PROFESI PENDIDIKAN DASAR http://journals.ums.ac.id/index.php/ppd © The Author(s). 2022 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License 163 Re-examining Institutionalized Schooling: A New Era in Basic Education Institutions in Kenya Caleb Mackatiani1*, Navin Mackatiani2 and Mercy Imbova3 1University of Nairobi, Kenya 2Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya 3Kisii University, Kenya *Corresponding Author’s email: mackatianicaleb@gmail.com Submitted: 2022-11-02 DOI: 10.23917/ppd.v9i2.20327 Revised: 2022-12-11 Accepted: 2022-12-14 Keywords: Abstract access; de-schooling; institutionalization; re-examine This study examined critical concerns for reconsidering the future of education in Kenya. These are power/authority, school processes and policies, and the curriculum. Schools have developed regulations that have evolved into school cultures, leading to the institutionalization of education. Learners are enslaved due to administrators' expectations based on institutionalization-causing factors. This study aimed to analyze the elements that influence institutionalized education in Kenya. The issue was examined using both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. The study utilized a 384-person sample with a confidence interval of 0.05, a confidence level of 95%, a Z- score of 1.96, and a standard deviation of 0.5. The study indicated that school policies influence the power and authority of institutionalized education. The study discovered that headship authority and power institutionalize schools. Power, policies, and curricula institutionalize the elementary and secondary levels of education. This has spurred disobedience among teachers and students. INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Cambridge Dictionary (n.d.) refers to re-examine as to look or consider a person or a thing carefully and in detail again. Hence all actors and processes in education are to be re-considered http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.23917/ppd.v9i2.20327 Mackatiani et al. – Re-examining Institutionalized Schooling, Kenya.. PRINTED ISSN 2406-8012 164 together. In this study, the focal point is the school policies and procedures that should be re-looked at. Besides, the Cambridge Dictionary (n.d.) further conceptualizes together as doing something with each other. Furthermore, Wikipedia refers to era as a span of time defined for the purpose of historiography. It is, therefore, the primary and secondary schools head teachers who should define span of time for purposes of implementation. Also, Wikipedia observes that education is characterized as a learning cycle for a person to achieve information and comprehension of higher explicit item. Globalization is a process by which the world's people are brought closer together socially, economically, and in other aspects. With the advent of the 21th century, the world is registering remarkable transformation in education, science, and technology. Globalization has taken the center stage in minimizing institutionalization of schooling. As a result, the world shares quite a lot in common. What goes on in one part of the globe can be felt elsewhere; for example, industrial and technological resolutions enjoyed in developed countries significantly influence developing countries. Similarly, the developing countries impact the rest of the world positively or negatively. Similarly, developing countries impact the rest of the world positively or negatively. The aspect of de-schooling can be enhanced in learning institutions in the developing world. The aspect of de-schooling can be enhanced in learning institutions in the developing world. These changes are more pronounced in the current millennium. Ivan Illich is the proponent of de-schooling (Illich,1973). He observed that School, by its very nature, tends to make a total claim on the time and energies of its participants (i.e making a learner academic slave). This, in turn, makes the teacher into custodian, preacher and therapist. The teacher- as-custodian acts as a master of ceremonies, who guides pupils through a drawn-out labyrinthine ritual. The teacher, as moralist substitutes for parents, God or the state He or she indoctrinates the pupil about what is right and wrong. The teacher as therapist (skilled personnel) feels authorized to delve into the personal life of pupils in order to help them grow as World Indigenous Peoples. The safeguards of individual freedom are all cancelled in the dealings and the teacher focuses on his functions as a judge (decision maker). Schools are therefore, designed on the assumption that there is a secret to everything in life; that the quality of life depends on knowing that secret; that secrets can only be known in orderly successions; and that only teachers can reveal these secrets. Subsequently, these accumulate to institutionalization of schooling. Institutionalization refers to the action of establishing something as a norm or culture in an organization. In this respect, de-schooling should be invoked. De-schooling involves a period where very little formal schooling is done in order to re- calibrate the child’s natural love of learning. During the de-schooling process, an administrator adjusts ones understanding of learning. Besides, the approach to learning and how a child learns needs to be adjusted. This is because public and private education is focused on educating multiple students at once. Problem of The Study Education is viewed as a public and common