaçi. the study will analyze their path of promotion in the political career, the position of the two leaders they had in their parties before being elected president, the role and constitutional functions, the report of the political forces in the perspective parliaments, and the broad civic support. it will also analyze the political statements and interviews of party leaders and state institutions, relevant to the topic. in this paper work, with the notion of political constellation, we understand the political circumstances in which the two leaders act during the negotiation process for normalization of serbiakosovo relations, the political power of the leaders within the party, which they have the main support, the support of political forces in parliament, support from citizens, as well as the constitutional function and norms that influence the process of political negotiation and final decision-making. acting under these circumstances, they must make decisions that respond to their claims, arguments, proposals, and expectations, in order to reach a final and legally binding agreement on the parties. also, achieving a domestic political consensus is necessary considering the many difficulties faced by both leaders during bilateral negotiations. the importance of this process, for both sides, highlights the need for broad co-operation within the local political spectrum, co-operation between political actors, interest groups and citizens, for the creation of a common political platform that will overcome the partial differences and harmonize positions on a negotiated political agreement. with the serbia-kosovo relations normalization agreement, this paper implies an agreement that is viable, sustainable and that does not create instability in both countries, but also in the region. through this legal agreement, binding on the parties, serbia would accept kosovo's international subjectivity, would not prevent it in the integration processes, would not hinder kosovo's membership in international institutions and mechanisms, and would pave the way for membership in the eu, while the serbian minority in kosovo, through the association of serb majority municipalities, will be enabled to represent the collective interests of ethnic serbs, in particular in the fields of education, health, urban and rural planning and economy. 1. internal party support for the leader of course, one of the most important moments, during the political career of the leaders, is the taking and enforcement of decisions. when they make their own decisions "they do so in different ways, such as seeking followers' thoughts and making decisions together" (yukl, 2010). the political decision-making of the leader is largely influenced by the role and support within the political party. much more, that a party is dominated by its leadership, towards other members, its decisions become more acceptable. the political decisionmaking of the leader is largely influenced by the role and support within the political party. how much is voted and the more a party is dominated by its leadership, towards other members, its decisions become more acceptable. the democratic party of kosovo is a political party formed after the end of the war in 1999 by kla leaders, most of whom until then were activists and leaders of the people's movement of kosovo. from the foundation until the resignation of him, hashim thaçi was in charge of it. after resigning from the post of president, kadri veseli, a close associate of thaçi, was led by pdk after the election of president of kosovo. table 1. number of votes of pdk and its leader thaçi year nr. of voters pdk votes % votes seats thaçi’s votes 2004 699519 119 112 28,85 30 2007 628630 196 207 34,3 37 105378 2010 698751 224 339 32,11 34 160850 2014 734055 222 181 30,39 37 166422 2017 727986 245 627 33.74 23 source: central election commission of kosovo 15 from the analysis of these statistics, we can see that hashim thaçi was an indisputable leader in pdk and his political career had a constant up until his election as president of kosovo. what is apparent to pdk is that in the last elections it entered a large preelection coalition with the alliance for the future of kosovo and the initiative for kosovo with the sole aim of getting out in the elections. so there was a coalition of war parties with the sole aim of gaining power. this proved to be successful for the coalition, but not for pdk. from these elections she won only 23 seats in parliament, which could be a little support for president thaçi's decision-making. even more difficult is the fact that within this brisk coalition there are many differences and disagreements. table 2. number of srs votes year nr. of voters srs votes % votes seats 2008 4 141 176 1 219 436 453 29,36 78 2012 3 739 317 180 558 4.61 0 2014 3 592 375 1 736 920 48.35 158 2016 3 667 915 1 823 147 48.25 131 source: elections for the national people's assembly of the national assembly of serbia table 3. number of votes for nikolić and tadić year candidate proposer nr. of votes % votes january 2008 t. nikolić srs 1 646 172 39,99 b. tadić ds 1 681 528 53,24 source: elections for the national people's assembly of the national assembly of serbia table 4. votes of serbian presidents until vucic is elected president of serbia february 2008 t. nikolić srs 2 197 155 47 9 48,81 b. tadić ds 2.304.467 50,31 51.19 may 06 2012 t. nikolić sns 979 216 25,05 b.tadić ds 989 454 25,31 may 20 2012 t. nikolić sns 1 552 063 49,54 b. tadić ds 1 481 952 47,31 april 2017 a. vučić coalition sns... 2 012 788 55,08 sasa jankovic citizens' group for serbia without strain 597 728 16,36 source: elections for the national people's assembly of the national assembly of serbia for change, aleksandar vučić was not the leader of the party. he entered the serbian radical party (srs) in 1993 and after the election he was a member of the national assembly. in 1995 he was elected secretary general of the srs. in march 1998, vučić was appointed minister of information in the government of mirko marjanović (narod koji ima najkraće pamćenje na svetu http://www.prekoramena.com/t.item.459/vučić-o-cenzurimedija.html). following the dismissal of tomislav nikolić from the serbian radical party, on september 12, 2008, vučić, one of the most popular figures among srs supporters, resigned from radical party on 14 september 2008. vučić briefly served as minister of defense and first deputy prime minister from july 2012 to august 2013, when he stepped down from his position as defense minister in a cabinet reshuffle. although the prime minister, ivica dačić, held formal power as head-of-government, many analysts thought that vučić had the most influence in government as head of the largest party in the ruling coalition and parliament. before his tenure as his country's president vučić served as prime minister of serbia in two terms from 2014-2016 and from 2016 to 2017, as well as the deputy prime minister from 2012 to 2014. 2. political consensus and the establishment of unity for talks political consensus among the parties plays an important role in decision-making of leaders in the negotiation process. it plays an extremely important role in the quality of decision-making of presidents, especially in countries with parliamentary democracy such as serbia and kosovo. in a post-conflict society and a lack of democracy environment, they can be crucial to political stability as "the parties are objects of civic loyalty, voter mobilizers, and key actors in democratic politics"(montero, http://www.prekoramena.com/t.item.459/vučić-o-cenzuri-medija.html http://www.prekoramena.com/t.item.459/vučić-o-cenzuri-medija.html 16 rashmond, 200). they represent different segments of society and their interests. for the parties and citizens of both states, this is the first time that negotiations on vital issues are negotiated in this format. also, parties are a key element in decision-making, as any agreement should be ratified in the respective parliaments, so without their vote in parliament, the agreement would have no value. to achieve progress in negotiations, the constituency between political parties can be very useful. under these conditions, consensus is indispensable to the fact that actors within political parties are the same people who fight each other for political power. certainly, such support within the party is necessary for the leader when making important decisions for the country and signing international agreements when it is known that they are the most common and acceptable form of finding a solution after each dispute, conflict or war. negotiations are laborious and lengthy processes in which the participating parties seek to produce a more favorable outcome, namely, making a decision and signing an agreement that should be fully acceptable to the community to which it is intended. one of the main problems in the negotiation process is that the expectations from the conclusion of these negotiations for the main actors within the community are different. so, leaders, participants in the negotiations, think not only of what they are going to do in a negotiation but also of the likelihood that such an agreement will be accepted by the community and respected in the future. an unacceptable community agreement will certainly not be accepted, and in this case, it will not be ratified by the kosovo parliament or will not go to a referendum in serbia. moreover, it can cause political problems in the career of the leader. in order to amputate the dissatisfaction and eventual concerns that may arise as a result of decision-making, leaders in the negotiation process try to involve as many institutional, political and social actors as possible, that the decision is welcomed and gained support. involvement of a greater number of political and social actors in the negotiation and decisionmaking process can be understood as their assessment by the political leader and as part of decision-making. creating a political platform, from the respective assemblies, where would lay down principles, negotiating leaders, issues to be negotiated, and defining red lines for which to negotiate and for what no, would be a relief in decision-making for two leaders. some of the political parties in kosovo and serbia persistently refuse to discuss issues that they consider to be internal, a stance that the development of negotiations for normalization of serbiakosovo relations makes it even harder for leaders in the talks. these negotiations, in one of the largest opposition parties in kosovo, ‘vetevendosje’, are a betrayal of the country. since the beginning they were considered technical, but turned out to be political, and very sensitive issues are being discussed, dealing with the status of kosovo and its territory. president thaçi's frequent recent public appearances, where he is revealing some of his confusing, unstable, improvised and uncertain ideas, have stirred confusion, dissatisfaction and tension in public opinion and the political scene. this confusion, this instability, this improvisation is a clear and complete expression that thaçi is unprepared for decision-making, and there is no clear idea and strategy for completing these negotiations. at this moment, thaçi is alone, without constitutional basis and without institutional, political and public support, national and international (bashkurti, 2018). given this data, it is imperative to create a political platform with inter-party cooperation and the creation of a unity group. this would enable representation of all political parties and interest groups, and consensus could be reached more easily on difficult issues. having been in such a situation since the opposition categorically opposes the talks to be chaired by president hashim thaçi, and knowing that a comprehensive kosovo-serbia agreement is a condition for the two countries to integrate into the eu, he has given such a proposal, but have not found support for political actors and other interest groups. in support of this idea, it was proposed to hold an extraordinary session by the kosovo parliament, proposed by the government, to discuss the negotiating team that will participate in the dialogue with serbia in brussels. failures came about because of the lack of quorum for holding this session. efforts to continue the session failed several more times. on the other hand, an extraordinary session was called for by the opposition, which required the adoption of a resolution that would be forbidden to president hashim thaçi to take part in the dialogue with serbia, which also failed to be held. the refusal to negotiate the establishment of this group was justified by the fact that thaçi has continued the talks independently without the approval of the kosovo parliament. in these talks, he has no clear idea of what should be negotiated with this deal. in his frequent public appearances, he is becoming confused, unstable, improvised and uncertain, which means that he has no doctrine or strategy before himself. once it declares 'border correction', another time 'border change', continuing with 'territorial exchange', times 'exception of kosovo division', sometimes 'joining the presevo valley with kosovo'. this confusion, this instability, has raised dissatisfaction with public opinion and the kosovar political spectrum. 17 the unity group, in mutual co-operation with the president, would create an agenda; where through conferences, declarations, negotiating tables, etc., would clarify and make the political platform acceptable to the interest groups, political parties and the public opinion, which the parliament would vote later. regarding the clarity of the final settlement with kosovo, it seems that it lacks president vučić. in his statements, he says, "i will do my best, but it is a long road full of thorns and problems ahead" (serbia’svučić says long road ahead in talks with kosovo https://www.euractiv.com/section/enlargement/news/serbiasvučić-says-long-road-ahead-in-talks-with-kosovo/) since in his plan for the final solution there are many unknowns, for the public and political opinion as well as for itself. he stresses that a solution must be found and an agreement reached. during these days, he had mentioned the possibility of an agreement in which a land swap would be possible. serbia would be enabled to take the northern part of kosovo, which is predominantly populated by serbs. in return, belgrade would hand over southern municipalities mostly populated by ethnic albanians in kosovo, an idea which later did not stand in its vocabulary and in media spaces. in favor of idea of unity, the government of the republic of serbia has adopted a decision to create a working group for the development of a strategic document for the development of the public information system in the republic of serbia. in support of serbia-kosovo negotiations and in support of president vučić, the serbian government has stated that it will soon choose a working group that will be responsible for serbian president aleksandar vučić's logistical support during the kosovo's internal dialogue. while support for serbian president vučić is not lacking, the same cannot be said of kosovo's president thaçi. the extraordinary session of the kosovo parliament, summoned by the ruling parties, in support of president thaçi and aimed at ratifying the negotiating team proposed by the kosovo government failed twice. a day later, after some attempts to make the necessary quorum, the session called by opposition parties that attempted to ban the president to talk about kosovo's borders was also fired by a resolution failed. such sensitive situations in the kosovo parliament, where the parties in the coalition are not giving the support to president thaçi for these talks, put him in a more unfavorable position compared to the serbian president vučić and have a profound influence on his decision-making. 3. the lack of transparency in addition, in the talks on normalization of serbia-kosovo relations, as from political parties, interest groups and public opinion, the most frequent remarks were for lack of transparency. kosovo and serbia have started talks on normalizing relations between them since 2011. initially, mediated by the european union, these talks began as talks on technical issues, and are now continuing in another format, beyond technical issues. “transparency includes making it clear who is taking the decisions, what the measures are, who is gaining from them, and who is paying for them. this is contrasted with opaque policy measures, where it is hard to discover who takes the decisions, what they are, and who gains and who loses” (hood, 2006). nowadays transparency is understood as a concept that involves the process of accountability, impartiality and the rule of law. by christopher hood, the concept of transparency is defined "broadest doctrine of openness" or "... the doctrine that the general conduct of executive government should be predictable and operate according to published (and as far as possible nondiscretionary) rules rather than arbitrarily" (hood, 2006). both presidents, such as thaçi and vučić, point out that they are in the final stages of the dialogue, which is aimed at completing this process by a legally binding agreement on both sides by which a final solution would be reached and reconciliation would be made between the two states, emphasized remains the lack of transparency made these talks. "the lack of transparency, the failure to publish the treaties, the different treatment the parties have made to the agreements, calling them as a consensus, sometimes as a conclusion, the constructive ambiguity as a concept for the accommodation of the parties, their non-signing or not their ratification in the assembly, has made the process unclear and has left the parties discretion in interpreting in the first place and their unwillingness to implement them" (http://kdikosova.org/aktivitetet/sondazhi-i-kdi-kuvendi-te-fuqizohetmarreveshjet-e-dialogut-te-zbatohen/). the same situation is happening with the information of public opinion and political parties in serbia. such a non-transparent process, not only to citizens, political parties but also to the respective assemblies, questions the legitimacy of the parties in the talks and makes it difficult to accept such an agreement. "the process itself is not transparent, which raises a question about its legitimacy" (serbia not transparent over kosovo deals, report 18 says, http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/brusselsagreement-implementation-slow-and-not-transparent-reportsays/1589/77). 