declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 project management research and practice vol. 4 jan.-june 2017 © 2017 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: ingason, h.t. 2017. collaboration between pmrp and ipma. project management research and practice, article id 5435. http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ pmrp.v4i0.5435 issn 2207-1415 | published by uts epress | http://pmrp. epress.lib.uts.au page number not for citation purposes commentary collaboration between pmrp and ipma helgi thor ingason reykjavik university corresponding author: helgi thor ingason, reykjavik university, menntavegur 1, 101 reykjavík, ijsland. helgithor@ru.is doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5435 research is a fundamental building block of every profession, and project management is no exception. the international project management association (ipma) was established by academics, research has always been acknowledged by ipma and the association has supported research in different ways. we see it as our duty to share knowledge in project management, cooperate and facilitate cooperation between project management researchers and motivate project management researchers…and, by investigating specific areas, and thereby influencing the discipline. to achieve this we collaborate with other organisations that share our interest and i am glad to declare that ipma will be collaborating with the journal project management research and practice. an example of the traditional research related activities of ipma are the annual research conferences. they are not like typical conferences where most of the research happens beforehand and the participants are primarily listeners. instead, we prepare the structure and work methods thoroughly and then invite selected presenters to come and inspire the participants with their lectures on chosen topics. the participants are thus a mixture of practitioners and scholars and the value lies primarily in what happens during the conference, during the fruitful discussions, workshops, world café sessions and networking that results when people with different backgrounds and perspectives meet to discuss important subjects. the 5th ipma research conference will be held in south korea, november 2-3, 2017. another example of traditional research related activities of ipma are the annual research awards where we have three categories. the ipma young researcher award is given for cutting edge research of a young researcher, typically a phd project. the ipma research award is given for cutting edge research project of a researcher or a team. finally, we have the life time achievement awards where we honour individual project management researchers for their contribution over their career. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5435 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5435 http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.au http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.au http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5435 ingason 2 page number not for citation purposes project management research and practice, vol. 4, jan.-june 2017 there are many possibilities for collaboration between ipma and pmrp. readers should expect to immediately see reports (to be delivered annually) from the past ipma research conferences and commentary from last year’s research award winners. it is our goal to publish relevant and interesting information about some of the best senior and young project management researchers in the world and interpret their findings to empower project management practitioners around the world. dr. helgi thor ingason ipma research coordinator, professor and head of the masters in project management program at reykjavik university about the author dr. helgi thor ingason is a full professor at reykjavik university. he is co-head (with dr. haukur ingi jonasson) of the mpm – master of project management – program at the university. the research fields of dr. ingason range from qualityand project management to system dynamics and renewable energy, production, transport and utilization, changes in the energy infrastructure and energy carriers of the future. dr. ingason has reported on his research at conferences and in several reviewed conference and journal papers. he is the co-author of 6 books in the icelandic language on project management, strategic planning, product development and quality management. he is also a co-author of the book project ethics, published by gower in january 2013 declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 project management research and practice vol. 4 jan.-june 2017 © 2017 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: aitken, a. 2017. driving project delivery from the top down: engaging executive leaders as project sponsors. project management research and practice, article id 5459. http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ pmrp.v4i0.5459 issn 2207-1415 | published by uts epress | http://pmrp. epress.lib.uts.au page number not for citation purposes commentary driving project delivery from the top down: engaging executive leaders as project sponsors alicia aitken telstra australia, sydney, australia corresponding author: alicia aitken, telstra australia. sydney nsw, australia. alicia.aitken@ team.telstra.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5459 my organisation, like so many others realised that if it was going to succeed it needed to get better at doing projects. after establishing all the usual elements of good portfolio management, epmo, business unit pmos, and business case & benefits teams (among others), our leaders decided a chief project officer (cpo) would be needed as the driving force for change. through a series of serendipitous events i became that cpo. my brief was pretty simple…make us great at project delivery. in the spirit of all great evidence-based practice i began with research…field research in this instance. i hunted down any project manager i could find and asked them for their thoughts and opinions. it probably comes as no surprise that they told me what most people have told me in other organisations…”it’s not us it’s them—sponsors!” great, i thought, one week in the job and i have to tell the people that hired me that they’re the problem. and so i accepted the challenge. my first problem was that i didn’t know any of our sponsors and none of them knew me. i spent the first 6 months “making friends” and met as many of the executives i could find. i hired a small team of uber project directors and put them in to run our most complex projects. i asked them to model what ‘good’ looks like for their sponsors. if sponsors are the dreamers of an organisation, project managers are the dream-weavers, so i tasked my team with making dreams come true for their sponsors. their projects began to take shape as scope was pinned down, schedules firmed up, resources optimized and the magic of project management began to deliver projects. as this rolled out i moved around the organisation spreading the word. slowly but surely sponsors https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5459 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5459 http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.au http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.au http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5459 aitken 2 page number not for citation purposes project management research and practice, vol. 4, jan.-june 2017 started to come out from behind projects to see what was happening and how they could get in on the action. as they did, i did a digital “tag & release,” capturing names and id’s as they came through events slowly building my network of sponsors. now i knew all the people to whom i needed to say “you’re the problem” and they knew me. the message was still not one i was looking forward to giving. success was going to be all in the delivery. i decided it was best that i was not the messenger. the message would be more powerful if it came from within the group…so, i went on a hunt for a great sponsor to be the messenger. this person needed not only the skills to sponsor projects themselves, but was passionate about the need for all executives to develop project sponsorship skills. i found our deputy cfo. together we started the conversation with our executives and project leaders in a ‘big bang’ event in november 2016. we invited four sponsors to share their experiences of being a project sponsor, how they learnt to sponsor, and what great sponsorship means to them. our cohort of excited sponsors walked out of the session clutching the first project sponsor handbook to help them on their way. behind the scenes, i armed every project manager with a copy as well and asked them to help their sponsors put the concepts into action. my hope was that the platform had been set for dreamers and dream weavers to build a lasting relationship. having delivered the difficult message of “the problem is you,” i faced into the second challenge of, “what do i do now to actually lift capability?” for this question i went back to basics and applied the principles of design thinking. i asked my customer. the persistent theme was learning by modelling from other great executives. our executives weren’t keen on formal project management training, e-learning, podcasts, conferences, seminars, and coaching. what they wanted was to learn from other executives who’d developed the skill of sponsorship. i got lucky and found the john grill centre at sydney university developing a one-day program for executives covering this very topic. even better…the presenters are not university academics or project management trainers, they’re two highly experience executives from the corporate world. they’ve both moved beyond executive roles and now focus their time as non-executive directors on the boards of some of australia’s largest companies including iag & nrma corporate superannuation, bank of queensland, cricket australia and canstar. i found my uber sponsors! as the new year dawned, we declared 2017 the year of the project sponsor. we’ve run several of the one day programs which we’ve called sponsor peer to peer forums (not training), and so far so good. project sponsors are leaving the sessions appreciating how real and important the work of project sponsorship is. the ripple effect is felt across the business with evidence at the project level emerging of better decisions. i’m still cautious because, well, you can lead people to knowledge but you can’t make them learn. but this week i received a text to let me know that in the last sponsor session we held our deputy chief financial officer made an unexpected appearance. he turned up, joined in and enjoyed it. through one simple act he committed to honing his own sponsorship craft and modelled what good looks like for everyone else. he showed that no one is too important, too senior to participate in and learn from the activities of 2017 the year of the sponsor. this is a great beginning and a journey that i look forward to sharing. dr alicia aitken chief project officer telstra sydney, australia aitken 3 page number not for citation purposes project management research and practice, vol. 4, jan.-june 2017 about the author dr. alicia aitken is actively involved in several industry groups and peak bodies. she is a director of the international centre for complex project management, chief project officer for telstra australia’s largest telecommunication company. previously alicia held the position of ceo, human systems international. her experience ranges through several industries including telecommunications, banking & finance, defence & aerospace, pharmaceutical, engineering & construction, mining, oil & gas and government. alicia holds a phd in project management and psychology with a particular focus on how project managers cope with stress. alicia is a regular keynote speaker at conferences around the world and contributes to academic programs at universities in both australia and europe. declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 project management research and practice vol. 4 jan.-june 2017 © 2017 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: pasian, b. 2017. thoughts on climate change and project management. project management research and practice, article id 5462. http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ pmrp.v4i0.5462 issn 2207-1415 | published by uts epress | http://pmrp. epress.lib.uts.au page number not for citation purposes background addressing the undeniable challenge of climate change within the pages of pmrp is a priority and, starting with the 2017 volume, will become an ongoing focus for submissions. in support of this, the views of dr. joel carboni were recently captured on a variety of topics relevant to both project management researchers and practitioners. dr. joel carboni is a leading figure on sustainability in project management. he is a graduate of ball state university, holds a ph.d. in sustainable development and environment and has has over 18 years’ experience in portfolio, program and program management for government, banking, legal and big five consulting. he is a regular speaker at csr, sustainability, and project management symposiums, congresses and conferences all over the globe. he is the president of asapm the united state’s member association to the international project management association and the founder of gpm global (green project management). he is the gpm representative to the united nations global compact (ungc) leading as founding signatory of the un’s business for peace and anti corruption initiative and one of only fourteen listed supporting organizers of the un principles for responsible management education program (prme). he is the architect of the prism™ project delivery methodology, p5 standard for sustainability in project management and co-architect of the psm3 organizational sustainability model. he has authored training programs on green and sustainable project management that interview thoughts on climate change and project management joel carboni, green project management interviewer: beverly pasian associate professor, institute of business administration, utrecht university of applied sciences, utrecht, the netherlands. beverly.pasian@hu.nl interview details date: 11th march, 2017 topic: climate change and project management doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5462 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5462 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5462 http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.au http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.au mailto:beverly.pasian@hu.nl http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5462 pasian 2 page number not for citation purposes project management research and practice, vol. 4 jan.-june 2017 are currently offered in over 150 countries and six languages through professional training providers, business associations, and universities. defining climate change bp: ‘climate change’ is a very broad term used to encompass threats to the sustainability of life on our planet. what definition would you offer that gives this topic more immediate meaning to both project management researchers and practitioners? is there a difference? jc: more than offer a definition, i believe that it is important to recognize that the earth’s climate is always changing. it has gone through warm and cold periods, each lasting thousands of years. what is alarming is that what we are facing right now is the rate of change since the industrial revolution. the impacts that projects have on our environment should be viewed more seriously, and both project management practitioners and researchers must take ownership of their ability, as change agents, to take greater responsibility. affected industries and projects bp: can you offer insight into specific industries or project types that might be most affected, including any that are emergent? jc: the healthcare industry will be profoundly affected as health related projects will have to contend with temperature extremes, impacts of extreme climatic and weather events as well as rapid demographic and environmental changes… all of which pave easier routes for vectorborne diseases to spread. the focus of project management researchers bp: in writing my own recent editorial, i’ve found the absence of research articles amongst my project management colleagues quite surprising. clearly little attention has been paid on these projects or their management. what are your thoughts on this? jc: this isn’t surprising at all. project management has largely existed in a bubble. we are taught from day one that projects are time bound. our constraints are time, cost, and scope and anything that happens after handover is an operations issue and therefore not part of our remit. therefore, long-term impacts to climate do not align with short-term thinking. it should. bp: what topics would you encourage project management researchers to investigate related to this public priority? don’t limit yourself ! jc: we need to think outside the box, literally. we need to escape from the strict phase confines of initiation to close and evolve towards a cradle-to-cradle mindset. this requires a paradigm shift in how portfolios are developed, projects and programmes are selected, prioritized and managed. it also requires a fresh look at what benefits define project success. education bp: many practitioners are pursuing masters-level degrees in programs with a project management focus. what guidance would you give to the program directors of such programs? what topics would you advise these practitioner-researchers to focus on? pasian 3 page number not for citation purposes project management research and practice, vol. 4 jan.-june 2017 jc: i would encourage a focus on sustainable development as an objective of project management and the positive contributions the discipline can have. project management is the single discipline that is entirely focused on change. as our world changes, so should the products and services that sustain us. in that vein, we must encourage students to push the boundaries with fresh and innovative ideas that will make project management even more valuable. the work of professional associations bp: climate change and similar public priorities have only been modestly addressed in the competency and assessment frameworks. what are your thoughts on this? how would you direct the leadership of ipma and pmi to more assertively alter the next versions of these tools? jc: i can’t speak for pmi as i am not a stakeholder however ipma has adopted sustainability in the new individual competence baseline (v4) and the project excellence baseline is focused on sustainability, which is a major step forward. at gpm, we have been agnostic in what we offer and our standard (p5) is principle based and designed to support all of the project management associations. future interests of practitioners bp: if you could speak to a project manager from 3-5 years in the future, how would you advise them to be an effective project manager with respect to this critical public priority? jc: i would give the same advice that i do today which is that we are facing problems that have been accelerated by human activity and it will require human ingenuity to adapt. we must work together to mitigate the affects of climate change and architect solutions that ensure this planet is inhabitable for decades to come. we don’t have a contingency plan… bp: on a more regular basis, what sources would you advise project managers to look for information about climate change as it relates to their practice? we developed the p5 standard for sustainability in project management which offers practical advice, and is free. i recommend people add it to their pm tool belt. aside from that, i would encourage pms to become familiar with the paris accord, and the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. these are international policies and objectives that all aspects of business should understand but especially the discipline that drives change. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 project management research and practice vol. 4 jan.-june 2017 © 2017 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: ingason, h.t. & schoper, y. 2017. project management and sustainability. project management research and practice, article id 5467. http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ pmrp.v4i0.5467 issn 2207-1415 | published by uts epress | http://pmrp. epress.lib.uts.au page number not for citation purposes 1 2 introduction the 4th ipma research conference was held on project management and sustainability in reykjavik, iceland from september 14th 16th 2016. in this short review we give a general outline of the structure of the conference, the main findings and what they mean for the project management community. structure of the conference and keynotes the ipma research conferences are no typical conferences. the structure and work methods are thoroughly prepared and selected presenters are invited to come and inspire the participants with their lectures on chosen topics. the value lies primarily in what happens during the presentations, in the discussions, workshops, world café sessions and networking that takes place when people with different backgrounds and perspectives meet to discuss important subjects. the following figure shows the structure of the 4th ipma research conference. conference note project management and sustainability review of the 4th ipma research conference 2016 helgi thor ingason1, yvonne schoper2 1 school of science and engineering, reykjavik university, menntavegur 1, is-101, reykjavik, iceland. 2 htw berlin university of applied sciences, treskowallee 8, d-10813 berlin, germany. name: helgi thor ingason location: reykjavik, iceland. host organisation: school of science and engineering, reykjavik university doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5467 article history: received 26/03/2017; revised 03/04/2017; accepted 14/05/2017; published 01/06/2017 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5467 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5467 http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.au http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.au http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5467 ingason & schoper 2 page number not for citation purposes project management research and practice, vol. 4, jan.-june 2017 the ipma research conferences always open with a conference dinner to make the participants familiar with each other. a group of mpm1 students from reykjavik university presented the basic definitions of sustainability and introduced the message of the paris convention in 2015. dr. yvonne schoper (germany) opened the next morning the conference with a keynote presentation on the future trends that will shape our lives and our profession in the coming decades: world population growth, climate change, water, agriculture & forest, economy & trade, energy & power, technology development, mobility & transportation, human development and people´s values. the keynote by dr. schoper was followed by a workshop where the participants worked in four groups on four different topics, inspired by the keynote of dr. schoper. dr. gilbert silvius (netherlands) opened the afternoon session with a keynote with the topic “what is currently being done regarding sustainability, what is the gap?” he showed that sustainability has become a core issue for large international corporations. but a lot of work remains to be done as there is a gap between what is being done and what needs to be done. for example, sustainability should be an integral part of the bodies of knowledge for project management, which is the case with the new icb42 of ipma. dr. peter morris (uk), the legendary project management scholar opened the next day with a keynote speech on the topic “how to close the gap – focus on project management.” his talk evolved around what is currently happening in the world and he argued that we should focus on climate change and how to deal with it before it is too late. he was followed by michael young (australia) who gave a keynote on the topic “how to close the gap – focus on project outcomes.” he showed the dramatic changes that are already happening as a result of climate change, for example in the great barrier reef in australia were the corals have recently been severely damaged because of the increased sea temperature. on the bright side, he showed that there is a growing awareness in the project management community with the introduction of sustainability standards. the keynotes were followed by a world café session that had the purpose to summarize the conference contents in specific topics, all with emphasis on what professionals and stakeholders in project management can do regarding sustainability: 1. what can project managers do regarding sustainability? 2. what can project owners and project sponsors do regarding sustainability? 3. what can single points of accountabilty for project success do regarding sustainability? 4. what can institutions like ipma and the member associations do regarding sustainability? 1 master of project management. 2 icb is the abbreviation for the individual competence baseline of ipma. figure 1 program structure of the 4th ipma research conference ingason & schoper 3 page number not for citation purposes project management research and practice, vol. 4, jan.-june 2017 5. what sustainability competences can be brought to projects? 6. what are the 7 deadly sins regarding sustainable project management? 7. what should be the content of icb / ocb3 / peb4 regarding sustainability? 8. what makes sustainable leadership in projects? the conference finished with a one-day excursion to see geothermal and hydro power stations and get an impression on the efforts of the icelandic society towards climate neutrality. no other nation uses such a high proportion of renewable energy resources. overview of conference outcomes the discussions by the conference participants from over 20 countries revealed the mutual perception that the project management profession has a great responsibility for the global future development. our profession deals with the management of projects as business. the participants agreed that project management practitioners cannot only finger point to the different project roles and argue that sustainability is the responsibility of the project principals or sponsors. as project management has become the way of doing business a new holistic way of thinking is needed in every project manager worldwide. this includes the will and capability to understand the wider issues, the larger scale and the impact of every single project on sustainability, and to readjust their individual attitudes and values. consequently the important competencies needed for project practitioners in the future are systems thinking, understanding that projects are not isolated but part of a larger context – along with a deeper understanding of the three dimensions of sustainability: social, environmental and economic. no less important are an attitude of integrity and an ethical judgement to make decisions for the greater good. these competences and characteristics will be in necessary in a world where sustainability is a key element in project management. a further question is what does this mean for project stakeholders and those who practice project management? project managers have a great impact on how sustainability is taken into account in projects. the extent to which they are informed about sustainability and their attitude are crucial success factors for sustainability of projects and sustainable project management. project owners, project sponsors, single points of accountability for project success all of these stakeholders must become aware of their responsibility for sustainability in their organisations, and willing to push for sustainable thinking in the projects. the same applies to the project management associations as they influence the discussion, inform the profession and develop the education standards. they should take the various aspects of sustainability into account in their bodies of knowledge and define ethical codes of professional conduct that include sustainability for project managers. with these new measures the intention and behavior of project managers will be newly shaped, which was the common understanding of the conference. the world is facing huge problems that can only be solved by joint efforts, consensus, mutual understanding and the shared will to change things for a better future. it was a common understanding in the conference that our project management profession has a responsibility. sustainability needs to be part of our mindsets as professional project managers. 3 ocb is the abbreviation for the organisational competence baseline of ipma. 4 peb is the abbreviation for the project excellence baseline by ipma. ingason & schoper 4 page number not for citation purposes project management research and practice, vol. 4, jan.