profile 3.p65


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I  n this article the definition of writing as   a means and as an end is analyzed in order to raise some concerns about the
teaching of writing at different schools in
general. From this definition I question other
important issues that ultimately affect our
students’ writing production. These have to
deal with the use of writing in the mother
language, writing activities in the textbooks,
the realistic nature of the writing tasks, the
other language skills input, and the production
of texts. The article pretends to raise awareness
in the teaching of writing by taking into account
what is implied in the writing skill so teachers
can be more attentive in the selection of
written tasks for their students.

Writing is the most difficult language skill
to master in both, the native language (L1)
and the second/foreign language (L2). This is
so because real effective writing requires that
we be aware of a series of aspects essential to
convey meaning: a high degree of accuracy to
avoid ambiguity of meaning, the use of
complex grammatical devices for focus and
emphasis; a careful choice of vocabulary,
grammatical patterns, and sentence structures
to create a style which is appropriate to the
eventual readers (Hedge: 1988). Besides the
linguistic knowledge, cognitive and
sociocultural (discourse and sociolinguistic
knowledge) aspects also influence our capacity
to produce good written texts. All this takes
time, a good training in the writing process,
lots of practice, and the writer’s intuition and

skillful perception to materialize his/her
thoughts on paper—if not an innate talent.

We teachers of English in Colombia usually
deal more with the spoken language and feel
challenged and threatened by the writing skill
when we have to teach it. We rarely give much
thought to the types of writing activities we
use in the classroom and pretend to have our
students involved in them without considering
what underlies these activities. We even fear
writing for our own purposes and this comes
mostly from previous negative experiences in
the process of L1 and L2 writing when we
were in elementary and/or high school or as
undergraduate students at university. In many
occasions, this skill was taken for granted or
assumed as something acquired in previous
courses; therefore, there was seldom any real
formal teaching of the process of writing.

As many of us did not receive any formal
training in this process in our native language,
Spanish, writing processes and expertise in
this skill in Spanish is often limited. This has
serious implications for the process of writing
in L2, since a nonexistent experience in L1
results in poor or no transfer of basic concepts
to L2—as happens with the mechanics of
writing, the organization of texts, the use of
accurate vocabular y, the coordination of
ideas, and other related issues. Many teachers
and students have usually experienced a painful
process conducted under threatening
conditions.

SOME ISSUES FOR THE TEACHING OF WRITING

Claudia Helena LombanaClaudia Helena LombanaClaudia Helena LombanaClaudia Helena LombanaClaudia Helena Lombana
Foreign Languages Departement, Universidad Nacional de Colombia

klauxis@hotmail.com



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The task of writing becomes even more
dramatic when we have to teach it in English:
we feel anxious and threatened due to little
training in both, our own writing process and
teaching strategies in this skill. This article,
then, addresses the definition of writing and
the different concerns that arise from this
definition, so Colombian teachers of English
at different schools can be aware —and
reminded—of what the writing skill implies
in order to make this process more enjoyable
for both, teachers and students.

What is writing?What is writing?What is writing?What is writing?What is writing?

The concept of writing has been widely
discussed by many researchers and there is wide
information on the topic. For the purpose of
this article, I will briefly make reference to the
differences between the spoken and the written
language. Then, I will concentrate more on the
definition of writing as a means and as an end.

As in speaking, the writing ability draws on
many of the same linguistic resources, but relies
on distinctly different mental processes. While
linguists and other scholars have held that
speech is primary and writing is a reflection of
spoken language, educators have contended
that the written language is more correct than
the spoken language. Recent studies, however,
have tended to reconcile both views. “Neither
oral nor written language is inherently superior
to the other, but oral and written texts do vary
across a number of dimensions, including (but
not limited to) textual features, socicultural
norms and patterns of use, and the cognitive
processes involved in text production and
comprehension” (Cushing Weige: 2002, 15).
Moreover, “speaking and writing are frequently
used in different settings, for different reasons,
and to meet different communicative goals”
(ibid: p. 16).

One important difference between the
spoken and the written language is the fact
that the former is an innate phenomenon
worldwide. Unless a person is physically
impaired, most human beings have the innate
ability to acquire a language. This does not
happen with writing, which is an academic
skill learned at school and highly regarded in
educational settings. Although the modern
world needs citizens who are functionally
literate, so they can perform a series of daily
activities where writing is necessary—filling
out forms, writing correspondence, notes,
reports, shopping lists, e-mails, etc.—, the
type of elaborate writing indispensable in the
academic world is seldom used. That is, out
of the academic circle, most people’s daily
routines do not demand the writing of
elaborate descriptions, narratives, or essays,
for example.