4. constitutional framework the position of the two presidents in the negotiating process is closely related to the constitutional legal basis and the functions of the presidents established under these constitutions. both countries, like serbia, as well as kosovo, are the parliamentary republic. despite the similarities that exist in the exercise of presidential functions, to the two presidents. the constitutional statuses of the presidents of the two countries vary. the president of serbia is directly elected by the people. as such, he is a direct representative of the sovereign as well as the serbian parliament. the president of serbia, as a representative of the sovereign, has a broader and stronger legitimacy of serbia's representation in international relations as well. though, like in any such political system, the principle of 'check and balance' forces even the president of serbia to find joint decision-making with the serbian parliament, where all the international negotiations negotiated and signed by the serbian president are ultimately ratified (bashkurti, 2018). meanwhile, the president of kosovo is elected by parliament, "by two-thirds (2/3) of the votes of all deputies of the assembly" and "if no candidate receives a two-thirds majority (2/3) in the first two ballots, is the third ballot between the two candidates who have received the highest number of votes in the second ballot and the candidate who receives the majority of the votes of all deputies " (constitution of the republic of kosovo), is elected president of kosovo. that's what happened. such a president is not a direct representative of the people, so the sovereignty of kosovo lies in the kosovo parliament. this makes kosovo a parliamentary republic and the powers of the president of kosovo, limited to the international representation of kosovo. making foreign policy and decision-making in the republic of kosovo are inter-institutional and depend on the parliament and the foreign policy committee, the government and the ministry of foreign affairs, the president and the constitutional court. all of these in their entirety are included in the policy-making and decision-making of kosovo's foreign policy. so the president of kosovo or anyone else, who would sign an international agreement, in this case with serbia, should take into account all the aforementioned institutions. certainly, an agreement that would not be welcomed by these institutions would not be ratified in parliament, it would be a matter for the constitutional court of kosovo and would put kosovo into a deep political crisis and in particular would have a negative for the fate of president thaçi himself. conclusion the purpose of this paper was to explain the impact of political constellation on the decision-making of leaders, participants in serbia-kosovo relations normalization talks, presidents vučić and thaçi. in an attempt to better reflect influencing factors, numerous studies have been conducted on the decision-making and leadership process, the position of two leaders in their political parties and career advancement, the relationship between political parties and their representatives has been analyzed are their supporters, analyzed their institutional and constitutional position, and the support they can enjoy in the respective parliaments. decision-making as a process, which itself includes a range of actions and activities that identify the problem, the ways of solving it, and the consequences that may result from the solution. the political decision-making process is about making decisions on important political issues that have implications both domestically and internationally. finding in such situations, political decision-makers must have a strong support when making their own decisions. political decision-making is not just a definition for a better solution than many other alternatives, but is also influenced by many factors related to the political constellation in which leaders find and carry out their activities. it is a dynamic political process regarding the taking and enforcement of major decisions regarding the fate of the two states. the solution is not just for them and does not depend solely on their will; it is crucial to nations, political parties, interest groups and as such includes many aspects. based on the arguments provided above, we may conclude that; in these talks, the position of serbian president vučić is more favorable than that of kosovo's president, thaçi. for president thaçi, political support, from the coming party and ruling coalition is different from what was at the beginning of his rise to political career. decision-making in kosovo's foreign policy is done by a range of institutions as; the parliament, the foreign policy committee, the government and the ministry of foreign affairs, from the constitutional court, which is also involved in the matter, and the president is elected by the parliament of kosovo. by contrast, the political support that vučić enjoys in serbia is great; he had a rise in the political career that is now in the zenith, his support from the political subject http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/brussels-agreement-implementation-slow-and-not-transparent-report-says/1589/77 http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/brussels-agreement-implementation-slow-and-not-transparent-report-says/1589/77 http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/brussels-agreement-implementation-slow-and-not-transparent-report-says/1589/77 19 from where he comes is not lacking, also the support of the government and the parliament is complete, and the greatest support can come from the people, when it is known that he has become president of direct elections. all these arguments point out that the position of the two leaders in these negotiations varies. but that does not mean that; negotiators in the negotiating strategy should not compile their negotiating form, create a unity group or any other group in support of their negotiations, and consider this whole set of policy-making and decision-making institutions at the time of signing an agreement. without considering these factors, their agreement would be unacceptable, illegitimate and impracticable. as such, instead of generating improvement of inter-neighborly relations across the balkans and beyond, it could put both countries in the internal political crisis with consequences beyond their borders. decision-making is a very important process, both for its object, as well as for the fate itself of the leader. in this case, the most important thing for the two leaders at this moment is their ability to create a supportive climate from key actors in the political and social life of the country. references 1. andric, g. 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(2010), leadership in organizations, prenticehall. 32 internalization of value system in mineral materials management policies instead of metal and rocks in merauke district edoardus e. maturbongs* sri suwitri* kismartini kismartini* hartuti purnaweni* *diponegoro university, public administration doctoral program, faculty of social and political sciences, prodap@gmail.com article history: accepted 12 april 2019 available online 18 may 2019 keywords: value system sasi environment condition policy mining activity a b s t r a c t public policy public comes from the existing problems in the community, so that policy objectives realized. value systems as part of people's lives need to get places in the policy process, among others related to environmental management policies. as long as it is not metal minerals mining and rock in merauke district, papua province, the mining generally leads to environmental damage, necessitating noteworthy local wisdom values as a value system in order to prevent damage to a sustainable environment. this research aims to analyze the value system of the local communities of marind area can be internalised into the policy management of mineral ingredients instead of metal and rocks in merauke district. research methods are using qualitative approach. data collected through interviews, documentation and further analyzed using observation and data analysis components from milles, huberman and saldaña. the results showed that one of the value systems in society of marind area such as sasi i.e. prohibition of entering a closed area in the customs, have sanctions for those who break them decisively, so internalization of sasi as a value system culture in environmental protection needs implemented. it is particularly in the order of mineral material management policies instead of metal and rocks in merauke district. introduction (kementrian lingkungan hidup republik indonesia 1997) the legislation of indonesia republic number 32 in 2009 on the protection and management of the environment chapter i general provisions article 1 (9) stated that the natural resources are the elements of the environment that consists of the biological resources and the non-biodiversity of the overall form of the ecosystem unity. one of the objects of natural resources became a source of life fulfilment in papua is a land. on one side of the ground is inherited from ancestors and should be kept well, the other side of the ground is the place to make a living by farming and others, so don't be surprised if the recognition and respect of papua community to the ground is high. in the context of the local community in papua, the erroneous belief that the mountain, land, trees, animals and natural surroundings should preserved because it has a relationship with the local community. as delivered by (muntaza 2013) that the symbol of the land of the most intense and evenly across the entire range of sub-ethnic malind-anim is association ground as mama, mom, or mama's womb. (samkakai 2002) stated that the veneration of malind-anim natural environment and all of its contents is respect for the mother land and all default species of plant life, animals, inanimate objects, objects of culture, and natural phenomena. trust and respect for the land are something common, like in ghana as in research (awuah-nyamekye and sarfo-mensah 2012) stated that mentions that the indigenous ghanaians view land and its resources the u.s. divine gift to the social group or communal property. which the livings held in 33 trust for their ancestors and for the future generation (asiama 2015; omari et al. 1990). that view suggests that communities in papua have local wisdom practices in environmental management, which is a description of a system of values in public life in papua. own value system according to (suwitri 2014) one of which is the value of culture. one area that is still holding the cultural value system in the management of the environment is the community commonly called marind or also with malind-anim residing in the southern part of papua province, in merauke district. figure 1. administrative map of merauke district the opinion that the ground is something that should respected and high esteem lately has begun to shift, as evidenced by the existence of communities group that made the customary rights of the land owners as a source of daily living necessity with the way dredged sand and soil is sold as belanced. balanced soil and sand mining which positively impact the community's economic life turned out for bringing negative impact of environmental damage in the form of abrasion, damage to roads, destruction of public facilities and settlement on the coast, the loss of the trees, the occurrence of the intrusion as well as other impacts. law enforcement efforts have made through the news and rebuke through print and electronic media, as well as the apparatus down directly into the field, but often this mining incident happens again. the local government of merauke district never made policy bring the sand from out of the area using boats. this policy is surely a positive impact because buying and selling sand to development necessity and others in merauke district everything centered on materials prepared by government, other than of course reduce the mining process that executed by the community. mining in merauke district during mining of community where it mined only objects include sand and soil balanced classified as mineral materials instead of metal and rock. mining also still performed at locations that are customary within the community because there has not been a special area of the mining area. the study by rissamasu et al (2011:58) in merauke district mentioned that there have been no special area regulations of government about mining and nonmetallic minerals and rocks so technically there are no binding rules or prohibit the community to mine. on the development of government, policy in the form of merauke district regent issued a regulation number 14 in 2011 about the management of mineral mining ventures instead of metal and rock, but this policy is not fully capable of preventing the practice of mining without permission practices conducted by the community. in addition the presence of (pemerintah republik indonesia 2014) about local governance indirectly make existing mining policy in areas not be used, for all matters relating to the affairs of the government of the realm energy and mineral resources, was transferred to the provincial government and also the central government. consequently, the government district/city no longer had authority in the matter of the mineral resources management in its region, one of them namely mineral materials management instead of metal and rock. mining activity is certainly contrary to the values of local culture that has already inherited hereditary, so it said that this activity indirectly damages the order of the local community values in terms of respect against the ground. in order to do the protection and preservation of the environment then that prevention efforts can be done by utilizing the value system by making use of indigeneous knowledge, where the life of a community group apply system provides a value that its influence on the community development and affect the sustainability of the community. in his studies, (vadigi 2017) analyzed that the possibility of integration of indigenous knowledge systems with modern scientific systems, which he believed, has a great potenties to strengthen socio-ecological resilience of the society through the development of sustainable environmental management strategies. (suwitri 2014) mentioned that the value system is the relation and some sort of values, norms and objectives that have established that are present in the community. this system of values repeatedly performed by the community so that it has become a habit not written, by customs remained and stayed in their lives and are recognized as binding rules. one of the known value system and applies widely in society is local wisdom. (affandy and wulandari 2012) mentioned that through local wisdom is actually a community can participate in 34 the policies issued by the government for the development of the local area, in addition to local wisdom also to protect resources the power of nature and local culture so as not to fade or lose the time of extinction. indeed, the environmental wisdom still maintained by groups of people in many locations in the world is as a safeguard to the preservation of the environment (mojo, hadi, and purnaweni 2017). one of the cultural value systems of marind’s society retained and preserved is sasi. (widya, hikmat, and kartono 2015) mentioned that sasi as a form of prohibition, warnings or delay taking operations or the utilization of natural resources in a particular location until a mutually agreed deadline. people in many areas are in the eastern region of indonesia, especially in papua, maluku and still hold fast to the concept of sasi as customary law in regulating the life of the community. marind in popular culture, respect and recognition the sasi values still very strong due to the indigenous tradition is sasi, which existed from the first, and until now, the ritual still applied. sasi has various forms and purposes of its use, is essentially banned unequivocally throughout the activities performed approximately the place of disasi. if any members of the public, who intentionally violates sasi, believed that those who violated would have problems, such as pain or can even cause death. (awuah-nyamekye and sarfo-mensah 2015) in their study mentioned that the same things that where chiefs and their elders would face severe retribution from ancestral spirits and numerous spirits (of the local gods). believed to be the real owners of the land and other natural resources, if they did not distribute land fairly (boakye-boaten et al. 2017; knapp and frazer 2010; mensah et al 2004). looking how powerful system of sasi in public confidence, then surely this could be a force for policy makers to formulate policies with local wisdom of sasi to internalize in particular policies management of mineral ingredients instead of metal and rock. internalization according to (rufaida 2017) was a teaching against comprehension, doctrine, or the value so that it is the confidence and awareness of the truth of a doctrine or values that are embodied in the attitude and behaviour. internalization of value system was intended to strengthen the policy values that are embedded in the life society as stated by (wiendijarti 2008) stated that internalization occurs when people receive the influence because the recommended behavior according to the value. the function value, according to (ali et al. 2013) was as catalyst (stimulus) and delimiter (limitation) of human actions. sasi as the local wisdom is part of cultural system values can be the basis for policy formulation especially governing the community life that still hold fast to tradition in a region. hence, the purpose of this research is to describe and analyze the value system that internalized into the policy management of mineral ingredients instead of metal and rocks in merauke district. 1. research method this reseaarch applies qualitative approach implemented in merauke district, especially in neighborhoods of marind community. phenomenon and research dimensions include mineral material management policies instead of metal and rocks as well as the internalization of value systems. data collected through observation, interview and documentation and further results were analyzed using component analysis from (ridder et al. 2014). the informant selected by using the technique of key informants, including representatives of regional, indigenous, indigenous institutions, ngos and artists of marind. 2. result and discussion 2.1. policy management of mineral materials instead of metals and rocks in indonesia's policy governing the environment, issues in (of indonesia 1997) on the protection and management of the environment. this policy provides considerable room for the government to firmly and sensibly set up and manage the environment for the common interest, including policies related to mining. in merauke district, has not been a policy that regulates in detail regarding the limitations of location-specific mining area, prohibitions or penalties for those who commit offences against the management of mineral materials instead of metal and rock. the government never issued a policy of merauke district in the form regulation of mer auke’s regent (juita 2016) on managing mineral mining ventures instead of metal and rock, but not in detail contained the necessary points to prevent the existence of mining activities without permission. this reinforced again with the recent withdrawal of the mining authority policy of the local government, which it is surely to create a policy that made previously by local governments no longer valid. currently affairs energy and mineral resources has been transferred to the provincial level and also the central level as set forth in (pemerintah republik indonesia 2014) about local governance. where there are sections that govern the division of governmental affairs concurrent between the central government and provinces as well as distrcit/city on the government affairs division cc. this areas such as energy and 35 mineral resources has been clearly set up the authority of the central government authority-as well as the area in the field of energy and mineral resources, which the county government/cities no longer have any authority on the management of energy and mineral resources, including one mining minerals instead of metal and rock. everything to do with permissions management and so forth transferred to the provincial government. this policy certainly impacted is extensive; the real one is a matter of the mining supervisory activities on the ground especially if seen from a province area. according to (micky, purnaweni, and kismartini 2017), this new local government policy already had implications to the environment, with the emergence of illegal mining which causes damage to the environment as one of the examples. this issue certainly should be a shared concern of policy makers in particular by formulating policies that should carefully look at the conditions in the field. on the other hand (of indonesia 1997) on the protection and management of the living environment on chapter ix of duties and authorities of the government and law (uu 2004) mentioned, among others. that in order for the protection and management of the environment, the government of district/city on duty and authorized placing some stuff among other things established by district/city level policy, developing and implementing environmental instruments. implement policies concerning the existence of community recognition procedures customary law, local wisdom, and the rights of the community law related to the protection and management of the environment at the district/city level, providing education, training, coaching, and awards, and do environmental law enforcement live at the district/city level. being an interesting to be analyzed when there is a policy inconsistency, which a policy precisely contrary to other policies. the policy governing of the environment management provides an opportunity for the government of district/city to draw up a policy to maintain environmental sustainability, while on the other hand the policy regarding mining of the mineral resources are not authorisation for the government of district/city. in fact, mining practices undertaken by most of the community is certainly the impact of environmental damage if continually executed. indeed, in the article 63 clause (3) of act no. 32 of the year 2009 on the protection and management of the environment not mentioned specifically that the environment related to mining. however, directly the impact of mining is the occurrence of environmental damage let alone it done in the territories that are not supposed to do the mining. departing from this certainly should brought to the attention of the government most notably in constructing policy that is able to answer the problems that occurred, and does not shrink the role of government in district/city conduct of the management and protection their environment. 3. value system that could internalized in a policy a. cultural value developments in the world today cannot deny that culture is a partial history of who travel the world civilization history. culture became the starting point of how human beings can interact with each other and become a guide for human behavior patterns of order in their life. (prof. dr. koentjaraningrat 2007) stated that a cultural value system consists of conceptions, which lived in the minds of most people, about things they should deem very valuable in life. culture tends to bring the effect thus makes people become more towards perfection in terms of manners, polite, courteous, friendly and others. its size is if people have cultured a human should then be said to have come close to perfection. because culture is a value system that has existed hereditary since ancient times in the history of human development even before the modern religion embraced a human moment. (zakari, poku, and owusu-ansah 2013) cited that as a system of knowledge, traditional knowledge is characteristically verbal and just passed on from one generation to others in the context of community living and activities (kabuga and sarpong 1991; mkabela 2002). further, (saras dhiksawan et al. 2018) said that traditional values existed before government and religion, so that the true cultural values must instead become the irreplaceable value in human life in the process. regardless of the existence of the modernization and acculturation, culture remains the eastern customs that are still uphold high and held by people in various places in the world. in african cultures, richness can be found such as in the community ceremonies and rituals, namely, story-telling, proverbs, folktales, recitation, demonstration, sport, epic, poetry, reasoning, riddles, praise, songs, word games, puzzles, tongue-twisters,dance, music (ngara 2016). indonesia's diversity of cultural values can seen from the art of the dance area, a traditional ceremony, the songs of the region, to a variety of local wisdom order that still adheres to strong among this nation and become a system of values that cannot separated from the development progress. it is either globally for the nation and state are as well as locally in the local areas. however, it should recognize that the rapid development of science and technology is slowly starting to get rid of the role of culture in community life. this phenomenon occurs in almost all parts of the earth, is no exception in the region of indonesia. although the cultural value system is not entirely changed or shifted but acknowledged that, sometimes the custom culture thus lost its usefulness because of internal influence. 