good, which nurtures hope, imagination, and action for a common future. The initiative seeks to mobilize ideas and action toward an educational change that can respond to the world’s enormous challenges such as the climate crisis, radical technological change, democratic instability, the automation of work, gigantic population shifts, and the effects of virology. To address these challenges, Sustainable Development Goal number four (SDG 4) is critical. It aims at "ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promotion of lifelong learning opportunities for all." Thus, the goal ensures that all girls and boys complete free primary and secondary schooling by 2030. The Kenyan Government domesticated the international protocol. However, it appears that schooling has been institutionalized and this can probably impede the achievement of sustainable development goal number four. It is on the SDG 4 basis that this study Vol. XX, No. X, Month Year ONLINE ISSN 2503-3530 165 investigated re-thinking the institutionalization of schooling in the contemporary world focusing on curriculum, prefects’ system, and leadership styles of head teachers. Research’s State of the Art This study was guided by organizational theory. The theory involves various approaches to analyzing organizations and attempts to explain the mechanisms of organizations. In educational management, understanding organizational theory within the micro and macro realms of educational settings are crucial. The other factor that influences organizational settings is organizational culture. organizational settings organizational culture is made up of a system of shared assumptions, beliefs, and values that govern people in the organization. In organizations, values, and beliefs that evolve influence members’ functions and performance. in the organization. Organizations develop and maintain unique cultures. The unique culture acts as a guide. It molds the behavior and roles of its members in the organization. The organizational culture also advocates for the values and assumptions of the organization. Therefore, the main characteristic of organizational theory in education is that it is mostly normative rather than descriptive. Hence, it advocates how organizations should be managed rather than providing explanations of the workings of organizations. According to Britannica.com, institutionalization is a process of developing or transforming rules and procedures that influence a set of human interactions. It is this definition by Britannica that our paper will focus on. Schooling is not necessarily education. Schools have come up with rules and procedures that have become a culture of a particular institution. Institutionalization of schooling can be visualized basically in school organization. Models of schools depend upon the expectations of administrators. Within these dimensions, power is distributed in the school organization. Authority, control, and policy vary relay upon the image of the school. Controlling the school pivots around the image of a particular school. Power and Authority in schooling The ability to exercise power is a necessary condition for the exercise of authority. According to Benn and Peters, the condition for the exercise of authority should not be confused with what "authority" means. Power rests on resources and the influence they confer; authority rests on consensus (Hersey et al., 2008).Therefore, with power one can act despite a lack of consensus. To have authority is to be conceded a decision-making role. In a school setting, power and authority are vested in the leadership styles of head teachers. The leadership styles of head teachers affect the development of education. The authoritative character has contributed a lot to the increase of indiscipline in teachers and students (Setyaningtyas & Rusnilawati, 2019). Despite Kenya being a democratic society, schools still adopt dictatorship approaches. The headteacher is rigid & bureaucratic. Learners cannot seek an audience with head teachers on sensitive matters that affect them. The dictatorship approach also applies to teachers. Students are coerced to accept any advances from head teachers and teachers. This condition promotes indiscipline among the students. As a result, students project through indiscipline acts. According to Pace J and Hemmings (2007), Authority is a fundamental, problematic, and poorly understood component of a school. Schools have institutionalized schooling through Power and authority. Globally, governments have developed policies to address educational issues. In Kenya, there are policies on funding primary and secondary school education. Free primary education is in existence. However, primary schools come up with policies to charge tuition fees and textbook levies. Besides, secondary school education has been subsidized. But schools have come up with their policies and tuition fees are overcharged. The government has also come up with a policy on the prefects’ system. The purpose of this policy is to promote the philosophy of democracy. However, head teachers appoint prefects despite the existence of these policies. scholars have revealed power and authority Mackatiani et al. – Re-examining Institutionalized Schooling, Kenya.. PRINTED ISSN 2406-8012 166 are bully mechanisms that influence institutionalized school schooling. Abuya et al (2013) noted that the establishment of levies and the cost of school uniform influence access to school. Thus, he recommended the need to lower the