-june 2017 taking sustainability seriously needs to become an integral part of every professional body of knowledge in project, program and portfolio management worldwide. the ipma research awards the formal ceremony where the winners of the ipma research awards receive their rewards and present their research is a festive moment at the ipma research conferences. the ipma research awards consist of three categories. the winner of ipma research awards 2016 was dr. ofer zwikael from the australian national university for his contribution to knowledge on project benefit management. the winner of the young researcher awards 2016 was maxim miterev, ph.d. student at kth in sweden and politecnico di milano in italy for his research “exploring program management competences for various program types.” finally, ipma awarded dr. christophe n. bredillet, professor at université du québec à trois-rivières in canada for the 2016 research achievement award for his contribution to the philosophy of science with respect to complex project management. about the authors dr. helgi thor ingason holds a phd from the norwegian university of science and technology, msc from the university of iceland and a sapm degree from stanford university. he is a certified senior project manager by ipma. dr. ingason is an professor at reykjavik university. he is the co-author of 6 books on management in icelandic and english. he is a management consultant and ipma research coordinator. dr. yvonne schoper is professor for international project management at htw university of applied sciences berlin. she worked as a project manager for bmw, was responsible for several international automotive development projects and has been an associate professor at the tongji university since 2009. her research interests are intercultural and future trends project management, women representation and the further development of the profession of project managers. she has multiple board memberships in gpm germany and ipma. book review industrial megaprojects: concepts, strategies and practices for success merrow, e.w. 2011, industrial megaprojects: concepts, strategies and practices for success, hoboken, nj: john wiley & sons. 384 pages. isbn: 978-0-470-93882-9. aud$85.95 (hardcover) shankar sankaran professor of organizational project management, university of technology sydney (uts), po box 123, broadway nsw 2007, australia. shankar.sankaran@uts.edu.au doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5118 project management research and practice vol. 3 july-dec. 2016 © 2016 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: sankaran, s. 2016. book review – industrial megaprojects: concepts, strategies and practices for success. project management research and practice, 3, 5118. http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ pmrp.v3i0.5118 published by uts epress | http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts. edu.au relevance of this book to: researchers the book is based on real data, collected from over 318 megaprojects, providing useful guidelines to evaluate megaprojects. practitioners sound advice is provided for both project owners and project managers, including practical information on making the right decisions before and during a project, as well as setting up project teams, contracting, and risk management. the book elaborates on mistakes that are often made on megaprojects. abstract this is a review of a recent book by an experienced practitioner and researcher of megaprojects, who has been writing about the subject for three decades. it focuses on industrial megaprojects, mainly in oil and gas production, petroleum processing and refining, minerals and metals processing, chemical and liquefied natural gas plants, and power generation and pipelines. the book is written from the perspective of project owners, but contains some good advice for project managers as well. declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 (page number not for citation purposes) mailto:shankar.sankaran@uts.edu.au http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5118 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5118 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5118 http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au sankaran project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20162 (page number not for citation purposes) edward merrow’s book is a welcome addition to the growing literature on megaprojects. merrow defines his focus as industrial projects, compared with other classes of important megaprojects such as “military developments, purely public works and transportation” (p. 14). professor bent flyvbjerg (who directs a megaproject research centre at the saïd business school at the university of oxford, in the uk) defines a megaproject as a major infrastructure project that attracts a high level of public attention or political interest because of substantial direct and indirect impacts on the community, environment, and budgets. zhai et al. (2009) add that megaprojects exhibit “extreme complexity, substantial risks, long duration, and extensive impact on the community, economy, technological development, and environment of the region or even the whole country.” megaprojects are often criticized for not being able to deliver their intended benefits, while exceeding the cost and scheduled completion date – yet more and more are being undertaken around the world, especially in emerging economies. hence the topic of how to manage megaprojects better is of great interest to project management researchers, and merrow’s book provides some excellent insights into why things go wrong and what to do about it. merrow is not a newcomer to this field. he has been writing about large projects since his days at rand corporation, where he worked as a research analyst and director of the energy policy program in the early 1980s. two publications from his work at rand (merrow, philips & meyers 1981; merrow, mcdonnel & arguden 1988) and the data his firm independent project analysis (ipa) has collected serve as the foundations for this book. ipa has accumulated data about 318 megaprojects over the years, mainly in oil and gas production, petroleum processing and refining, minerals and metals processing, chemical and liquefied natural gas plants, and power generation and pipelines. in his foreword to the book, james porter states: “data from more than 300 global megaprojects shows that 65 percent of industrial projects with budgets larger than us$1 billion in 2010 failed to meet their business objectives” (p. vii). porter emphasizes the contribution that merrow’s book will make, as it “lays out ways to overcome the largest challenge in successful implementation of megaprojects – enabling the business and technical professionals to work together collaboratively as a fully integrated team” (p. vii). merrow claims that his book is a primer on what to do and what not to do, as part of end-to-end megaproject management. a glance at the chapters reveals the importance merrow places on data and the use of good data in decision-making, in carefully shaping the project at the front-end, and in managing people and project teams. this is a highlight of the book, distinguishing it from other literature on megaprojects. while merrow has expanded on the work of miller & lessard (2000), which deals with the importance of shaping large engineering projects, there are some very practical discussions on how to get the shaping right, including two case studies. merrow has also acknowledged the importance of two widely referenced books on large or megaprojects, and included chapters on topics that these other books cover: risk (flyvbjerg 2003) and success (morris & hough 1987). merrow opens the introduction to industrial megaprojects by stating that his book is mostly about “mistakes” that could have been avoided. he explains that while engineers can make small mistakes, it’s senior managers and sponsors who usually make the big mistakes. this book has plenty of advice for the latter, but is also offers valuable insights for project managers. merrow starts the book with seven big mistakes that are made on megaprojects, which he calls the “sorry seven” (p. 2). while some of them are similar to the mistakes we often http://flyvbjerg.plan.aau.dk/whatisamegaproject.php book review: industrial megaprojects project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20163 (page number not for citation purposes) encounter on smaller projects, there are some specific points of difference. merrow’s focus on mistakes certainly sets the scene, and is a clever way to evoke interest! the sorry seven are: 1. “i want to keep it all” (which is about the proper allocation of project value and being less greedy). 2. “i want it now!” (pressure to move the project along faster – and experienced project managers know exactly what that does). 3. “don’t worry, we’ll work out the details of the deal later” (the business deal and the projects have to develop together, even if the deal governs). 4. “why do we have to spend so much up front?” (the problem with skimping on the front-end definition of a project). 5. “we need to shave 20 percent off that number” (ignoring the effects of cost cutting on other aspects of a project). 6. “the contractors should carry the risk” (they’re doing the project emphasizing appropriate 3 risk allocation). 7. fire those #$@$^! project managers who overrun our projects! part 1, titled “understanding the projects,” provides an introduction to issues faced in megaprojects and advice on how to use data to evaluate project outcomes. i particularly liked chapter 1, “data and methods,” which shows how data should be collected and who should be involved in the collection. it also explains the methodology used for analyzing the data. the importance of using the data in evaluating project outcomes, described in chapter 2, and the thresholds used for failure, are very useful in analyzing megaprojects. the radar diagram (figure 3.1, p. 48) clearly shows the overall differences between successful and failed projects. part 2 of the book, titled “making the right decisions before you commit,” points out the importance of the shaping process. five steps are suggested in chapter 4, to achieve good shaping: · understand the context clearly. the highlights here are about evaluating local conditions, including the history of projects in the location, the political and institutional environment, the regulatory climate, the cultural climate (including religious issues), labour availability, and the inclusion of local content. · assess the potential value. the key point to focus on is the importance of weighing the project environment against the anticipated value and the number of claimants for that value, without which a lucrative project could turn sour very quickly. · assess the competitive advantage. look at the business objective, and balance it with the team objectives, giving due consideration to the project team interface. · determine stakeholder expectations. the highlight here is the advice to identify all stakeholders and their claims early, to help decision-making. · think about partners and consider their interests. ensure they help to share the risk, and do not create it. chapter 5 is about devising a shaping strategy. here the highlights are developing “kill criteria” for a project (which are often ignored, even on smaller projects) and the use of real options, which are becoming more popular in project portfolio management. the chapter includes two case studies, one describing a successful shaping strategy and the other an unsuccessful strategy. these are of great value to readers. part 3 of the book, titled “making the right project decisions,” contains good points on project implementation. in this part, the two chapters on teams align with the book’s claim sankaran project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20164 (page number not for citation purposes) that “people do projects.” in chapter 8, i liked the particular stress on having strong owner teams, which i have found a problem on large projects that i have managed. i also liked the focus on team leadership and the importance of continuity. how often do we see project teams flounder due to change of personnel? chapter 9 focuses on organizing the project team, and encourages the reader to consider alternative models to traditional models, including hub, satellite, and organic. overall this book is a useful and practical addition to the megaproject literature, which could also help public projects in certain aspects, even though this book is more about private sector projects. the book certainly delivers what it claims to do: help leaders and stakeholders of future megaprojects to be aware of the pitfalls in megaproject management, especially at the front-end, so that they can avoid common mistakes. about the author shankar sankaran is a professor of organizational project management at the university of technology sydney. he has been involved in community projects carried out by not for profit organisations for more than twenty years. he completed an australian research council funded research grant studying leadership development in not-for -profit organisations in health and community care. he teaches advanced level subjects at a master of project management course at his university where his students work on community projects. shankar’s research interests are in organizational project management systems thinking and action research. references flyvbjerg, b., bruzelius, n. & rothengatter, w. 2003, megaprojects and risk: an anatomy of ambition, cambridge university press, cambridge, uk. https:/doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107050891 merrow, e.w., mcdonnell, l.m. & ylmaz arguden, r. 1988, ‘understanding the outcomes of megaprojects: a quantitative analysis of very large civilian projects’, report r-3560-pssp, rand corporation, santa monica, ca. merrow, e.w., phillips, k.e. & myers, c.m. 1981, ‘understanding cost growth and performance shortfalls of pioneer process plants’, report r-2569-doe, rand corporation, santa monica, ca. miller, r. & lessard, d.r. 2000, the strategic management of large engineering projects, mit press, cambridge, ma. morris, p. & hough, g. 1987, the anatomy of major projects, major projects association, london. zhai, l. et al. 2009, ‘understanding the value of project management from a stakeholder’s perspective: case study of megaproject management’, project management journal, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 99–109. https:/ doi.org/10.1002/pmj.20099 https:/doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107050891 https:/doi.org/10.1002/pmj.20099 https:/doi.org/10.1002/pmj.20099 declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 project management research and practice vol. 4 jan.-june 2017 © 2017 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: pasian, b.l. 2017. editorial: we need to use the words … . project management research and practice, 4, 5405. http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ pmrp.v4i0.5405 issn 2207-1415 | published by uts epress | http://pmrp. epress.lib.uts.au page number not for citation purposes sometimes it’s important to simply say the words … as it is in the beginning of wisdom that is the definition of terms. when historians look at the world of project management, what will they say that we have said about climate change? certainly more general—but absolutely legitimate—terms such as ‘sustainability’ have been used, but in a basic term search in the 3 oldest project management journals, i was surprised to see only a few dozen uses of ‘climate change’ as a specific term. the conversation started a long time ago using those words, and pmrp would like to encourage more with this commentary on one of the central topics of this journal … climate change. declarations have been made of the importance and necessity of the project management community to turn its attention toward climate change. the first was more than 25 years ago, when laszlo (1991) indicated ‘the dangers of atmospheric warming and climate change ... as threats that face all societies, in every part of the world.’ he was commenting on the ‘unique role and great responsibility’ that project managers have to help organizations meet global problems. morris has since made multiple entreaties in our journals as he raises our awareness to the scales and complexities of the 21st century (2012). he challenges us to move beyond scope, budget and timeliness and focus on the impact of our work as humankind faces the inevitable threat of climate change (morris, 2013; morris, 2016). specific tools and methodologies have been carefully investigated in various regions and industries (t. wang, wang, zhang, huang, & li, 2016; y. wang, han, de vries, & zuo, 2016; wong, ng, & shahidi, 2013). an emphasis has emerged on risk assessment and management with loosemore (2010) describing, for example, multimedia technology used to engage stakeholders in risk management processes. it is positioned for possible application in a climate change strategy. zhang (2007), in one of the earliest mentions of climate change in a project management journal, also addresses risk management and notes that the ‘influence of systems on risk consequences has been comprehensively assessed in climate change studies.’ wang et al. propose an infrastructure assessment framework, and apply it on a cross-sea route project in the south china sea. disasters such as floods, drought, and heat waves (among others) associated with climate change are increasingly the focus of the project management community. researchers editorial we need to use the words … beverly l. pasian associate professor, institute of business administration, utrecht university of applied sciences, utrecht, the netherlands. beverly.pasian@hu.nl doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5405 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5405 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5405 http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.au http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.au mailto:beverly.pasian@hu.nl http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v4i0.5405 pasian project management research and practice, vol. 4 jan.-june 20172 page number not for citation purposes (kim & choi, 2013; steinfort, 2016) are advocating the use of new program management methodology specifically for use by communities recovering from such catastrophes. notably, steinfort makes the point that there must first be the ‘realisation’ of climate change as a threat – something done by klagegg & haavaldsen (2011) when discussing the necessity for clarity in definitions and principles both in governance and project management. staadt (2012) further explains the ‘vital role’ public organizations can play in realizing societal projects. new calls for expanded practitioner competencies have been made in the face of natural disasters and increasing challenges associated with climate change. first among these was saynisch (rw.error unable to find reference:4079) who focused on the iccpm standard. he characterized it as an ‘emerging natural extension of traditional project management to create a specialist profession’ that can focus on the large projects such as climate change, international aid and others.’ in discussing the need to focus on the professionalism of project management, konstantinou (2015) explains that ‘time critical problems’ such as climate change require ‘situated project knowledge.’ a more ‘meaningful’ relationship to researchers is needed to do this. adhazie et al. (ahadzie, proverbs, & sarkodie-poku, 2014) highlight the competencies of project managers ‘at the design phase of mass building projects.’ they do this, in part, by referencing malmquits and glauman (2009) who argue that, as the building sector contributes to the challenge of climate change, a more ‘holistic approach’ for communicating design-related information to actors is needed. central to supporting project management ‘actors’ is the work of professional associations but as morris observes ‘project management [has been] almost silent on how to address’ challenges such as climate change (2013). the few references found for this commentary unfortunately seem to confirm this amongst the research community. voices have been heard, on the other hand, by leading project management practitioner groups. the first articulation of the roles and responsibilities of a project manager in addressing the challenges associated with climate change occurred in the gpm p5 standard for sustainability in project management (gpm, 2014). a modest development occurred later with the latest version of the ipma individual competency baseline for project, programme and portfolio management (version 4) that recognizes the critical role of sustainability practices in the competence of a project manager (ipma, 2015). these efforts reflect the growing understanding that ‘doing good projects, good in projects, and good through projects must be heralded as overarching principles for shaping, managing, as well as researching projects’ (geraldi & söderlund, 2016). project management researchers, if this brief review is any indication, are less vocal. and it is through submissions to pmrp that the words can be shared to further document our understanding and empower project managers to meet the challenges associated with climate change. to encourage submissions on this topic, pmrp would like researchers and practitioners to consider the following questions: • what competences are valuable in managing projects related to climate change? • what are the challenges and opportunities for project teams in dealing with climate change? • does the project management community have a role to play in shaping public policy concerned with the environment? • what methodological strategies can serve project management researchers in their associated investigations in matters related to environment issues? pasian project management research and practice, vol. 4 jan.-june 20173 page number not for citation purposes this commentary represents the first of a series dedicated to exploring the attention paid by project management researchers on the ’17 sustainable development goals’ identified in september, 2015 by the united nations. each will serve to introduce pmrp’s commitment to each specific topic and encourage ongoing submissions. about the editor dr. beverly pasian is an avid educator, researcher, author and association leader committed to the development of project management as a tool to address critical public priorities. her research collaborations have spanned the globe to examine project management from various industry, sector and topical perspectives (including project management maturity, e-learning, construction consulting services, and ‘human factors’ such as trust, motivation and creativity). multiple books are amongst her publication credits including designs, methods & practices for research of project management (gower publishing) and ‘plan to learn: case studies in elearning project management (celea). her immediate publications include a book for practitioners will be her next project, with an interpretative focus on award-winning research specifically written for project managers. references ahadzie, d.k., proverbs, d.g., & sarkodie-poku, i. 2014, ‘competencies required of project managers at the design phase of mass house building projects’, international journal of project management, vol. 32 no. 6, 958-969, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2013.10.015 geraldi, j. & söderlund, j. 2016, ‘project studies and engaged scholarship: directions towards contextualized and reflexive research on projects’, international journal of managing projects in business, vol. 9 no. 4, 767-797, https://doi.org/10.1108/ijmpb-02-2016-0016 gpm 2014, the gpm global p5 standard for sustainability in project management (1st ed.). usa: gpm global. ipma 2015, individual competence baseline for pppm (4th ed.). zurich, switzerland: international project management association. kim, k.n. & choi, j. 2013, ‘breaking the vicious cycle of flood disasters: goals of project management in post-disaster rebuild projects’, international journal of project management, vol. 31 no. 1, 147-160, http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2012.03.001 klakegg, o.j. & haavaldsen, t. 2011, ‘governance of major public investment projects: in pursuit of relevance and sustainability’, international journal of managing projects in business, vol. 4 no. 1, 157-167, https://doi.org/10.1108/17538371111096953 konstantinou, e. 2015, ‘professionalism in project management: redefining the role of the project practitioner’, project management journal, vol. 46 no. 2, 21-35, https://doi.org/10.1002/pmj.21481 laszlo, e. 1991, ‘responsible (project) management in an unstable world’, international journal of project management, vol. 9 no. 2, 68-70, https://doi.org/10.1016/0263-7863(91)90061-y loosemore, m. 2010, ‘using multimedia to effectively engage stakeholders in risk management’, international journal of managing projects in business, vol. 3 no. 2, 307-327, https://doi. org/10.1108/17538371011036608 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2013.10.015 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijmpb-02-2016-0016 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2012.03.001 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2012.03.001 https://doi.org/10.1108/17538371111096953 https://doi.org/10.1002/pmj.21481 https://doi.org/10.1016/0263-7863(91)90061-y https://doi.org/10.1108/17538371011036608 https://doi.org/10.1108/17538371011036608 pasian project management research and practice, vol. 4 jan.-june 20174 page number not for citation purposes malmqvist, t., & glaumann, m. 2009, ‘environmental efficiency in residential buildings – a simplified communication approach’, building and environment, vol. 44 no. 5, 937-947, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. buildenv.2008.06.025 morris, p.w.g. 2012, ‘cleland and king: project management and the systems approach’, international journal of managing projects in business, vol. 5 no. 4, 634-642, https://doi. org/10.1108/17538371211268951 morris, p.w.g. 2013, ‘reconstructing project management reprised: a knowledge perspective’, project management journal, vol. 44 no. 5, 6-23, https://doi.org/10.1002/pmj.21369 morris, p.w.g. 2016, ‘reflections’, international journal of project management, 34, 365-370, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2015.08.001 staadt, j. 2012, ‘redesigning a project-oriented organization in a complex system: a soft systems methodology approach’, international journal of managing projects in business, vol. 5 no. 1, 51-66, https:// doi.org/10.1108/17538371211192892 steinfort, p. 2016, ‘community and post-disaster program management methodology’, international journal of project management, vol. 34 no. 6, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2016.07.005 wang, t., wang, s., zhang, l., huang, z. & li, y. 2016, ‘a major infrastructure risk-assessment framework: application to a cross-sea route project in china’, international journal of project management, vol. 34 no. 7, 1403-1415, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2015.12.006 wang, y., han, q., de vries, b., & zuo, j. 2016, ‘how the public reacts to social impacts in construction projects? a structural equation modeling study’, international journal of project management, vol. 34 no. 8, 1433-1448, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2016.07.008 wong, p.s.p., ng, s.t.t., & shahidi, m. 2013, ‘towards understanding the contractor’s response to carbon reduction policies in the construction projects’, international journal of project management, vol. 31 no. 7, 1042-1056, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2012.11.004 zhang, h. 2007, ‘a redefinition of the project risk process: using vulnerability to open up the eventconsequence link’, international journal of project management, vol. 25 no. 7, 694-701, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2007.02.004 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.06.025 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.06.025 https://doi.org/10.1108/17538371211268951 https://doi.org/10.1108/17538371211268951 https://doi.org/10.1002/pmj.21369 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2015.08.001 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2015.08.001 https://doi.org/10.1108/17538371211192892 https://doi.org/10.1108/17538371211192892 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2016.07.005 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2015.12.006 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2016.07.008 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2012.11.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2007.02.