36 in the medium term of regional development plan (rpjmd) in merauke in 2016-2021 chapter iv, namely the analysis of strategic issues pertaining to regional development problems in particular areas of cultural affairs mentioned that. (a) have not been optimal excavation of the cultural and artistic potential of merauke to support the promotion of the regional tourism sector; (b) customs and artistry of a very unique area despite being known to the outside world, but still not the existence of the container construction and promotion are organized and integrated to the development of culture. (c) the lack of coaching to young generation about ethics and culture based on the area in the formation of personality and ethics in social life; (d) it has not optimalized the role of the chief and council of the indigenous government as partners in development because of a lack of public confidence towards the government. in addition, the lack of recognition of the role of the customary rights is indigenous peoples and institutions. some of these factors can cause a loss of cultural identity in the midst of development. because of it then the value system that has been running cultural and community life set the pattern for this will biased or even totally missing in the process of local community life. in order for the system of cultural values and all aspects contained there in the form of local wisdom or the other can be preserved then it should be done efforts to keep the cultural value of these non-existant by all elements of good government, the public, private, or other components. each component needs to be together keep the consistency of the cultural values of the nation with the government as a spearhead in the conduct of such efforts, as delivered (saras dhiksawan et al. 2018) that the government undertake construction, empowerment and strengthening of the indigenous. thus if all components are either from the government, indigenous institutions, the public, private, and others working in the respective order to maintain sustainability of cultural values then the optimism that the cultural values which form the basis founding of this nation can survive and become a wall to the development and modernization. b. sasi as a value system value the term local wisdom directly linked with the cultural value system, meaning local wisdom became a part inseparable from the cultural norms of the community. local wisdom influenced the pattern of life of society in terms of norms of life such as rules, prohibitions, restrictions, and others who directly set in the balance, continuity, and so forth. (zakari, poku, and owusuansah 2013) recalled that, in the african worldview there is a strong orientation to collective values and harmony rooted in a collective sense of responsibility, which constitute as a 'collective ethic' (kabuga and sarpong 1991; mkabela 2002; sumardi, sarong, and nasir 2014). as a value system then the local wisdom should given space to affiliate with life system that exists today. one of the local wisdom possessed by marind community in merauke district is sasi or better known by locals as sal or due or sar or cal or nggu which according to regulation of local government in merauke number 5 in 2013 about the natural resource management community-based indigenous law malind-anim. an activity carried out by indigenous ritual to a particular clan or clan combined on a specific area closed or banned from taking its natural results or accessed in a given period. in general sasi is divided into two parts namely: 1) land sasi: common ground to cover areas that are in mainland such as the closing of the village, close the land dispute, or closing the natural resources that should not be taken as the coconut tree, or certain animals. 2) sea sasi: used to cover areas of the ocean so expect animal breeding will occur in the sea like fish and so on up to the specified time. custom figure of marind named augustine kanki balagaize says about the purpose of sasi: "sasi was to develop natural resources whether it is animals such as deer, pigs, kangaroos and cassowary including also results in the hamlet of sago village in all sasi in the forest, banned let the beast much, let the place was full of natural resources new we open again". sasi as a form of protection of nature also delivered by chairman of one agency (lma) indigenous malind "anim ha" in merauke district name albert moyuend that: "sasi was actually if i may say a modern language i please borrow a word that general normalization, normalization because of stuff that we already take less versatile, we'll have to restore again to the perfection of its good nature of the land, animals and all kinds of he will be back to normal ". according to sasi who gives the sense that the primary function of sasi is maintaining nature and the surrounding environment sustainability, in addition to being used for activities relating to local customs. the function of sasi also expressed by (kaya, hutabarat, and bambang 2016) mentioned that one of the roles of sasi is to maintain the security of natural resources including the division of natural resources. the form of sasi in general is using special symbols. (sangadji 2013) indicated that the installation of sasi symbolized by bello embeded tool in the form of a piece of wood, and coconut-leaf wrapped on wooden rods, used as a symbol or a sign of the presence implementation of sasi. it also almost the same as the 37 installation of sasi in merauke marked by mounting of coconut leaf or reeds on a piece of wood embeded. as a sign that the region should not be bypassed or enter, as plugged it in front of the office building, health service, which occupies the merauke district is still a source of dispute between the indigenous communities by the government (see picture 1). figure 1. sasi in front of merauke health office source: primary data, 2015 the installation of these symbols directly provide guidance for local people in order to comply with the provisions that exist when sasi installed, the same thing also happened in the community in the village of tha pong, thailand, the villagers applied strategies to conserve the forest. for example, they used the symbolic relationship between the ancestor spirit (puta) and this power, along with the buddhist image of the trees bound in yellow robes, as a social and cultural mechanism to regulate and protect their forest (kaso et al. 2018). installation of sasi is done according to agreement together with the time limits specified, could be one or two years depending of those mounting of sasi. marind isayas yanggel artists ndiken mention that: "there is no deadline, a deal alone, wants to make five, yes five years". sasi closed through the customary rituals performed by indigenous customary rights and with the agreement of a specific time, it could be a month or a year depending on what became the object of sasi and its problem. one phenomenon that often occurs in of the excuting of sasi used to cover the territory of or against a ground, which is still being dispute in its use. for example, there has been no release in custom or full payment has not been made to the the community's customary rights owners for the use of the land by the third parties such as land of airports, seaports, land office government land, or the land where schooling. sasi in the local wisdom is still held by the community in the context of the marind community around their daily life, for example, when doing the protection of natural resources have been diminished or when doing activities related to death and others. these views provide a conclusion that sasi is local wisdom that serves to keep the balance of nature, and that the role of sasi became noteworthy by the strength of local communities. on the eighth mission of merauke district stated into rpjmd of merauke district during the period 2016-2021 is strengthened cultural identity and local wisdom. the purpose of the mission to eight this is realize the potential of the local culture as a strategic development support resources area of the border with the target recognizes and protects the community's customary law as a reinforcement of cultural identity and local wisdom. the indicator product is the preparation and determination of local regulations on recognition and protection of the community's customary law in merauke district. the potential of local wisdom is certainly interesting to assessed and appointed as part of the regulatory area. in the context of the protection of customary law then it is surely customary law itself that should optimized so that it becomes the leading guard in order to protect the local community itself. in this context, sasi as the local wisdom should be its own bargaining power of customary law and for positive law by the government. in recommending, sasi expected to become a new model in the protection against potential natural resources in merauke district in the near future. c. sasi law values customary law has differences with positive law that is definite and written. customary law in practice tend to be unwritten and yet believed in the social life of the community. although the culture law is not written explicitly but tend to be more feared because in practice would cause a lasting effect hereditary. in almost all areas with indigenous communities that still recognized in it, have the customary law that binds and believed to be part of the local wisdom implementation, as applicable in africa in which community and harmony are deeply embedded in cultural values (owusu-ansah and mji 2013). the same applies also to sasi system of trusted have strength of its own if there is a defiance. (saras dhiksawan et al. 2018) stated that the concrete form of the sanction could not see but the consequences of the sanctions application could see with the sacrifice of life. more (saras dhiksawan et al. 2018) stated that a custom sanction in fact is death, as stated by the indigenous character of marind named augustinus kanki balagaize. the similar also presented by the acting southern papua leader named (sulistyawan et al. 2018) describing related to penalties imposed are indigenous to those who do not respect the sasi has been installed in these areas. (sofyandy 2013) mentioned that this penalty is invisible in terms of invisible. the feature of this invisible punishment usually people experiencing pain but it is not clear what ailment to culminate in death. in everyday life in eastern traits like these are commonly referred to as people are 38 exposed to, which is indicated with the characteristics mentioned above. this is what causes the public fear and tend to be more submissive and obedient to sanction customs. the value of the law contained in the local wisdom usually more feared by locals because it affects directly and could even be hereditary, in addition to strong influence of customary law thus more respected by the community rather than indigo-the value of positive law. legal values in sasi are so firm and binding is also delivered by (boli et al. 2014). in the study mentioned that the breach of sasi has a terrible impact for perpetrators of supernatural sanctions in the form of illness or death, apart from other penalties for offenders such as reprimand, fines, confiscation of money capture tool and boats, and exile from the village. with the changing times and growing technology currently, difficult may apply the sanctions law firm and difficult to implement from sasi system, there must be only a contradiction against this legal system. although this law value surely cannot remove because it related to customs, the most likely thing is to convert the value of the law into other contexts. conversion of capital punishment carried out with other systems, for example through a penalty in the form of money or other conversions. this view as described by (sofyandy 2013) stated that if anyone violates the offenders then gets penalized the customary fines an amount of money or the results of the deliberation decision based on indigenous gardens in the village. the same thing also advanced research by (renjaan, purnaweni, and anggoro 2017) stated that in the event of violation of sasi then punishment assignment set fines one jaunty (ancient cannons) or gold kei 3 tahil. by bear, the cost of case number assigned by the council of the o indigenous council peoples and other form of punishment that the adjustment adjusted with the consideration of the council of the board of customs. the results of this research provides an overview of the legal values that sasi is actually flexible, so that it becomes something that's good for the application of the law of sasi into positive law. d. sasi internalization of a policy sasi is local wisdom that have almost the same function in the eastern parts of indonesia namely to protect an area from being entered or loaded everything that is in the area of sasi up to deadline specified. in common, practice is the use of sasi showed the existence of the cultural values of local communities in the midst of the changing times. figure 2. sasi in lpp rri court of merauke by customary owners source: primary data, 2018 when sasi done like in the picture above then automatically all the activities on the ground that's good offices, schools, airports and others automatically stop temporarily or cannot be done until the matter is completed. the strength of sasi is actually can be a container for governments in conducting environmental protection, but it has not seen as a force for defending the environment from damage. the research entitled analysis of local wisdom as an environmental conservation strategy in indonesia by (hasbiah 2017) mentioned that the government must formulate laws and policies that protect the rights of local communities. the chairman of regional representative of merauke legislation mentioned that: "specifically we are there in papua special autonomy law which actually gives legitimacy to the government when they wanted to use local wisdom, live how the government now formulate it properly". if date back then actually sasi could become one force that provides protection against the environment from hazards such as damage from abrasion, damage from the excavation without permission or a result of a transfer of rights in order to attempt to the other party. it based on the results of research that has already discussed above then obtained a research proposal. it drafted in the model policy management of mineral ingredients instead of metal and rocks with internalization of "sasi" is next expected to acted upon by the government. the merauke’s government of papua province as well as the central government especially in the benefit from cultural values or local wisdom of sasi, owned by local communities in protecting and preserving the surrounding environment. 39 figure 3. internalization of value system in mineral materials management policies instead of metal and rocks in merauke district value systems:  internalization of "sasi" in the policy management of mineral materials instead of metals and rocks sasi is a local wisdom, which has a very strong influence in the culture of the community around marind’s group. the existence of sasi currently still recognized and respected its existence, as well as its practice still carried out. bases on high values of these sasi then its internalization into the management of mineral materials instead of metal and rocks worthy noteworthy. for in the context of local cultural values is thus more respected and more easily in the organize the community especially with regard to mining activities on mineral materials instead of metal and rock that is done by the community. things to note is how to internalize the values of the applicable law in the application of sasi into positive law values so that both these values can take a synergistic, for as it is known that legal values of sasi very firmly to break them and this will certainly be contrary to the positive law in force. this is the function and role of indigenous institutions is indispensable in order to bridge the cultural values in order to run jointly the positive values in order to address the environmental issues that occur.  strengthening capacity and function of cultural laws according to the regulation of the minister of interior no. 5 in 2007 about civic institution guidelines what meant by indigenous institutions are viable institutions either deliberately formed nor that reasonably has grown and developed in the the history of the community or customary law. in a society with a particular area of the law and the right to property in the common law, and is entitled and authorized to organize, manage and resolve various problems of life with regard to referring to customs and customary law in force. indigenous institutions should get a place in line with the development of indigenous institutions, not just a funnel when it needs yet more than that of indigenous institutions should get its existence. strengthening the capacity of indigenous institutions and functions should performed by local governments, because during this customary institutions felt impressed to have no obvious function other than just talking in the context of purely local.  involvement of indigenous institutions in the formulation of environmental management policies the involvement of indigenous institutions in the formulation of environmental policies does not mean reducing the role of the local government. in the context of papua in general environmental areas associated with forests, beaches, mountains, trees, rivers, land and so on has its own totems or totem-related to the life of local communities. managing the environment should involve indigenous peoples because they realize and understand the situation and the existing conditions, so it will be a good input for local governments in drawing up environmental policies.  logging and exploiting the potential of local wisdom local wisdom in marind society is very much. the question that arises is how much local wisdom is that? what does forms of this local wisdom? in addition, what does it function? will certainly be a difficult question to be answered by people who don't understand.then log back the potential of the existing local wisdom in merauke district will certainly be useful and usable by all stakeholders, especially can be a valuable input for the government to be utilized as an alternative policy in the future. the classification of regional authorities on to management policy of energy and mineral resource as follows:  the management of nonmetallic minerals and rocks the government authorities of distric/city in the management of mineral materials instead of metal and rock utterly absent, this certainly will cause apatisme if the district/city government does not manage environmental issues associated with mining activities. the risk is increasingly rampant miners without permission, the destruction of the environment and the lack of supervision against the mining activities. then the government may have to reorganize the energy sector policy and mineral resources by giving space to the government district/city to 40 carry out the management of mineral materials instead of metal and rock.  permitting of mining mineral materials instead of metals and rocks in accordance with the concurrent affairs division in the field of mineral resources, according the mandate of (pemerintah republik indonesia 2014) about local governance, then all process management of permissions for mining implemented at provincial level. this certainly raises a range of control long enough to take care of permissions, so this process could potentially lead to the occurrence of apatisme in taking care of the mining permit, which could promoted on the rampant mining without a permit. the grant of authority to the government district/city in terms of these licenses is certainly very good to reduce the impact.  