It is important to underline the two types
of settings mentioned above because
according to the purpose of writing in each
setting, the writing task varies, and so does
the teaching of it. Therefore, writing can be
defined as a means or as an end. As a means,
writing is seen as a form of learning (Raimes:
1983), as a support skill in language learning
(Rivers: 1981), or as a testing device to
diagnose grammar or comprehension errors.
In this way, writing is the tool which enables
the student to master the other language skills
and allows the teacher to evaluate student’s
progress and performance. Hence, writing
becomes the means by which students will
learn vocabulary, grammatical forms and will
carry out a series of other activities that
involve the speaking, listening and reading
skills. This is, writing is an important tool in
the classroom for consolidation learning in
other skill areas as well as knowledge of
different subjects, and provides extra activities



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in the classroom. Then writing as a means
rather than an end can include grammatical
exercises, dictation, completion, cloze
exercises, note taking, copying and
reproduction of other texts, and exercises to
learn vocabulary.

On the other hand, writing as an end is an
expressive form that deals with the text
discourse and not merely the writing of
isolated words, phrases, and sentences as in
the other type. Writing as an end takes two
types according to its purpose: 1) pragmatic
communication, and 2) creative writing. The
first one includes the writing of informal and
formal letters, reports, résumés, reviews,
concrete descriptions, and other forms of
writing connected with everyday affairs.

In the second type, creative writing, a higher
level of language manipulation and use is
demanded out of both the teacher and the
student in order to produce texts that make
use of literar y devices: narratives,
descriptions, essays and academic writing in
general. This type of writing requires and
implies a sort of fine language use and skillful
linguistic competence which are seldom
acquired in high school. Moreover, “a
minority of speakers of any language acquire
the skill of writing with any degree of finesse,
and then only after years of training in school
and [extensive] practice out of school” (Rivers:
1981, 291) people learn to manipulate the
skill at ease. Many people do not continue
using this type of writing after completion of
school or university studies, unless they get
involved in an academic career that demands
highly expressive writing.

Creative writing also implies a cognitive
activity—planning, translating, reviewing, text
interpretation, reflection and text production

(writing models by Hayes and Floyer: 1980;
and Hayes: 1996 in Cushing Weigle:
2002)— and is usually easier for teachers
and students who have an innate talent in the
skill. People who have little or no talent for
this skill usually find it painful, and even if
they are taught how to produce a good essay,
for example, the results are not always very
satisfactory. This type of writing is not even
achieved in university elective English courses,
since it demands a higher artistic expression
and creative involvement, being more the
concern of bilingual and university English
language programs.

If we take a deeper look at the production
of written texts in creative writing, we can
also find that this activity goes beyond the
fact of producing well written grammatical
sentences, vocabulary and rhetorical devices.
Besides the linguistic and cognitive aspects
involved in this activity, social and cultural
issues also count in successful writing. As a
cultural phenomenon, writing is influenced by
sociocultural aspects that determine the way
the discourse is organized thus creating
distinctive styles in the way students from
different cultures approach and produce pieces
of writing.

The discourse in English, for example, “can
be described as a straight line” while the
Spanish one tends to be wordy, lengthy and
the written text is usually full of digressions.
This is influenced by our culture which is
usually oriented to show ostentation of
extensive knowledge on a subject. “Spanish
writers prefer lengthy introductions, and
instead of focusing narrowly on the main ideas
of an essay, as in English, Spanish writers make
use of digressions and asides to show their
breadth of knowledge on the topic” (Collado:
1981; cited in Cushing Weigle: 2002, 21).



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Referring now to pragmatic writing—which
is the most common type taught and practiced
at high schools and universities—this type
also needs some sparks of creativity and talent,
but is not as demanding as the written
production for creative writing. Essay writing
for example, is a type of artistic expression of
creative involvement which is more difficult
and demanding than the writing of an informal
or formal letter in pragmatic writing.

Taking into account all the above, and
considering the fruitless and bitter results of
writing practices of the expressive type at
different institutions, the next reflections on
realistic writing in both L1 and L2 should be
made in order to assess the type of writing
activities teachers are introducing in the
classroom.

1. Is the teaching of writing focused1. Is the teaching of writing focused1. Is the teaching of writing focused1. Is the teaching of writing focused1. Is the teaching of writing focused
on real experience?on real experience?on real experience?on real experience?on real experience?