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2007.02.004 declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. project management research and practice vol. 3 july-dec. 2016 © 2016 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: pasian, b.l. 2016. editorial: changing truths of project management, 3, 5198. http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ pmrp.v3i0.5198 published by uts epress | http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts. edu.au 1 (page number not for citation purposes) editorial changing truths of project management beverly l. pasian associate professor, institute of business administration, faculty of economics and management, university of applied sciences, utrecht. beverly.pasian@hu.nl doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5198 conversations about projects and project management are changing. project management researchers and practitioners are no longer only focused on the processes and practices, but increasingly looking for “some truths” of project management as well (morris 2016), truths that can be as likely found when considering values as much as knowledge. and what is considered so valuable that a new journal is needed to reveal those truths? quite simply, a better world – one where humanity’s problems are alleviated through shared and publicly available innovative projects, and socially responsible project management research and practice. and what is pmrp’s role in this quest? to provide a forum where informed dialogue can occur among project management researchers, practitioners, and other stakeholders. metaphors are powerful tools, and the use of “dialogue” is especially so – and quite deliberate – in this context. it offers better imagery than the oft-used “bridge” separating project management researchers and practitioners. perhaps we are all speaking “conversations of project management,” but can’t understand each other? perhaps the language of researchers is not what practitioners need to hear? perhaps practitioners and researchers already understand each other more than many think? to create further dialogue between practice and research, and improve the likelihood of mutual understanding, pmrp will adopt an activist editorial model based on several key editorial and publishing principles that focus contributor and reader attention on public priorities, and the kinds of socially responsible research and practice that address them. but what is the rationale for an activist model and what will the journal content look like as a result? traditional academic publishing is rooted in the principle of peer review, the result being only those researchers whose articles “successfully” pass through that review process are published. those who don’t pass this trial by fire must seek other venues to get their messages to a broader audience. one can look at the world of journal content using a simple categorization, inspired in part by the well-known “goals-and-methods matrix” (turner & cochrane 1993) (figure 1). the content most often seen in research journals is “type 2” (see table 1), that is, research articles that editors “know” are coming, but are “unknown” in terms of their frequency or quality. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5198 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5198 http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au mailto:beverly.pasian@hu.nl http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5198 http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/pmrp/about/editorialpolicies#custom-1 http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/pmrp/about/editorialpolicies#custom-1 pasian project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20162 (page number not for citation purposes) while consistent with the principle of peer review, the publishing of such content has three immediate effects: it eliminates multiple contributions that could influence the project management practitioner(s) in meaningful ways; it makes the journal itself vulnerable should submissions stop meeting peer review; and it predetermines topics of public discussion. the challenges facing us today are far too important to wait for such contributions, and to wait for a select few to determine the issues that affect all of us. one must also recognize that critical information can come from other stakeholders in the project management community. and while i think that the editors of other project management journals would agree with this, traditional publishing policies and procedures do not. it is with this in mind that pmrp will actively publish all four content types as shown in table 1. details about each can be found here, including descriptions of the extended abstracts that highlight the key information of a research article for practitioners. these explanations describe how pmrp will facilitate the metaphorical conversation of project management, but the real conversations we want to influence are beyond these pages, and beyond the authors whose writing appears upon them. research is, by its nature, an examination of history, with conference papers and peer-reviewed publications serving as table 1 pmrp: content types and examples type schedule content examples 1 planned known research paper (invited) lead story teaching case (invited) interview (invited and unsolicited) guest editorial (invited) practitioner’s view 2 planned unknown research paper (unsolicited) practitioner case editorial 3 unplanned known book review teaching case (unsolicited) interview 4 unplanned unknown expert commentary (unsolicited) conference paper student research figure 1 pmrp content typology (based on turner & cochrane, 1993) planned … unplanned k n o w n … u n k n o w n 1 2 3 4 topic schedule http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/pmrp/about/editorialpolicies#sectionpolicies 3 (page number not for citation purposes) editorial project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 2016 historical records. even the “best” papers (by whatever measure) are theoretical offerings, with the possibilities for further application only implied in the latter stages of the piece. the time has come, however, when we must move beyond the possible to the actual. climate change is an obvious example. this is not a theoretical construct but an arresting reality demanding attention and immediate action. other challenges associated with public health policies, food and agriculture, infectious diseases, clean water, and internet governance (to name a very few) are all examples of topics for which conversations of project management and by project managers need to happen. pmrp readers, it is our intention, will be among those who can take that action and demonstrate, through the increasing use of projects and project management, that change is possible. the authors of pmrp articles can give them valid and valuable data to inform that action. so what information can be found in our launch issue? under the leadership of john lannon and john walsh (both of the university of limerick), the first issue includes a collection of research and practitioner papers reflecting project management activities in the nonprofit sector. their insightful guest editorial positions these articles in a broader discussion. · the lead case study by matturi and pain looks at concern worldwide (www.concern.net), an organization whose mission is “to help people living in extreme poverty achieve major improvements in their lives which last and spread without ongoing support from concern.” · visser’s study of a large-scale collaborative project called the advocacy initiative examines a temporary, rather than permanent, organization that sought to reframe relationships with the state, involving many diverse civil society partners and policymakers. · the article by reddington et al. is concerned with increasing levels of engagement in a community, involving a variety of stakeholders with multiple, often unstated, agendas, through the application of formal techniques in this environment. · lacerda et al. use a case study to examine project portfolio management (ppm) in a nonprofit organisation. they provide a comparative analysis of ppm models based on a review of literature, and propose a model to identify how nonprofit organizations can best manage a portfolio of projects. · bogacz-wojtanowska and jalocha look at projectification in the social economy from this broader perspective, drawing on 36 case studies of existing social enterprises. their work provides an insight into how projectification, influenced by european union policies, changed the landscape for social enterprises in poland. · ang et al. open up new avenues of inquiry through an investigation of the way value constructs are identified in portfolios, using an in-depth case study of two interrelated organizations. several times per annual volume, readers will also find multiple examples of the other content types – all of which are chosen and written in ways to heighten their value to researchers, educators, and practitioners of project management. for our launch, one can read: · leybourne’s teaching case, “alpha: strategic diversification and cultural change in the us food retail sector;” · sankaran’s book review of industrial megaprojects: concepts, strategies and practices for success (by edward merrow); and · bredillet’s “idiosyncratic musings,” which explore the necessity for pmrp to have a methodological focus on case studies and other qualitative methods. http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/pmrp/article/view/5119 http://www.concern.net pasian project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20164 (page number not for citation purposes) in writing this, my first pmrp editorial, i wanted to achieve many goals and looked for guidance in other “firsts,” finding inspiration along many themes as other new editors sought to contextualize their journals. commenting on the status of the profession and practitioner needs were long-standing themes (rad 2000; turner 1994; walker 2008). specifying journal ambitions was a natural and common occurrence (gemunden 2013; willcocks & sauer 2004). methodological considerations were described (bredillet 2004; rad 2000), and editorial innovations and procedures duly noted (walker 2008). confident in the suitability of these themes (and with enormous respect for those authors), i’ve tried to accomplish the same here and throughout this journal site. i encourage you to take a moment to read and reflect on what you find. does our mission resonate with you? can you see yourself adding your voice by sharing your project management truths? i hope the answer is yes to both. beverly pasian utrecht october 2016 about the editor dr. beverly pasian is an avid educator, researcher, author and association leader committed to the development of project management internationally. in addition to her current role as an associate professor at the utrecht university of applied sciences, she has faculty positions at multiple international universities including the university of technology sydney, boston university and royal roads university (canada). she has taught both undergraduate and graduate students in both project management and research methodology, and has supervised hundreds of students to successful completion of their research thesis. her research collaborations have spanned the globe to examine project management from various industry, sector and topical perspectives (including project management maturity, e-learning, construction consulting services, and ‘human factors’ such as trust, motivation and creativity). multiple books are amongst her publication credits including designs, methods & practices for research of project management (gower publishing) and ‘plan to learn: case studies in elearning project management (celea). a book for practitioners will be her next project, with an interpretative focus on award-winning research specifically written for project managers. beverly has had extensive involvement with professional associations nationally and internationally. she is the founding president of the project management association of canada (2007-10) and the first recipient of its fellowship award. for the ipma netherlands member association, she was its representative for the international ipma research management board (2012-14), expert team member on the development of the organizational competency baseline, and was the academic program lead for the 2014 world congress in rotterdam. in april 2013 she founded the dutch national research group to bring awareness to the topic of ‘human factors’ in project management and a sense of collaboration to national associations in the netherlands. beverly’s own education includes project management (phd from the university of technology sydney), online education (masters degree from the open university of the uk) and executive-level management (emba from skema business school – 2016-17). 5 (page number not for citation purposes) editorial project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 2016 references bredillet, c.n. 2004, ‘from the editor’, project management journal, vol. 22, june, pp. 3–4. gemunden, h.g. 2013, ‘from the editor’, project management journal, vol. 44, no. 2, p. 2. https:/doi. org/10.1002/pmj.21383 morris, p.w.g. 2016, ‘reflections’, international journal of project management, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 365–70. https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2015.08.001 rad, p.f. 2000, ‘from the editor’, project management journal, vol. 18, september, p. 3. turner, j.r. & cochrane, r.a. 1993, ‘goals-and-methods matrix: coping with projects and/or methods of achieving them’, international journal of project management, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 93–102. https:/doi. org/10.1016/0263-7863(93)90017-h turner, j.r. 1994, ‘project management: future developments for the short and medium term’, international journal of project management, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 3–4. https:/doi.org/10.1016/02637863(94)90002-7 walker, d.h.t. 2008, ‘reflections on developing a project management doctorate’, international journal of project management, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 316–25. https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2008.01.006 willcocks, l. & sauer, c. 2004, ‘creating a journal for the 21st century’, journal of information technology, no. 19, pp. 1–3. https:/doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jit.2000005 https:/doi.org/10.1002/pmj.21383 https:/doi.org/10.1002/pmj.21383 https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2015.08.001 https:/doi.org/10.1016/0263-7863(93)90017-h https:/doi.org/10.1016/0263-7863(93)90017-h https:/doi.org/10.1016/0263-7863(94)90002-7 https:/doi.org/10.1016/0263-7863(94)90002-7 https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2008.01.006 https:/doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jit.2000005 teaching case alpha: strategic diversification and cultural change in the us food retail sector stephen a. leybourne professor, met administrative sciences, boston university, boston, ma, usa corresponding author: stephen leybourne, professor, met administrative sciences, boston university, boston, ma, usa. sleyb@bu.edu doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5040 synopsis this case study was developed from an actual scenario. the case documents the historical evolution of an organization in the supermarket sector, and its attempts at diversification. the case has been used successfully in courses dealing with organizational and cultural change, and the utilization of “soft skills” in project-based management. this is a short case, ideal for classroom use and discussion. the issues are easily accessible to students, and there is a single wide-ranging question that allows for the inclusion of many issues surrounding strategic decision-making, and behavioural and cultural change. organization name alpha geographic usa industry supermarket/retail sector year of case 1991 to 2009 learning objectives after debating this case, a student should be able to: 1. understand some of the challenges of strategic acquisition, and issues around diversification and consolidation, project management research and practice vol. 3 july-dec. 2016 © 2016 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: leybourne, s. a. 2016. alpha: strategic diversification and cultural change in the us food retail sector. project management research and practice, 3, 5040. http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ pmrp.v3i0.5040 published by uts epress | http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts. edu.au declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 (page number not for citation purposes) mailto:sleyb@bu.edu http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5040 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5040 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5040 http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au leybourne project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20162 (page number not for citation purposes) 2. debate the issues around integration of diverse business models, 3. appreciate the importance of organizational culture as the “glue” that binds organizations, and 4. engage with issues around how leaders need to manage and steer these issues. target learners this case can be used at the undergraduate or the graduate level, although it is better suited to an introductory level discussion of change, where many scenarios can emerge. students should be aware of the basic elements of organizational behavior and organizational theory. it has been used in courses relating to change, strategic intent and strategic advantage, and in courses concerned with behaviours within the project domain. key question: if you had been jim wakefield in december 1998, what would have been your strategy for change, and how would you have implemented it? keywords organisational change; culture; communication; changing business strategies author’s note this case, which i have been using in my teaching for the past twelve years or so, evolved from a short case about the asda supermarket chain in the uk, which was drawn from the 2nd edition of john hayes ‘the theory and practice of change management.’(palgrave macmillan, 2002). over the years, the case has been changed and updated, the organizations involved have been made anonymous, and the location has been moved to the usa. i thank professor hayes for his permission and advice on developing the case. alpha: strategic diversification and cultural change in the us food retail sector project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20163 (page number not for citation purposes) part 1: alpha: strategic diversification and cultural change in the us food retail sector rationale this case is designed to reinforce some of the issues surrounding cultural change in evolving organizations. there are also embedded issues relating to the choice of business models and the issues relating to diversification. as with most case studies, there is not enough definitive information to fully answer the questions, so you will need to make, and justify, a number of assumptions while analyzing the case and making recommendations. a successful start alpha was one of the earlier companies in the us to invest in large, edge-of-town superstoretype supermarkets, with plentiful free vehicle parking, selling food and related household products. alpha was created in the 1950s as a subsidiary of a major publicly quoted retail group. it started business by opening a string of very large discount stores in converted industrial and warehouse premises in the south of the us. in the early days, shoppers were offered a limited range of very competitively priced products. when alpha went public in 1991, it was the fourth largest food retailer in the us, selling an ever-widening range of food and non-food products. its success continued to be based on high volume, low margins and good value for money, under the slogan of “alpha price.” a change of strategy: the pursuit of higher margins in the first two years after going public, alpha began to shift toward a new strategy that was focused on raising margins. a range of new initiatives involved seeking efficiencies to reduce costs, while simultaneously introducing more high-margin – known as “value added” – products such as prepared foods and a wider range of non-food items, including small furniture items, and tv & hifi products. there was also a drive to expand into the north and the northeast of the us, and along the east coast in maryland and north carolina, where incomes were traditionally higher and customers had greater spending power. this change of strategy presented a few challenges: · alpha’s expansion policy was slow to get off the ground, partly because planning permissions for large retail developments were more difficult to secure in the north, where the cost of land was significantly higher and many of the best sites were already being developed by competitors. · sales were lower than anticipated because alpha’s value-for-money image and its relatively austere store layouts tended to be unattractive to relatively wealthy northern customers, who were used to shopping in more up-market stores. alpha attempted to leybourne project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20164 (page number not for citation purposes) brighten up some of its stores and further distance itself from its “discount” image, but this did not generate the anticipated contribution to sales volumes or operating profits. · another related problem was that long-standing customers in the south of the us (where the company had initially built its business) appeared to be confused and alienated by what alpha was beginning to offer them, and many switched their allegiance to new cut-price retailers who were more focused on offering value for money. a change of strategy: diversification toward the end of the 1980s, the senior management of alpha began to consider the possibility that saturation might limit future growth in food retailing, and the decision was taken to diversify further into non-foods. some of the most notable acquisitions included: · 1996 – beta home improvement stores (with about 100 city center ”high street” sites). beta offered furniture, electrical and white goods (fridges, stoves, etc.), and many other items, including paint, wallpaper, bathroom fittings, etc. the strategic case for this acquisition centered on potential synergies between the supermarkets and home improvement stores, with alpha seeing the opportunity of building new home improvement outlets adjacent to some of its supermarkets. · 1997 – delta garden centers (a group with a significant presence and a well-established market presence – particularly in the mid-west). unfortunately this acquisition did not make the anticipated contribution to profitability because recessionary and competitive pressures in the early 1990s, together with issues in the housing market, led to a retrenchment in the marketplace. · 1999 – zeta enterprises, which manufactured and sold garden tractors, power garden tools, and small construction machinery. this acquisition, which was ‘almost a merger as zeta was also a public company, had synergies with both beta and delta, was another major disappointment. alpha attributed the poor performance to one-off problems, such as a new range of garden tractors that failed to sell, and a shift towards the rental of small construction machinery. it was anticipated that the problems would be short-lived, but performance failed to pick up as expected. · 2002 – alphadrive (an alpha venture). this new car-retailing business was launched at sites adjacent to five of alpha’s superstores, with the intention of rolling it out to about 70 percent of all stores. vehicles were advertised using a comprehensive internet site, and the vehicles were sold from a secure area of the alpha supermarket car parks. a change of strategy: refocusing on the core business following the acquisition of zeta, alpha’s shares significantly under-performed. in 2002 alpha surprised the market with a major change of strategy. instead of continuing with the policy of diversification, alpha decided to refocus on its ‘core’ superstore business. the alpha-zeta acquisition ended with a management buy-out of zeta (although alpha then bought a 25 percent stake in this new company). alphadrive and most of the beta business were also sold and the intention was to dispose of delta’s garden center business as well. however, following the collapse of the equity market, it proved impossible to obtain the anticipated profit from the sale of delta garden centers, so the business was retained (and later expanded with the acquisition of gamma landscapes in 2005). alpha: strategic diversification and cultural change in the us food retail sector project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20165 (page number not for citation purposes) in order to develop the core business, it was decided to invest up to us$2.5 billion over a period of three years. most of this investment was earmarked for accelerating the opening of new stores, especially in the north, but there were also other demands. alpha had lagged behind its competitors in a number of areas, including: 1. own-label products. the main competitors to alpha in the supermarket sector had all invested heavily in own-label products (that offered higher margins and better value to customers), whereas alpha had only started to introduce them in the early 2000s, and on a much smaller scale. 2. computerized point-of-sale (pos) equipment. competitors had invested heavily in technology that improved stock control and provided better customer service at checkouts. 3. internet sales and home delivery. many of alpha’s rivals were gaining significant market share in the grocery sector through offering online ordering and a ‘specific time window’ delivery service. 3. centralized distribution networks. the competition had also developed centralized distribution networks for fresh foods that pushed down costs, enabled stores to receive fewer “just in time” deliveries from vehicles carrying full loads, and reduced the requirement for store-related warehousing space. 