the monitoring of mining mineral materials instead of metals and rocks surveillance against mining the mineral ingredients instead of metal and rocks should implemented continuously by the relevant agencies. the extent of the areas would certainly be difficult if only supervision carried out by the relevant agencies that are at the provincial level let alone the existence of limited human resources. if the supervision of mining of mineral materials instead of metal and rocks carried by district/city government certainly, felt it would easier implemented at once more intensifying monitoring than if these tasks are at the government province level. conclusion and suggestion sand mining activities carried out by some people of marind communities in merauke district during this tends to give rise to environmental damage one of the factors is a matter of economics, but in order of local cultural value, this system put the ground as the image of mother. the governments of merauke district has their own problems to overcome this problem the lack of policy because of technically set about managing mineral ingredients instead of metal and rock, in addition the policies of local governance are not authorization for the government of district/city in the management of materials and nonmetallic mineral and rocks. with the confidence that the system will still strong cultural values, then the government needs to internalize the merauke district value system of marind society i.e. local wisdom of sasi as a policy particularly in the management of mineral materials instead of metal and rock. this research consists of various suggestions as follows: a) it needs to revise or to synchronize policies related to the management of the environment and at the same time giving authority for district/city so that each can perform its functions properly; b) sasi as the local wisdom is not only beneficial to the local community but also to be utilized by the government in the form of mineral material management policies instead of metal and rocks; c) strengthening the capacity of indigenous institutions and functions at the same time involving indigenous institutions in policy 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credit default swaps, direct foreign investments and portfolio investments: time series analysis for turkey dr. ahmet kahilogullari çanakkale onsekiz mart university, republic of turkey, ahmetkahil@gmail.com article info a b s t r a c t article history: accepted 13 nevember 2018 available online 31 december 2018 keywords: foreign investors who come to the country receive credit default swaps which are an insurance against the possibility of failing to fulfil the obligations of the host country. the purpose of using this financial instrument is to provide protection against possible default situations. the higher the value of the credit default swap premium, it means that th e risk of default is relatively high whereas the lower risk means that the default risk is relatively low. the purpose of this study is to analyse with ardl (autoregressive distributed lag model) method turkey's credit default swap premium for january 2005-september 2017 period and the long run and short run relationship between foreign direct investment and portfolio investments in turkey. according to the results of the study, there is no long run and short run relationship between credit default swaps and foreign direct investments in turkey; the presence of a long run and short run relationship with portfolio investments has been identified. 1. introduction one of the most important aims of providing capital accumulation and economic development in capitalist countries is foreign direct investments. via foreign capital investments, countries, accelerating capital accumulation processes, try to solve their economic problems such as economic constriction, unemployment, and foreign deficit but partly. foreign investments actualize as direct investments, portfolio investments and other investments. among the sorts of these foreign investments, the effect of direct investments on real sector is more due to the fact that they are related to real sector itself. compared to the other sorts of foreign investment. importance of foreign direct investments in terms of country economies engenders the problem with being able to attract these investments to the country. the foreigners who will make investment will inherently prefer the countries, in which first of all, there is no uncertainties, and there is profitability. this preference accompanies the problem with measuring risk. as a result of developments in financial system, “credit rating” is referred as a criterion of becoming investible in the countries and whether or not the countries will meet their financial liabilities. with advanced analysis techniques used, the grades varying from 1 to 6 are given by credit ratings agencies such as standard poor’s, moody’s and fitch to the countries according to the varying quality degrees and each quality degree gives information about economic appearance of the countries in such a way that each quality degree can be reduced to letter grades varying from aaa to d. this grading of interest is also made for the companies and municipalities as well as countries. the grading mentioned indicates default probability in the interval of very high – very low. credit default swaps (cds) that credit default swap, foreign direct investments, portfolio investments, time series analysis, ardl method * "this article derived from doctoral thesis that name is “relationship between credit default swaps, direct f oreign investments and portfolio investments: time series analysis for turkey" 7 have quality of insurance against that.the probability the agencies such as municipalities, companies, and etc. go to default are processed in over-the counter markets. according to this, the higher a cds premium is priced in the market, the more the default risk of the support asset is more. otherwise, i.e. in case that cds premium is low, default risk is low. from this aspect, cds premiums come to our face as a financial instrument processed in markets with concretized form of the grades given by credit rating agencies. in this context, it can be said that cds premiums processed for countries is concrete data regarding whether or not investment will be made to countries. however, that credit rating is reliable and that cds premiums are the subject of speculative processes accompany a problem in terms of those making decision for investment. this problem is the problem with the reliability of the rating made. as a matter of fact, enron scandal in 2001, the collapses experienced in worldcom in 2002 and parmalat in 2003, bankruptcy of lehman & brothers in 2008, and assigning high credit grades almost before those experienced makes right to question the reliability mentioned. the problem with reliability mentioned above, in case that investment is made on the countries according to credit ratings, reveals the requirement to be examined the relationship between foreign investments and these grades. the subject of this study is to test the relationship between cds in turkey and foreign capital by means of time series analysis by using monthly data regarding cds and foreign direct investments for the period of september 2017. 2. literature when the literature related to credit default swaps is regarded, it will be seen that the studies are the ones, in which the relationships between cds premiums and liabilities, effect of social events on cds premiums; and their effects on the indicators of financial stability such as inflation, interest rates, and cds premiums are predominantly studied. norden and weber (2004), in the study they carried out for the period of 2000-2002, obtained the conclusion that as a result of grade declarations of three credit rating agencies consisting of standard & poor’s, moody’s and fitch either, the stock and cds markets pioneered to bond markets. özkaplan (2011), in the study he carried out, tested the relationship of cds premium with financial indicators such as dow jones index, imkb 100 index, and foreign currency basket by means of granger causality analysis for the period 2002-2010. in the study of interest, causality relationship between variables is met and it was identified that the departure point of this causality relationship were cdss. in the study, in which the effect of the interest rate and exchange rate is studied on cds, var analysis and granger causality test were applied. the study, in which usa for the period of march 2008–september 2010 and france for the period of august 2005 – september 2010 are considered, revealed that while country interest rates have a limited effect on cds spreads, the effect of exchange rates on cds was significant. coronado et al (2012), in a study covering the period 2007-2010 for 8 european countries, tested the relationship between cdss representing credit risk and indices of stock markets representing market risk by means of the vector autoregression and panel data analysis methods. analysis, in the period mentioned, revealed the conclusion that stock market played a leading role in this relationship. however, when the year 2009 are excluded from the analysis, a case, where cdss played a key role in this relationship, was met and it was expressed that this case was more noticeable in the countries under high risk. castaneda and vargas (2012), in the study they carried out for measuring how cds premiums are affected from foreigners ‘perception, studied the effect of the armed conflicts, in which the events that occurred in colombia in 2008 such as death of raul reyes, release of clara rojas, and rescue of ingrid betancourt stood out. the results of the study revealed that the effect of conflicts on risk perception of foreigners was very significant. marzano et al (2014), in a study, where they studied the effect of cdss in a stock market of four different countries (europe other than united kingdom, usa, japan) by means of a linear economic model, revealed that the variable cds accounted for the movements in stock prices accounted for by 71%. koy (2014), in the study, where he studied the relationship cds premiums and euro-bond premiums by means of unit root test and causality analysis, dealt with 8 countries, among which there 8 were germany, france, italy, ireland, greece, portugal, spain, and turkey. the findings in the study were in the form of that cds premiums of france and italy gave direction to bond premiums. tuna et al (2014), in the study they carried out, tested the correlation between five-year cds rates in terms of us dollar in turkey as well as 5 developing selected countries and 2 developed countries for before and after 2008 and revealed that the contagion effect of the crisis was only present between turkey and developing countries. a study, carried out by cho and rhee (2014), after 2008 global financial crisis, for asian countries, which have the developed capital markets and among which the countries such as china, japan, south korea, and singapore take place, revealed that the effect of local productivity as well as the decrease of cds premiums after the outbreak of the crisis significantly contributed to capital inflows to the countries under consideration. stolbov (2014), in the study, in which he accounted for the causality relationships between cdss continuing over debt crisis of the most important countries of europe (germany, france, united kingdom, italy, and spain), introduced the signals of the presence of decomposition in cds markets of both country group. another conclusion of the study was in the way that the effect of non-european countries on cds market was limited over debt crisis. a study, carried out by koziol et al. (2015), concluded that while the relevant factors for cds prices before 2008 financial crisis, the importance of the factors under consideration increased during and after crisis period in the study, carried out by kim et al (2015) and in which the effect of financial crisis that began in usa in 2008 on foreign currency markets were studied for the countries consisting of philippines, thailand, taiwan, indonesia, and south korea, garch models were used and it was concluded that there was a dominant effect of foreign investments on international capital markets. another conclusion turning out from the same study was that libor-ois spread and country cds as well as foreign investments were effective on foreign currency markets. wisniewski and lambe (2015), in the study they carried out, studied dynamic interaction between ambiguities of economic policy and fluctuations in the costs of credit protection and concluded that cds spreads gave significantly reaction to shocks in policy risk. kocsis and monostori (2016), in a study, in which they studied the factors affecting country cdss for 13 countries, among which there is also turkey, concluded that local factors were more effective than global factors on cds spreads. according to the conclusion, expressed in the study, it was emphasized that the factor of institutional power stood out as local factor. pereira da silva (2016), in a study, in which he measured the ability of cdss giving information about risk perception to predict stock prices related to the countries, firms, and etc., obtained the conclusion that cdss were not a good alternative for the investors having the purpose of providing short term benefit da costa filho (2017), related to brazil, in a study, in which he studied what long term returns of inflation-dependent bonds depend on for the period of december 2005-february 2010, concluded that the main determinants of the returns of interest were ten-year cdss and interest rates in usa. when regarded to the literature concerning investors, it is seen that the studies are intensively on the determinants of foreign investments. again, in the literature of interest, although the relationships between country risk and foreign investments are studied, it can be said that the studies, in which the relationships between cds premium and foreign investments are studied, are in very limited number. nantal, in the study he carried out for petroleum exporting countries, he studied the relationship between country risk and foreign investments related to the period 1984-1996 and concluded that there was a negative directional relationship between country risk and foreign investments. bevan and estrin (2004), in a study they tested the effect of 9 country risk of transition economies of europe on foreign direct investments for the period 1994-1998 by the method of panel data analysis, concluded that the relationship of country risk with foreign direct investments was insignificant. emir et al (2013), in another study, tested the relationship between foreign direct investments and country risk and macroeconomic variables in turkey by johansen co-integration analysis and error correction model for the period 1992-2010. according to the findings of the study, there was a unidirectional causality relationship between foreign direct investments and politics risk and country rating topal and gül (2016), in their study, tested the relationship between economic risk and foreign direct investment by means of time series analysis for turkey in respect of 2013-2014. in the study of interest, it was introduced that there was a negative directional but also significant relationship. in addition, in the study, it was obtained the conclusion that this relationship was not unidirectional, and that country risk decreased as foreign direct capital investments increased. 3. dataset, method and analysis in this study, the relationship between the variables of credit risk swap (cds), portfolio investments (portfoy), and foreign direct investments (yabanci) was studied. for this purpose, using monthly data of the period 2005:1-2017:09, first of all, summary statistics regarding the variables were given in table 1. table 1: summary statistics cds portfoy yabanci mean 221.43 1100.47 931.60 median 207.77 1005.00 633.00 biggest 521.21 9061.00 6571.00 least 118.85 -4791.00 46.00 standard deviation 69.32 2264.46 991.90 skew 1.62 0.35 2.97 kurtosis 6.90 3.38 14.26 3.1. methodology in this study, in which the relationship of default swaps with foreign direct investments and portfolio investments were examined, and as methodology, ardl (autoregressive distributed lag) method, one of principal time series analysis method, was used. in this context, first of all, stationarity structures of variables were tested by unit root tests and later, long term relationship between variables was studied. stationarity tests mentioned are augmented dickey fuller (adf), phillips perron (pp) and zivot-andrews (za) tests. in order to be able to reach the presence of significant relationships between the variables included in the analysis, it is necessary for the series used to be stationary augmented dickey fuller test used in unit root analysis indicates whether or not the variables will be formed by an autoregressive process (ar). the main assumptions of this test is that error terms are accepted in randomly proceeding and are covariance (kurt 2016: 83-84). table 2: results of adf test tstatistics p-value cds level without constant and without trend 1.034985 0.2699 cds level with constant 2.901366 0.0475 cds level with constant and with trend 2.893343 0.1676 cds the first difference without constant and without trend 10.36369 0.0000 cds the first difference with constant 10.33081 0.0000 cds the first difference with constant and trend 10.29768 0.0000 yabanci level without constant and without trend 1.499915 0.1248 yabanci level with constant 3.606503 0.0067 yabanci level with constant and with trend 4.146073 0.0068 yabanci the first difference without constant and without trend 12.99691 0.0000 yabanci the first difference with constant 12.95210 0.0000 yabanci the first with constant and 0.0000 10 difference with trend .12.94615 portfoy level without trend and without trend 7.733159 0.0000 portfoy level with constant 8.957314 0.0000 portfoy level with constant and trend 9.024088 0.0000 portfoy the first difference without constant and without trend 10.05454 0.0000 portfoy the first difference with constant 10.02246 0.0000 portfoy the first difference with constant and with trend -9.98952 0.0000 in table 2, the results of adf are given in both at the level and taking its first difference for “without constant and without trend” and “with constant and with trends” models. according to this, test statistics for the model that is “without constant and without trend at the level” for the variable cds was predicted as 1.034985 and probability value as 0.2699. hence, regarding this variable, “null hypothesis” h0: there is unit root” was not rejected at the confidence level of 90% and it was concluded that the variable cds was not stationary at the level in the context of “without constant and without trend” model i.e. that there was unit root. beside this, it is seen that the variable cds is stationary for the model that is “with constant at the level” with the probability value of 0.0475 at the significance level of 90%, while it is not stationary for the model that is “with constant and with trend” for the variable yabanci, when regarded to the model that is “without constant and without trend, with constant and trend”, it can be seen that the probability values are 0.1248; 0.0067 and 0.0068 in order. when regarded to these probability values, for the variable of interest, it was concluded that it was not stationary in the model that is “without constantwithout trend” and in the model that is “with constant –with trend”, it was stationary with the confidence of 99%. on the other hand, when regarded to the variable portfoy, the probability values obtained for three models established at the level can be seen by regarding in the model that is “without constant –without trend and with constant-with trend”, respectively. for this variable, since probability values in all models are “0.0000”, it can be said that the variable is also stationary at the level in three models. in summary, according to adf test results, it can be said that the variables cds and yabanci are stationary or not at the level in such a way that it will vary according to “with constant, without constant –without trend, and with constant -trend” models, while the variable “portfoy” is (0) that is stationary at the level. beside this, when the first differences of three series were taken, it was concluded that they were first degree i(1) stationary in every three models. in the study, after adf test was made, in order to study whether or not there was unit root, unit root test (pp) developed by philips and perron (1988) was made. in pp test, as critical value, critical values used in adf test were used. in this test, similar to adf test, “without constant and without trend, with constant, with constant and with trend” models were made both for the level of series and by taking their first differences. test results are shown in table 3. table 3: the results of pp unit root test t-statistics p-value cds level without constant and without trend -1.058782 0.2608 cds level with constant -3.244475 0.0194 cds level with constant and with trend -3.238749 0.0809 cds first difference without constant and without trend -10.93298 0.0000 cds first difference with constant -10.89569 0.0000 cds first difference with constant and with trend -10.85850 0.0000 yabanci level without constant and without trend -8.400058 0.0000 yabanci level with constant -12.04255 0.0000 yabanci level with constant and with trend -12.30733 0.0000 yabanci first difference without constant and without trend -55.69009 0.0000 yabanci first difference with constant -55.43571 0.0001 yabanci first difference with constant and with trend -56.25372 0.0001 portfoy level without constant and without trend -8.266226 0.0000 11 portfoy level with constant -9.194053 0.0000 portfoy level with constant and with trend -9.159862 0.0000 portfoy first difference without constant and without trend -71.49276 0.0000 portfoy first difference with constant -72.00527 0.0001 portfoy first difference with constant and with trend -72.46529 0.0001 when regarded to pp test results shown in table 3 are regarded, it is seen that the variable cds has -3.244475 test statistics for “with constant” model with the value of 0.0194 at the level. hence, in this test, it can be said that the variable cds does not have unit root in “with constant” model. in spite of this, in “without constant and without trend” model, the variable cds has unit root. in every three models established at