 Proceedings of Engineering and Technology Innovation, vol. 1, 201 5, pp. 32 - 35 32 Cop y right © TAETI A critical review into the evolution of Japanese Project Management: a comparative approach Foon-Siang Low * , Heap-Yih Chong Faculty of Engineering & Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, 53300 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Received 28 April 2015; received in revised form 15 May 2015; accept ed 01 June 2015 Abs tract The success or failure of a company relies on how a partic- ular project is managed, and the proper use of project manage- ment improves management performance. This article emph a- sizes the importance of discovering more about project man- agement with the help of two globally renowned project man- agement methods, namely the United States (US) method (Pro- ject Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK)) and the Jap- anese method (Project & Program Management (P2M) and Kaikaku (reform) Project Management (KPM)). The objectives of this article are (a) to identify the features and essence of P2M/KPM; and (b) to compare them with those of PMBOK. Features and essence of P2M/KPM are innovative reformations, value creation, flexibility, mission-driven approach, 3K- kakusin (innovation), kaizen (improvement) and kaihatsu (development) and 3S- scheme, system and service project models. The com- parative results show that PMBOK and P2M/KPM both have different philosophies in terms of scope, managerial approach and problem-solving methods. Identifying suitable criteria will provoke interest in organizations to implement the most suitable method in their project management processes. Keywor ds : P2M, KPM, PMBOK, comparison 1. Introduction The proper use of project management radically improves management effectiveness and performance [1]. Although pro- ject managers in different countries run projects of a similar nature, they approach them in different ways in order to bridge the cultural differences of international stakeholders [2-3]. The most common and well-established United States (US) method, the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), has been adopted in many organizations around the world, including in Japanese organizations. Thus, it is interesting to point out the different project management methods that are more or less influenced by different cultures. On the other hand, although more than 2000 Japanese have obtained the Project Management Institute’s (PMI) Project Management Professional qualification [4], the Japanese also generated their own approach to project management in 2002, namely Project & Program Management (P2M). Although P2M is still being put into practical use both internationally and in Japan [5], an improved paradigm called Kaikaku (reforms or innovative reforms) Project Management (KPM) has been in- troduced [6]. The application and effectiveness of P2M and KPM need to be addressed, as many studies have shown an increased interest in and appreciation for Japanese management principles and practices in recent years [7]. This research thus stresses the relevance of identifying the features and essence of two globally renowned project man- agement methods, PMBOK and P2M/KPM. A critical review of both these management methods was carried out and by clari- fying the pros and cons of each method; a project manager can apply them when managing projects in order to obtain the ult i- mate results. Therefore, the objectives of this article are (a) to identify the features and essence of P2M/KPM methods, and then, (b) to compare them with those of PMBOK. 2. P2M and KPM Japan’s economy declined in international competitiveness, dropping from number one in 1993 to number 30 in 2002. Fu r- thermore, it was threatened after China became the world’s factory, by producing improved qualities of various manufacturing goods at low costs [4]. These factors inspired the Japanese to develop their own project management methods. P2M is the first Japanese project and program management for enterprise innovation developed by Professor Shigenobu Ohara in 20016 [8]. The P2M model aims at creating a strategic framework of innovation to improve corporate values in project management methodologies [4] and to create a way for Japanese enterprises to develop more innovative approaches to ensure that their bus i- nesses can compete in the global business environment [9]. The P2M model has a combination of entry-level project management, program management, and 11 segment management frames [8]. The essence of P2M is focused on the profiling ideas of complex- ity to implementation and findings solutions to complex issues [10]. Subsequently, to survive and regain their global competitive- ness, the Japanese looked for solutions in the kaikaku (reforms) of business management, organization, and technology [11]. Alt- hough not all companies could accept reformation in order to keep up with the economic crisis, it was found that those who were successful at reforming were those who had utilized the intellec- tual property of the entire organization rather than those who had only focused on technological abilities [6, 11]. The P2M/KPM adopts mission-driven approach in managing their projects [6]. KPM consists of three significant elements for successful perfor- mance: 3K-kakusin (innovation), kaihatsu (development) and kaizen (improvement). Kakusin is anything to do with creation of new ideas, devices or processes based on combination of new knowledge; kaihatsu is the challenge to acquire the latest knowledge and information; and kaizen is the continuing efforts for improvement at the work-floor level [12]. In P2M, there was no classification according to 3Ks. However, the KPM method concentrates on the innovation, development, and improvement of Japanese management methods using the foundations of P2M. Thus, it takes into account the whole lifecycle of the project from idea, planning, execution, investment, and recuperation to creating value for the future. The KPM method promotes the creation of future value by implementing a number of reform projects linked to strategy, thus providing a body of knowledge to train core leaders, whose responsibility is to recoup the investment, and propose a methodology for avoiding the risks of failure and re- sistance in an organization that solves complex issues[6]. Japanese organizations place an emphasis on the flexibility to adapt to environmental changes, and their models are created based on this concept. The strategies and methodologies of KPM have proven to be effective and successful in providing learning opportunities in companies, enhancing participation, and moti- vating the consensus and awareness of core leaders [12]. Modeling idea is part of P2M/KPM which integrates interdisciplinary knowledge, methodologies and approaches [11]. There are three project models, namely 3S- scheme, system and service, whereby these models represent a generic lifecycle of project combination from mission to capital recovery [13]. Companies that construct *Corresponding aut hor. Email: lowfs@ut ar.edu.my T el.: +603-4107-9802; Fax: +603-4107-9803 Proceedings of Engineering and Technology Innovation, vol. 1, 2015, pp. 32 - 35 33 Cop y right © TAETI their organizations with the elements of KPM, while being aware of the 3S project models, will have a project management system that functions well [14].Overall, the summarized features and essences of P2M/KPM can be depicted in Fig. 1. Fig. 1 Feat ures and essence of P 2M/KP M 3. PMBOK The PMI (Project Management Institute) attained PMBOK standardization in 1983 and released its first edition of PMBOK in 1996, with updated editions in 2000, 2004 and 200815. PMBOK describes generally accepted knowledge and practices that are applicable to most projects most of the time [9, 16]. This standard describes the project management processes, tools, and techniques utilized to manage projects toward a successful outcome, and it divides projects into nine knowledge areas: project integration management, project scope management, project time manage- ment, project cost management, project quality management, project human resource management, project communications management, project risk management, and project procurement management [15]. Not all key areas are applicable on all types of projects and it is the responsibility of the project management team to determine the appropriateness in a given project [9]. The main feature of PMBOK is to acquire an expected performance in ac- cordance with stakeholder needs by operational process [17]. Operational process involves planning, executing and controlling. PMBOK aims at achieving three requirements: time, cost, and project scope [18]. PMBOK is strictly focused on bringing activi- ties in line with a plan [19] and does not manage resources to achieve objectives [20]. Managing projects with PMBOK is found to be beneficial to various industries. A good project management method should be adopted to ensure the organization achieves its long-term goals. 4. Me thodology An exploratory study has been carried out to examine project management theories by extracting relevant information from Japanese and western project management guidebooks as well as from other major journals, articles, conference proceedings, and published books. Two major processes were involved in this crit- ical review. Firstly, the principles of P2M and KPM were su m- marized and analyzed. Subsequently, their essence or distinct features were evaluated by comparing them with those of PMBOK. 5. Comparative Study The PMBOK method is narrower in conceptual breadth and scope compared with P2M [21]. Before, it deals mainly with projects, whereas P2M handles program management as well as project management; therefore, evaluations are based on the entire mission rather than on just a specific mission as practiced in pro- ject management [4]. However, four years after the first release of P2M, PMI has published standards for program management as well [22, 23]. However, there is limited information on program management in the latest PMBOK version [15]. In view of social behavior in management, Japanese people tend to practice collectivism and humanism, while the west em- phasizes individualism [24]. Individualism means work or job tasks are clearly defined and divided for each employee, and ap- praisals or evaluations are based on individual performance. In the P2M method, collaboration with colleagues or cooperation among team members is common. Rather than individual goals, they look more into achieving group goals[25]. Having a common goal facilitates good teamwork and eventually, enhances communica- tion among project members. Bad communications