4. store refurbishment. alpha had neglected many of its stores, which were beginning to look very tired and in urgent need of refurbishing. alpha recognized the need for investment in all these areas, but had significant issues in deciding on the priorities, given they did not have enough funds or management resources to do everything that was required at once. a leap forward that contributed to a major debt problem in 2007 a consortium that was planning to buy another large us supermarket group agreed that, if their bid were successful, they would sell 62 superstores to alpha for us$2 billion. this was seen as a very attractive proposition. it offered alpha the possibility of making up for lost ground and regaining its old position as the fourth-largest us food retailer. it also promised to double the number of alpha stores in the north and contribute an extra us$2 billion to sales. alpha bought the stores in september 2007. alpha’s performance following the purchase of the new stores was poor. profits were down, and alpha’s 25 percent stake in zeta contributed a loss. the delta-gamma garden center and landscapes business was also in trouble. alpha had net debts of over us$2 billion from the end of 2007. alpha’s share price began to slide, compared with major competitors, and in august 2008 it dropped a further 30 percent. the announcement of an issue of new shares to raise capital at the end of the month led to another massive fall in the share price. cultural change at alpha in the early years at alpha there was a lot of energy, creativity and a willingness to experiment and test new ideas. however, with changes in strategy as acquisitions took place, some of the most talented managers were moved or promoted to run the newly acquired businesses. this resulted in a stagnation of innovation and ideas within the grocery business that generated the majority of the income for the alpha group. leybourne project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20166 (page number not for citation purposes) this inevitably resulted in the supermarket side of the business receiving less investment as resources were diverted to fund the diversification program, and the integration of the acquired organizations. as a result of the diversification strategy, innovation and change were no longer championed and there were signs that the business was becoming more bureaucratic and concerned with cutting costs as a means of protecting margins. this affected investment, and ensured that alpha fell behind its competitors, especially in the areas of stock control and logistics management. the appointment of jim wakefield jim wakefield was offered the role of ceo in october 20088 and took up his appointment in december the same year. by the time he arrived, alpha was rapidly running out of cash. jim found an organization that was bureaucratic, hierarchical, and highly centralized. there was a large headquarters of staff in the new custom-built alpha house, located in the south, away from the areas where alpha was investing. directors had little contact with the people who reported to them. the culture was risk averse. people at all levels appeared to be intimidated by their bosses and told them what they thought they wanted to hear. they also seemed reluctant to take any initiatives that would call attention to themselves. morale was low. the trading department was driving the positioning of the business. buyers, who were based at alpha house and had little contact with store managers, determined what the stores would sell. planning based on rigorous market research seemed to be non-existent. the booming internet sector was contributing virtually nothing to alpha sales volumes. the new ceo had concerns about the quality of management and the apparent unwillingness, throughout the organization, to make best use of the talent that existed. store managers felt ignored and found it impossible to have any meaningful input to thinking at alpha house. there were also problems within stores, where vertical communication was poor and customers were not valued. if you had been jim wakefield in december 1998, what would have been your strategy for change, and how would you have implemented it? alpha: strategic diversification and cultural change in the us food retail sector project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20167 (page number not for citation purposes) part 2 teaching notes learning objectives and key issues the key issues in this short case relate to the challenges of re-focusing diverse and fractured organizations, and the importance of fostering a culture in which behavioural elements such as commitment, motivation, and trust can be developed. more advanced classes may want to introduce elements such as emotional intelligence, and different cultural types. practitioner and/or research competencies highlighted after debating this case, a student should be able to: 1. understand some of the challenges of strategic acquisition, and issues around diversification and consolidation, 2. debate the issues around integration of diverse business models, 3. appreciate the importance of culture as the “glue” that binds organizations, and 4. engage with issues around how leaders need to manage and steer these issues. teaching strategy this case is intended for class discussion. it can be discussed at the individual level in small classes, but a more effective strategy involves small groups of students who can either consider the whole case, or different aspects. small group presentations (informal or formal) assist students in articulating ideas and potential future actions for tom stafford. students could role-play scenarios involving key people at alpha. before any discussion, students should be aware of relevant theoretical and practical approaches to culture change, and the execution of effective change in organizations. some formalized lecture content should therefore precede any case-based discussion. related theory this case can be used to expose a wide range of theoretical situations, drawing on motivation theories, communication and commitment theories, and issues around teams and building trust. it is expected that students will have been introduced to the basics of organizational theory, and in particular to concepts and theory surrounding motivation, commitment, trust, and organizational culture. experience of using the case this is a relatively simple case that provides the opportunity to explore a number of different aspects. it can be used to consider strategic decisions, but has been found to be more effective when it is focused on cultural change. this means that discussions can coalesce around issues of communication (and particularly issues around centralized versus decentralized decision-making), elements of motivation, commitment, trust, and team-based working, and how to embed these elements in organizations with significant legacy issues. leybourne project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20168 (page number not for citation purposes) allowing open discussion permits many issues to emerge, and a swot-style analysis (see appendix 1 below for an example) can be a useful way to encourage student cohorts and groups to articulate the many issues. students can then be asked to: 1. prioritize issues that emerge from the swot, and 2. suggest ways of implementing/executing strategies to resolve such issues. appendix 1 strengths · sales volumes · purchasing power · wide range of products · brand awareness weakness · culture (particularly north/south differences) · poor market analysis · low product differentiation · poor planning/market research · internal communication opportunities · private brand expansion · new technologies (pos) · supply chain improvement · stock control · culture shift · decentralization of decision-making · internet threats competitors leading in: · own label products · technology · supply chain and distribution · employee morale · flexibility and speed of change · lack of internet presence about the author stephen leybourne is a professor at boston university, where he teaches innovation, and project and change management. he received his phd in 2002 from cardiff university in the uk, and his research activities focus on the use and abuse of improvisational working practices, particularly in project-based work, and the location of project management within the wider academic landscape. he is an associate editor of project management research & practice. leybourne has presented at conferences such as the pmi® research conference and the academy of management, winning ‘best paper’ awards at aom2006 and from the international management development association in 2010. he has been a leading manager for several international banking institutions and has been an academic for the last fifteen years. leybourne has published widely and in a variety of journals, including journal of change management, international journal of management concepts and philosophy, and the two leading project management journals in the field, international journal of project management and project management journal. project management research and practice vol. 5, 2018 © 2018 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: brooks, i., kossmann, m., and kossman, v. 2018. educating for change – enabling local implementation of the united nations’ sustainable development goals in cameroon. project management research and practice, article id 5869. https://doi.org/10.5130/ pmrp.v5i0.5869 issn 2207-1415 | published by uts epress | http://epress. lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index. php/pmrp/index practioner case (peer-reviewed) educating for change – enabling local implementation of the united nations’ sustainable development goals in cameroon ian brooks1*, mario kossmann2, virginie kossmann3 1 university of the west of england, frenchay campus, coldharbour lane, bristol, bs16 1qy, united kingdom. ian.brooks@uwe.ac.uk 2 airbus (bristol, uk). portishead, bs20 6jz, united kingdom. mario.kossmann@airbus.com 3 south gloucestershire council, st. helen’s primary school, alveston. portishead bs20 6jz, united kingdom. virginie.kossmann@sgmail.org.uk *corresponding author: ian brooks. ian.brooks@uwe.ac.uk doi: https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5869 article history: received 03/01/2018; revised 30/11/2018; accepted 30/11/2018; published 30/01/2019 abstract the united nations’ sustainable development goals (sdgs) framework was adopted by every member state of the united nations in 2015, and, albeit not legally binding, it is arguably one of the most significant steps of humanity to address the identified problems of our time. it addresses a wide range of topics such as environmental protection, equal opportunities, education, eradication of diseases, famine, poverty, slavery and child labour. both concerning its comprehensive scope and its worldwide support, this framework arguably represents one of the most significant international frameworks in human history. using education-related examples from a charity project related to a local health care system in the african rain forest in cameroon, this paper illustrates how projects can and should implement critical aspects of the sdgs framework pre-emptively within their scope. this could be at the local level, before and in support of the full, legally binding implementation of the framework at the national level. this not only helps to make our world a better place but also very concretely to reduce project risks, create funding opportunities and make the project’s deliverables more sustainable. the ‘mahola project’ (‘mahola’ means ‘aid’ in the local bassa language) was founded in 2013 – following an exploration trip to cameroon in order to assess the real needs of the population in the deprived area around the village siliyegue – as a response to meet these declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 page number not for citation purposes needs. the main objective of the project is the development and deployment of a sustainable, integrated, local health care system that is fully aligned with the sdgs and brings about dramatic improvements for the quality of life of the people living there; far beyond ‘just’ providing health care and work opportunities. education is at the core of the necessary efforts to successfully deliver this system, changing minds and hearts. introduction in september 2015, the united nations sustainable development goals (sdgs) were adopted by 193 countries (1). they represent “a plan of action for people, planet, and prosperity” (1) from 2015 to 2030. the sdgs build on the success of the millennium development goals (mdgs) which addressed the needs of less economically developed countries (2). the 8 mdgs set targets for key areas such as reducing extreme poverty & hunger and improving access to sanitation. the mdgs ran from 2000 to 2015 and have been described as “the most successful anti-poverty movement in history” (2). despite the significant improvement delivered towards the mdgs, we still live in a world where people experience hunger, suffer from air pollution and are disadvantaged by inequality. the sdgs go beyond the mdgs with a broader range of goals and apply to all countries, hence are often referred to as the ‘global goals.’ the sdgs consist of 17 high-level goals (shown in figure 1) and 169 targets that provide more detail within each goal. figure 1 the united nations sustainable development goals (1) (image used following the global goals asset license at globalgoals.org) cameroon was one of the countries which made significant progress towards the 8 mdgs but still faces significant challenges in, for example, eradicating extreme poverty and reducing the burden of disease (3). the country restated its commitment to “développement durable” (sustainable development) and the adoption of the sdgs at the 70th session of the united nations general assembly (4). this paper will look at an example international development project in africa, the mahola project (5), and how the project is implementing certain vital aspects of the un sdg framework pre-emptively, i.e., before and in support of the anticipated full implementation of brooks, kossmann, and kossmann project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20182 page number not for citation purposes the framework at the national level by cameroon. the mahola project is concerned with the development and delivery to the local population of a health care system in a deprived area in the african rainforest. the project management, awareness & fundraising, and the systems engineering activities of the mahola project can be considered parallel streams as shown in figure 2. the systems engineering activities as applied for the mahola project are displayed in phases that are roughly aligned, albeit simplified, with the incose systems engineering handbook (7) and the iso 15288 (8): concept phase; design phase; implementation & integration phase; and transition & validation phase. figure 2 project management, awareness & fundraising and systems engineering activities of the mahola project (5) at the time of writing this paper, the mahola project had completed the design phase, with three sub-projects still on-going that are concerned with the development of the solar energy sub-system, the ict solution of the mahola system and the development of a computer game for the recruitment and training of the staff members of the mahola system, respectively. however, the necessary funding for the implementation and integration phase of the project had not been fully secured. as such, the master schedule of this phase (figures 3 and 4) is merely indicative of the activities, dependencies, and durations; but they do not represent the particular completion times of the related activities. figure 3 provides the high-level master schedule of the implementation and integration phase of the mahola project; whereas figure 4 provides a more detailed view of the activities related to the implementation of the health centre as part of this phase. in the following sections, the paper will look at the implementation of the sdgs by un member states, and related difficulties for multinational companies (mncs) and other multinational organizations, as well as projects that operate across national boundaries. then we will present the pre-emptive, local implementation of related key sdgs by the mahola project in general. finally, the paper explores several more detailed, education-related examples of local implementations of the sdgs by the project. educating for change – enabling local implementation of the united nations’ sustainable development goals in cameroon project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20183 page number not for citation purposes figure 3 the master schedule of the implementation & integration phase (5) figure 4 the detailed master schedule of the implementation of the health centre (5) implementation of the sdgs at the national level the sdgs are an ambitious set of goals adopted by 193 nations, but they do not have the status of international law. there are a wide variety of implementation routes and stakeholders, though national governments are the “duty-bearers” in the end (9). achievement of the sdgs is beyond the means or capacity of individual governments, and the sdg framework explicitly recognizes this in goal 17 partnerships for the goals. governments must work with other local and international stakeholders, including businesses and third sector organizations, for practical implementation. some goals may be achieved through legislation or taxes, for example, goal 13 climate action. other goals will require the mobilization of business investment, e.g., goal 7 affordable and clean energy. as part of their support for the sdg partnership approach, the united nations maintains a voluntary register of multi-stakeholder programs for delivery of the sdgs. at the time of writing, there were 14 partnership programs registered with impacts in cameroon (10). implementation approaches will vary between nations based on their local circumstances and may take time to develop and deploy (9). local government also has a big part to play and the mayor of bagangté, cameroon was with other mayors in new york in september 2015 to express her commitment to the ‘urban partnership for the sustainable development goals’ (11). brooks, kossmann, and kossmann project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20184 page number not for citation purposes many businesses are now starting to express the development benefits they provide, as well as the negative impacts they have, using the sdg framework. for example, airbus has published its analysis of the 8 sdgs which are most relevant to its business (12). some businesses are concerned that the 17 sdgs and 169 targets are too broad a scope for them to engage with meaningfully. a group of leading organizations in the fields of sustainable development and corporate social responsibility have published the “sdg compass” as an approach for business leaders to “align their strategies as well as measure and manage their contribution to the realization of the sdgs.” (13). the sdg compass approach is shown in figure 5. non-governmental organizations (ngos) or ‘third sector organizations’ usually have more experience in aligning their activities and reporting with national and international development priorities. this is often necessary for attracting donor support, and those, which have already been operating in the context of the mdgs will find it a natural transition to the sdgs. faith-based organizations have played a significant role in the negotiation of the sdgs. indeed, pope francis addressed the united nations general assembly which was gathered to adopt the sdgs. the sdgs are strongly consistent with the papal encyclical ‘laudato si’ (14). as well as implementing partnerships to achieve the sdgs, there is a parallel requirement to report on progress towards the sdg targets. the data collection will be carried out by national governments and consolidated by the united nations statistics division. they publish an annual report on progress to the sdgs (15). this combination of evolving national and partnership initiatives alongside national reporting processes is essential in the context of the mahola project. since the specification of these areas is yet incomplete, we must use the sdgs framework as the outline requirements for the system and be prepared to report in a way consistent with the 17 sdgs and 169 targets. the fact that the sdgs are implemented into national legislation by many countries in different ways makes future compliance with this updated legislation in each country a real challenge for mncs, ngos and international projects (both for-profit and not-forprofit) that operate across national boundaries. next, we will look at how the mahola project anticipates being compliant (pre-emptively) with the future implementation of the sdgs through national legislation. the local implementation of key sdgs by the mahola project anticipating the full implementation of the sdgs at the national level by cameroon, concerning legislation, regulation, programs, and reporting, the mahola project took a prioritized approach to partial, pre-emptive implementation of the framework at the local level as shown in figure 6. key aspects of the framework were identified and explicitly fed into the project at the level of the user needs, cascaded down via the system requirements, and translated into corresponding design solutions, and the governance of the mahola system, including the governance organization, policies and training. educating for change – enabling local implementation of the united nations’ sustainable development goals in cameroon project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20185 page number not for citation purposes figure 5 sdg compass approach (13) by explicitly addressing the sdgs as user needs for the project, and related, specific parts of these targets as project requirements and system requirements, the mahola project can ensure that relevant aspects of the sdgs be implemented. these include how the project is run and the mahola system as the project’s core deliverable. for both the user needs and the related system requirements, acceptance criteria were defined that allow later verification of whether the mahola system satisfies the system requirements (verification), and once put in operation (i.e., in the intended context), whether it satisfies the underlying user needs (validation). design solutions were developed to meet the applicable system requirements that had been allocated to the sub-systems of the mahola system. some of these solutions to the requirements are the health centre, the ambulance, the governance organization, policies and training of the local population. the governance plan describes at a high-level all governance aspects of the mahola health care system that need to be addressed to deploy, operate and at the end of its life cycle dispose of the system, including the business model both during the mahola project and after the closure of the project, during the operational use of the system. it describes the local decisionmaking and the way the project, and later the system, will be governed and strategically directed through policies that are appendices to the mahola governance plan. it also describes the oversight of the operations; the actual day-to-day running of the mahola system regarding its processes and roles; and finally, it provides a nominal resource model that defines the number of employees and volunteers needed to operate the system as intended in accordance with the current system baseline. brooks, kossmann, and kossmann project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20186 page number not for citation purposes figure 6 pre-emptive local implementation of the sdgs by the mahola project (5) figure 7 depicts the governance organization of the mahola system, which has already been partly put in place during the mahola project. the elected steering committee has already started overseeing the local activities related to the mahola project supported from abroad by the project leader, the systems engineer and the local coordinator of the project and will oversee the day-to-day operation of the mahola system that, once deployed, will be managed on their behalf by the ‘administrator’. the steering committee also nominates and supports five ‘officers’ from among the local population for the five different topics of the mahola policies, i.e., environmental protection, child protection & safeguarding, health & safety, security and ethics & compliance. these officers will drive their respective topics and ensure that necessary steps be taken to continuously improve the mahola system and generate awareness among the local population regarding their topic. they own the similar policies, which are one of the most important means by which the steering committee can govern and strategically direct the mahola system; while they are also necessary to secure funding and other support from industrial, governmental and non-governmental organizations. many of these potential partner organizations must, or will want to, make sure that adequate policies be in place and well implemented to qualify for their respective funding or other support schemes. furthermore, the policies under the ownership of these dedicated officers help to guide and make explicit reference to the sdgs strategically. for example, the environmental protection policy states that ‘the mahola project is committed to minimizing the negative environmental impact of its practices with the continual improvement in its environmental performance... the mahola project has many goals for those who live locally but are not directly involved in environmental matters. in particular, the mahola project refers to (and strives to follow where applicable) the recommendations of the united nations’ sustainable development goals (general assembly, 2015)’ (1). educating for change – enabling local implementation of the united nations’ sustainable development goals in cameroon project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20187 page number not for citation purposes figure 7 the governance organization of the mahola system (5) to plan, conduct and assess the effectiveness of education-related activities to promote and implement the sdgs within the scope of the mahola project – in close cooperation with these policy officers – one of the roles of the mahola system is that of a ‘trainer.’ this employee will drive all education-related matters, including the teaching of both pupils and staff members at surrounding schools, training of staff members and volunteers of the mahola system, and raising awareness among the local population in the area. thus, it is anticipated that multiple objectives of the sdgs framework will already be sufficiently addressed, independently of the timescale of the national implementation of the full framework by cameroon. however, this national implementation may contain detailed aspects that the project could not anticipate, e.g., reporting mechanisms and frequencies. the need for minor adjustments, therefore, should be expected. still, most of the relevant, underlying topics are likely to have been addressed in a significant way already. education-related examples of the local implementation of key sdgs around the globe, education plays a crucial and undeniable part. it becomes even more powerful in deprived countries like cameroon where access to schools and universities might not be a priority for families as they cannot perceive how it will help their children to become capable and respected members of the community they live in and how they will contribute to making the world a better place. in the following part of this paper, we will develop how two concrete examples, based on the sdgs, could make a difference to the population in villages in the jungle of cameroon. our first topic consists of introducing, implementing and assessing the ‘3rs – reduce, brooks, kossmann, and kossmann project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20188 page number not for citation purposes reuse and recycle’ through a series of diverse and engaging lessons in the local primary schools of mawel and nguimakong, which are several kilometres away from siliyegue. the selected aspects of the relevant targets under sdg 12 (1) are highlighted in green in figure 8. the second topic aims to achieve gender equality by emphasising and demonstrating to the members of the village of siliyegue and other surrounding villages that both men and women can do tasks in and around the household. the selected aspects of the relevant targets under sdg 5 are highlighted in blue in figure 8. figure 8 selected example aspects of targets under sdgs 5 and 12 figure 9 shows a typical curriculum map for the topic ‘the 3rs – reduce, reuse, recycle’, which represents a termly overview of teaching contents on the topic, and how these can be linked to different subjects that are taught in these schools. linking the topic into several subjects brings the advantage of deepening the learning experience and making use of other knowledge and experience that pupils and staff members at these schools will gain. this also enhances the realization of how relevant this topic is, which could not be achieved if the topic was taught in isolation only. figure 10 displays a detailed teaching plan for a specific teaching unit on the selected topic. the benefit of such detailed teaching plans is that the teaching quality is likely to be higher and the knowledge created during the preparation, conduct and subsequent assessment of the respective teaching unit can be re-used and continuously updated and improved. the teaching plan contains the learning objectives, criteria for the assessment of the teaching effectiveness (signs of success), inputs, group work and discussion elements, resources (17) and where they should be used, as well as short-term and longer-term assessment activities. educating for change – enabling local implementation of the united nations’ sustainable development goals in cameroon project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20189 page number not for citation purposes figure 9 example curriculum map – a termly overview of teaching contents and how these can be linked to different subjects figure 10 an example teaching plan for a classroom teaching unit figure 11 provides an example teaching plan for a series of five awareness sessions on the topic of ‘gender equality’ that can be delivered to multiple villages, one at the time. the intended public includes everyone in each village of the area, from children to grandparents, women, and men, boys and girls. the target of these awareness sessions is to help bring about brooks, kossmann, and kossmann project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201810 page number not for citation purposes a deeper understanding of ‘gender equality’ in general, and especially the empowerment of all women and girls, and what this means to local people in their daily lives. while it is true that both men and women are discriminated against in certain ways of life or professional areas, it is arguably more difficult for women to overcome such difficulties, hence the particular focus on the empowerment of women and girls. the first session aims to raise awareness among the inhabitants of the village and the surroundings concerning gender equality and empowering all women and girls, starting with the sharing of thoughts and opinions about these ideas and how they are perceived within a family or the community. it is essential to record what is shared so that it could be used as a reference to track changes and progress towards our goal. the basic thoughts about the topic will be repeated briefly at the beginning and end of each subsequent session to enforce the main messages. the following sessions will look in turn at activities that are typically reserved for men and other activities reserved for women respectively. practical activities could be climbing up palm trees to harvest seeds needed to make oil (subject to volunteers of course) and then pressing the seeds to produce oil, which are activities traditionally carried out only by men. activities could follow that are typically carried out by women only, such as cooking and washing up. these activities and a meal following the sessions are further opportunities to bring everyone together and discuss and strengthen the bonds among the local population. figure 11 an example teaching plan for village awareness events multiple role plays with volunteers from the people present would also be useful to highlight certain points and provide an enjoyable time for everyone. for example, a role play with a girl playing a bus driver and discussing with a male midwife their working day would not only help to raise awareness and critically think about the current situation, but it would also be perceived as funny, enjoyable entertainment with all the people from the community educating for change – enabling local implementation of the united nations’ sustainable development goals in cameroon project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201811 page number not for citation purposes together, a real social event. based on the above, next steps can be agreed and followed up to improve the current situation locally in a concrete way. conclusion the paper first looked at the united nations’ sdgs framework, which was argued to be one of the most significant international frameworks in human history, both concerning its scope and its worldwide support. then we briefly addressed the implementation of the sdgs by nations, as well as mncs, ngos, and projects that operate across different countries; and we looked in more detail at the pre-emptive, local implementation of critical aspects of the framework using an example of an international charity project. this pre-emptive