costs or subsidize schooling programs to make education affordable. In Kenya, schools have come up with their own institutionalized rules. Students don’t participate in the decision-making of their schools. Students don’t participate in selecting school prefects Though the policy on the uniform is clear, parents are directed to acquire uniforms specifically from schools or particular shopping outlets. Extra tuition fees and other school levies have been imposed by the school administration. The school policies pose obstacles to children from disadvantaged families. School Policies and Procedures School policy guidelines ensure inclusivity in education. The guidelines enable every learner to access course content, fully participate in learning activities and demonstrate their strength at assessment (RoK, 2019). Inclusive guidelines focus not only on education quality for all learners but also on the diversified environment. Schools that advocate for diversity, adopt strategies that promote equal opportunities for learners to participate in school activities. Variables influencing school strategies can be recognized when all relevant variables that regulate the implementation process are in control. This is because policy implementation is concerned with working within the school systems through which policy goals are put into practice. Some of the problems associated with practices of inclusive education policy that are evident during implementation are a result of errors made in the other stages (Minsih & Hidayat, 2022) The commitment of policy implementers is usually assumed to be the most significant factor in the policy objectives achievement process. Commitment is biased and very hard to measure (Dorenkamp & Ruhle, 2019). However, some pointers show the level of commitment of a school to a particular mission. One pointer is accomplishing responsibilities and assurances, especially when the school knows what its roles are toward policy implementation. Policy implementation studies reveal that the success of any policy relies on the ability to implement it (Hess, 2013). Implementation is unsuccessful due to a lack of organizational ability to implement and sustain the practices of policy. Economically, learners are required to meet expenses of school fees, examination fees, textbooks, and school uniforms. However, education stakeholders, especially parents are ignorant of legal laws on educational issues. The barrier of policy and legal support has promoted the institutionalization of schooling. The barrier has, therefore, hindered the implementation of inclusivity of education. This is in light of the contradiction of some of the policies. The United Nations Convention on the rights of the child (1989), the Constitution of Kenya (2010), and the Education Act (2001) have illegalized corporal punishment to be administered to children. However, schools continue administering corporal punishment to learners. This has contributed to the physical and psychological torture of learners. Also, the policy on ICT discourages students to have mobile phones while in school. In contrast, learners are supposed to acquire ICT skills via laptops and phones. Besides, Mackatiani & Likoko (2022) note that schools lack essential equipment for the implementation of e-learning. Moreover, recently, during the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a shift in to use of mobile phones for the promotion of virtual learning. Other barriers that hinder the implementation of inclusive education include inadequacies in resources and facilities, charges for remedial learning, specialized staff, pedagogical techniques, flexible curricula, supportive leadership, and cultural attitudes. Schools must put more energy into useful inclusive education practices and strategies that value students’ welfare, dignity, self-sufficiency, and contribution to society. Vol. XX, No. X, Month Year ONLINE ISSN 2503-3530 167 Marginalization occurs through the operationalization of policies or the types of materials and surfaces that are used. Embracing inclusive education as a guiding principle naturally requires the transformation of education systems, and this change process is consistently challenged by several encounters. Reforming school systems to become inclusive is not only about putting in place developed inclusive policy guidelines that meet the needs of learners, but also about transforming the schools‟ strategies, beliefs, and values (UNESCO, 2014). Negative attitudes and damaging beliefs create a significant barrier to the education of learners. Learners may project through violent destructive activities. This has been demonstrated by setting school buildings ablaze. The negative attitudes towards learner differences that result in discrimination and prejudice in the school and the society manifest themselves as a critical barrier to the learning process. However, such obstacles can be overcome through inclusive school strategies that nurture access and participation for all learners regardless of their inabilities. Curriculum According to Mackatiani (2012), curriculum consist of elements and dimensions. Elements are decisions of political settings. This correlates with Mackatiani et al (2016) who noted that politics have got great influence on development of education in any country. Dimensions entail formal, non-formal and informal aspects of the curriculum. Guidelines on development of curriculum result in the creation of two curriculum models, namely the product model