the level for the variable yabanci, probability value has been 0 (zero). according to this it can be said that the variable yabanci is stationary at the confidence level of 99%. the results for the variable potfoy show similarity to adf test. according to this, the variable portfoy is stationary at the level. in addition to these, when the first differences regarding every three variables, it is seen that the variables are stationary in three model as well. in the models, in which the relationships between financial variables are examined, one of the issues that are necessary to pay attention is structural break. the causes such as the changes in economic policies, crises, natural disasters, and technological changes can lead to structural break. the power of unit root tests not considering these structural breaks and these tests become inconsistent. in this framework, unit root test with structural break (za), developed by zivot and andrews (1992) and based on the assumption that the date of structural break is not predicted, was used by establishing “with constant” model (model a), “with trend” model, and “with constant and with trend” model (model c). in the model established, taking the highest lagging number as 4, the relevant models were predicted. the results regarding model a, model b and model c, established for the variable cds are given place in table 4. table 4: the results of za test for the variable cds sort of model t-statistics p-statistics break period model a -4.235290 0.079886 2010/03 model b -3.926309 0.622986 2008/11 model c -5.015842 1.02e-0.5 2009/04 when regarded to the results of za test for the variable cds, it is seen that t-statistics is stationary with 4.235290 and that pstatistics value, with .079886 at the significance level of 90^% for model a. in model b, the probability value of 0.622986 for the variable cds shows that the variable in this model is not stationary, namely, that it has unit root. for the same variable, when regarded to model c, it shows the result that there is a stationary structure. in za test carried out for the variable yabanci, due to the fact that there is no full rank, model c cannot be formed. in spite of this, the results of za test obtained for the variable yabanci are given in table 5, while structural breaks regarding model a and model b are shown in graph 1 and 2, respectively. table 5: the results of za test for the variable yabanci sort of model t-statistics p-statistics break period model a -4.619171 0.147813 2008/08 model b -4.281044 0.666191 2009/12 model c when regarded to the results of the test in terms of the presence of unit root, it is seen that probability value for model a is 0.147813 and 0.666191 for model b. in this context, it can be said that there is unit root for unit root. the results of za test for the variable portfoy are: table 6: the results of za test for the variable portfoy sort of model t-statistics p-statistics break period model a -9.661831 0.000501 2013/05 model b -9.242948 0.024722 2012/11 model c -9.952066 0.000390 2015/02 according to the results of za test stated in table 6, also in three models, in case of structural break, the null hypothesis that “there is unit root” was rejected. that is, the variable portfoy is stationary in every three models. 12 3.2. ardl model since series used in this study was not integrated into the same level, co-integration analysis cannot be carried out and, in view of this, ardl model was referred to. another reason for referring to this model is that it is possible to be able to analyze whether or not there is a long term relationship between the variable cds and the variables yabanci and portfoy. that the model of interest enables to establish error correction model can be considered as another reason. in ardl model, the equation of bound test is expressed as follows (esen, yıldırım and kostakoğlu 2012: 251-267): ∆𝑌𝑡 = 𝛹0 ∑ 𝛹1𝑖 ∆𝑌𝑡−𝑖 + ∑ 𝛹2𝑖 ∆𝑋1𝑡−𝑖 + ⋯ + 𝑚 𝑖=0 𝑚 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝛹𝑘𝑖 ∆𝑋𝑘𝑡−𝑖 + 𝜉1𝑌𝑡−1 + 𝜉2𝑋1𝑡−1 + ⋯ + 𝜉𝑘 𝑋𝑘𝑡−1 + 𝑢𝑡 𝑚 𝑖=0 . (3.1) in the equation, while ψ is a constant term, ∆ expresses difference term and u, error term. in the model under consideration, identification of suitable lagging length is important in terms of being able to question co-integration. in the model, after lagging length is identified by akaike and schwarz criteria, the prediction of the model under consideration can be made by least squares method (lsm). in ardl model, hypotheses related cointegration relationships are established (kurt 2016: 85): 𝐻0: 𝜉1 = 𝜉2 = ⋯ = 𝜉𝑘 = 0 → 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑐𝑜 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. (3.2) 𝐻1: 𝜉1 ≠ 𝜉2 ≠ ⋯ ≠ 𝜉𝑘 ≠ 0 → 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. (3.3) in co-integration, while hypothesis is tested, f tests are compared with asymptotic critical values. in evaluation made after determining the lower and upper limits, if f-statistics value is bigger than lower limit, hypothesis is accepted and the conclusion that there is no co-integration. if f-statistics is bigger than upper limit, h0 hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded that there is a co-integration. if f statistics calculated as a value between the lower and upper limits (𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 > 𝐹 > 𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡), there will be a case of indecisiveness and anything will not be said about the presence of co-integration. in ardl model, long term relationships are expressed with the following equation. 𝑌𝑡 = 𝛹0 + ∑ 𝛹1𝑖 ∆𝑌𝑡−𝑖 + ∑ 𝛹2𝑖 ∆𝑋1𝑡−1 + ⋯ + 𝑛 𝑖=0 𝑚 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝛹𝑘𝑖 ∆𝑋𝑘𝑡−𝑖 + 𝑢𝑡 𝑟 𝑖=0 (3.4) after long term relationships are obtained by means of this equation, the following equation is used for obtaining short-term relationships: ∆𝑌𝑡 = 𝛹0 + ∑ 𝛹1𝑖 ∆𝑌𝑡−𝑖 + ∑ 𝛹2𝑖 ∆𝑋1𝑡−1 + ⋯ + 𝑛 𝑖=0 𝑚 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝛹𝑘𝑖 ∆𝑋𝑘𝑡−𝑖 + 𝜇𝑒𝑐𝑚𝑡−1 + 𝑢𝑡 𝑟 𝑖=0 (3.5) this equation is a lagged value of the remains of the equation belonging to long term relationship. after these explanations made regarding ardl method, in the following model 1, the findings of the variables cds-yabanci will be given place and, in model 2, analysis findings of the variables cdsportfoy. 3.2.1.model 1: the relationship of foreign direct investments with cds in this study, in order to identify the relationships between the variables after unit root test, for being able to be applied ardl model, first of all, whether or not the problem with autocorrelation was studied. for model 1, i.e. in breusch goldfrey test made before proceeding the test of the relationship between cds and foreign direct investments, it was seen that there was a problem with autocorrelation in the model. the results of white test are shown in table 7 and 8. table 7: results of white test for model 1: table a heteroskedasticity test: white f statistics 1.452037 prob. f(19,130) 0.1141 obs*r-squared 26.26016 prob. chi-square(19) 0.1231 scaledexplained ss 36.01852 prob. chi-square(19) 0.0105 table 8: results of white test for model 1: table b ac pac q-stat prob* 1 -0.008 -0.008 0.0094 0.923 2 -0.095 -0.095 1.4110 0.494 3 -0.014 -0.016 1.4410 0.696 4 -0.029 -0.039 1.5721 0.814 13 5 0.298 0.297 15.507 0.008 6 0.019 0.017 15.565 0.016 7 -0.093 -0.040 16.933 0.018 8 0.054 0.062 17.400 0.026 9 0.041 0.053 17.665 0.039 10 -0.102 -0.199 19.347 0.036 11 0.015 0.008 19.382 0.055 12 0.029 0.060 19.525 0.077 13 0.029 -0.002 19.667 0.104 14 0.019 -0.024 19.730 0.139 15 -0.130 -0.030 22.594 0.093 16 0.020 0.031 22.661 0.123 17 -0.013 -0.093 22.692 0.160 18 -0.043 -0.046 23.018 0.190 19 0.086 0.112 24.301 0.185 20 -0.079 -0.064 25.395 0.187 21 -0.074 -0.105 26.374 0.193 22 -0.036 -0.010 26.607 0.227 23 -0.076 -0.035 27.649 0.229 24 0.105 0.032 29.652 0.197 25 -0.031 -0.049 29.831 0.231 26 -0.122 -0.032 32.564 0.175 27 -0.102 -0.120 34.505 0.152 28 -0.050 -0.060 34.969 0.171 29 -0.006 -0.039 34.975 0.205 30 0.031 0.030 35.157 0.237 31 -0.051 -0.026 35.652 0.259 32 -0.075 -0.034 36.747 0.258 33 -0.058 -0.068 37.408 0.274 34 -0.074 -0.039 38.498 0.273 35 0.026 -0.020 38.635 0.309 it is seen that f statistics value taking place in table 7 is higher than p-probability values taking place in table 8. in this case, it is seen that there is no problem with autocorrelation for model 1. after white test made, in order to test whether or not there is cointegration between variables, bound test was made. the results of bound test made for model 1 are shown in table 9. table 9: the results of bound test for model 1 aic lagging length (3, 0, 0) f statistics value 7.48 table critical values significance levels %1 %5 %10 lower critical value i(0) 4.13 3.1 2.63 upper critical value i(1) 5.00 3.87 3.35 when regarded to f statistics value taking place in the table, due to the fact that f statistics value that is 7.48 is higher than 3.35, upper limit, at 10% significance level, it is seen that there is a cointegration relationship between the variables. that is, according to the results of bound test, there is a long-term relationship between the variable cds and foreign direct investments. when regarded to the significance of long-term relationship that is existent between the variables, from long term results taking place in table 10, it can be concluded that this longterm relationship is not significant. table 10: long term results for model 1 variables coefficient values t statistics value log(cds) -0.10 -0.27 (0.79) kriz 0.03 0.15 (0.88) as will also be seen from the table, probability value of cds variable, whose logarithm was taken, is 0.75 and this value is high at the significance level of 10%. for model 1, the results of cusum test made on the name of testing whether or not long-term relationships are in a stable structure are shown in graph 1. 14 graph 1: the results of cusum test for model 1. according to the results of cusum test, for model 1, long term relationships of the variables are seen in a stable structure. although long term relationships between the variable cds and foreign direct investments are not significant, for studying the possible short-term relationships between the same variables, error correction model was formed. the results regarding error correction model are shown in table 11. table 11: error correction model for model 1 and short-term results variables coefficient values t statistics values 1. the values in parentheses taking place in the table express probability values. dlogyabanci (-1) -0.20 -1.95 (0.05) dlogyabanci (-2) -0.23 -2.92 (0.00) dlogcds 0.32 0.56 (0.57) dkri̇z 0.30 0.51 (0.61) hata 0.66 5.48 (0.00) when regarded to the results in the table, it is concluded that short term relationships between the variable cds and foreign investments are not also significant. in spite of this, the coefficient of error term that is 0.66 expresses that short-term unbalances in the model are removed at the rate of 66 % at the significance level of 1^% in the long term. 3.2.2.model 2: the relationship of cds with portfolio investments the results of ardl application for model 2 are shown in table 12. in the table, in addition to coefficient values of the variables in the table, t-statistics and probability values, definitional test results take place. table 12: for model 2, ardl (1, 1, 0) results 1 aic lagging length (1, 1, 0) f statistic value 28.45 table critical values significance level %1 %5 %10 lower critical value i(0) 4.13 3.1 2.63 upper critical value i(1) 5.00 3.87 3.35 results of definional test 15 𝑹𝟐 0.48 adjusted 𝑹𝟐 0.46 ramsey-reset test 1.76 (0.08) jague bera normality test 1.99 (0.37) durbin watson test 2.02 f statistics value 33.46 (0.00) when regarded to the results of bound test for model 2, it is seen that f statistic value is 28.45. since this value is bigger than 3.35 that is a critical value, it is concluded that there is a co-integration relationship between the variables. according to this, what is under consideration is that there is a long term relationship between the variables. when the values of r2, obtained in bound test, and adjusted r2 are regarded to, it is seen that there are 0.48 and 0.46, respectively. these values mean that the power of dependent variable to account for independent variable is not so high. f value, obtained in bound test, is 33.46, it expresses that model is wholly significant. durbin watson test having the value of 1.96 indicates that there is no problem with autocorrelation; ramseyreset test having the value of 1.76, specification; and jague bera test having the value of 1.99, normal distribution. after bound test, made for model 2, about long-term relationship between the variables, it can be looked at table 14 table 14: long term results for model 2 variables coefficient values t statistics value cds -8.26 -2.80 (0.00) kriz 351.42 0.88 (0.38) when regarded to long term relationship related to model 2, it is seen that there is significant relationships between credit swaps and portfolio investments for turkey. that coefficient value of cds variables means that a fall in cds premium increases portfolio investments. thus, as also expressed in the first section of the study, that cds premium decreases means that the risk regarding the country of interest decreases, which is a case that will promote the inflow of portfolio investments to the country. in the model of interest, in order to study whether or not long term relationships are stable, cusum and cusum q tests are made. cusum q test is a more sensitive one compared to cusum test. according to these tests, if test statistics is in the limits at 5% significance level, it is expressed that there is no structural break in the model. graphic 2 shows the results of structural break for model 2. graph 2: results of structural break for model 2 16 in order to identify whether or not there is short term relationship for model 2, error correction model was formed. the results regarding error correction model formed are shown in table 15. table 15: error correction model for model 2 and short-term results variables coefficient values t statistics values d(cds) -30.13 -6.09 (0.00) d(kri̇z) -181.12 -0.13 (0.89) hata -0.81 -10.74 (0.00) when regarded to the results taking place in the table, in short term, it is seen that there is a significant relationship between the variable cds and portfolio investments. beside this, that error correction coefficient is significant at the significance level of 1% reveals the conclusion that unbalances taking place in the model are eliminated at the rate of 81%. in the context of the results obtained by error correction model, when regarded to short term effect of the variables, it reveals the conclusion that 1% increase in cds premium reduced portfolio investments by 30.13 4. conclusion and suggestions in this study, the relationship of cdss with direct foreign investments and portfolio investments was examined for turkey. in examination of this relationship, 5-year cds premiums and foreign direct investments and portfolio investments on turkey were basically used. the study of interest were carried out by using eviews program for the period 2005:1-2017:9. as a method, ardl (autoregressive distributed lag model) was used. in the study, in order to study whether or not the variables have unit root i.e. stationarity of the variables, augmented dickey fuller (adf), phillips perron (pp) and zivot andrews (za) tests were used. among the tests made, in adf test, the presence of unit root was tested in three models as “with constant”, “with constant – with trend” and “without constant –without trend”. according to the test results, it is seen that while cds variable has unit root in “without constant –without trend” models and “with constant – with trend” models, the variable yabanci has unit root in “without constant –without trend” model. the study results of the variable portfoy turned out stationary for three models. in the study of interest, due to unit roots that are present in the variables cds and yabanci, the first difference of three variables was also taken and it was seen that they became stationary at the first level. according to pp test, it was concluded that while the variable cds had unit root in “without constant – without trend”, the variables yabanci and portfoy variables were stationary at the level. when their first differences were taken, it was seen that three variables were also stationary in three models. according to the results of za test, it was seen that there were structural breaks in three variables as well. in the “with constant” “with trend” and “with constant –with trend” models, formed for this test, when regarded to the breaks of the variables, it was concluded that for cds variable, there were structural breaks in the periods of may 2013, november 2008, and april 2009; and for the variable portfoy, in the periods of may 2013, november 2012 and february 2015. when regarded to structural breaks for the variable yabanci, it was concluded that there were structural breaks in the periods of august 2008 and december 2009. for “with constant – with trend” model, since there is no full rank, break could not be observed. later, due to structural breaks, mortgage crisis in the period that is subject of analysis (2005/01-2017/09), and 2009 european debt crisis, immediately experienced following this crisis, the variable kri̇z was included in the analysis as dummy variable and analysis was continued by ardl test. in this study, carried out by applying ardl method, two models were established. in the first model, long and short-term relationships between the variable cds and foreign direct investments were studied; in the second model, the longand short-term relationships between the variable cds and portfolio investments. 17 according to the findings of the first model, for the period 2005/01-2017/09, it was obtained the conclusion that the relationships, either long or short term, between cds premium of turkey and foreign investments, made on turkey in the same period, were not significant. when considered that cds premium is an indicator of risk perception, this result overlaps with the conclusion by bevan and estrin (2004) that the effect of country risk on foreign direct investments is insignificant. according to the findings of the second model, for the period that is the subject of the analysis, it was concluded that there was a significant relationship between cds premium of turkey and portfolio investments on turkey in both long and short term. this conclusion expressing the significant relationships between cds premium and portfolio investments overlap with the conclusion by norden and weber (2004) that cds markets made leadership to bond markets, when country bonds are assessed in the framework of portfolio investments. on the other hand, in the study by özkaplan (2011), carried out by means of imkb 100, dow jones index, and the other financial indices, this overlaps with the conclusion that cdss played a leadership role, when considered that local investors as well as foreign investors take place. although cdss are known as instruments affecting investment decisions, this study proves the relationship of cds premium with portfolio investments, mostly accepted as hot money flow. in the light of the results of this empirical analysis, although cds premium processed in financial markets is accepted as an indicator of risk premium, it can be in fact said that it is an financial instrument mostly used with speculative purpose. when the relationship of cds premium with the grades assigned by credit rating agencies is considered, it is seen that cds premium does not have any relationship with foreign direct investments in specific to turkey; in spite of this, that it has either long or short term relationship with portfolio investments and, as theoretically accepted, that risk perception of an increase in risk premium is high and, in such a case, that foreign investor to make portfolio investment backs down from investment decision. that is, a rise in cds premium reduces portfolio investments, in contrast to this, i.e. decrease in cds premium rises portfolio investments. although cds premium, accepted as a risk indicator about whether or not countries will fulfill their liabilities, is not the only determinative element in the decisions of foreign investors regarding portfolio investments, it can be said that it is an important variable. from this aspect, developing new measurement techniques in the way that it can more clearly reveal the possible country risks related to not being able to fulfill liability can enable foreign investors considering portfolio investment to make more healthily decisions. for turkey, when considered that the conclusion that cdss do not have significant relationships with foreign investments, developing an index similar to foreign direct capital reliability index for shorter terms instead of long term can allow for making more sensitive analyses regarding foreign direct investments. setting out from this index, forming derivative indices for the subjects such as sectors, provinces, and investment prices can make easier. references 5. bevan, alan a.; estrin saul. the determinants of foreign direct investment into european transition economies, journal of comparative economics, 32(4): 775-787, 2004. 6. castaneda, andres; vargas, juan f. sovereign risk and armed conflict: an event-study for colombia defence and peace economics 23:2 p.185-201, 2012 7. cho, dongchul; rhee, changyong effects of quantitative easing on asia: capital flows and financial markets singapore economic review vol:59 (3) p.1-23, 2014 8. coronado, maria; corzo, teresa; lazcano, laura. a case for europe: the relationship between sovereign cds and stock indexes frontiers finance & economics. vol: 9 issue: 2 32-63, 2012. 