and partial implementation at the local level, before and in support of the anticipated implementation of the sdgs by cameroon through national legislation, was pursued for multiple reasons. they include: including the wish of the project team and stakeholders to bring about significant improvements along some of the axes suggested by the sdgs, and also, the necessity to secure funding and other support from various organizations that increasingly expect at least partial project alignment with crucial elements of the sdgs to qualify for their support. in addition to that, not anticipating pending changes in the local legislation that are based on cameroon’s commitments concerning the national implementation of the framework would have represented a significant risk both for the project itself and the sustainability of its deliverables, most notably the mahola system as the core deliverable. the paper looked especially into some education-related aspects and presented two concrete examples of driving education to make progress towards achieving relevant sdgs (via certain aspects of their associated targets). the first concerns the topic of the ‘3rs – reduce, reuse and recycle’ through a series of diverse and engaging lessons in the local primary schools of mawel and nguimakong, which are several kilometres away from siliyegue. the other concerns ‘gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls’ through a series of awareness sessions for village communities in the area that focus on specific tasks in and around the household that could be carried out by both men and women. the above, of course, does not only apply to the mahola project, which was used here as an example. instead, from a project management perspective in the international context, relevant aspects of the sdgs and their associated targets must be considered to make any such project more successful, reduce project risks, and make the world a better place. education is key to achieving this. thus, planning, conducting and assessing (and reporting on) sdgs related training, teaching and awareness activities should be pro-actively integrated into similar projects’ master schedules – even if there may not be a legal requirement to do so yet. therefore, we strongly encourage everyone who is leading or otherwise involved in supporting an international development project to make sure that the relevant aspects of the sdgs be considered and implemented as appropriate in the given context. the project’s longterm success depends on a clear focus on education to enable the necessary changes in the minds and hearts of the various project stakeholders and beneficiaries. brooks, kossmann, and kossmann project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201812 page number not for citation purposes about the authors ian brooks is a senior lecturer in sustainable it at the university of the west of england (uwe) and a senior teaching fellow at the university of bristol. the large part of his career has been in management consultancy and green it with pricewaterhousecoopers and ibm. his last role with ibm was as their sustainability leader on the ibm outsourcing contract with defra (the uk department for environment, food and rural affairs). he has an msc in environmental consultancy from uwe and has embarked on ph.d. research on the use of the un sustainable development goals as requirements in software engineering, also at uwe. dr. mario kossmann (esep) is an experienced systems engineer and capability integrator for airbus, having previously worked for blohm & voss as program manager, systems engineer, technical manager and consultant in services marketing. he has served as a naval officer with the german and french navies, and was awarded an meng in aerospace technology from the university of the federal armed forces in munich (germany), an mba from the university of warwick (uk) and a ph.d. in systems & software engineering from the university of the west of england. he is the author of the books ‘delivering excellent service quality in aviation’ (ashgate 2006) and ‘requirements management – how to ensure that you achieve what you need from your projects’ (gower 2013), as well as numerous research publications in the fields of systems engineering, software engineering and project management. mario is also a certified project manager and ‘expert systems engineering professional’ (incose). mario has been involved in the ‘mahola’ project (www.maholaproject.org) as both project leader and systems engineer from the start of the project in december 2012. virginie kossmann is an experienced primary school teacher in the uk (all age groups and subjects), having previously worked as a head teacher of a primary school, and teacher in various primary schools in france. she was awarded a bsc in sciences (physics and chemistry) from the university paul sabatier in toulouse, france, and has ‘qualified teacher status’ in both the uk and france. virginie has been involved in the ‘mahola’ project (www. maholaproject.org) and guided the project in matters related to education including bursaries, teaching, and training, from the start of the project in december 2012. references 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eco-schools northern ireland. 2017 [cited 2017 nov 27]. available from: http://eco-schoolsni.org/cgi-bin/portal?section=publications1 brooks, kossmann, and kossmann project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201814 page number not for citation purposes https://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/resources/static/products/progress2015/snapshots/cmr.pdf https://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/resources/static/products/progress2015/snapshots/cmr.pdf http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si.html http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si.html practitioner case complex non-profit collaboration: a case study of the advocacy initiative anna visser school of social policy, social work and social justice, university college dublin, belfield, dublin 4, ireland corresponding author: anna visser, anna@annavisser.ie doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5121 project management research and practice vol. 3 july-dec. 2016 © 2016 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: visser, a. 2016. complex non-profit collaboration: a case study of the advocacy initiative. project management research and practice, 3, 5121. http://dx.doi. org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5121 published by uts epress | http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts. edu.au synopsis the advocacy initiative was a partnership of a broad range of leading nonprofit organizations in ireland, which wanted to get to grips with the challenges facing their social justice advocacy work. this case study explores lessons of collaborative project implementation from the advocacy initiative. project setting supported by the atlantic philanthropies, hundreds of organizations took part from 2011 to 2014 in events, research, and reflection about social justice advocacy in ireland. structurally, there were many different partners, including a steering committee with over 20 members; this diversity brought with it a myriad of expectations and priorities. furthermore, the initiative found itself simultaneously grappling with the challenges and opportunities of engaging with stakeholders its own sector, as well as others such as policymakers, media, trade unions, and the broader public. target reader by focusing on a particular activity or function (in this case, advocacy), the initiative was able to build and sustain a complex nonprofit collaboration. consequently, this case study will be of direct relevance to those pursing similar projects, as well as researchers who are interested in the evolving nature of nonprofit collaboration. years of project 2011–14 declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 (page number not for citation purposes) mailto:anna@annavisser.ie http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5121 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5121 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5121 http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au visser project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20162 (page number not for citation purposes) competencies highlighted stakeholder management is a core competency of this project, focusing especially on building a sense of community among project partners and negotiating devolved ownership of a diverse program of work while maintaining overall coherence. the typical project phases (initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing) provide a structure within which to create a sense of coherence among diverse stakeholder viewpoints. the case study demonstrates how project management can provide a valuable way of coping with complexity of work and external requirements in a complex collaborative environment. lessons learned the advocacy initiative discovered the significance of building a collective identity for “social justice advocates.” it saw that it was possible to sustain engagement by balancing “ownership” and “devolution,” and worked hard to respond to individual priorities while also conserving an overall sense of coherence. the final lesson is one of ambition: in order to be able to engage in sensitive cross-stakeholder dialogue (particularly with policymakers), it was necessary to invest time and energy in building confidence and capacity among those involved. keywords collaboration, nonprofit, advocacy, complexity introduction there comes a point where we need to stop just pulling people out of the river. we need to go upstream and find out why they’re falling in – desmond tutu, quoted in a presentation by kathleen o’meara at the advocacy initiative’s closing conference in the royal dublin society, july 2014. in 2008, there was a real sense in ireland that social justice advocacy by nonprofit organizations was under threat from the state. the experience of many advocates and their organizations was that the state was actively working to silence advocacy. however, there were few forums for the nonprofit sector, commonly known as the “community and voluntary sector” in ireland, to discuss and reflect on social justice advocacy – the threats it faced, and its purpose, methodologies, effectiveness, assumptions, and legitimacy. where spaces did exist, there were low levels of trust and not always room for dissent from dominant narratives (murphy 2014). the advocacy initiative was established to provide the opportunity for the sector to come to grips with these challenges and consider more deeply its advocacy function. the advocacy initiative defined advocacy as “planned, organized and sustained actions undertaken by community and voluntary sector organizations, the purpose of which is to influence public policy outcomes, with and/or on behalf of the communities they work with” (the advocacy initiative 2012a). while advocacy generally is a much broader concept, relating to a wide range of actors, it is specifically recognized as a function of nonprofit organizations (andrews & edwards 2004, p. 481; balassiano & chandler 2009, p. 947; onyx et al. 2008, p. 632). in ireland, a variety of nonprofit organizations undertake advocacy. for example, a 2012 study by the advocacy initiative estimated that 39 percent of nonprofits are engaged in social justice advocacy and a further complex non-profit collaboration project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20163 (page number not for citation purposes) 12 percent engage in broader advocacy, hence 51 percent of organizations undertake activities aimed at influencing public policy decisions. the majority (68 percent) said they were doing more advocacy than three years ago (cmadvice ltd. 2012, p. 44). consequently, advocacy is a significant function of the community and voluntary sector in ireland. over the course of its life, the advocacy initiative explored the experience of advocacy for irish nonprofits. one of the core practice challenges that it identified for the sector was engaging in better collaboration and building strategic alliances (walsh 2014, p. 31). hence, it is of interest that the initiative identified itself as an innovative form of collaboration within the community and voluntary sector. according to the initiative’s chairperson, kieran murphy: “there was something unique in how the initiative did its work. the initiative is an example of a new and reimagined way of working together” (the advocacy initiative 2014). consequently, as the former director of the advocacy initiative, in this case study i want to capture what we learned about collaborative project implementation. writing after the conclusion of the initiative, i will draw on the initiative’s documentary record, including its final reports and the reports of its external evaluator. as an “insider researcher” (smyth & holian 2008), my knowledge of the initiative is also practical and inevitably informed by my direct experience of working with those involved. in this article, i use the term “complex” to describe the collaboration that was the advocacy initiative. by complex i mean that the project involved many diverse project partners, with many different perspectives and expectations. the steering committee comprised up to 21 members (see table 1); while all were concerned with advocacy, these partners had different conceptions of what effective advocacy is and how social change happens. in addition, there were differing expectations of what the initiative should achieve, consequently many diverse actions were planned (as i will discuss, there were 13 “sub-projects” covering the three high-level objectives – see table 2). the initiative also sought to engage other stakeholders in its activities and work. this complexity of structures, actions, and stakeholders reflects the high-level ambition of “reframing” the relationship between the sector and the state, and brought with it specific challenges and opportunities. this case study is divided into two sections. the first provides an overview of the initiative as a collaborative project. drawing on the project management institute’s framework, i describe the project’s five phases: initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing (project management institute n.d.). the second section addresses three key lessons for complex collaborative projects in the community and voluntary sector. these lessons include: the importance of the developing sense of community among social justice advocates; the need to balance “delegated” ownership with securing coherence and central control; and finally, the need to invest time and energy in building confidence and capacity to reach beyond the sector, and engage other stakeholders in difficult and contentious discussions. while the advocacy initiative was a project focusing on one role of the sector (that of advocacy), the project experience demonstrates that by taking such an activity lens it is possible to build deep and broad collaboration in a sector that is too often described as fragmented. consequently, this case study will have relevance for any project that seeks to build similarly action-focused collaborations of disparate nonprofit organizations. five project phases of the advocacy initiative the advocacy initiative was a project of the community and voluntary sector that aimed to generate greater understanding of, and reflection on, social justice advocacy in ireland. it was time bound and, in its active phase, implemented a specific program of activities from august 2011 to august 2014. thus, taking the project management institute definition of a project, it was a temporary endeavour whose aim was to achieve a specific result (project management institute visser project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20164 (page number not for citation purposes) n.d.). the initiative can also be characterized as a kaleidoscope of projects; its working method was one of delivering multiple smaller projects, and inevitably this led to questions of coherence and synthesis, which i address later. in order to facilitate analysis of the initiative as a project, in this section i will provide an overview of the initiative using the typical five phases that characterize any project: initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing. initiating the advocacy initiative has its roots in a summer school organized by the centre for nonprofit management at a trinity college dublin summer school in 2008. one paper presented at the summer school controversially described the community and voluntary sector as “sleepwalking” into its future. the author went on to suggest that: “although it is confronted with major issues – including regulation, funding, advocacy, and its role in society – there is little sense of concern or urgency, never mind awareness, to be discerned in the sector as a whole” (keenan 2008, p. 43). these views resonated with leaders from a sector that was facing the impact of the financial crisis and the collapse of social partnership (the irish system of national pay agreements between government, employers, and trade unions) (popplewell 2013). several participants at the summer school agreed that the role of community and voluntary sector advocacy needed further exploration. at a subsequent workshop, a number of people agreed to progress this work further, and a steering committee initially involving individuals from 17 organizations was formed (walsh 2014) (see table 1). table 1 organizational members of the advocacy initiative steering committee (for functional purposes a number of organizations had more than one individual represented on the committee) amnesty international ireland disability federation of ireland national women’s council of ireland barnardos focus ireland one parent exchange network (open) carmichael centre free legal advice centre simon community national office community workers’ cooperative irish cancer society society of st vincent de paul children’s rights alliance irish charities tax reform group the wheel community platform irish national organisation of the unemployed trócaire planning the steering committee worked together for about nine months, developing the purpose and goals for a collaborative action to examine the current state of advocacy by nonprofit organizations. securing funding from the atlantic philanthropies, the steering committee commissioned researchers to do an analysis of the state of social justice advocacy in ireland. this report, which was presented in 2010, involved an online survey of nonprofit organizations, as well as interviews with community and voluntary representatives, and others complex non-profit collaboration project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20165 (page number not for citation purposes) with an interest in community and voluntary sector advocacy (montague communications & middlequarter ltd 2010). the steering committee subsequently used the report’s recommendations as the basis for the development of a three-year work program, which the atlantic philanthropies also funded. following my appointment as director in august 2011, my first task was to formulate an implementation plan. executing the implementation plan adopted in september 2011 suggested that the advocacy initiative was to become “a catalyst for a new relationship between the community and voluntary sector and the state.” the initiative’s three key goals were reformulated as: (1) to contribute to the knowledge and understanding of social justice advocacy; (2) to stimulate informed debate on social justice advocacy within the sector and with the state; and (3) to facilitate strengthened capacity of social justice advocates. thirteen activities were specifically associated with these goals (see table 2). as i will discuss below, during these early months, the initiative also developed a theory of change narrative in order to articulate how each intervention interacted with the overall objectives (the advocacy initiative 2012b). table 2 planned project activities of the advocacy initiative, 2011–14 goal planned activities contribute to knowledge and understanding of social justice advocacy. 1. develop a definition of social justice advocacy. 2. map the practice of social justice advocacy in ireland. 3. deepen understanding of how policymakers perceive social justice advocacy. 4. investigate the existence of funding vulnerability as a result of social justice advocacy. 5. commission a public opinion poll on the policy contribution of the community and voluntary sector. stimulate informed debate on social justice advocacy within the sector and with the state. 6. facilitate an expert group of relevant stakeholders to promote deep reflection on social justice advocacy and the contribution of the initiative. 7. promote self-reflection among social justice advocates. 8. develop a grassroots campaign to promote understanding of the advocacy function of the community and voluntary sector. facilitate strengthened capacity of social justice advocates. 9. develop a knowledge exchange forum to promote peer learning and exchange within the community and voluntary sector. 10. investigate training and educational support for social justice advocacy. 11. develop a capacity building framework for social justice advocacy relevant for the community and voluntary sector and policymakers. 12. develop an evaluation framework for social justice advocacy. 13. undertake strategic initiatives aimed at strengthening capacity. visser project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20166 (page number not for citation purposes) this second phase of the advocacy initiative was financed in two ways. first, a threeyear grant of €500,000 was received from the atlantic philanthropies. second, €50,000 was allocated through in-kind support from focus ireland and the society of st vincent de paul, in the form of human resources support (financial and human resources administration). the initiative sought no other funding and raised no other resources (table 3 provides an overview of the budget and actual spend). from the outset, the initiative adopted a projectorientated approach to all of its work. human resources were limited to the equivalent of one full-time staff post, while approximately half the budget was invested in consultancy or project expenditure (the advocacy initiative 2014). table 3 budgeted and actual spend of the advocacy initiative, 2011–14 (the advocacy initiative 2014) item budget actual spend % of spend staff €223,000 €229,499 41.75% consultancy (including legacy strategy investment of €61,428) €250,000 €238,544 43.4% evaluation €17,000 €18,875 3.43% communications €30,000 €32,418 5.9% administration €30,000 €30,367 5.52% total €550,000 €549,703 in terms of execution of planned outputs, the results and achievements of the advocacy initiative are documented in three ways. first, a “synthesis report” analyzes the learning and core themes that emerged, and describes concrete outputs in terms of the initiative’s overall goals (walsh 2014). second, the final external evaluation captures the activities and structures of the initiative, providing an objective assessment of results (o’siochru 2014); and third, the final report to the atlantic philanthropies, as the funder, summarizes the achievements, changes, and identified challenges (the advocacy initiative 2014). with regard to meeting its three core goals, the initiative concluded that these objectives were broadly met: “we attained our three goals of building knowledge, fostering debate and reflection, and strengthening capacity. we built a strong and credible body of work that will have lasting relevance for the sector” ( the advocacy initiative 2014, p. 7). this conclusion is supported by the results of a survey of participants conducted during the final evaluation: a survey in june 2014 of those participating in various ways in the advocacy initiative points to a high level of success overall in three key respects. over three-quarters feel that debate and self-reflection had been stimulated within the sector, something noticeably lacking heretofore; about the same number feel that they themselves had enhanced their understanding of social justice advocacy and of the sector; and – perhaps most significantly – about half feel that their participation had led to positive changes in their practice. (o’siochru 2014, p. 1) complex non-profit collaboration project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20167 (page number not for citation purposes) monitoring and controlling while the governance structures of the initiative were not particularly innovative, they worked effectively. the governance structure for the active phase of the initiative retained a steering committee with 17 members (later rising to 21), and added a management group nominated by the committee from among its members, supplemented by two external experts. membership of both steering committee and management group remained largely the same during the course of the initiative (o’siochru 2014). the steering committee and management group oversaw the management of a small team, comprising of a half-time director (three years), half-time communications officer (2 years), and sporadic administrative support. in order to advise on specific strategic actions, reference groups were set up as needed, comprising those involved in the initiative, as well as external actors. the initiative submitted annual financial and work reports to its funder. following a competitive tendering process conducted in late 2011, the initiative appointed an independent evaluator to design the evaluation framework, and to deliver an interim and final evaluation report. a decision was subsequently made to use the theory of change model (see http://www.theoryofchange.org). this framework began with long-term objectives and worked through the various preconditions to, ultimately, the interventions required to generate the outcomes. complementing the theory of change, the advocacy initiative has also used a theory u process to describe its journey as one of focusing, broadening, and deepening reflections on social justice advocacy in ireland (see https://www.presencing.com/theoryu). this tool enabled the initiative to further reflect on the nature and consequences of the relationships between the state and social justice advocates. closing while the time-bound nature of the initiative was clearly identified from the start, the potential of extending the work was nonetheless regularly discussed. however, the temporary nature of the initiative was considered critical to securing buy-in from a broad range of actors and maintaining momentum in planned activities (o’siochru 2014). as o’siochru writes in his final evaluation: the finite lifetime created an environment in which trust and engagement of partners could be built quickly. it also freed the team to focus firmly on the more immediate outcomes sought and avoided potentially extended and divisive discussion of the “positioning” of such an entity within the sector. the idea of creating a more permanent entity, a body or network, was mooted, and the option was always present, but any attempt at it would certainly have consumed significant energies of the team and possibly led to difficulties within the group and in relation to addressing the wider sector. furthermore, the original remit and objectives for the initiative offered no rationale for constituting a permanent entity. (o’siochru 2014, p. 22) consequently, the initiative closed it doors as planned after 36 months. in preparing to close, the initiative undertook three core activities, which were not originally foreseen in its work plan. first, it took the decision to commission a synthesis report. over the course of many discussions, the steering committee identified an objective to find a way to digest and synthesize the divergent outputs and discussions that the initiative had facilitated. to this end, they contracted an external researcher to work with the committee on developing “pulling together: the synthesis of the advocacy initiative 2010–2014” (walsh 2014). this report, http://www.theoryofchange.org https://www.presencing.com/theoryu visser project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20168 (page number not for citation purposes) written in the first person, provides an overview of the history of the initiative and what it achieved. but more significantly, it records the learning of the initiative, describing the social justice advocacy landscape in ireland and the challenges it faces. the document also captures the next steps, as well as key resources. second, responding to a strong desire for the learning from the initiative to continue, the steering committee agreed on a legacy plan in late 2013, and set about identifying a number of legacy partners. seven members of the steering committee submitted proposals to take ownership of a number of projects. each partner signed a contract and received an allocation of multi-annual funding (small amounts identified in the original budget of the initiative, in agreement with the initiative’s funder). given the conclusion of the initiative, no overall governance or accountability mechanisms were identified for these projects (beyond the internal mechanisms of each partner). however, the seven partners made a commitment to liaise and communicate with each other, and identified the website as a coordination tool for these projects. the legacy strategy will conclude in 2017. finally, the synthesis report and legacy