and the process model. The product model focuses on the plan and intentions, whereas the process model focuses on the activities and effects. Curriculum models are thus classified as either technical (product) or non-technical. Kenya's curriculum model is technical in this context (Mackatiani et al, 2022). It is a top-down, content-based curriculum development model. Teachers are never involved in the curriculum's design or development. There is no participatory approach in the model. The curriculum model entails provision of experiences in subject areas. Curriculum models, therefore, provide planned experiences for students to achieve. In spite of this, the planned activities must be delivered to learners via various modes of delivery to ensure effective learning efficiency. As a result, learning outcomes are critical in curriculum delivery. A curriculum model must flow systematically in order to be realistic. Subsequently, instructional delivery approaches are crucial. According to various studies, inadequacy of resources contributes to inefficiency in schools (Imbova et al, 2018; Mackatiani et al,2017; Mackatiani et al,2018; and Mackatiani et al, 2020). Inefficiencies contribute to institutionalization of schooling. According to Mackatiani (2017), the education model in Kenya is examinations oriented. Teachers devise approaches to repetitively review past lessons. Ogburn (1957) notes that teacher- centered approaches are due to cultural lag which causes less adjustment between two parts that previous existed. Drilling exercises are therefore, given to learners. Subsequently notes are dictated to learners. Revision of past examination paper analysis is also conducted. Learners memorize the answers for the purpose of passing national examinations. Tuition coaching has therefore been institutionalized in all schools. Parents, teachers and pupils subsequently adhere to the provisions of remedial coaching. Learners lack recreation time. In fact, the examinations have become a syndrome. Children study for the purpose of passing examinations only and teachers also teach them only for getting certificates. In light of this, Khatimah and Kusuma (2019) notes that when the school curriculum is implemented in the absence of the phenomena of students’ experience, students develop negative attitudes towards learning. They therefore, project against the school through their negative actions. Appreciation is emphasized on logic, reasoning, and inference, that must be reintroduced into the curriculum to create a generation of learners who impress creativity and innovation. Subsequently the Head teacher does not ensure achievement of information but also comprehension of higher explicit levels. Mackatiani et al. – Re-examining Institutionalized Schooling, Kenya.. PRINTED ISSN 2406-8012 168 Gap Study & Objective The 21st century skills are crucial in the realization quality and inclusive education. Specific issues on education inefficiencies have been addressed in Kenya, Subsequently, impact of these variables on equity and quality education in Kenya have been researched. However, there are minimal studies on Institutionalization of schooling and De-schooling. Also, there are minimum comparative studies on the institutionalization of schooling in primary and secondary schools. The specific objectives for this study were to: assess the influence of authority on institutionalized schooling in Kenya; establish the influence of School Policies and Procedures on institutionalized schooling in Kenya; and determine the influence of curriculum on institutionalized schooling in Kenya. METHOD Type and Design Mixed-method approach was adopted for the study. Mixed methods research is the combination and integration of qualitative and quantitative methods in the same study. The overall purpose and central premise of mixed methods studies are that the use of quantitative and qualitative approaches in combination provides a better understanding of research problems and complex phenomena than either approach alone. The study targeted 1136 primary schools and 276 secondary schools in Kakamega county, Kenya. Through stratified sampling,36 primary schools and 12 secondary schools were selected. Of these, 36 primary school head teachers, 12 secondary school head teachers, 72 primary school teachers, 24 secondary school teachers, 144 primary school pupils,36 secondary school students, 36 primary school parents’ association (P.A) members, and 12 secondary school P. A. members and 12 education officers were sampled. The total sample size was 384. This conformed to the confidence Interval of 0.05, the confidence level of 95 percent which is a Z-score of 1.96, and the standard deviation of 0.5 Data and Data Sources The data used were obtained from respondents in shools and educat5ion offices on variables that influence institutionalization of schooling. The outcomes of institutionalization affect qualiy and inclusive education of students in primary and secondary schools. The data were on the ineffiencies that influence institutionalization in both primary and secondary schools. The other data were on de- schooling when invoked, promote quality and inclusive education. Data collection technique Data collection was conducted in schools and education offices. The researchers issued the questionnaires to the respondents. Primary data for this study was collected through questionnaires. The information gathered was supplemented by documentary analysis and researchers’ observation. After