9. da costa filho, adonias evaristo what drives long term real interest rates in brazil brazilian business review vol.14 (6) p.624-635, 2017 10. esen, ethem; yıldırım selim; kostakoğlu fatih felstein –horioka hipotezinin türkiye ekonomisi i̇çin sınanması: ardl modeli uyglaması, eskişehir 18 osmangazi 11. kim, bong-han; kim, hyeongwoo; lee, bong-soo spillover effects of the u.s. financial crisis on financial markets in emerging asia countries international review of economics and finance vol.39 p.192-210, 2015 12. kocsis, zalan; monostori, zoltan the role of country-specific fundamentals in sovereign cds spreads: eastern european experiences emerging markets review 27 p.140-168, 2016 13. koy, ayben. kredi temerrüt swapları ve tahvil primleri üzerine ampirik bir çalışma international review of economics and management vol: no:2 s.63-79 2014 http://dergipark.gov.tr/download/article-file/92555 erişim tarihi: 24.04.2017 14. koziol, christian; koziol, philipp; schön, thomas do correlated defaults matter for cds premia? an empirical analysis review of derivatives research vol:18 (3) p.191-224, 2015 15. kurt, ünzüle türkiye’de döviz kurlarının açıklanmasında varlık piyasalarının rolü: portföy denge modeli üzerine ampirik analiz çanakkale onsekiz mart üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü doktora tezi çanakkale 2016. 16. liu, yang; morley, bruce sovereign credit default swaps and the macroeconomy applied economic letters vol.19 (2) p.129-132, 2012 17. marzano, michele; dunn, gary; constantinou, nick the relationship between credit default spreads and equity price journal of risk vol:17 no:1 3-28, 2014. 18. nordal, kjell. b. country risk, country risk indices and valuation of fdi: a real options approach. emerging markets review, 2, 197-217. 2001. 19. norden, lars; weber, martin informational efficiency of credit default swap and stock markets: the impact of credit rating announcements journal of banking & finance vol:28 (11) p.2813-2843, 2004 20. özkaplan, dilek. türkiye kredi temerrüt takasları ve finansal göstergelerle i̇lişkisi i̇stanbul bilgi üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü bankacılık ve finans programı yüksek lisans tezi i̇stanbul, 2011. 21. pereira da silva, paulo did investor seeking short exposure move to the cds market after the 2011 short-sale bans in europan financial stock? finance a uver-czech journal of economics and finance 66 (4) p.322-353, 2016 22. stolbov, mikhail. the causal linkages between sovereign cds prices for the brics and major european economies. economics, vol. 8, no. 1, 27 144 june 2014 23. topal, mehmet hanefi; gül, özlem. s. ekonomik risk i̇le doğrudan yabancı sermaye yatırımları arasındaki i̇lişki: türkiye örneği gümüshaneuniversity electronic journal of the institute of social science / gümüshane üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü elektronik dergisi, 7(15), 229-247. 2016. 24. tuna, kadir. ; öner, selma ; öner, hakan. 2008 küresel kriz döneminde türkiye i̇le gelişmekte olan ülkeler arasında krizin yayılma etkisinin i̇ncelenmesine yönelik bir çalışma cumhuriyet üniversitesi i̇ktisadi ve i̇dari bilimler fakültesi dergisi, 15(1), 21. 2014. http://dergipark.gov.tr/download/article-file/92555 18 the management of border area between indonesia republic and papua new guinea in sota region of merauke district yohanis endes teturan* sri suwitri* yacob warella* hardi warsono* * diponegoro university, faculty of social and political science, prodidap@gmail.com article history: accepted 05 february 2019 available online 30 april 2019 keywords: security management, prosperity, border area, facility, infrastructure a b s t r a c t the border management in all of indonesia areas is one of integral part of state management; it is implemented by comprehensive approach consist of three dimensions of border management as follows prosperity, security, and environmental management of state border area, implemented by applying an approach oriented to security and environment. this research aims to analyze security management and community prosperity of border area in sota region called ri-ping of merauke district. quantitative research is one of research method by collecti ng data and information gotten directly from informant through observation process, interview and documentation on a field notification form, interviewing transcript, empirical data documentation. the security research analysis becomes a successful key of a state onto keeping community sovereignty of state stability being the main support in a border area to increase human resources, economy competitiveness, and community’s prosperity become main target of the state security sovereignty. the lack quality of human resource as an impact of minimum facility and infrastructure of education is as well as healthy. the security of the border area faces various obstacles, the minimum facility and infrastructure consist of road infrastructure hasn’t been sufficient, the wide region with characteristics of a difficult border to reach necessary means of supporting surveillance activities to bolster security in the border area. community’s prosperity frontier regions suffered a failed human resource, skills are still low, and the economy of the community is traditional. introduction the management of the border throughout indonesia region is an integral part of the management of the state, the management of the border meant as border handling management activities. understanding of the border, in a grand design 2011-2025, defined as the limit of the area of the country and the area of the border, so that the terminology "border management" need to constantly reads in terms of the management of borders and the border. in indonesia 2008 was about the state territory, then the border management of an effort meant how to move people through the border area and potential assignment program planning. drafting policy needs budget implementation, coordination, evaluation and supervision as well as over its handling of the country's borders and border regions to achieve the objectives as set out. three approaches to the management of the border are as follows. 1) the management of the border done with three-dimensional approach in a comprehensive manner; 2) the welfare, safety, and environmental management of the country's borders and border regions, 3) carried out using an approach that is oriented on welfare, which is implemented in harmony with the other two approaches-oriented safety and the environment. 1) dimension approach to welfare (prosperity approach), is primarily the efforts made based on the 19 development of economic and trade activities to improve the welfare of the community in the border area. the development of economic and trade activities, directed towards flagship commodities based on each region's borders and beyond, according to different characteristics and potential quality. 2). dimension approach to security (security approach), looked at the border area as a contiguous area directly with other countries. in addition, the territorial waters boundary role vital for the economy of many nations because of being the path of world trade at once in it saves natural resources very large 3). dimension approach to the environment, (environment approach) is looking at and paying attention to aspects of the environment as an important factor in the management of the border is important. in maintaining, the perspective of the sustainability of the environment and minimize the impact that will be caused by development activities in the border region into the gates of the economic activities and trade with neighboring countries. a fundamental problem in the border areas can be complicated and require extra attention from the central government or local governments and even the parties’ corporate world. this is because in addition to problems related to human resources, security and law enforcement, illegal trade, means of transport and infrastructure and the integrity of indonesia, it also closely related to the well-being of communities in border areas. broadly speaking, there are issues and problems that have emerged surrounding the meraukepng border region can divide into several parts as follows. table 1 the strategy issues and urge into developing border area of papuapng no strategy issues and urge problem illustrations 1 the lack of human resource quality still low, the human resources (hr) quality in the border region has become a strategic issue/problem that needs urgent attention from the government, because the level of quality of human resources available will be the deciding factor in an attempt an increase in the well-being of its community. 2 escaping area of the outlaw still lack the number of defense and security apparatus coupled with the responsibility of a disproportionate area became one of the causes of the low level of enforcement of the la. in addition to social conditions in png effects on area crime in high numbers of the border. due to excellent transport, access is still difficult, and then the border area became a safe haven for the perpetrators of endeared/criminal (crime) in both countries. 3 the illegal limit passer to png & reluctantly returned to indonesia republic in the past many citizens of indonesia into png for political reasons, they now are not acceptable any more, though not much. gradually they began to return to indonesia 4 illegal trading due to the lack of existing infrastructure at the border, including the means of transport and has resulted in the obstacle line of the economy and distribution of goods/services toward the border area. otherwise the distribution of relatively is easier with png, supported by adequate means. due to the lack is a circulation of goods/products derived from png that does not come with document government (illegal trading). 5 there are still customary rights (customs) the treaty of the colonial government which splits into two regions of new guinea (indonesia and png), performed by pulling straight lines are astronomical, without looking at the existing socio -cultural conditions, a result is ownership/property (land, gardens) according to the right customary society asunder, there in indonesia republic and there is in png format. for this, it does serious handling. for example, claims for damages against the community land for mining, is actually finished, but the local community continued demand again. 6 png residents living in indonesia territory of, and vice versa the lack of transportation facilities and infrastructure to the area of the border makes access from the central government of indonesia be very restricted, but other sided access to the png government easier. as the results, there is somewhere the government of png running effectively in indonesia republic. because the png government is running, then the population claiming to be citizens of png though resided in the territory of indonesia. 7 having 2 identity cards namely (ktp) doubleri and png economic and trade activities of illegal trading in the border area of languid, this has attracted the attention of the citizens who live in the two areas that border to conduct trading activity in the area, or between countries. with so many residents who live on the border, have 2 id cards (ktp) & 2 citizenships (indonesia and png). 20 8 boundary (limits) between citizens of the indonesia republic– png the border at ri-png, which is extends from northern skouw, stretching to the south until bensbach river estuary. geography and topography conditions quite difficult traversed less attention from the government, especially against the existence of the boundary (limits) between countries where is very inadequate. 9 the auction and traditional markets at the border illegal trafficking (illegal trading) & considerable market potential in the border area, demanding the government to undertake measures towards a constructive policy, problems of trade and other economic activities, in order to society can legitimately be active (legal) & regularly. 10 the road network (infrastructure area) a) very limited cross-border road network in merauke, jayapura, boven, digoel, keerom, dan pegunungan bintang, the lesser papuan trans chain is adequate, the badly damaged road conditions b) network of centers-production center and primary productive are areas of plantations and agriculture (rice, rubber, cocoa, coconut, etc.) 11 illegal lugging rampant illegal logging, a result of the resource management in particular forest resource done by the community border, is extremely detrimental to good government or other community. besides the destruction of forest as a source of major community, life also adversely affected by loss of income from the forestry sector estimate at us reached 600 billion in a year from the forestry sector. 12 spatial border region in the border region development plan pays attention to spatial rule, this is because a good spatial locality or area border is paying in any planning come within the border of the future. spatial as paying plans covers various aspects, among others; social aspects, economic aspects, political aspects, cultural and social aspects, including planning against small islands, particularly in the border region between governments should not overlook. small islands are particularly vulnerable to geopolitical and security issues (the separatist disturbance) many of which run into the smaller islands, as well as the problem of social, economic, and cultural, because the purlieus must get priority handling the government comprehensively. 13 infrastructure and settlement 1. the limited means of the community's basic necessity (water, electricity, and telecommunications) and transportation (roads, village markets, boat tethers village) 2. housing in the area of border management, garbage, the need for the access road out towards the road existence of kasibua and lisibia, in boven digoel region 14 wasur national park management the pattern of natural resources utilization in particular for border regions, which have a typology of protected areas and conservation, must have a pattern of resource utilization that pays attention to environmental sustainability and ecosystem. wasur national park forest damage would have resulted in damage to natural ecosystems, loss of biodiversity, and the potential loss of a source of income from the area's natural forest tourism sector of wasur national park. in addition to note an increase in the well-being of the communities in wasur national park and vicinity source:https://www.google.co.id/?gws_rd=cr,ssl&ei=q0rgv4kc4yavwtvvjcycg#q=isupembangunan+perbatasan+papua+dan+png. accessed in march 22, 2016 in the development of border regions of new guinea-png border region has become a strategic issue/problem that needs attention public understanding is a significant number of human beings who have the same thinking, feelings, expectations, attitudes and actions that are right and good based on the values of the norm they have (pratikno 2007). public administration, according to (keban 2004) was the process by which the resources and personnel of the public organized and coordinated to formulate, implement, and manage (manage) the decisions in public policy. while (keban 2004) stated that the term public administration showed how the government acts as a single agent in power or as a regulator, an active and always take the initiative in organizing or taking steps and initiatives, which. according to their importance or good for the public, because it assumed that the community is a party that is passive, less capable, and should be subject to and accept anything that set by the government. the administration theory describes efforts to define universal functions carried out by the direction and principles that constitute a good leadership practices. (henry 2012) stated that by using the approach top management administration, namely an approach from the top to the bottom level of the leadership. (henry 2012) classified to three large donations for the administration and management, namely (a) the activities of the organization, (b) the functions or duties of the leadership, (c) the principles of administration or management. 1. literature review a. supporting factor of border management the border region is a strategic area in maintaining the territorial integrity of the state, then the necessary management https://www.google.co.id/?gws_rd=cr,ssl&ei=q0rgv4kc4yavwtvvjcycg#q=isupembangunan+perbatasan+papua+dan+png 21 specifically. the management of the country's borders and the border needed to provide legal certainty regarding the scope of the country area. the border area became an important supporting factor in either always be discourse on border area is as follows. 1. there is no national policy and strategy development of the border area can be a reference for a variety programs and activities. 2. approach to security is more prominent than a welfare approach, as it demands in the past. while it indeed much going revolt around the area of the border. 3. handling the border is still partial and ad hoc so not optimal. 4. there has been no coordination between agenciesrelated institutions at the level of the regions and the center. 5. communities on the border of generally is poor because the accumulation of several factors, namely the low quality of human resources, the lack of supporting infrastructure, low productivity of society and yet optimal utilization of natural resources. 6. the number of the door borders (cross-border postal inspectors and postal cross-border) is still very limited, thus reducing the chances of an increase in social and economic relations between the neighboring countries with indonesia. 7. access to land and sea border area is very inadequate and the means of communication is very limited, so that the orientation of the community tends to neighboring countries. this condition can cause a degradation of the nationalism of the community frontier. 8. the basic social and economic means are very limited. because of the population in the border area trying to obtain social services and try to filfill the necessity of its economy to the area of the border neighbors. 9. the authority handling the region still widely issued government agencies at the center. 10. the coordinate’s border management does not complete on the agency at the national level and the regional area. 11. management of natural resources is not optimal and future-oriented. 12. lack of infrastructure security and defense apparatus activity causes security and defense on the border is not yet optimal. surveillance along the border of the continent as well as maritime is also weak, so frequent transgression of the boundaries of the country by the people of both countries. 13. there are regional demands to manage the border area along with the introduction of decentralized and autonomous region. they are demanding revenue from cross border supervisory post can be one of income for local governments. 14. there is a considerable investment bid, but stuck to the limited funds the construction of facilities and infrastructure provided the government and the local government. b. the barrier factor of border management indonesia's strategic geographical location has the potential threat of the future will be more complex. meanwhile, on the other hand national security stability has not been strong. indonesia is still experiencing periods of transition and consolidation (political, economic, social, cultural, security and defense) towards a democratic state. the form of the threat to state sovereignty's happening currently are making a multi-dimensional progress along with the development of science, technology, information, communication, and therefore the whole nation of indonesia is required to overcome any threats, challenges, barriers, and interference, whether it comes from within and outside the country. the sovereignty and integrity of price is so dead, so the effort to keep the country intact and sovereign becomes very important. this article will aim to analyze what factors and how the role of the key factors in maintaining national defense. 1. the potential intervention of foreign culture and ideology; 2. human trafficking, especially women and children; 3. socio-cultural conflict 4. stretch the area of the border is between the indonesia republic with 10 neighboring countries is extensive and varied, ranging from the study of type inland up the type of the outermost islands. this resulted in a range of control and handling border region face challenges and obstacles that are heavy, both in the provision of the resources of the fund as well as humans. 5. weak enforcement of the law against thieves, smugglers of goods, the sale of human beings, and 22 piracy, smuggling of arms, smuggling of human beings as well as the theft of fish. 6. there is a difference in the level of well-being with neighboring countries such as malaysia. 7. there is no legal certainty for the principals of development, so there is no base footing for the perpetrators of the development in the area of the border. 8. weak enforcement of the law against the thieves’ wood (illegal logging), a smuggler of goods, human trafficking, hijacking and piracy, smuggling of arms, smuggling of human beings (such as labor, the baby, and women), as well as the theft of fish. 9. natural resource exploitation occurs in unrestrained due to weak law enforcement. 10. lack of infrastructure security and defense apparatus activity causes security and defense on the border is not yet optimal. surveillance along the border of the continent as well as maritime is also weak, so frequent transgression of the boundaries of the country by the people of both countries. 