strategy were launched at a final conference held in july 2014. overall, from a project planning and implementation perspective, the initiative proved relatively straightforward and successful. the community and voluntary sector identified a need to explore the challenges facing social justice advocacy; following an initial scoping phase, resulting in the first project report, a fuller work plan was developed, human and financial resources were secured, and the plan was implemented more or less as first envisaged (o’siochru 2014, p. 21). however, it is perhaps in the nature of collaboration itself that interesting lessons emerge for those seeking to engage in collaborative project management in the community and voluntary sector. in the next section, i will explore three core lessons that emerged from the experience of the advocacy initiative. lessons learned for managing complex nonprofit collaborations as i have already discussed, the advocacy initiative can be described as a complex collaboration. this complexity is a consequence of specific characteristics of the project, which included the range of organizations involved, the diversity of those organizations (and of their expectations), and the efforts to involve broader stakeholders. in this concluding section, i want to introduce three lessons that the initiative learned about managing collaborative projects. the first is the significance of building a sense of “community” among social justice advocates generally, as well as more specifically among those involved in the steering committee. the second is the need to build “ownership” of the initiative by the sector, while also maintaining coherence. the third is the need to invest time and energy in building confidence and capacity, toward engaging other stakeholders in difficult and contentious discussion. build a community of interest the final evaluation suggests that the initiative served to build a sense of community across the social justice advocacy sector in three ways: fostering collegiality among the steering committee; creating opportunities for teamwork through specific projects; and opening complex non-profit collaboration project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20169 (page number not for citation purposes) opportunity for the sector to come together and reflect on its work (the advocacy initiative 2014, p. 16). despite initial challenges, the initiative built a broad and effective steering committee. as the final evaluation puts it, “steering committee members have reported developing strong relationships and strong levels of trust that did not previously exist” (the advocacy initiative 2014, p. 21). an example of team building is the way the group of participant researchers worked together on the study of perceptions of policymakers: in their acknowledgments, the researchers describe the process of combining their findings as “unifying” for them as advocates (and as researchers) (walsh et al. 2013). finally, in building momentum across a diverse and competitive sector, an emerging sense of shared purpose proved critical. as one participant at a knowledge exchange forum put it in the initiative’s closing video (shown at the final conference): “the advocacy initiative has created a generosity of spirit, an open environment for sharing and learning from each other […] that is not going to go away.” it appears that this sense of a “social justice advocacy” community is relatively unique in a very disparate community and voluntary sector, and for many it proved an important characteristic. it is not clear to what extent this emerging sense of common cause (or at least common method) will sustain beyond the initiative, but for the initiative itself it was an important factor in the success of specific projects. in the context of a sector which is often described as fragmented (murphy 2013, p. 115), this capacity to build collaborative approaches is very significant, particularly with regard to the potential impact of social justice advocacy work (wallace 2004, pp. 2–3). balance ownership and coherence as discussed, early human resources capacity was limited and the initiative invested heavily in drawing in external capacity, and facilitating actions within the broader community and voluntary sector. as we have seen, this approach was identified as critical to the success of the initiative; however, it brought with it the challenge of securing coherence. for example, in implementing a series of self-directed local events, themes were not centrally coordinated but rather allowed to reflect local realities of social justice advocacy. while this may have undermined the capacity of the initiative to compare these discussions, it did facilitate opportunities for discussion and engagement that were locally engaging. another example is the development of the legacy strategy, through which partners took on the development of specific projects and tools, but without any oversight or governance of the strategy itself. given the diversity of those involved in the initiative, the project had to manage the capacity to respond to different needs and expectations. being relevant and responsive was critical to securing engagement in a very diverse community and voluntary sector. however, there was a need to balance this “devolution” with an overall analysis of initiative outcomes, which led to the decision to commission the “pulling together” report. invest in capacity and confidence building the overall ambition of the initiative was to reframe the relationship between the community and voluntary sector and the state. to this end, a number of activities were identified in the plan that sought to engage with other stakeholder groups, including those policymakers who are on the “receiving” end of advocacy. however, analysis of how the implementation plan changed over time would suggest that there was some instinct to pull back from this external engagement and focus inward on the sector itself (o’siochru 2014). for example, instead of visser project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201610 (page number not for citation purposes) running a “grassroots” campaign to articulate the case for social justice advocacy, a series of local events, mostly for the sector itself, were facilitated. another example is the launch event for the research study on public funding of social justice advocacy, which primarily targeted the sector, with no specific dissemination activities undertaken to reach policymakers. however, there were also other examples of the initiative attempting new models of deepening stakeholder engagement. for example, toward the end of the initiative, a project emerged in which the initiative facilitated a two-day process with a range of stakeholder groups on the regulation of social justice advocacy. consequently, the experience of the initiative was that it took time to build the confidence and capacity to engage policymakers in difficult or contentious discussion (hodgett & sweeney 2010, p. 5). in fact, as policymakers were generally more open to such engagements than we had assumed, it may have been possible to engage in such actions earlier. as the perceptions study researcher put it: we were all very pleasantly surprised by how many of the individuals we approached agreed to be interviewed, and indeed how open and frank most of them were in the actual interview process. some had really thought about the sector and engaged in a very deliberate way. ( walsh et al. 2013, p. 56) however, it took the initiative time to build the confidence to develop this cross-stakeholder work. building collaboration, overcoming silos while we have not yet heard the final word from the advocacy initiative (the legacy strategy continues to 2017), this project proved a unique experience for the community and voluntary sector in ireland. as a project, it followed the standard cycle relatively straightforwardly from initiation to conclusion; however, as an experience of complex collaboration it proved challenging and innovative. in a sector that is often described as fragmented, there is much that can be learned for future collaborative projects that similarly wish to move past the silos or sub-sectors that can characterize the nonprofit landscape. as i have discussed, the collaboration that was the initiative was complicated for reasons of structure, actions, and stakeholders. in this case study, i have drawn out three lessons that we learned through managing the challenges of this complex collaboration. first was the significance of building an emerging sense of community, or a common identity, among social justice advocates. while not an explicit objective of the initiative, this outcome proved central and was identified as important by many of those involved. this experience suggests the achievability of building collaboration across a very diverse community and voluntary sector; when the focus is on a working method (or methods), deeper nonprofit collaboration is feasible (and valuable), even when individual organizations do not share a particular mission. second, developing broad ownership and securing relevance to this disparate community brought with it the challenge of balancing devolution with coherence. by allowing for activities that were locally responsive, the initiative was able to broaden the range of its engagement with the community and voluntary sector. this release of central control, however, required innovative responses to securing coherence, one of which was to produce the synthesis report. this novel approach suggests that it is possible to employ creative strategies for coherence, without restricting the energy and fluidity of protagonists framing their own engagement in a way that meets local demand. finally, the initiative’s capacity to reach out to broader policy stakeholders in a deeper way took time to develop and, on occasion, seemed vulnerable to the instinct to focus inwards on complex non-profit collaboration project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201611 (page number not for citation purposes) the sector. yet this work developed and, by the end of the three-year cycle, a number of projects appeared to achieve more substantial engagement with policymakers. three years represents a relatively short period of time in which to build such cross-stakeholder collaboration; however, by first strengthening confidence, knowledge, and shared identity among nonprofit actors, the initiative created the possibility for new forms of dialogue across stakeholder groups. others have suggested that the diversity of the community and voluntary sector in ireland calls into question whether these organizations can be called a “sector” at all; but the case of the advocacy initiative demonstrates that it is possible to not only develop a shared program of work, but also facilitate the emergence of a shared sense of identity, in this case as social justice advocates. by focusing the project through an activity lens, the advocacy initiative was able to build deep and broad collaboration in a sector that is too often described as operating in silos. about the author anna visser is a phd candidate at the school of social policy, social work and social justice in university college dublin. she has 15 years of experience implementing projects in the nonprofit sector, and has worked on issues of anti-racism, anti-poverty, and democratic reform. from august 2011 to 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http://www.pmi.org/about-us/about-us-what-is-project-management.aspx http://www.pmi.org/about-us/about-us-what-is-project-management.aspx http://www.advocacyinitiative.ie/blog/statement-social-justice-advocacy http://www.advocacyinitiative.ie/blog/statement-social-justice-advocacy http://www.advocacyinitiative.ie/resource/theory-change-narrative http://socialistregister.com/index.php/srv/article/view/5818#.vtqg4cft-m4 http://www.advocacyinitiative.ie/resource/other-words-policy-makers-perceptions-social-justice-advocacy http://www.advocacyinitiative.ie/resource/other-words-policy-makers-perceptions-social-justice-advocacy http://www.advocacyinitiative.ie/resource/pulling-together-synthesis-work-advocacy-initiative-2010-2014 http://www.advocacyinitiative.ie/resource/pulling-together-synthesis-work-advocacy-initiative-2010-2014 project management research and practice vol. 5, 2018 © 2018 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: ingason, h. and guðmundsson g.r. 2018. is the flipped classroom method usefulfor teaching project management?. project management research and practice, article id 5465. https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp. v5i0.5375 issn 2207-1415 | published by uts epress | http://epress. lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index. php/pmrp/index research article (peer-reviewed) is the flipped classroom method useful for teaching project management? helgi þór ingason1*, gísli rúnar guðmundsson2 1 reykjavik university, menntavegi 1, 101 reykjavik, iceland. helgithor@ru.is 2 bed, mpm, nú elementary school inhafnafjörður. gisli@framsynmenntun.is *corresponding author: dr. helgi þór ingason. helgithor@ru.is doi: https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5375 article history: received 27/01/2017; revised 01/10/2017; accepted 10/10/2018; published 30/01/2019 abstract a teaching method known as the flipped classroom has become increasingly popular in recent years, and the method is now widely used around the world at all levels of the education system. this paper seeks to examine and elucidate the concept of the flipped classroom method as well as scrutinize its varying manifestations within educational settings, focusing particularly on the question of whether the teaching method is a fruitful teaching strategy for project management. data gathering was based on an analysis of research literature focusing on the application of the flipped classroom as well as interviews conducted with both teachers and students associated with a master’s degree program in project management at reykjavik university. the interviews sought to extract perspectives of both teachers and students concerning their experiences of the flipped classroom method in contrast to conventional teaching methods. finally, the paper will present the findings from an analysis comparing test results from an international certification examination in project management for two groups of students. one group attended lessons where the flipped classroom method was applied whereas the other group was instructed using traditional teaching methods. the findings of the study reveal that the flipped classroom method is a fruitful and relevant strategy for teaching and learning project management. the findings show that the students were more positive toward the method than the teachers. furthermore, the students were generally more receptive to new teaching methods than the teachers were. 60% of the students who attended lessons that used the flipped classroom claimed that it had aided them in preparing for the certification examination. declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 page number not for citation purposes https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5375 https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5375 http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/csrj/index http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/csrj/index http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/csrj/index mailto:helgithor%40ru.is?subject= mailto:gisli%40framsynmenntun.is?subject= mailto:helgithor%40ru.is?subject= https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5375 keywords teaching; flipped classroom introduction throughout the ages, education and teaching have followed a repeated pattern. the teacher is usually the source of knowledge who mediates information to his students in the classroom as well as encouraging them to attend to their homework. the teacher plays the critical role in the mediation of information and his existence is the premise that successful educationis based on. project management is a young academic discipline and research is scarce about the means by which it can most fruitfully be taught. rapid advances in information technology and society’s growing emphasis on independent learning call for revitalized approaches to teaching and education on most levels of schoolingand the teacher’s role is consequentially changing.a pedagogical method called the flipped classroom has been gaining ground over the recent years, and the method has been well received by students and teachers alike, around the world and across school levels. the main purpose of this paper is to examine the possibilities of the flipped classroom within the context of project management education. more specifically, the paper seeks to answer the following research questions: 1. is the flipped classroom an appropriate method to teach project management? 2. are students and teachers ready tomake use of the flipped classroom method? 3. canthemethod lead to bettermanagement of time and workload for both students and teachers? 4. is the teacher becoming a redundant aspect of the learning process? theoretical background in order to better address the research questions, it is crucial to elucidate some of the key concepts brought to bear in the study. the flipped classroom is a teaching method which is primarily concerned with the student’s needs and encourages the student to seek his solutions, work collaboratively and engage with authentic assignments (baker 2000). the flipped classroom places the active aspect of learning into the classroom and moves the passive side of learning, such as reading and observing lectures, outside the walls of the school. framed in simpler terms, the flipped classroom is based on the idea that the teacher’s contribution mainly takes place on the internet where the student can access the teaching material as often as he needs in order to acquire a proper grasp of the subject at hand(keilire.d.-c). when the student arrives at school, the active engagement with the subject matter begins, which usually involves group work (baker 2000). it can be difficult to measure the direct impact that different teaching methods have on academic success. the definitions and approaches to concepts that ground varying teaching methods are too dissimilar, and they are often separated by so many degrees that it becomes impossible to conduct a comparative analysis. prince (2000) investigated active learning which figures as the hard kernel of the ideology of the flipped classroom. active learning, from the student’s perspective, is when the student actively seeks to discover the purpose of his studies. the student is at the center of active learning, the teaching is aimed at his needs and the teacher’s work entails assisting the student in his learning. many studies focusing on various ingason and guðmundsson project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20182 page number not for citation purposes school levels have shown that significant learning takes place when the student is actively engaged with his tasks (prince 2004). there is considerable literature regarding the methodology of the flipped classroom, and the method has gone under various names, for instance, the inverted classroom, blended teaching and active learning. the concept, therefore, does not lend itself to one exhaustive definition it is an educational ideology which has developed parallel to recent advancements of information technology. the history of the flipped classroom method is brief in comparison to more traditional teaching methods. despite the scarcity of scientific research in the field, education researchers have sought to examine the benefits of and perspectives toward the flipped classroom method. the flipped classroom has its roots in the information technology revolution, with the emergence of social media platforms such as youtube, skype, and facebook. another explosionoccurred took place alongside the information revolution with the arrival of smartphone technologies such as iphone and ipad, and internet access worldwide spread even further. it is, therefore, possible to claim that information technology was the necessary premise for the rise of the flipped classroom. academics generally agree that the history of the flipped classroom can be traced to the year 2004, associated with the writings of the american scholars salman kahn, jonathan bergmann, and aaron sams. salman kahn was born in 1976 and is best-known today for the kahn academy, which is an educational organization and a fountain of knowledge that hosts thousands of educational videos on the internet, used by millions of individuals around the world. kahn’s adventure is thought to have begun when he was tutoring his cousin who lived in another country and attempted to explain math problems through short video clips. kahn required a platform to store the videos, so he uploaded them to youtube. kahn’s math clips were shared between individuals on the internet, and soon kahn began receiving appreciative emails from parents of children with learning difficulties (kahn 2011). jonathan bergmann and aaron sams began teaching together in 2006 at woodland park high school in colorado. they were both veterans of teaching when they began their collaboration at the school’s chemistry department, attended by 950 students. they had rigorously planned the teaching for the winter semester but soon noticed a problem concerning the poor attendance of athletics students who would regularly be away from school to participate in sports competitions around the country. colorado is a rurally populated state, and distances are greater than what populations are accustom to in most urban areas. in order to meet the need of these students who struggled to keep up with the studies in class, sams and bergmann decided to record instructional videos which they would then upload to youtube (bergmann & sams 2012). keilir atlantic centre of excellence is the most advanced school in iceland regarding applying the flipped classroom method. keilir is a non-profit educational institution, founded in 2007, and is located in reykjanesbær, close to the keflavik international airport. keilir began using the flipped classroom method in 2012 which applied to all school subjects (keilir, e.d.-b). rakel viggósdóttir (2014) studied the attitude toward the flipped classroom among the school’s students and teachers which included, among other things, three in-depth interviews with teachers from various subjects and qualitative studies focusing on students’ perspectives. viggósdóttir’s findings revealed that the teachers believed that the flipped classroom was more beneficial than traditional teaching methods. in that context, the teachers noted individualized learning, increased activity and a more personalized approach to each student as the main advantages of the method. noted disadvantages were, among others, the is the flipped classroom method usefulfor teaching project management? project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20183 page number not for citation purposes fear of technological aspects of the method and students’ increased responsibility for their studies. moreover, they reported that the method might not be suitable for all students and that the act of self-observation in the recordings awoke some discomfort. the teachers believed that the students’ attitudes toward the method were positive and further expressed that the view toward the flipped classroom method was generally favorable in the school (viggósdóttir 2014). 90.7% of students reported that they considered the flipped classroom better suited to their needs than traditional teaching methods, and noted individualized learning as the biggest advantage. sigrún ása magnúsdóttir’s findings from a study on the application of the flipped classroom in keilir(ed-a) showed thatstudents and teachers found that well-defined, brief and concise instructional videos were best suited to achieve their end (magnúsdóttir 2014). these findings echo salman kahn’s ideas concerning the length of instructional videos. in 2012, adam butt conducted a study on the application of the flipped classroom method at the australian national university (anu), named “student views on the use of a flipped classroom approach: evidence from australia.” (butt 2013). the study was set to compare, on the one hand, the views of students and teachers to traditional teaching methods (the student listens to the teacher deliver a lecture in the classroom) and their attitude toward the flipped classroom, on the other. the study focused mainly on the most beneficial ways to manage students’ time and which teaching method left the biggest mark. two questionnaires were conducted, one in july 2012 and the other onelater the same year (butt 2013). the findings brought to light that students generally considered active learning to be the best way to learn, with reading in second place, followed by listening in third place. a majority of the students believed that group work in conjunction with individual work was a beneficial way to learn (butt 2013). biggs and tang (2007) point out that the structure of each course should be elucidated at the beginning of the term, as well as assessment criteria and expected contributions from students. in active learning, the student is always prioritizedover the teacher (biggs and tang 2007). kramer, sankar and hingorani (1995) suggested the possibility that information technology could be utilized to provide students with digital access to a project manager which would limit the teacher’s presence in the classroom. the impact of distance learning on students was examined with regard to how their studies would be influenced if they were given the opportunity to connect school assignments with actual and practical situations (kramer, sankar and hingorani 1995). findings from studies in the field of project management education generally agree that it is important to place the teaching into a context of reality and encourage students to engage with actual events and situations as much as possible. cook and olson (2006) investigated a group of project management students who were working on a collaborative project that revolved around building a tower using spaghetti and other similar rudimentary building material. the study showed that by means of connecting the basic principles of project management to the building of the tower, and by introducing the teaching material into the process in conjunction with the construction, the students were able to gain a better understanding of the teaching material and were more equipped at achieving their learning goals (cook and olson 2006). in 2008, an experiment was conducted in the uk with the aim of examining further the importance and impact of contextualizing practical situations and job market with studies in project management. alan, gale, brown and kidd (2008) studied a group of project management students at the university of manchester. in order to properly emphasize this connection between the studies and the job market, the university sought cooperation with large businesses such as rolls-royce and goodrich as an incentive for the students to focus constructively on the studies (alan, gale, brown and kidd 2008). in addition to studying the ingason and guðmundsson project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20184 page number not for citation purposes impact of maintaining a strong bond to the job market, the researchers looked at the influence of applying blended teaching methods. ojiako, ashleigh, chipulu and maguire (2011) studied how a group of project management students reacted to varying teaching methods,where they sought to gauge which method the students perceived as themost favorable. according to the students, diverse teaching methods and the practical application of the studies to real situations ranked as the most fruitful teaching strategies (ojiakoet et al. 2011). ojiako, chipulu and wang (2012) underline the importance of using blended learning for project management teaching. they studied why students preferred project management courses that offered diverse teaching methods as well as courses that utilized the internet as a learning platform (ashleigh et al. 2012). the students’ opinions were discussed and analyzed from varying perspectives, and the findings were divided into five sub-categories. the findings reveal that the most fruitful way to facilitate students’ skills to social, technological and ideological aspects, resides in the application of blended learning in conjunction with the internet. the studies must be flexible enough to meet the needs of different students as well as organized and clearly defined (ashleigh et al. 2012). moreover, internet instruction is best suited for students that grapple with learning difficulties (ashleigh et al. 2012). cordba and piki (2012) researched the effectivity of active learning in groups as a teaching method for students in project management. group work is considered a successful means to properly prepare students for actual situations on the job market as project managers. working in groups allows individuals to reflect on themselves and their ideas which leads to increased understanding. group work proved to be an appropriate way to prepare the students for both the predictable and unpredictable situations that emerged in the assignments. moreover, group work removes the student from the comfort zone of individual work and places him into a real-world situation where he is faced with different individuals and unfamiliar circumstances (cordoba and piki 2012). these findings support ideas that promote the positive impact of diverse teaching methods and it is hence important to continue developing project management education along these lines (cordoba and piki 2012). methodology both qualitative and quantitative research methods were used in the process of seeking answers to the research questions. questionnaires were sent to 116 master’s degree students and graduates in project management (mpm) at reykjavík university. in-depth interviews were conducted with innovators and managers of the mpm studies at reykjavík university – which has been taught in iceland since 2005. the same individuals set up the project management and leadership training course in 2003, and which is taught in collaboration with continuing education programs at the university of iceland and the university of akureyri. additionally, in-depth interviews were conducted with two mpm students at reykjavík university. finally, questionnaires were sent to 20 project management teachers with the aim of extracting their views toward the flipped classroom method. the participating students were randomly selected. the questions were framed in terms of pre-decided talking points, but an effort was made to establish a relaxed atmosphere for the interviewees where the participant was able to talk freely. all participants gave their consent for the interviews beings recorded.the point of departure for the interview with the mpm managers was a swot analysis of the methodology that guides the flipped classroom, where the discussion revolved around the strengths, weaknesses, threats and general is the flipped classroom method usefulfor teaching project management? project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20185 page number not for citation purposes opportunities entailed in the flipped classroom method. in order to gain a deeper insight into the technological side of the flipped classroom, an in-depth interview was conducted with mr. björgvin ívar guðbrandsson, who, as well as being a teacher, has vast experience of information technology, the flipped classroomand teaching material development. a swot analysis was chosen to frame the findings extracted from all the in-depth interviews conducted in the study. an emphasis was placed on investigating the views of both students and teachers to the flipped classroom method, given the obvious fact that the two groups are intertwined. the questionnaire was created using google docs and a link to the questions sent to students via email or uploaded to the facebook page of both groups. the teachers were approached through the same technology, but they received their list only via email. the questionnaire was written in english since many of the teachers are not fluent in icelandic. the problematic aspect of sending a questionnaire through these means is that it was difficult to ensure that the participants responded only once to the questions since google docs cannot be closed once participation is completed. however, this option was considered highly unlikely. to ensure better responses, the questionnaires were designed to be brief and concise. firstly, a definition of the flipped classroom method was provided at the top of the questionnaire for both the students and the teachers. the in-depth interviews also commenced with a definition of the flipped classroom to make sure everyone had the same understanding of the concept. results from ipma level d certification examinations from the period 2009-2016 were scrutinized with the aim of examining whether there was a measurable difference in grade averages. the main reading material for the test is a translation of an international document which lists competence elements of project management, called icb3.0 (ipma competence baseline). during the second half of the assessment period, the flipped classroom method was used to teach this material, whereas more conventional teaching methods had dominated the first half. all students’ test results were analyzed and grade averages calculated to see if there emerged any significant differences between the two periods. the level d certification examination of the project management association of iceland are standardized project management tests which are recognized by the ipma (international project management association). in 2014, the teaching material for the level d test became accessible on the internet for the first time, for the groups of students that are a part of this study. the teaching material consists of slides that feature voice-over and illustrations for further clarifications. it is then stored on a website that is specifically designed to construct teaching material, called bcontext (http://bcontext.com/user/dashboard/groups/bfiles/7320). the level d test is largely based on standardized project management concepts which the student is expected to familiarise himself with. instructional videos were created concerning all the concepts from the icb 3.0 competence baseline and then made available on the internet. in short video clips, the teacher explains the definition of each concept through verbal instruction and visual representation, which the student can observe as often as he requires. 636 level d tests were examined, all of which were results from mpm students and students from the program project `management and leadership training. the information provided in this paper shows calculated averages for each year. results the questionnaires were sent to a total of 20 teachers and 116 project management students. the response rate among teachers was 45% and roughly 85% among students. ingason and guðmundsson project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20186 page number not for citation purposes http://bcontext.com/user/dashboard/groups/bfiles/7320/ teachers views toward the flipped classroom method were analysed, and teachers asked whether they were familiar with the term and whether they had experience of its application. roughly 33% of the teachers knew the method and had utilized it in their teaching to some extent. 22% of the teachers considered the flipped classroom a fruitful teaching strategy and 56% claimed that it was appropriate for select courses. no teacher believed that the flipped classroom was an unfruitful or inappropriate teaching method, but 22% left the question unanswered. 44.5% teachers said they were unable to claim whether the flipped classroom could increase the quality of project management education, while the same proportion answered the same question affirmatively. asked if the flipped classroom could lessen workload and save time, 33% of teachers answered positively, and 33% responded negatively, whereas 12% said they did not know. the central reason as to why the teachers yet adopted the flipped classroom method was insufficient knowledge concerning it. students almost 60% of the students were familiar with the flipped classroom concept, and 22% had previously encountered it in their studies. roughly 33% of students claimed that the flipped classroom method was a successful means to learn project management and 53% said that the method was particularly well suited for select courses. 51% of students said that they did not know whether the flipped classroom would increase the quality of project management education whereas 44% of students responded affirmatively to the same question. differing opinions emerged in relation to the question of where and how the method would be most successfully applied, for example: when learning revolves around lecturing, when complicated methods are being taught, in all courses or to some extent, in order to better prepare classes, for courses that mainly revolve around conceptual understanding, in courses that have more to do with practical aspects rather than human and social elements. almost 63% of students believed that the flipped classroom could lead to more effective management of time/work and almost 30% claimed that they were unsure. 8.1% thought that the flipped classroom would not save time/work. almost 93% of students said they would make use of instructional videos on the internet if such would be made available. the impact of the flipped classroom on level d tests 42 students out of 99, or roughly 42%, claimed to have either fully or partly utilized the bcontext lessons on the internet. almost 58% of the students said that they had not made use of the lessons or marked the question as irrelevant. of the 42 students that used the bcontext lessons for preparation, 25 or almost 60% claimed that the lessons had been useful. of those, 15 students, or almost 36%, said that the bcontext lessons had proven of only limited use. the development of test scores over the years extracted from the project management association of iceland level d tests are presented in table 1. the number of students that participated in these tests each year ranged from 33-84, a total of 636 students. is the flipped classroom method usefulfor teaching project management? project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20187 page number not for citation purposes table 1 the grade average for project management students on the level d test, from 2009-2016. year grade 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 7.6 7.6 7.7 7.7 7.4 2014 2015 2016 7.8 7.6 7.7 the flipped classroom method was first adopted in 2014. the grade average for the years 20092013 is 7.6 whereas the average for 2014-2016 is 7.7. this difference is not significant. the following table lists findings from the in-depth interviews with teachers and students in project management. the information is presented using swot analysis which evaluates the strengths (s), weaknesses (w), opportunities (o) and threats (t) of applying the flipped classroom method to teach project management. discussion the flipped classroom method is an educational strategy grounded in teaching methods that have been practiced for years. group work, active learning, and blended teaching methods are not new teaching strategies, and as a result, the flipped classroom is not as new as it might appear at first sight. what is novel about the method, however, is the way in which it fused with the progression of information technology. the ability to upload lessons on the internet entails a multitude of opportunities for both students and teachers. the findings of this study correspond with other studies that have underlined project management students’ positive attitudes toward the flipped classroom method, which affords increased freedom and individualized learning. 93% of students in project management expressed that they would make use of instructional videos if available. students continuously seek ways to manage time and productivity more efficiently. the flipped classroom method meets those demands and provides the busy student with further possibilities of acquiring new knowledge. it is important to keep in mind that the flipped classroom is not the ultimate solution which replaces all other teaching methods. rather, the method can be adopted alongside other teaching strategies. the flipped classroom is not suitable for everyone, and it always premised on the student’s contributions and efforts, as is the case with other teaching methods. project management is a practical discipline that cannot be learned solely through a textbook; it revolves around dedication and commitment which is best acquired through experience and practice. the vast part of project management studies takes place through active learning where students work in groups with practical assignments. however, a part of project management studies is based on learning standards, concept and complex methodologies. the flipped classroom is, therefore, an ideal teaching method for project management education. by recording instructional lessons covering the most dry and complicated material, ingason and guðmundsson project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20188 page number not for citation purposes table 2 show findings extracted from a swot analysis of the flipped classroom method. the findings are based on in-depth interviews conducted with students and teachers. strengths -the students decide when to view lectures and can observe them as often as they choose. -the teacher’s time is rather spent getting acquainted with students and evaluating their competencies in relation to the studies. -classroom time is rather used for delving deeper into subjects and studentshave more time to engage with the technology and methods being taught. -well suited for project management since it is a practical science and practice makes perfect above all else. -gives the teacher the chance to prepare lectures in a more consistent manner and focus on the most important aspects of the teaching. -the teacher’s daily routine no longer applicable, as long as he remembers to record the lectures when he is ready to do so. -classroom timeused more consistently given that students are well prepared and discussions therefore substantial and meaningful. -in the perfect world, the student enters the classroom after having listened to the lecture, and practical work can commence immediately. -well suited for students that struggle to read. individualised learning. -the method encourages students to be wellprepared and engage meaningfully with the subject matters. -encourages students and teachers to sharpen their focus. -it is easier for individuals to recall their contribution and work more objectively. -well suited for teaching dry and challenging material that is not appropriate for the lecture form. -the subject becomes readily accessible for the student. -it is easier to explain complicated issues in videos that can be revisited as often as the student desires. weaknesses -the teacher loses touch with the teaching material. -students miss unexpected aspects which can take place through classroom discussions between students and teachers. -it is more difficult for the teacher to gauge the student’s efforts, i.e., has the student read the teaching material? instruction changes if the teacher has to assume that the student has completed the reading. -the teacher cannot know whether the student is prepared or not unless students indicate otherwise. -encourages the use of computers. -the students are fed too much information. -one cannot assume the same performance from a teacher on video as in a live traditional lecture. -undynamic discussion between students and teacher. -the flipped classroom is not suited for all. -internet lectures cannot extend beyond 15 minutes. -the method calls for much planning and discipline on behalf of the teacher, e.g., ensuring that lessons are uploaded to the internet in a timely manner. -it is imperative to guarantee good sound quality to the recordings to avoid unfruitful disruptions. -technical equipment must be superior, e.g., sound recordings and illustration tools for diagrams. -the teacher must sketch vivid diagrams accompanied by clearly-defined intentions. is the flipped classroom method usefulfor teaching project management? project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20189 page number not for citation purposes threats -the teacher might be forced to re-evaluate his role which can prove difficult. -some teachers fear the method because people fear the unknown. teachers fear becoming redundant in the future. -the flipped classroom is a threat to the trusted and predictable existence of the teacher. -other schools could take over project management education by applying only the flipped classroom method. -the students could become more knowledgeable than the teacher, a development feared by the latter. -technology is not for everyone, might become a problem for some teachers. -computers have become too dominant. people use computers too much. -preparing for lectures demands much work, and the teachers need a good reason to engage in such efforts. -uncertain situations can emerge in flipped classrooms, and uncertainty leads to fear. what is the teacher to do if he cannot find anything to discuss? -uncertainty concerning property rights and storage of teaching material. internet storage exposes a risk of theft. -a disappearance of romance. do we want to merge fully with technology? -the teacher must adopt an assignment-oriented approach if the flipped classroom is to work. this calls for different assessment strategies, and the flipped classroom makes different demands. opportunities -possible to engage with teaching material alongside another task, e.g., exercising, traveling, and so on. -the textbook is not suited for all students; some learn more by listening, observing, or both. -individualised teaching method where the students’ time is more efficiently managed. -an opportunity of the teacher to improve himself as a teacher and do better, dare to try new things. -opportunities to increase students’ responsibilities and more opportunities for the teacher to gauge the students’ level of comprehension concerning the teaching material. -time and work can be saved for both students and teachers in certain courses. initial effort and workload which though remains for years to come. -dry and tedious material can be made more accessible through an entertaining video. can be applied to project management. -a chance to offer the student more value. -more time to dedicate the teaching material and increased opportunities for practical work. -students put more pressure on each other; no one wants to work with a student who is illprepared. -progression resides with computer technology, and we must seek means to keep up with it. -teachers need to be open to new experiences and dare to develop in their profession. partaking in creating something new is exciting. -project management concerns efficient management, which is not learned from a book but instead through experience and activity. the teacher is provided with an opportunity to teach it in a lively and entertaining way aided by information technology. the flipped classroom allows students to become active project management learners, they are afforded increased space to adopt new material and classroom time is more efficiently managed. 85% response rate to the questionnaires sent to students indicates that they are interested in the flipped classroom method and becoming more aquatinted with teaching methods that increase productivity and manage time more effectively. the analysis of the development of level d grade averages shows that even though averages for the period 2014-2016 were marginally higher than 2009-2013, the difference is not significant, however tempting it is to define this difference as an indication that the flipped classroom method is delivering higher grades. it is interesting to note that 60% of the students that utilized bcontext thought that the teaching material had provided vast support, which strongly suggests that this method is a successful way to learn dry material such as the icb framework document. an analysis of the test results from all students over a ingason and guðmundsson project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201810 page number not for citation purposes six-year periodshows the grade average peaks at 2014 for the eight years that were examined. the explanations for these grade oscillations between years can be that the difficulty level of the tests varies, even though the tests are standardized and approved by the ipma. it will be interesting to observe how the level d test scores develop in proportion to the growing application of the flipped classroom method. there can be little doubt that project management students are prepared to engage with the flipped classroom method. teachers are a different matter, who are not as intrigued by new methodologies, because it could seem at first that their gain would be insubstantial in comparison to the students. the low response rate among teachers, or 45%, suggests this limited interest. moreover, the teachers’ answers were rather brief and once again indicated limited interested in the method. this meagre interest can be partially explained by the fact that they are unfamiliar with the method. another explanation might be that they are perhaps afraid of becoming redundant. people often fear the unknown, however, teachers’ fears are most likely unfounded. the teacher plays an imperative role in the flipped classroom; delivering lively and diverse lessons as well as guiding the students in group work and assignments. project management teachers should be prepared to develop as professionals and service students to the utmost of their abilities. through the flipped classroom, the predictable existence of the teacher disappears, and he is forced to re-evaluate his work which is a difficult task for many teachers in the profession. however, teachers should jump at the opportunity for professional development and travel with the current of modernity. information technology is rapidly progressing, and computers play an ever-growing role in people’s lives. in order to adopt and teach the flipped classroom method, teachers will have to overcome their technological limitations. the flipped classroom makes the demand that teachers be ready to present their lessons in sharp and focused ways through short video clips where they are required to re-think the structure of their classroom. the flipped classroom offers vast potential for teachers and no less for students. the teachers whose central goal it is to teach and service their students are quick to notice the benefits of the flipped classroom. the instructional videos require considerable work but this effort rewards itself in the classroom, and the teaching material can be reused between years. the flipped classroom method affords the teacher more opportunities for building stronger connections with his students. summary the flipped classroom appears to be a fruitful methodology to teach project management. the method is an individualized learning strategy which offers teachers increased opportunities to mediate knowledge to their project management students. the flipped classroom is not for everyone, as is the case with other teaching methods, but the method multiplies students’ choices, and he is given increased flexibility in engaging with the teaching material. students are generally ready to adopt this new method, whereas teachers seem more scepticaltoward the consequences of the flipped classroom due perhaps to a fear that their role will undergo fundamental changes, coupled with worries regarding increased workload. nevertheless, there is no reason for the teacher to fear that he will become irrelevant. on the contrary, teachers play a key role in the flipped classroom strategy which though requires them to redefine their role as teachers, as well as adopting new technologies and fresh ideas. in fact, theflipped classroom method depends on the teacher’s structured preparation and planning, as well as a robust information systemwhich calls for precision in the structuring and recording of the teaching materialand its mediation to the students. is the flipped classroom method usefulfor teaching project management? project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201811 page number not for citation purposes this study is limited given the poor response rate of the teachers and the fact that it is difficult to generalize about the role played by the context teaching material in the level d test results. it would, therefore, prove informative to conduct further research into the application of the flipped classroom method in project management teaching in iceland and look more closely into how the teaching strategy is received by both students and teachers. about the authors helgi thor ingason is a professor at reykjavik university and leads a master of project management program. he is a consultant and certified senior project manager. his main research fields are project management and quality management. he is the author and co-author of several books on management in icelandic and english and his work has been published in e.g. project management journal, international journal of project management and the journal of metals. gisli runar gudmundsson is a co-owner and headmaster of nu, an independent middle school in hafnarfjordur iceland. he has a bed degree in sport science from the university of iceland and an mpm degree (master of project management) from reykjavik university. gisli runar has a passion for training and education, and the development of teaching methods. references alan, m., gale, a., brown, m. & kidd, c. 2008, ‘the development and delivery of an industry-led project management professional development programme: a case study in project management education and success management’, international journal of project 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project management research and practice vol. 5, 2018 © 2019 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: holzmann, v., olson, d., vendetti, r. and shenhar, a. j. 2018. the first world trade center project: a historical tribute to a great mega project. project management research and practice, article id 5648. https://doi. org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5648 issn 2207-1415 | published by uts epress | http://epress. lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index. php/pmrp/index practitioner case (peer-reviewed) the first world trade center project: a historical tribute to a great mega project vered holzmann1*, donald olson2, randall vendetti2 and aaron j. shenhar1 1 coller school of business administration, faculty of management, tel aviv university, israel. veredhz@post.tau.ac.il. ashenhar@splwin.com 2 school of business, stevens institute of technology, hoboken, new jersey, usa. dono@ polymertek.com. rvendetti@aerco.com *corresponding author: vered holzmann, veredhz@post.tau.ac.il doi: https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5648 article history: received 23/07/2017; revised 30/03/2018 & 11/12/2018; accepted 11/12/2018; published 12/02/2019 synopsis the tragic collapse of the world trade center on september 11, 2001 could not erase the memory of one of the most successful projects in history. the project set standards of excellence in project management for years to come. using a retrospective look at the construction management of the wtc during the 1960s and 1970s, we show how the vision of great leadership and a determined organization transformed the economy of one of the most important cities in the world. target readers by presenting a retrospective analysis of one of the biggest construction projects in the world at that time, we offer a study that is still relevant to experienced project managers and leaders of mega projects in all industries, as well as to researchers who are interested in strategic project management approaches. business needs revitalizing lower manhattan promoting world trade declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 page number not for citation purposes https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5648 https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5648 http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/pmrp/index http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/pmrp/index http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/pmrp/index mailto:veredhz@post.tau.ac.il mailto:ashenhar@splwin.com mailto:dono@polymertek.com mailto:dono@polymertek.com mailto:rvendetti@aerco.com mailto:veredhz@post.tau.ac.il project goals a complex business and commercial campus, consisting of 7 high-rise buildings central hub of transportation to trains and subways in nyc. geographic new york city, usa organization name port authority of new york and new jersey industry construction years of case 1960s 1973 project team the project team included the world trade department director, guy tozzoli. major additional stakeholders involved in the project operation include a principal architectural firm masaru yamasaki, the prime contractor port authority, a company responsible for integration tishman construction company, and 266 sub-contractors. core competences a great vision, combined with strong leadership, are the core competencies of this project. related theory the case is analyzed based on the contingency theory in project management, a multidimensional success dimensions’ framework, and the critical success factors approach. we examined the project’s leadership using a strategic project management perspective. success criteria project efficiency. the project was completed on time, though overbudget. customer expectations. the world trade center transformed lower manhattan to the financial capital of the world and provided instant recognition and credibility for the many businesses occupying its offices. business success. the world trade center became economically self-sustained; in 2001 the complex was leased for 99 additional years. preparing for the future. although the project was completed on time, the cost escalation somewhat damaged the pa’s reputation, and it avoided other grand construction projects that had been anticipated as a reward for success with the world trade center. however, from an economical long term perspective the project produced financial income for decades. holzmann, olson, vendetti and shenhar project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20182 page number not for citation purposes lessons learned successful mega project requires a clear strategy and a visionary leadership that create a strong spirit among team members. effective communication must be applied in order to gain synergetic teamwork and