the fieldwork, the researchers assembled all the filled questionnaires for data cleaning, juxtaposition, coding and finally data analysis. Data analysis Data analysis involves organizing, summarizing, and synthesizing data in order to provide the neccessary information for description. Through thematic analysis, data were coded and categorized according sub-themes related to the purpose of the study. The analysis involved gleaning meaning from the qualitative data based on questionnaires and literature review. Qualitative data was derived from the questionnaires of the study. In this case, analysis of qualitative data, attitudes and opinions of respondents was conducted. Subsequently, descriptive statistics were derived from the analysis. This led to the coding of the collected data. Qualitative data were classified according to the variables Vol. XX, No. X, Month Year ONLINE ISSN 2503-3530 169 of the study ie power/authority, school policies and procedures, and curriculum. The results were summarized in frequency tables, after which a report was compiled. RESULTS This study surveyed the consequences of institutionalized schooling. The study was guided by the following objectives: To assess the influence of authority on institutionalized schooling in Kenya; to establish the influence of School Policies and Procedures on institutionalized schooling in Kenya, and to determine the influence of curriculum on institutionalized schooling in Kenya. The study sought views from the Education officers, headteachers, and parents relating to the influence of institutionalized schooling. Their perceptions were captured in Table 1 Attendance Primary schools Secondary schools Head teachers PAs Education officers Headteachers PAs Education officers n % N % n % n % n % n % Positive 36 100 3 25 4 33.3 8 66.7 3 25 4 33.3 Negative 0 0 9 75 8 66.7 4 33.3 9 75 8 66.7 Total 36 100 12 100 12 100 12 100 12 100 12 100 Table 1. Perceptions ofeducation officers, head teachers and Parents on influence of institutionalized schooling. The data contained in Table 1 indicated that 100 percent of headteachers in primary schools indicated that institutionalized schooling positively impacted Education participation. However, 66.7 percent of headteachers in secondary schools showed that institutionalized schooling positively impacted Education. Also, 33.3 percent of education officers indicated that institutionalized schooling had a positive influence on Education participation in both primary and secondary schools. Furthermore, another 25 percent of parents in both primary and secondary schools revealed institutionalized schooling positively impacted Education. Further findings from Table 1 revealed that none of the headteachers in primary schools indicated that institutionalized schooling negatively impacted education. However, 33.3 percent of headteachers from secondary schools indicated that institutionalized schooling negatively influenced education participation. Also, 66.7 percent of education officers indicated that institutionalized schooling had a negative influence on education participation in both primary and secondary schools Besides, 75 percent of parents in both primary and secondary schools revealed institutionalized schooling negatively impacted Education. The study also assessed the extent to which authority influenced institutionalized schooling. To determine the extent, on a Lekart scale of one to five, views were sought from education officers, headteachers, and teachers. Their perceptions were captured in Table 2. Mackatiani et al. – Re-examining Institutionalized Schooling, Kenya.. PRINTED ISSN 2406-8012 170 Likert scale rating Primary schools Secondary schools Head teachers Teachers Education officers Head teachers Teachers Education officers n % n % n % n % n % n % Very high(5) 12 33.3 36 50 4 33.3 9 75 24 100 4 33.3 High(4) 24 66.7 36 50 0 66.7 3 25 0 0 8 66.7 Moderate(3) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Low(2) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Very low(1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 36 100 72 100 4 100 12 100 24 100 4 100 Table 2. Perceptions on the extent which authority influenced institutionalized schooling. Concerning data contained in Table 2, 33.3 percent of headteachers in primary schools and75 percent of head teachers in secondary schools indicated that authority had a very high impact on institutionalized schooling. However, 50 percent of teachers in primary schools and 100 percent of teachers in secondary schools indicated that authority had a very high influence on institutionalized schooling. Besides, 33.3 percent of Education officers indicated that authority had a very high influence on institutionalized schooling in both primary and secondary schools. Also, 66.7 percent of head teachers in primary schools and 25 percent of teachers in secondary schools revealed that authority had a high impact on institutionalized schooling. Besides, 66.7 percent of education officers indicated that institutionalized schooling had a high impact on education participation. None of the respondents indicated that the impact of authority was either moderate, low, or very low. The second study objective sought to establish the influence of School Policies and Procedures on institutionalized schooling in Kenya; To establish the influence, the study sought views from Headteachers, teachers, and students on whether schools have got their policies and procedures. Their views were captured in Table 3 Primary