Before deciding on the type of writing we
want our students to perform in or out of
class, we should ask ourselves several
questions.

1.1 How much writing do the students1.1 How much writing do the students1.1 How much writing do the students1.1 How much writing do the students1.1 How much writing do the students
do in their native language and what dodo in their native language and what dodo in their native language and what dodo in their native language and what dodo in their native language and what do
they write about?they write about?they write about?they write about?they write about?

It is necessary to consider that by the time
six-year olds start their elementary schools;
their L1 has a very wide repertoire from which
they can draw experiences and aspects that
they are able to refer to by using a very fluent
communicative speech. The students then start
learning the basics of writing through the
alphabet and to produce short sentences.
Throughout elementary school, the students
acquire knowledge in the different subjects
and writing is the means by which they take

notes, emphasize learning and, in the majority
of the cases are tested.

For the English language teacher it is essential
to establish a connection with the other Spanish
speaking teachers in order to know what type of
real instruction in writing is given in their Spanish
classes and content based courses, how the
written skill has been taught, the mechanics, the
grammatical structures and the type of texts that
the students have been or are producing in their
native language. Students should be taught all
the above before facing the writing skill in L2. In
this way, elementary students would be able to
transfer the basic concepts they have learned in
L1 to L2 and the continuous progress in L2
writing could be enhanced through more
advanced grades in high school. Moreover, it is
indispensable to know that the students in
elementary school will not be able to produce
full texts in L2, but will be exposed to the spelling
of English words and the writing of phrases and
short sentences. In other words, the written code
is used in extra activities to emphasize the other
language skills rather than using expressive
writing in full texts.

High school students, on the other hand,
start producing texts of several kinds. Students
are usually exposed to some sort of expressive
writing: letters, reports, note taking, short
paragraphs, dialogues, guided and free
compositions, narratives and descriptions. As
with the elementary school students, the
teacher should be aware of the previous training
students have had in their L1 writing process.

One way to do this could be by checking on
the stages of writing the students usually have
to go through: 1) notation: copying chunks of
text from a text, reproducing parts of a text
which has been read or heard. Taking notes
makes part of sensitizing students to a new



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phonological system; 2) writing practice: doing
grammatical exercises, writing simple dialogues,
uncomplicated translation exercises, dictation
and cloze procedure. Students move form guided
exercises (structures, vocabulary, sentences are
expanded and transformed) usually for the
preparation of oral activities such as reports and
dramatizations; and 3) pragmatic writing: writing
instructions, reports, résumés, concrete
narratives and descriptions and correspondence
connected with everyday affairs (Rivers: 1981).
This third stage would probably fit more
accurately in 10th and 11th grades.

Free creative writing at a more advanced
level in high school demands a higher students’
oral expression and more advanced receptive
skills (reading and listening). If the students do
not have a high level in the other skills, facing
free creative writing can end up in the production
of hybrid language that makes students believe
they are writing acceptably, but what they are
indeed producing are , as Rivers says,
“monstrosities.” “To be sure [of acceptable
results], attempts at writing creatively can and
should be encouraged from an early stage, so
long as students have a clear realization of the
limitations of knowledge within which they are
composing” (Rivers: 1981, 297). The ability
of the L2 teacher to guide the student through
this task successfully also becomes a key aspect.
He/she should be able to sense how much his/
her students are capable of producing and judge
the textbook activities. The second question
here deals with this aspect.

1.2 What type of writing activities do1.2 What type of writing activities do1.2 What type of writing activities do1.2 What type of writing activities do1.2 What type of writing activities do
the English textbooks include? How muchthe English textbooks include? How muchthe English textbooks include? How muchthe English textbooks include? How muchthe English textbooks include? How much
of these activities have the studentsof these activities have the studentsof these activities have the studentsof these activities have the studentsof these activities have the students
practiced in their native language?practiced in their native language?practiced in their native language?practiced in their native language?practiced in their native language?

One aspect foreign language teachers
should know about their students’ writing is

the extent of practice students have had in L1
in the same type of written activities offered
in the English textbook. As intended by most
English textbooks, picture description, the
narrative of a story or a movie, a written report
about a graded reader, an informal or formal
letter, all these types of writing activities are
usually intended to test the knowledge of L2
with the purpose of making students rehearse
what is expected from them especially in the
eventual case of being tested internationally
in their L2 proficiency. We have to remember
that English textbooks are what English writers
in their own experience expect students to
produce in L2. But how well prepared are our
students to do the same type of writing
activities in our native language?