11. problems with neighboring countries, among others, have not been clearly and firmly continent and maritime boundary line; how to deal with the anglers of both countries in violation of the territory of the country; and there is the traditional boundary of the passer due to kinship, culture and customs of the similarity of the two countries. 12. the problem of the development of the area along the border, because the authority is the management central government permission must be seen and a very limited funds. according to (guo 2015) stated that the border or boundary refers to limiting an area of definition and political living spaces it has a broader meaning in political issues and economic geography of the frontier although both usually refers to cases particularly from the border boundary to divide the sovereignty of independent states. whereas the area of borders is commonly known as the space geography remains and is close to the border line in the socio-economic effect is significant due to the limit. simply put, the boundary defined as a legal-political unit, which has various functions of the unit for a country. as stated by (wuryandari et al. 2017) and (blanchard 2018) in the context of such understanding, borders had a wide range of functions. it includes as follows: (1) the functions of military defense; (2) economic function; (3) the constitutive function (4) the functions of the national identity; (5) the functions of national unity (6) function of the development of the nation state and (7) the function achievement of democratic interests. although dominated by realism, an approach that emphasizes on the interests of the state, not the individual, but also incorporate the concept of the blanchard economic, social and cultural aspects in the management of the border. these seven functions in this conceptual by blanchard, requiring the involvement of the various elements in the country as the military, police, civilian officials, and the general public, especially the residents around the border in the management of the border. defense function of course is the dominant forces of the air force; economics functions run by economists (merchants, farmers, and policy makers at the national level as well as at the regional level). constitutive function is the task of the police, immigration officers and law and government apparatus areas; the function of national identity involves all of the above as well as the officers with the public, especially the border areas. the function of national unity is part of the central government and the regions and security apparatus (tni and polri); the function of the nation state and its construction is the duty of all parties referred to above, including the citizens of the community. while the domestic interests of the achievement function, are the policy makers of the border officer, in this case the central government, which exercised by the government landscape? (mann 2013), stated that the elements of the state should protected consists of four important things, are as follows. (1) ideology, how to seek protection against state ideology from possible infiltration of state ideology; (2) how the economy maintaining continuity of economic activity in the territory of a state not to bothered by the forces (external or internal) in-time damaging the national economy. (3) how the military defend the sovereignty and integrity of the country from various threats (mainly external forces), and (4) political, that is how to maintain the political identity and unity of the state and the nation from a variety threat both of external as well as internal. (indonesia 2008) about the country area, distinguish the borders into the country's territorial boundaries and the area of the border. the boundaries of the country are the boundary line is the separation of the sovereignty of a country, which based upon international law. whereas the area of borders was, a part of the territory of a country located on the side of indonesia in all areas with other countries, in this case the territorial boundaries of countries in different border areas by land, in town to face directly with neighboring countries. the area of the border according to (uu no.27 2007) and (pu 2008) is a district/ city territory geographically and demography bordering the neighboring 23 country and or the high seas. (tirtosudarmo 2005), citing (ricklefs 2015), mentioned that the border of the country of what is now indonesia built by the colonial military forces (netherlands). at the expense of human lives, money, destruction of the environment, separated bonds social and overturning the dignity and human freedom (in (wahyuni, ardhana, and sunarta 2008): more (gutierrez and martinez 2006) cited by (tirtosudarmo 2005) theorizes that there are four types of border as follows: 1. alienated borderland: a border region that is not the case, cross-border activity because of the war condition, conflict, and domination of nationalism, the ideological hatred, and hostility to religion, cultural differences and ethnic rivalries 2. coexistent borderland; a border region where regular cross-border conflict is suppressed to the level which can be controlled though unresolved issues that arise for example with regard to the issue of the ownership of strategic resources at the border. 3. independent borderland; a region on both sides of the border are symbolically linked by a relatively stable international relation. the second part of the population in the border area, also in the two countries are engaged in various activities mutually beneficial economy and more or less in an equivalent level, for example, one party has production facilities while others having the cheap labor. 4. integrated borderland; a border region that economic activity is an ebbing away of nationalism, unity in both countries and both of them joined in the close alliance. management is the process of how power moves the support is there to meet the necessity and the problems of effectively and efficiently according to the purpose. tasbara, showed on the activity "across the dividing between the two neighborly countries" with a set of rules of international law and the agreement of the two countries. thus, the power support border in order to embody trip and control over the needs and problems of the country as a region boundary crosser often appropriate and effective rule of law and the agreement of the two countries were neighbors (sumarsono 2004) (ullman, jones, and boggs 2006), in a book entitled boundary making: a handbook for statesmen, treaty editors, and boundary commissioners, formulating a theory related to the management of the border. in theory, jones split scope management into four parts, namely: allocation, delimitation, demarcation, admin/management specific to the scope of the fourth part (administration), the development has shifted towards the border management or management of such scope to four interlinked to each other, signaling to these fourth are series of interrelated decision-making in practice. theoretically, the management of the border is composed of four (4) phases, namely the allocation, delimitation (determination of limits), demarcation (enforcement of limits), and administration (management development) image as shown below. allocation phase, collies, and democracy more related aspect is the management boundary area of the country (boundary line). while the administration more related stages in development activities in the border area (boundary area). figure 1: these four models of boundary making theory source: (ullman, jones, and boggs 2006) allocation (allocation) defined as an area of coverage of the countries, including the where areas bordering neighboring countries. subject coverage of the region, then in the international law, has regulated on how real a country gain or loss. related to indonesia, then the scope the entire territory of indonesia territory inherited from the netherlands. this is in accordance with the principle of uti possidetis juris international law, which states that a state inherited the ruler of invader. (b) the determination limits (delimitation) after coverage area known, the next step is to identify the areas of agricultural areas overlapping or limit should specify with the neighboring countries. as one example of the overlapping region is the fact that the width of the strait of singapore did not reach 24 nautical miles, while unclos entitles the states parties to be able to have as wide a territorial sea of 12 nautical miles. due to overlapping claims wide sea area between coastal states around the strait of singapore, then in accordance with the (un 1982), coastal states must do negotiation borders between the two countries. to limit the jurisdiction of the sea, according to (“code of conduct for responsible fisheries” 2012) set also the need for negotiations between countries that limits assignment have overlapping claims. related to the determination of the limits of state land, the negotiations also became the way that taken by the bordering countries. (c) affirmation of the limit (demarcation) or boundary of the affirmation in the field is the next stage after the boundary line fixed by the state government that the mutual borders. as already mentioned above, in a treaty allocati on delimitat ion administr asi/ managem ent demarcati on 24 limits, in addition to the mentioned point coordinates the use of the point limit, attach a map illustration of an agreed boundary line. due to the nature of the boundary line, which is very important, as a marker to start and end the rights and obligations of a country, then the layout would have been in the field need defined. this done by installing a sign of use of the sign boundary along the lines of the limits enforced. associated with the context of the maritime border, the affirmation of the boundaries by using boundary marks in the middle of the sea is an uncommon thing to do. however, this does not cover the possibility (if necessary) to put the sound of buoyancy (buoy) limits or as a marker of both countries conduct a joint survey of the boundary mapping. (d) administration/management development in the management of the border area is good according to the theory of boundary making, administration/management development borders can be implemented are overlapping with the demarcation. it is based on consideration in fact often faced obstacles and dynamics that occur in the field concerning the aspects of economic, social, cultural and political. so often done in segmentation, and administration/management activities go hand in hand with the implementation affirmation of the limit field. because this step is part of the follow-up of the separation of rights and obligations are between countries due to the appearance of the border region. within the scope of the administration and management of development, the volume of work in handling the most borders, because it involves the use of multi-sector and integrated planning is required. almost all aspects of construction, from the aspects of the political, economic, social, cultural, legal, infrastructure, the environment, defense and security would exist at this stage. from the side of the bilateral, both bordering countries are very common to conduct cooperation in various sectors. the border has a military-strategic functions, constitutive, identity, national unity, national development and domestic interests. (brunet-jailly 2017) explained that border management should give attention to the four elements of border security as follows: 1) influence of political factors in communities in the border region. musty covers the extent to which local actors give it influence in determining the border between the governance of the country. 2) government policies of countries bordered it. this aspect is concerning horizontal relations (between government agency equivalents) and vertical (between government agencies with the hierarchy of the different authorities; central, provincial, district/city, sub-district, and village/region). horizontal relationships appear to characterize the nature of governance multi-level governance such as european union and asean in the setting of policy joint immigration (visas, passports, and others). meanwhile the vertical becomes relationship characteristic of policy arranged bilaterally, between the two bordering countries directly. 3) market forces and trade flows. this aspect is very important for the selection of the governance of the border because of concerns the economic function of the border. countries that give priority to free market, usually encourages the opening of selonggar border might be in order to support market forces and encourage trade flows between countries. 4) typical culture community is at the border. the typical culture of the musty belonging to communities in the border region also refers to what by (brunet-jailly 2017) called the local context. market forces and trade flows. this aspect is very important for the governance selection of the border because of concerns the economic function at border. countries that give priority to free market, usually encourages the opening at selonggar border might be in order to support market forces and encourage trade flows between countries. figure 2: border management model source: (brunet-jailly 2017) the fourth element of the governance of the border above has an important value, which can used as a base in an attempt to find patterns of managing border security on the border with indonesia. the determination of whether the border should open (soft border) or closed (hard border) is a challenge of its own. as mentioned, consideration of free trade could not fully used as a reason to open the border because of the existence of mere trade. thus, the state should be required to more or less closes the government policy that borders directly horizontal and vertical relationships based on objective the influence of politics on the border community participatory management with attention to local communities market forces and trade flows the balance is between the principles of free trade with a work by looking for illegal trading of human beings etc. border community culture managers who are sensitive to local context (customs, culture, ethnicity, languages) 25 border to minimize the existence of security threats, both of which are traditional (military strategy) as well as non-traditional (drug trafficking, human trafficking, smuggling and others). thus, though the border needs opened to ensure smooth traffic, but also the need to limit the levels of openness based on security considerations. then, in globalization era, even the border still have important meanings, as it is said (helliwell 2000): "despite some economic integration, borders continue to ' matter ' because they not only delineate the boundary of governments but also bound the social networks and most human interaction. in addition, the internal situation of the country as is said to jean-marc blanchard also determines the formation of the inter-state border governance. for countries that enter into what made by blanchard categorized as low states, i.e. a country experiencing a legitimacy crisis is acute, the absence of security politics, inflexible pieces and order, weak security apparatus, a lack an adequate military force to defend the country. it is a priority in the management of the border is (1) maximize the security in the country, (2) reduce the bad influences from the outside (3) prevent citizens to escape out of the country, and (4) optimize the border to protect the country's development efforts and the nation. (brunet-jailly 2017) 2. research method analyze the management of the security and welfare of the community area of the border district of sota ri-png in merauke district. research is an in-depth observation to discover, understand and test as well as analyze something particular objects with the methodical ways or using the scientific method. methods the study according to (silalahi 2010) the chosen research methods is a very important part and formed a success whether a research. the research method is the guide of researchers in conducting research. symptoms of an object examined objectively and formulated rational and systematic way with research methods. to ensure discovery of scientific truth, the method that gives the precise workings and requirements are very strict. thus means the research method not only provides an opportunity as big as for the discovery of the truth objectively, but also so that knowledge and its development have a high scientific value. methods of collecting data is quantitative i.e. data that is expressed in the form of numbers. while qualitative data expressed in the form of words, sentences, and images. the primary data-that is, the data and information obtained directly from the informant through the process of observation, interview and through the process of documentation in the form of field notes, transcripts of interviews, documents other empirical data. the coordination strengthens the data (data validation). condense data is part of the analysis of the data, in the form of analyses that sharpen and set data types, focusing and eliminating data in such a way in order it can finally verified and drawn conclusions. the second main stage of the analysis is the presentation of data. in general, the presentation of data is a process of organizing, assembling and consolidation of information that allows the conclusion and withdrawal activity. the form of presentation of the data that would use is a form of narrative texts. with the consideration, that any data that appears is always closely related to other data, then the expected any data understood and is inseparable from the setting. the presentation data used to interpret and take summary (inference) which is the meaning of the data collected in order to answer the problem. the last stages in the model analysis of this data are interesting summary and verification. summary in question is the definition of the data that has collected. observation taken is gradually such as. first, drawing up summary is while (tentative), but with the increase of the data, it is necessary to do the verification data i.e. relearn existing data and conduct peer-briefings with experts so that the data obtained are more precise and objective, both pull the knot the end. summary of withdrawal carried out by comparing the way of statement agjusment of respondents with the meaning contained in the research issues conceptually. secondary data is data already available at government agencies or social institutions associated with it. the data in the form of references, documents, guidelines for implementation of the program, reports the results of research and scientific writing are used to support this research, including: data about the description of the location of the research, and about the condition geography (broad and geographical location as well as climate), population, economic, socio-cultural circumstances (facility and infrastructure). data collection techniques in the research observation, it implemented through interviews, documentation and studies. in the process of collecting data, humane approach between researchers and data source becomes the main instrument in this study. observation is a deep observation activity against the phenomenon and real events that happened in the field directly relevant to the issue of the prosperity management, the area of the border district of the indonesia republic between sota -png in merauke district. in-depth interviews (in-depth interview), this kind of interview techniques implemented with all informants to obtain primary data. this interview was conducted with information in a depth manner was directly involved with the lives of informants for free by using the guidelines of the questions beforehand so that the atmosphere is lively and done many times. study documentation is done in full, complete and intact to enrich research data through documents such as reports, regulations, instructions, treatise meeting, decision letters as well 26 as earlier research, and available on the agencies to obtain data from various parties. the selection of informants are the ones that are on the scope of research, and able to provide information on the situation and conditions of research. the informant is a person who represents the unit of analysis to obtain data accurately and representative, then at need informants to understand and related to the research that examined. data collection with an in-depth interview technique, observation and study of the documentation done by specifying the appropriate informants in research and represents the unit of analysis. thus, the informants in this study are: table 1. research informant selection source: managed to research necessity, 2016 result and discussion security management term (security approach) of the border area safety factor (security approach) is the territory of the region of the border became a top priority in order to maintain the unitary state of the indonesia republic with neighboring papua new guinea. security became the key to the success of a country in maintaining the sovereignty of the nation security stability so the cantilever major border areas for the improvement of human resources, economic competitiveness, and the welfare of the citizens of the community are the main objective in maintaining the security of the state. the increasing of human resources in sota district and potential development in the framework of the flagship as well as improvement of the economy and the welfare of the citizens in border area. for it is the role of citizens in cooperation with the indonesian