schools Secondary schools Headteachers Teachers Students Headteachers Teachers Students n % n % n % n % n % n % Yes 36 100 72 100 144 100 0 0 24 100 36 100 No 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 36 100 72 100 144 100 12 100 24 100 36 100 Table 3. Headteachers’, teachers’ and students’ views on school policies and procedures. Vol. XX, No. X, Month Year ONLINE ISSN 2503-3530 171 Concerning data contained in Table 3, 100 percent of Headteachers, indicated that both primary and secondary schools noted that schools had policies and procedures. Besides, 100 percent of teachers indicated that both primary and secondary schools had policies and procedures. Also, 100 percent of students indicated that both primary and secondary schools had policies and procedures. None of the respondents indicated that schools didn’t have policies and procedures. The study further sought to establish the perceptions of Parents, teachers, and education officers on school policies and procedures. Their perceptions were captured in Table 4 Lekart scale rating Primary schools Secondary schools Parents Teachers Educatio n officers Parents Teachers Education officers n % N % n % n % n % n % Very high(5) 36 100 36 50 0 0 12 100 24 100 0 0 High(4) 0 0 0 0 8 66.7 3 25 0 0 8 66.7 Moderate(3) 0 0 0 0 4 33.3 0 0 0 0 4 33.3 Low(2) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Very low(1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 36 100 72 100 12 100 12 100 24 100 12 100 Table 4. Parents, teachers and education officers on school policies and procedures. Regarding data contained in Table 4, 100 percent of parents and teachers in both primary and secondary schools noted that policies and procedures had a very high influence on institutionalized schooling. However, 66.7 percent of Education officers indicated that school policies and procedures had a high influence in both primary and secondary None of the respondents indicated that the impact of school policies and procedures was either moderate, low, or very low. The third study objective sought to determine the influence of curriculum on institutionalized schooling in Kenya. The study sought perceptions of Headteachers, teachers, and education officers on the influence of curriculum on institutionalized schooling. Respondents’ perceptions were captured in Table 5 Lekart scale rating Primary schools Secondary schools Headteachers Teachers Education officers Head Teachers Teachers Education officers n % N % n % n % n % n % Very high(5) 18 50 54 75 4 66.7 12 100 24 100 8 66.7 Mackatiani et al. – Re-examining Institutionalized Schooling, Kenya.. PRINTED ISSN 2406-8012 172 High(4) 18 50 18 25 8 33.3 0 0 0 0 4 33.3 Moderate(3) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Low(2) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Very low(1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 36 100 72 100 12 100 12 100 24 100 12 100 Table 5. Head teachers, teachers and education officers on influence of curriculum. The data contained in Table 7.5, revealed that 50 percent of head teachers in primary schools and 100 percent of head teachers in secondary schools noted that curriculum had a very high influence on institutionalized schooling. Besides, 75 percent of teachers in primary schools and 100 percent of teachers in secondary schools indicated that curriculum had a very high influence on institutionalized schooling. Also, 66.7 percent of education officers that curriculum had a very high influence on institutionalized schooling in both primary schools and secondary schools. Further findings in the data contained in Table 7.5, revealed that 50 percent of head teachers in primary schools and non of the head teachers in secondary schools noted that curriculum had a high influence on institutionalized schooling. Besides, 25 percent of teachers in primary schools and 0 percent of teachers in secondary schools indicated that curriculum had a high influence on institutionalized schooling. Also, 33.3 percent of education officers noted that curriculum had a high influence on institutionalized schooling in both primary schools and secondary schools. However, none of the respondents indicated that the influence of curriculum on institutionalized schooling at the primary or secondary school level was moderate, low, or very low. DISCUSSIONS The majority of the respondents noted that institutionalized schooling negatively influenced Education participation. The negative impact was realized in secondary schools. This is due to the fact that learners are adolescents and are projected instantly. However, the impact is not felt in primary schools since most of the learners are minors. The findings concur with Hersey et al (2008) who noted with power one is able to act despite a lack of consensus. This implies that education participation would be affected to a greater extent. Besides, most respondents noted that authority had influenced institutionalized schooling to a very high extent in both primary and secondary schools. This concurred with Pace and Hemmings (2007) who noted that authority is a fundamental, problematic, and poorly understood component that has institutionalized schooling. This is an implication that dictatorship greatly influences institutionalized schooling. Therefore, there was a need to re-examine the leadership styles of head teachers. Also, all the respondents revealed that schools had their policies and procedures. This is in concurrence with Wasono et al (2015) who revealed that the