Let us take for example the activity of picture
description, which is one favorite activity in most
textbooks. How do your students describe pictures
of people and landscapes, for example, in Spanish?
I do not think this is a typical activity in the Spanish
class, so how are the students going to face this
type of written activity if they have seldom or
never done it in L1. It is then the task of the L2
teacher to check on students’ capacity to generalize
and to note the essentials in a picture, so they can
do this activity with some décor. Also, how much
vocabulary does the student know in order to
make reference to the parts of the picture? How
about the grammar, the mechanics, the style and
the organization of the text?

Once again, a student who makes a very
good description of a photograph in Spanish
will be able to transfer some cognitive
knowledge into English. This, added to an
intermediate proficiency in L2 might result in a
very good piece of free creative writing.
Nevertheless, one should question how realistic
this activity is and if it is really useful in our
daily lives, which leads us to our third question.



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1.3 How many of these activities will1.3 How many of these activities will1.3 How many of these activities will1.3 How many of these activities will1.3 How many of these activities will
be of realistic use in their future lives?be of realistic use in their future lives?be of realistic use in their future lives?be of realistic use in their future lives?be of realistic use in their future lives?

One motivating factor is to realize how
down to earth the writing activities offered in
the textbook are. Since the L2 teacher is
dealing with activities that are most of the
time culturally embedded, and that according
to the authors might be of interest to the
students, the teacher could in principle ask
his/her students how motivating these tasks
are and consider if they are really useful for
the students’ particular interest.

Filling out forms, writing letters, shopping
lists, reports, daily agendas, are some
examples of the pragmatic writing most adults
have to do in their daily lives in L1, for
example. The writing of literary descriptions,
narratives, essays, and more creative language
is seldom used out of school in the native
language. Now, how about the L2 writing
experience for most people in their daily lives?
I question the relevance of the teaching of
writing to most students with the rhetorical
devices that are necessary to function in an
academic world. The problem here is to see
the purpose of the writing skill and how to
teach it in such a way that the writing tasks
become realistic and relevant.

According to Byrne (1988), the use of L2
“texts as a basic practice format… can make
the writing activities more meaningful for the
students and thereby increase their motivation
to write well. The text provides a setting within
which they can practise, for example, sentence
completion, sentence combination, paragraph
construction, etc. in relation to longer
stretches of discourse. In this way they can
see not only why they are writing but also
write in a manner appropriate to the
communicative goal of the text (p. 25).

Students could then be helped “by making
writing tasks more realistic, by relating practice
to a specific purpose instead of asking
[students] to write simply for the sake of
writing” (Byrne: 1988, 25). Teachers could
explore more opportunities in order to
integrate the writing activity with the other
language skills. “Writing tends to get
relegated to the level of exercises partly because
it is treated as a compendium to the lesson
rather than a s worthwhile learning activity in
itself. While it is convenient …to be able to
set written work as homework and while
writing may not come very high on the list of
priorities, this does not mean that it cannot
take its place as part of a natural sequence of
learning activities” (ibid: p. 25).

Using texts is only one way to make the
writing task more realistic. Other forms to
make writing more realistic and relevant
include 1) the identification of some forms of
writing which are likely to be relevant to the
learners’ needs: institutional communication
(letters written to the President of the school
asking for school facilities, for example),
communication among friends (invitation to
events such as birthday parties, lectures, etc.),
notes (apologies, warnings, etc.), and stories
and narratives at fairly basic and intermediate
levels (Byrne: 1988). This type of production
deserves some language input that is often
taken for granted when students are asked to
write “compositions.” Therefore, L2 language
exposure should be considered.

4. How much input and practice have4. How much input and practice have4. How much input and practice have4. How much input and practice have4. How much input and practice have
you pryou pryou pryou pryou provided before facing the writingovided before facing the writingovided before facing the writingovided before facing the writingovided before facing the writing
activities?activities?activities?activities?activities?