will result in communication conflicts that can provoke misunderstandings [26]. Therefore, communication management is vital in managing projects. Relationship in the Japanese community is important for bringing together or connecting a group of people, such as the associations among project team members or departmental staff. In P2M, the relationship management framework is one of the 11 individual management domains that are not specifically featured in PMBOK as one of the main knowledge areas. Japanese coworkers have stronger friendships at work compared with their US counterparts [27], because they emphasize human relations and mutual trust [28]. Trust will lead to the formation of long-term relationships [17]. For example, longer-term alliances and infor- mal relational contracts have been applied in information tech- nology (IT) related projects in Japan compared with the US ap- proach [29]. When good relationships are built, employees feel obligated to perform at their best for their companies. Based on the conven- tional Japanese way of management, lifetime or lifelong em- ployment is common in Japanese organizations, which is based on an unwritten employment contract and thus it relies on mutual trust [28, 30]. Lifetime employment encourages loyalty31. Therefore, workers are rarely dismissed due to business downturns [32]. This is different from the American-style layoff [33]. Culturally, the Japanese take better care of their workers compared with the west [34]. However, when the economy turns sour in the 1990s for Japan, their conventional model has to be reformed in order to survive the recession. Restructuring, which includes work force lay-offs, production and inventory reductions, and plant closures, was applied [35]. For example, due to the above-mentioned scenario, the Toyota group has revised its conventional lifelong employ- ment system by accepting contract workers and temporary em- ployees extensively [28]. At the same time, kaikaku or innovative (kakusin) reformations also encompass joint venture activities with foreign companies to overcome the recession [35, 36]. In addition, P2M/KPM also incorporated knowledge and in- tellectual properties into the kaihatsu and reform processes [23]. New inventions, development of new ideas, R&D and technolo- gies know-how progressions play an important role in a company to secure the company’s competitiveness and to increase the value of intellectual property rights [28]. Kaihatsu is not limited to de- velopment of technology alone, but also covers business, product, process, and even market as well [12]. Just-in-time (JIT) produc- tion is another innovative approach to regain profits [37], as it aims to reduce inventory to minimal. JIT system only produces the necessary items in the required quantities when needed [38, 39]. P2M/KPM emphasizes flexibility and adaptability and pro- poses how organizations can achieve total optimization [6]. Rather than focusing on mere partial optimization when economic crises occurred in the 1980s and 1990s, Toyota maintained its market share by using the flexible kaizen philosophy. This philosophy P2M/KPM: Features & Essence Project and Program management Innovative reformation Mission-driven approach Flexibility to adapt to environmental hanges 3K – kakusin, kaihatsu, kaizen 3S – scheme, system, services Value creation Integration management Core philosophy of ‘solutions to complex issues’ Proceedings of Engineering and Technology Innovation, vol. 1, 201 5, pp. 32 - 35 34 Cop y right © TAETI Cop y right © TAETI Cop y right © TAETI Cop y right © TAETI Cop y right © TAETI applied to manufacturing and production processes [40, 41] that strive to eliminate waste and problems and to improve quality through persistent efforts [42]. Other kaizen activities include continuous improvement of products, business operations and management systems, achieving highly flexible approaches to rapid changes, and learning from accumulated knowledge [8]. In PMBOK, however, there is inflexibility in terms of project sched- ule, costs, and quality [9]. Adaptability to environmental changes or flexibility in these aspects is not very much emphasized under the PMBOK method. Table 1 Comparison between P2M/KPM and PMBOK P2M/KPM PMBOK S cope: -Handles p rograms & p rojects 6 . -Broader in scop e 21 . -Evaluations based on the entire mission 4 . -Collectivism 24 S cope: -Deals mainly with p roject level 15 . -Narrower in scop e 21 . -Evaluations made on sp e- cific missions 4 . -Individualism 24 Managerial approach: -Concurrent development and integration management 23, 29, 44 . -Lifelong emp loy ment and loy al- ty 31 . -Do not p ractice layoff system in conventional model 28, 32 . -Partially adopts the lay off sys- tem 28, 35 . Managerial approach: -Phased develop ment con- cep t 29 . -Practice lay off system 33 . Problem-solving methods: -Flexibility ap proach 42 -M ission-oriented: Focus on not only clients’ goals, but also how they are achieved, taking into account op inions and suggestions 13 . -Ambiguous, uncertain 24 . -Decision making outcomes favor inter-human relations 46 . Problem-solving methods: -Fixed approach on schedule, cost and quality 9 -Goal-oriented: Focus on delivering what- ever is required by clients without considering other factors as long as the result is achieved 13 . -Definiteness, clarity 24 . -Decision making outcomes favor p erformance orient- ed 45 and recognition of ef- fort 46 . Another difference between the PMBOK and P2M methods is that the former is relatively goal-oriented, whereas the latter is mission-driven [13, 43]. In order to accomplish a mission, P2M takes into account not only each process that comes along the way but also the detailed content of each process. It uses clear and measureable success measures for each project. Mission- driven approach enables solving of complex problems by transforming strategic aims into value creation operations and capital recovery through the 3S project models [11]. By contrast, PMBOK is prone to place emphasis on meeting the project objectives through initi- ating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing [15]. In the construction industry, for instance, there is a need to go through certain stages, such as design, planning, construction, commissioning, and maintenance. These stages of the entire pro- ject follow a phased development concept, whereas parallel or concurrent development concept applies to Japanese project management [29]. Furthermore, P2M is the only standard that furnishes an integration management model across programs and portfolios of projects at enterprise level [23, 44]. Last but not least, another point of difference between these two approaches is their styles of decision making, thinking and mindsets. In P2M/KPM, the Japanese tend to be uncertain and ambiguous, whereas PMBOK practices definiteness and clarity [24]. In the mindset of the western, logical thinking is emphasized and this eventually removes all ambiguities. Things are defined and made clear. In terms of decision making, American business leaders tend to be more performance oriented [45]. They make decisions that will create opportunities for their efforts to be rec- ognized, thus reflects a comparatively higher need for achieve- ment [46]. In contrast to this, the Japanese people give priority to inter-human relations [24], thus creating an indecisive environ- ment. When making a decision, Japanese business leaders tend to favor outcomes that preserve already established relationships or that could assist in cultivating new ones [46]. They need to con- sider the other party’s concerns and conditions before finalizing a conclusion or making a decis ion. Conclusions are often made based on a group verdict. Overall, a comparison of the differences between P2M/KPM and PMBOK is summarized in Table 1. 6. Conclus ions Project management is a special management technique ap- plied globally in organizations, and its practice has proven to be successful in certain industries. The goal-oriented PMBOK claims that excellent results are accomplished by focusing on time, cost, and quality and it promotes the idea of standardized project man- agement. PMBOK is prone to place emphasis on meeting the project objectives through the five process groups: initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing, whereas the mission-oriented P2M/KPM takes into account the detailed content of each process and responds well to environ- mental changes. In other words, P2M/KPM emphasizes flexibility and adapting to environmental changes in order to overcome crises and takes into account other factors rather than only concentrating on the end result. The P2M/KPM method focuses on solving complications that occur during the process, concentrating on measures of success, customer satisfaction, and communication management. The Japanese method of management also stresses loyalty and trust. In any industry, an organization requires good project management skills to increase the success rate in projects. Improper management will lead to problems and trouble in the long run. Thus, by highlighting and extracting the features, essences, and applications of PMBOK and P2M/KPM, we get a clearer picture on how the east and west manage their projects in general. Nevertheless, these two management styles are found to be bene- ficial to industries such as manufacturing, construction and IT in their own ways, and the execution of projects under these man- agement methods have proven to be successful. This article, however, has some limitations. It only touches on P2M/KPM and PMBOK, briefly discussing their main features and essences. Further in-depth investigations should be completed on each of the frameworks and features to understand in greater detail their essence, importance, and appropriateness in order to successfully apply them in a project. Since at present, there is no such universal project management body of knowledge for any industry, selecting and combining the best features of PMBOK and P2M/KPM might create a well-rounded project management body of knowledge that may work not only regionally but also for the rest of the industry. Acknowle dge me nt It is an honor for us to express deep appreciation to P2M’s founder Professor Shigenobu Ohara, a guest professor of Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology and Vice President of International Association of Project and Program Management (IA-P2M) for his patience, guidance and resources. We would also like to extend our gratitude to The Sumitomo Foundation for granting us financial support under The Sumitomo Research Grant (Vote Number: 108410). 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