commitment of policy implementers is usually assumed to be a significant factor in the policy-objective achievement process. This implied that respective schools at both primary and secondary school levels had their policies that guide the daily routine. Subsequently, these policies lead to institutionalized schooling in both primary and secondary schools. Therefore, there was a need to re-rethink individual school policies and procedures that influence institutionalized schooling. Vol. XX, No. X, Month Year ONLINE ISSN 2503-3530 173 Furthermore, all respondents noted that school policies and procedures had influenced institutionalized schooling to a very high extent. This concurred with UNESCO (2014) which noted that school policy guidelines transform the schools’ strategies, beliefs, and values. This is an implication that school policies and procedures impacted greatly on institutionalized schooling. Therefore, there was a need to re-examine policies and procedures in schools. In addition, all respondents noted that curriculum content had influenced institutionalized schooling to a very high extent. This concurred with Mackatiani (2017), who noted the education model in Kenya is examinations oriented and as a result, it leads to the institutionalization of schooling. This implied that institutionalized schooling was rampant in schools. The study, therefore, revealed that power and authority influenced institutionalized schooling to a very high extent in both primary and secondary schools. Also, respective schools at both primary and secondary school levels have their policies that guide daily routine activities. The school policies and guidelines have contributed to institutionalized schooling. Furthermore, it was found that curriculum contributed to institutionalized schooling to a high extent. CONCLUSION This study is empirical research that was conducted in secondary and primary schools. It is original work.The related literature review conducted revealed that power and authority vested in headship contributed to institutionalized schooling. Also, respective schools at both primary and secondary school levels have policies that have influenced the institutionalization of schooling. Curriculum, on the other hand, has contributed to institutionalized schooling. Learners are forced to attend paid remedial classes Subsequently, power and authority, school policies, and curriculum have led to institutionalized schooling in both primary and secondary schools. However, the reviewed literature also revealed that thefocal point of study was on how individual factor impacted on quality and inclusivity. From the related literature reviewed, the research gap identified was that no comparative studies had been conducted on factors influencing institutionilised schooling in secondary and primary schools. This study, therefore, sought to investigate the extent to which power and authority; policies; and curriculum influenced instutionalized schooling in secondary and primary schools. This study like any other study had various limitations. The geographical set up of the study site was a significant limitation to this study. The site is vast and varied in terrain which affected the transport infrastructure during the rainy season. The record keeping and the documentation that could not be relied upon to understand institutional processes. Besides, the perception of institutionalized schooling was a limitation. The administration of institutions was also a limitation. It affected the quality and participation of education being offered in respective institutions. With regard to mitigation of limitations, the study was conducted during the dry month of August 2022. Besides, the study sampled respondents drawn from all over the study site through stratified sampling. In addition, research tools used to gather information ensured the supplementation of each other. Further, information on institutionalized schooling was not manipulated This study is significant to education stakeholders in Kenya and Sub-Sahara Africa. Stakeholders will be sensitized to how institutionalization occurs in schools. It will highlight when there is a concern in shifts from efficiency to formality schools. Policy formulators and policy implementers might use the findings of the study to redress issues that promote the institutionalization of schooling. The study might be significant to Comparative and international education as it provides data and add to the growth of knowledge. Further research on education should be used to open up discourses about the expectations and realities of learning about the anxieties and fears that students experience. It should also have the potential for teaching/learning to act as a source of hope and transformation. The futures Mackatiani et al. – Re-examining Institutionalized Schooling, Kenya.. PRINTED ISSN 2406-8012 174 of learning should become part of broad social dialogues that foster teachers’ force and engagement in the renewal of education, and in the construction of better futures for students. Education should shift to focus on in-the-field, experiential training to develop usable skills. Traditional exams will, at least in part, be replaced by assessments of skills and competencies shown while doing, rather than theory. “To thrive in the 21st century will require acquiring practicable career skills. Learning for examinations will not help students face everyday life and work situations. 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