army forces in maintaining the security of the border region in the framework of the unitary state of the indonesia republic intact and papua new guinea. traditionally there should be a wide range of services and agencies involved in the implementation of the border control and various inspections take place at the border. the border area of sota district in domination by the border security forces stationed along the border starting from elikobel district up to sota district,. this indicates that the border in merauke with the png security approach more dominant against a welfare approach (prosperity approach) and the approach of the environment (environment approach) in the area of the border district. the border intepreted were according to (hersey and blanchard 1996) in (ulfa, fimmastuti, and nia rahmah 2018). in the context of the understanding of the border has a function in a variety of functions; military defense function, economic function, the constitutive function, national identity function, national unity function, development country function as well as nation and the achievement of democratic interests. occurring functions of defense and security is the responsibility of the air force to keep the border, whereas the social economic function should give a role to the community so that it can function implemented as well as divisions facilitate oversight, while the function of national unity given a role to the central government and the government landscape. preferred security approaches of the border region so that the welfare of the citizens of the community and the environment neglected, so that the management of social welfare has always worked in the area of the border issue so that needs described. individual commandments themselves problem occurs, it is brought to the attention of the central government and local governments in formulating policies and program plans are right on target so that it can deliver benefits to the citizens of the community who live in area the border of sota district. these benefits need facilitated with a wide range of program activities that could bring the impact of the change to the citizens of the community itself. prosperity management term (prosperity approach) in the border area management welfare of the border region in order to fulfill the community necessity by looking at various issues that always haunts the lives of those in the district border area will certainly have an impact in maintaining the security and order the border region with neighboring country of papua new guinea. because welfare is very important thing is concerned with the life of the no main informants tranquilization informants supporting informants 1 regional tourism promotion agency of merauke district customary/religious figures ➢ district head of sota 2 regional officials who know about border issues in merauke community group ➢ koramil of sota district head of sota ➢ polsek of sota ➢ sota’s immigration ➢ wasur national park 27 community itself, as synonymous with wellbeing poverty constant affects the lives of citizens in the area of the border. it need identified the community necessity and excellence in the border area easier to map necessity and program activity that is the basis for solving the problems faced by the community. so that the needs of the community can filled as well as encourage developing potential flagship premises that made to community needs so easily at the push to accelerate economic growth in t he border area. it is very important to boost the economy of the border be developed and can be utilized as a potential flagship border area. the border area has always categorized as the poorest regions underdeveloped; it is already a public consumption towards the welfare of the people living in the border area. the border area remains underdeveloped and becomes a reflection for the people of indonesia with neighboring countries, according to (andrinof a. chaniago 2015) of nawa cita president and vice president to create the program priority of its rule for 5 (five) years called with nawa cita or 9 program priorities. the ninth priority programs have been listed on the agenda of priority development (andrinof a. chaniago 2015) 2015-2019. this program initiated to indicate priority roads changes towards a sovereign indonesia politically, as well as independent in the field of economics and personality in culture. called nawa cita, at three points called "building of indonesia by strengthening suburban areas and villages in the framework of the unitary state". there are aspects of the management of the state border is thick enough, which means that during the next five years, the management of the state border is given more attention. as for the important points referred to in priority to these, three in nawa cita goals are as follows. the laying is foundations of the start of decentralization asymmetrical. development starts with the need to put the basics of asymmetrical decentralization policy by implementing the policy alignments (affirmative policy) to the areas, which are still notably lags. (a) the area of the border and outlying islands; (b) the area left behind and isolated; (c) the village left behind; (d) the areas that government has not been adequate capacity in providing public services. development approach consists in: (i) the approach of security (security approach), and (ii) the approach of increasing the welfare of society (prosperity approach), which focused on the 10 national strategic activities center (pksn) and 187 sub location priority in 41 counties/cities and 13 provinces. equitable development is between regions especially village, eastern indonesia; the development of economic growth centers (pksn) in the framework of equitable development between regions, with the goal of reducing the gap between regions and social disparities. poverty reduction: a comprehensive social protection policy in order to make the people less able to secure fulfillment of its necessity, it is especially the ministry of health and the need for staples, in the event of an economic shock or shocks social happening. provisioning is against the underprivileged and vulnerable residents in the form of entrepreneurial skills as well as technical skills to enhance their competitiveness in the productive economic activities. poverty reduction development of border areas development starts from the border because the border area of the welfare of the community during these lagging compared to other areas. inequality of development and development results illustrate the magnitude of the still poverty and vulnerability. objectives is to realize the construction of the poverty reduction that enjoyed by all occupations. prosperity management term the low quality of human resources because of the lack of infrastructure and facilities in the field of education and health care, resulted in the quality of the human resources community in large areas of the border are still low. the society has not acquired the services of health and education, as they should due to distance from settlements with the existing facilities. the border region security approaches are more prominent than on the welfare of the community approach to the economic development in the border areas will be hard to do because the economy is still traditional in nature. low levels of education, skills and health of the community is one of the main factors that hinder the economic development of border regions to be able to compete with the country's neighbors. utilization of the resource so that it is able to optimize the potential of natural resources so that it can be used by residents of the border area. security supporting factor of the border area nothing availability of means of defense and security-level battalions are in the county border. in anticipation of the era of globalization and the opening of international access in various sectors are especially regarding defense and security. merauke regency which has an interstate border area is still very vulnerable to breakaway disorders and other possible criminal actions led to the international issue would be detrimental the nation of indonesia. it therefore deemed important to construct facilities of defense and security adequately both in terms of physical as well as the band's style. (gunawan 2017) in a study analyzing about "indonesia a boundary line management effort to ensure the security of citizens" security sector reform discourse is often addressed only on the reform of security actors i.e. military, police, and intelligence. on the reform of the security sector is creating a security architecture that provides security to citizens of indonesia as a whole within a framework of democratic supervision. do reformation security sector not only mean 28 reforming the roles, functions, status and control over the security sector actors, but also the synergize capabilities of the national security and defense systems that exist with threats security globally. the defense of state security might clarify in legislation of indonesia republic no. 3 in 2002 about the defense of country. in chapter iii the organization of defense of country article 7 (1) the defense of the state, as stipulated in article 6, organized by the government and prepared early with the defense system of the country. (2) state defense system in the face of military threat puts indonesia national army as the main component supported by the backup components and supporting components. (3) state defense system in the face of threats nonmilitary put government agencies outside of the field of defense as the main element, according to the form and nature of the threat faced by supported other elements of the nation power. it explained that security defense with a variety threats and the development of information technology is a very rapidly in the current globalization era, it should security defense function is always alert to the situation and condition occuring. the multidimensional nature of the threats that can be sourced, from either the problems of ideological, political, economic, cultural or social security issues associated with international crimes, including terrorism, illegal immigrants, the danger narcotics, theft of natural resources, pirates, and destruction of the environment. the availability of human resources becomes essential to drive the wheels of the community economy in managing natural resources. (campbell and terry 2006) in (effendi 2006) argued that management is a process that consists of typical actions planning, organizing, direction, and control are conducted to determine and achieve the target that have been determined through the utilization of human resources and other resources. human resources have a very important role to determine the organizational planning is going well, as well as control any activities that have done so that it could achieved. in addition to human resources also required other resources to support the achievement objectives of the organization, a process that is in want. merauke regency has the widest farmland in papua province. in addition, local governments are promoting government programs to improve agricultural production in order to merauke could become the "national granary". the rice production of merauke region in 2015 amounting to 153,661.09 tons with a total area of 32,516.88 ha and crop productivity amount 4.73 tons/ha. compared with the previous year, acreage, harvest, and the production of rice in merauke region declined (eben e. siadari 27ad). continuity to strive for increased productivity so that farmers are able to encourage increased economic of agriculture sector, this indicates that the government keep trying to merauke region could supply rice in southern new guinea in merauke region of png country bordering also the asia pacific area. table 2 extensive harvesting, production and productivity of rice and vegetable in merauke region 2015 productions (ton) vast area (ha) productions (ton) productivity (ton/ha) rice 32.516,88 153.661,09 4,73 corn 370,00 1.110,20 3,00 soybean 645,00 774,10 1,20 peanuts 354 710 2 green beans 88,00 153,70 1,75 cassavas 407 7.977 20 sweet potatoes 558,00 6.708,20 12,02 source: (eben e. siadari 27ad) restricting factors management of border area based on data collected from (bappenas 2006), the number of violations of territorial boundaries well done by citizens as well as citizens of indonesia republic-png caused confuses the pin state boundaries. the length of the boundary lines of indonesia republic-png papua about 760 kilometers and a pillar of the limit of 52 pieces, so that the distance between two adjoining boundary pillars reach over 14 kilometers. the distance between the two pillars of the limits far enough it becomes difficult to distinguish the area both of countries. these conditions make the boundary violations committed by both the citizens of the 29 indonesia republic of as well as png citizens is very likely a violation this implemented accidentally. however, it is indeed very difficult to not do violation of boundaries between countries with the number of the boundary pillar is still very limited and very difficult topographic conditions. the development of human resources quality of border regions is as a whole indeed very low due to various factors, among others, the influence of the environment of the community, the awareness of the community is still lacking. the economic factor family bandwagon effect and various other factors that directly impact the development of the border areas, the human resource community access to education is still low that directly impact the viability of local communities, access to educational facilities and infrastructure as well as supporting infrastructure are still limited. to improve the quality of human resources needs for various efforts from the central government, the provincial government and the government of district/city because it directly related to life community quality. the need for government support in the form of program activities trainings in order to be able to dig up potentials community as well as to improve the human resources in the border area region. therefore, the ability to drive the human resources potential of the natural resources belonging managed, utilized and developed to fulfill these community’s necessity. natural resources are the leading potential that could manage and utilize the maximum for the prosperity of local communities in the border area region. development and natural resource are mapping and other flagship resource in order to be in utilizing for the region of the border so that it was able to encourage the of community life quality around this border area, aims to develop the existing potentialities in this border area. facility and infrastructure of road, education, and health limitations and infrastructure barriers in the development of the border region should have a direct impact to the communities who live on the border. infrastructure of road infrastructure are the main means of liaison between villages, districts and urban as the only access to the community in activities. in addition to the road also becomes the community's response to access education and health facilities are important with regard to the basic needs of society as this is an element that cannot separated by their lives. therefore, the various facilty and infrastructure that should fulfilled by the government to facilitate the community living the border area. the border area is vulnerable with many limitations and the question of whether its education, health, hampered due to the inability of the community to access such facilities. conclusion and suggestion first, the pattern of the border area management of the political ideology of indonesia republic and papua new guinea in merauke region have not done well because it happens to overlap of powers between sectors so that the management pattern of political ideology does not run as expected, low public knowledge against the rules and regulations. applying in the border area so that the understanding of the people against the state boundary line is very low because direct impact to life community in the border area. the pattern of the district border security of management experience consists of various barriers to improve the quality of human and institutional resources, and limited facilities and infrastructure. in the form of facilities, means of road infrastructure has not been adequate, the vastness of the territory with the characteristics of the border that is difficult to reach the necessary means of supporting surveillance activity to support in the border area. prosperity management pattern of community border region experienced a failed human resources, access to education, health and infrastructure, inadequate basic skills level is still low, the economy of the community are traditional security and more prominent than on the welfare of the community border area. environmental management pattern regions border, are traditional, the exploitation of natural resources are in excessive (illegal logging box), (illegal trading), customary rights ownership culture over land and give recognition as well as protection settings of the customary rights of the community border between indonesia republic-png in merauke region. second, analysis of restricting and supporting factors of the management of the border area between indonesia republic-png in merauke region indicates as follows: 1. supporting factor of human resources has a very important role moving all elements considering of border area in the development process. the potential of natural resources has not managed with good result of the capabilities and skills of the community still limited to manage natural resources, availability of infrastructure and facilities infrastructure became a solution to unlock the region border area between isolation and access the community in fulfilling local communities’ necessity. besides the security of the border, area became important to support the development process of border area indonesia republic -png in merauke region. 2. restricting factors of limited human resources in managing the border area became the very best factors against the development process due to access to 30 education and health is still low so as inhibit the increase in the human resources area of the border district. the lack of road facility and infrastructure becoming a barrier in the development process, both physical and nonphysical development so that directly impact public access will be education, health, infrastructure, settlements and the limited means of the basic necessities, electricity, clean water, and telecommunications. the customs and tradition of the local community to join in the development process there are also ownership (customary rights) that becomes restricting factor of community development process and the gap between the border areas with the city. the lack of transportation facility and expensive accommodations affect the distribution of goods and services, the existence of real threat felt by local communities who live at the border and illegal logging activity and illicit drugs type’s drugs. in the service of customs and excise at sota and elikobel but are not yet effective and less availability of human resources, hence the need for the improvement of human resources quality so it is able to resolve the issue. rampant theft of wood (illegal logging box) executed by the community who live around the border area. rampant illegal exploitation resulting from logging box of forest natural resource, particularly the community border, is very detrimental to the government as well as other communities in the border areas of indonesia republic-png in merauke region. sugestions according to the all explanation above and the research result as well as the conclusion then it suggests could suggested various thing relates to this research as follows: 1. the quality of human resources in the border area because the lack access to the community against the infrastructure supporting education and health due to levels of education, levels of low health, facility and infrastructure as the base is still lacking and low skills level. 2. border area management pattern is still happening the gap between border areas resulting from the approach undertaken by the central government and local government. the community is still highlighted security approach while the approach welfare has not been optimally conducted in border area, this happens because the patterns are still welfare management to top down so that it is difficult in realizing. 3. the limited infrastructure and facilities became a border area of isolation due to the low accessibility towards the border area. to accelerate the development and availability of means of road infrastructure in order to be able to open access and encourage fluency activities community in order it can embody the progress of border areas. 4. the border area management pattern are still top down due to ego sectorial ranging from the central government and local governments due to the overlap of power so that the development process whether it is a physical and non-physical development do not run effectively. there is no existence of the 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energy security issues in indonesia. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4421-2_5. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004215627_011 introduction 1. literature review 2. research method result and discussion restricting factors management of border area facility and infrastructure of road, education, and health conclusion and suggestion references