One common characteristic in most
compositions produced by students without
the appropriate guidance is the “hybrid” type



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of writing that is common among nonnative
speakers—and which was mentioned
previously. Teachers usually complain about the
low quality of written products they get from
their students. What many of us have not
realized is that oral production takes time and
varies from one student to another, and that a
good oral production can aid the written one.
Also the two receptive skills of listening and
reading expose the non-native speaker to L2
examples, providing good basis for the speaking
and writing skills. Plenty of exposure to the L2
language through listening, reading and
reinforcement of oral practice, a good guidance
from the teacher emphasizing aspects of
language, and using texts as linguistic models
to copy and produce, can help the teacher and
the students in the writing task. We should not
expect our students to produce good pieces of
writing before some internalization of
vocabular y, grammatical structures, the
mechanics of language, has taken place through
the many exercises practiced in writing as a
means of communication. Once students have
sufficiently dealt with such exercises, they can
be introduced to the writing of short texts,
which is in fact, what writing is about.

5. Going beyond the pr5. Going beyond the pr5. Going beyond the pr5. Going beyond the pr5. Going beyond the production ofoduction ofoduction ofoduction ofoduction of
right sentences: How are we dealing withright sentences: How are we dealing withright sentences: How are we dealing withright sentences: How are we dealing withright sentences: How are we dealing with
the prthe prthe prthe prthe production of eoduction of eoduction of eoduction of eoduction of expressive texpressive texpressive texpressive texpressive texts?xts?xts?xts?xts?

If we consider that successful writing goes
beyond the ability to produce clear and correct
sentences, our role as teachers demands a
more serious involvement. We then teach to
build communicative potential that can help
the students to write whole texts which form
connected, contextualized and appropriate
pieces of communication (Hedge: 1988). If
this is really what we want to teach, then the
teaching of writing will have to take into
account the aspects of expressive writing in

order to enable students to communicate ideas
clearly, fluently and effectively.

Although creative writing demands a great
command of the language, this does not mean
that we can not use this type of writing at
more basic and intermediate levels. This could
be done only if students have previously
worked the language in the other language
skills and start out with a very good grasp of
vocabulary and structures in L2. The more
the students have successfully used writing in
grammatical exercises, copying, reproduction,
dictation purposes, the better chances they
will have in the development of their expressive
writing. As said before, appropriate input and
manipulation of the other skills will also help
them in the writing process, especially reading.
Also, we have to pay attention to the individual
aspects of writing which involve working
memory, motivation and affect, cognitive
processes and long-term memory (Hayes’
model, in Cushing Weigle: 2002), besides
other sociocultural factors.

Once again, the teacher has to understand
the difference between the conception of
writing as a means, and expressive writing as
an end, which is the most difficult one to teach
and produce. Teaching writing at public
schools becomes particularly more difficult
when the social context where English is taught
does not reinforce the input of the other skills
given in the classroom. The only exposure to
L2 in most occasions is the classroom,
rendering the experience subjected to the
artificial situation of the classroom, thus
making the learning of L2 even more difficult.
The pressure of a monolingual Spanish
environment affects the instruction in L2 as
well as students’ performance, so we have to
provide for healthy L2 environments that can
make the learning experience as vivid and real



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51 PROFILEPROFILEPROFILEPROFILEPROFILE

as possible: a friendly classroom where anxiety
levels are low and assessment is used in order
to learn and not for a grade.

ConclusionConclusionConclusionConclusionConclusion

What this article intended to do was to
explore the concept of writing which deals
directly with the type of writing activities we
develop in our classes. Writing, on one side,
is a means of instruction and can help the
students to learn the other skills. However,
writing as an end implies more skillful training,
a high proficiency and creativity on the part of
the teacher. As for the students, they could
write better compositions in L2 (expressive
writing) after being extensively exposed to
exercises in copying, note-taking, grammatical
structure training, combination of sentences,
paragraph structure, analysis of texts, etc. and
after having developed a higher proficiency in
the oral, reading and listening skills—working
memory is required. It would be advisable
not to expose students directly to free writing
in L2 at once, but prompt guidance in the
stages of writing. Well structured activities
would also help students to enhance L2
compositions and render the teacher’s activity
more productive and well focused. Successful
writing also depends on the practice students
have had in their native language so they can
be able to identify certain concepts and

practicalities of the process of writing
(mechanics, organization and coherence) into
L2. One last concern deals with the triggering
factor in writing: how motivating the textbook
activities or the teacher’s writing tasks are
for the students and how practical the writing
practice is. Although the writing skill is the
most difficult to learn and master in L2, we
have to remember that as native speakers of
Spanish (L1) our writing in our own language
is often deficient too and that we tend to
have a more oral oriented communication.
Therefore, handling writing in L2 should be
strategic and realistic.

ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences

Byrne, D. (1988). Teaching Writing Skills.
London: Longman UK.

Cushing Weigle, S. (2002). Assessing
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PROFILE