to meet all stakeholders’ expectations. in addition, organization and processes should be aligned with the project uncertainty, complexity, and pace. project managers must identify the project’s specific attributes and select the right management style; and then be ready to invest in building the right strategy, the right spirit, the right organization, the right processes, and the right tools. keywords project management, mega project, construction management, new york city, world trade center abstract september 11, 2001 would never kill the spirit of the world’s builders and entrepreneurs. the vision, determination, and leadership of those who built and managed the world trade center in new york live on. this paper takes a retrospective look at the project management of the world trade center in new york city during the 1960s and 1970s. it collects the experience and the lessons learned by those who had the vision the leadership, and the organizational skills to initiate and execute what was one of the biggest construction projects in the world at that time. while many of today’s project management concepts did not exist at that time, a retrospective analysis suggests that the wtc builders had implicitly the right understanding of those ideas. this paper is presented as a tribute to great project management and an inspiration to future builders. tribute “we are about to embark on the largest construction project since the pyramids.” guy tozzoli, world trade department director -port authority and project manager of world trade center project mankind has displayed throughout history a capacity to push the boundaries of achievement. eiffel built his magnificent tower, and roebling the brooklyn bridge. and yet it is not the structure that matters most, but what men and women find within themselves during the process of creating. the world trade center was one such structure. born from the vision of revitalizing lower manhattan and promoting world trade, world trade department director guy tozzoli viewed the world trade center as the first of many trade centers that would dot the globe. today, more than forty years after the completion of new york’s center, there are hundreds around the world that comprise the world trade centers organization. on the morning of september 11, guy tozzoli watched standing alongside his car in new jersey at the entrance to the holland tunnel as the towers burned and fell, as he told us in an interview, he cried. he later reflected “our beautiful buildings fell victim to the insanity of international terrorism that day, but they will always be a part of us—builders all.” this article is dedicated to the victims and heroes of the 9/11 attacks, the people who worked on the construction project itself, and to the port authority of new york and new jersey who demonstrated the best in project management. the first world trade center project: a historical tribute to a great mega project project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20183 page number not for citation purposes introduction this paper examines the project management and leadership during the conceptualization, design and construction phases of the world trade center during the 1960s and early 1970s. the primary purpose for building the world trade center (wtc) was to revitalize lower manhattan. it was one of the first visible signs that the economy of new york city was transforming from manufacturing to service. the port authority of new york and new jersey (pa) was the only organization that had both the political autonomy and financial resources to undertake such a massive project. this project demonstrated the importance of a great vision combined with strong leadership provided by port authority executive director austin tobin and world trade department director guy tozzoli. they believed in the towers’ mission and shared this conviction throughout the project team and all those associated with the building of the trade center. the project was completed on time, but with a final budget that greatly exceeded the initial estimate of $350m. the total cost of construction was $1.5 billion due to many additions and changes in scope. in retrospect, these changes made the world trade center and the surrounding area the successful complex that it became (holzmann and shenhar, in press). rather than analyzing the project as a typical case study, where you give the story and the lessons learned, we chose to analyze the project by using a few of the recent concepts and theories in project management. retrospectively, we have applied to the world trade center project the concepts of contingency in project management; a multidimensional success dimensions framework, and the critical success factors approach. we have also examined the project’s leadership using a strategic project management perspective. although when the world trade center was built, most of these concepts did not exist, we found that its managers and builders were profoundly aware of the risk and complexity of this endeavor, and have implicitly applied many of the ideas, which are emerging today as explicit guidelines to modern project managers. project history, scope change, and characteristics guy tozzoli was a young navy veteran who specialized in radar engineering. he had previous experience in smaller port projects in new jersey and new york. tozzoli had no experience in construction, and was an unlikely candidate to run the wtc project. but to his credit, austin tobin, the executive director of the port authority saw qualities in guy tozzoli that led him to the decision to put tozzoli in charge in spite of the odds (darton, 1999). three original architects had worked on the project for two years and had extremely varying ideas for the trade center. guy tozzoli replaced them with a single principal architectural firm to promote project unity, which he believed was crucial to project success. to find the best architectural firm, he assembled evaluation teams, which involved experts in electrical, mechanical, architectural and structural disciplines. one of the selection criteria was that the architect had to be young enough to complete a twenty-five-year project. the project scope changed in a striking way when the port authority announced that it would create the tallest building in the world. early in 1964, guy tozzoli ordered the chosen architect yamasaki to aim higher than the empire state building. the strategic significance of this decision was that the additional twenty stories would favorably tip the economics of this real estate venture. however, an equally important aspect was focusing the project around a single, most powerful idea (gillespie, 1999). holzmann, olson, vendetti and shenhar project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20184 page number not for citation purposes during the design phase, other major property owners in new york started a public campaign to reduce the height of the towers so they would not eclipse the empire state building. this campaign was focused on the risk that the wtc towers would block television signals. instead of initiating a responsive campaign to dispute these concerns, tozzoli made plans to spend an additional $60m to put the city’s tv antennas on top of tower #1. in retrospect, later fees for locating communications antennas and cell phone transmitters resulted in substantial revenues to the port authority, which repaid the investment many times over. six weeks into construction, a strike threatened to halt progress. a tugboat strike interrupted the seven-ton steel panel deliveries from crossing the river from new jersey to new york. after a failed attempt to fly steel across the river using a sky crane helicopter, a trucking company was hired to deliver ten panels per night into the city using routes through most of the boroughs of new york city. this maintained the construction schedule until the tugboat strike was settled by the city. as the towers were being constructed, tozzoli noticed that the view was restricted through the 18-inch-wide windows. he realized that it would be a huge mistake to put such windows at the restaurant on the top floor of the building. in spite of the yamasaki’s resistance, tozzoli ordered the architect to redesign the top two floors and make the windows fifty percent wider than planned. a modern approach to project analysis for the analysis of this immense project, we turned to some recent concepts and ideas that emerge today in project management. we have looked at the project through the lenses of four concepts: the contingency theory of adapting the right style to the right project, the concept of project success as a multidimensional concept, the critical success factors theory, and the strategic project leadership® framework, which focuses projects on business results. here is a brief description of each of these concepts: the adaptive approach suggests that “one size does not fit all projects” and that project management style, organization, processes, and tools must be adapted to the specific project type. before taking on a project, management must classify the project type and select the right approach to the right project. a universal framework for project classification is the diamond model, which distinguishes among projects based on their levels of novelty, technology, complexity, and pace (shenhar, 2001; shenhar and dvir, 2007; orhof et al., 2013). the first dimension, novelty, refers to the market innovation and uncertainty – “how new is the product to the market, users and customers. novelty level impacts market-related activities and the time and effort needed to define and freeze requirements” (shenhar and dvir, 2007). it includes four levels: derivative improvements in an existing product; platform a new generation on an existing product line; new-to-the-market adapting a product from one market to another; and new-to-the-world a product that no one has ever seen before. the second dimension, technology, deals with the technological uncertainty – the extent of new technology used. this dimension is measuring the content of new technology used by the project during execution or development. it includes four types: “low-tech projects no new technology is used; medium-tech some new technology is used; high-tech all or mostly new, but existing, technologies; and super high-tech critical technologies do not exist” (shenhar and dvir, 2007) the third dimension for project distinction is project complexity. this dimension is “represented by the complexity of the product or the organization. complexity impacts the the first world trade center project: a historical tribute to a great mega project project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20185 page number not for citation purposes degree of formality and coordination needed to effectively manage the project. it is based on four levels: component the product is a discrete component within a larger product, or a material; assembly subsystem performing a single function; system collection of subsystems, multiple functions; and array widely dispersed collection of systems with a common mission” (shenhar and dvir, 2007). the fourth dimension, pace, is based on assessing the available timeframe for the project and the urgency of its completion. this dimension includes four levels: “regular delays are not critical; fast-competitive time to market is important for the business; time-critical completion time is crucial for success by exploiting a window of opportunity; and blitz crisis project that calls for immediate solution” (shenhar and dvir, 2007). the following chart presents the diamond model. figure 1 the diamond model the multidimensional project success framework suggests that meeting time and budget goals is not enough. even meeting specifications and requirements will not qualify a project as successful. project success should be judged through multiple dimensions, of which time and budget are only part. previous research has suggested the following four dimensions: project efficiency, impact on the customer, business and direct success, and preparing for the future. each dimension will appear dissimilar for different project types and different stakeholders (shenhar, et. al., 2001). the critical success factors theory suggests that projects succeed or fail because of similar reasons. to succeed, management must pay attention to these factors and continuously review how it takes care of them. pinto and slevin (1987) identified ten common factors for project success: “project mission, top management support, project planning, client consultation, personnel management, technical tasks, client acceptance, monitoring, communication, and trouble shooting.” finally, the strategic project leadership® framework suggests that projects are initiated for business results and should be managed as strategic, not operational activities. project managers are not just managers, but also leaders, who must take-on total responsibility for project results, deal with the strategic and business aspects of their projects, and provide holzmann, olson, vendetti and shenhar project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20186 page number not for citation purposes vision and inspiration to project teams. when planning a project, project leaders must build a hierarchy of five elements in the project plan: strategy, spirit, organization, processes, and tools. the lower elements represent the traditional paradigm that is well discussed in the literature of project management; while the higher levels represent the new strategic approach, which, as claimed, is perhaps the next step in the development of project management as a discipline (shenhar, 2004). contingency theory – novelty, technology, complexity, and pace novelty on the novelty dimension, from the customers’ perspective, the world trade center is classified as platform. however, for the subcontractors (who may be seen as “users”), the first of a kind building constituted an unknown experience. that would place the novelty at the new-to-the-market level, which suggests that the new building would require adjustments in the process of work and new integration methods. with regard to business and economic, the world trade center uncertainty was of major concern. international trade was only 3.8% of the economy, and the question of whether there is a need for such a project frequently arose. in addition, the project also involved many political and logistical issues with which to contend. the selection of the site and its implications for displacing existing businesses and residents involved a great deal of political maneuvering and court proceedings. technology the world trade center can be classified as a medium-tech project. while standard construction projects are typically considered low-tech (where no new technology is used), this project involved, indeed, some new technologies. in contrast, high-tech project, such as a new aircraft, would involve many new technologies. the first major advance in technology was the reverse bathtub system. while existing technology developed by the impresa costruzioni opere specializzate of milan italy was identified as the solution, it was never before tried on such a large scale. second, the elevator system where both doors opened to allow for passengers first in to be first out had been done before with small elevators holding only twelve people. in order to transport the 50,000 tenants working in the towers, more than 100 high-speed, high capacity elevators of this type were needed. third, the exterior structural column design was revolutionary; taking advantage of newly developed high strength steel. the towers would be rigid “hollow tubes” of closely spaced steel columns with floor trusses extending across to a central core. one benefit of this design was to maximize rentable floor space. an additional concern was the ten to fifteen foot sway the tall towers would experience and to what degree the occupants would tolerate this. complexity the project scope involved a complex of seven buildings on 16 acres of prime land totaling more than 12 million square feet of high quality office space. the construction project took eight years to complete at a cost of $1.5b. more than 10,000 workers were involved in various stages of the project, with an average of 4000 on a daily basis and more than 700 contractors. the first world trade center project: a historical tribute to a great mega project project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20187 page number not for citation purposes to assess the complexity of the project, the wtc has been called “a vertical city” with its total population being more than many u.s. cities. lower manhattan’s largest shopping mall was located in its basement, along with a seven-level parking garage. while typical building construction projects would be classified as systems, the wtc’s interface with public transportation systems and other facilities in the neighborhood would place this project at the top of the complexity classification into the array category. pace the pace dimension relates to the time given to completion of a project in relation to its complexity. in this case the timetables of the wtc project had to be satisfied daily to avoid the potential $1 million per day cost associated with a total work stoppage. once construction started, progress remained on pace with only a few small glitches. in retrospect, the project can be characterized as fast-competitive. the diamond structure of the world trade center project is presented below. figure 2 the diamond of the world trade center was the project management style right for this type of project? in retrospect, one may ask, did the project managers use the right approach for this project? while no theoretical classification existed at the time, we classified the project, retrospectively, as new-to-the-market, medium-tech, array, and fast-competitive. our assessment is that the management style used in this project was appropriate for this type of project. as common in most construction projects, management froze the design prior to the start of construction. however, management was ready to support changes perceived as critical to the wtc’s long-term success. that was the case when modifying the windows design for the windows on the world restaurant, the addition of the tv antenna, or the addition of a $1 million transformer room under the future location of building 7. later on, the leasing transformer room paid the port authority $12 million per year. holzmann, olson, vendetti and shenhar project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20188 page number not for citation purposes to cope with uncertainty of new untested systems, tozzoli instituted numerous tests and quality controls to make sure the new technologies are consistent with the building’s mission and safety requirements. specific focus was given to the reverse bathtub systems, the new elevator design, and the “hollow tubes” of the steel columns. regarding system scope, the wtc project management style was well adapted. the wtc was a large array that needed central coordination for success. this was provided by the port authority, which acted as the prime contractor. work was divided amongst the 266 sub-contractors, by the office of engineering/architecture administered by project deputy for design and construction, malcolm levy. they were responsible for coordination, control, decision-making and information gathering. the group of 20 engineers and architects had clear and direct channels of communication with each other, enabling the complex integration of all sub-units. meetings with the board of commissioners of the pa (port authority) were conduced monthly, while lower level review meetings had occurred weekly and even daily. in addition, the pa had to deal with system integration problems. this was done by hiring the tishman construction company, together with an advisory board of architects and real estate personnel. the combination of an integration company and an advisory board provided the pa with advanced notice of what to expect when integrating numerous subsystems and what needed to be done in advance to avoid problems. finally, to deal with the project’s fast-competitive pace, the project schedule was considered critical. any delay was encountered with excessive effort to not lose even a day as was the drastic action taken during the tugboat strike. assessing project success as a multidimensional concept project efficiency. the project was completed on time; however, the budget had grown from the original estimate of $350m to $1.5b. this was due to many scope changes and unforeseen costs such as ny regional strikes. customer expectations. the world trade center was a remarkable success. it transformed lower manhattan from a collection of small tv repair shops to the financial capital of the world and provided instant recognition and credibility for the many businesses occupying its offices. trade center was also successful in stimulating world commerce. it did so by becoming a home for many international financial institutions, insurance companies and small businesses that became the lifeblood of lower manhattan. business success. the world trade center did become economically self-sustained. after paying bondholders for 20-year period, the pa was netting $133m annually. the trade center became so economically attractive that in 2001 the complex was leased for 99 additional years. preparing for the future. although the project was completed on time, the cost escalation somewhat damaged the pa’s reputation, and it avoided other grand construction projects that had been anticipated as a reward for success with the world trade center. critical success factors clear and early project definition: the wtc project was well defined clearly from the start. there were few deviations from these plans, and they were characterized as project extensions rather than design changes. project extensions did not change the major scope or affected the project timeline, and were driven by business decisions, not design limitations, or ad hoc requests. the first world trade center project: a historical tribute to a great mega project project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20189 page number not for citation purposes top management support: management was clearly committed to this enormous effort and provided the best resources and political will to see this project through. adequate resources and integrative planning: the biggest threats to the wtc construction were delays.  delivery was a critical part of the supply chain.  as previously described, tozzoli and his team managed to keep the flow of materials amidst worker strikes and numerous vendor pressures. voice of the customer:  the pa carefully paid attention to the voice of the customer, specifically the governors of new york and new jersey and incorporated a flexible project scope to satisfy the requirements of the critical stakeholders. communication and feedback: tozzoli used daily, weekly and monthly meetings to keep all parties informed. with his continuous presence on the site and by insisting that major problems come to his attention within four hours, he made sure nothing was neglected. trouble shooting: having a professional review committee was the main project trouble shooting mechanism. problems were exposed early and expert opinion was used to correct them in real time. strategic project leadership® (spl) the strategic project leadership® framework is built on a hierarchy of five components – “strategy, spirit, organization, processes, and tools. project strategy is the link between the business strategy and the traditional project plan. project spirit translates project strategy into an inspiring vision, and an environment of passion and commitment that characterizes great projects. only after selecting the right strategy and creating the right spirit, can project leaders plan and build the more traditional components of organization, processes, and tools” (shenhar, 2004). it is surprising to see how, in retrospect, the wtc project management approach fits well into the strategic framework. the following discussion describes the different components of spl and how each contributed to success. project strategy and competitive advantage: the unique selling point of the wtc was to create a complex of buildings that would encourage a synergistic effect for promoting world trade and to become a first rate office building with all the conveniences of a city. an additional factor was the prestige of having your address in the world’s tallest building. finally, the wtc had to offer lower rental rates than those of mid-town. tozzoli was a visionary leader who concentrated on strategic goals to ensure that the project would be successful in terms of engineering as well as commercial measures. in retrospect, all the expected advantages were clearly achieved, proving that the strategic foresight that proved effective and profitable for many years to come. project spirit, vision and leadership: tozzoli had formulated two visions to his team and to the thousands of contractor workers. the first was that the wtc would be “the greatest construction project in the world”. the second was that “trade centers help not only to facilitate international trade and build economic well-being, but they foster a higher level of harmony and peace among the nations of the world.” to instill this vision, tozzoli got the best people and he worked hard to create a holzmann, olson, vendetti and shenhar project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201810 page number not for citation purposes strong spirit among team members. team members were extremely proud work on the project; had high morale, and felt they were part of a unique group. the vision was clearly characterized by the leadership style. tozzoli defined clear rules, which provided clear project definition and focus on the strategic goals. he employed a “walk around and talk” management style. this helped him stay informed beyond the formal updates he received from his deputies. his daily visits to the war room, his deputies, the rental manager and the financial group kept him constantly up to date on progress. tozzoli hired malcolm levy as his deputy of design and construction for his eye for detail and the ability to pull a diverse construction project together. he also made him in charge of future operations. so that any attempt of savings during construction, would be assessed in its future perspective. to complement levy’s hard nose style, tozzoli hired ray monti, to be the construction manager, reporting to levy. he had a management style that built camaraderie and a sense of belonging at the job site. this brought the myriad contractors and subcontractors together to work effectively as a team. the result was a well-rounded management team, where each member compensated for the weaknesses of the others. organization: the world trade center project utilized a structure that was pure project management with slight matrix ties to the port authority functional departments. port authority employees were classified as either line or staff personnel. line personnel were assigned to specific projects while staff personnel were assigned to supporting departments such as finance, personnel, law and public relations. the pa board of commissioners was divided into two important committees: the construction committee and the operations committee. the construction committee concentrated on issues of creating the wtc while the operations committee focused on filling the trade center with tenants and the future operation of the complex. tobin realized that the wtd had no experience in building skyscrapers and decided to create a professional advisory committee to escort the project. the committee consisted of seven real estate and banking members from new york and chicago. they met monthly to review the project’s status. tozzoli described the advisory committee as very helpful in evaluating critical decisions throughout the project. processes: the major phases of the project can be divided into pre and post-groundbreaking. prior to groundbreaking most of the tasks were either political or organizational. for example, during this phase an implementation plan was forwarded to the states of new york and new jersey prior to entering into negotiations with those states. after ground breaking, the existing buildings on the site were cleared and the bathtub foundation was built while maintaining path service. during and after construction of the wtc complex, tenants were signed while the trade center’s operations were established. tozzoli utilized three sources for top down project estimating. he used an external professional estimating group, tishman construction company consultants, and an internal estimating department. the three estimates were compared prior to contract negotiation to create the right price and delivery for components and services. the first world trade center project: a historical tribute to a great mega project project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201811 page number not for citation purposes during the first six months of the project, architect masaru yamasaki created over fifty designs for the site. tozzoli flew monthly to detroit to review the designs during that period and later expanded the reviews to include levy and his staff on a weekly basis. three primary areas were continuously reviewed: construction progress, financials, and tower occupancy. daily construction progress was reviewed each morning by the construction team, with four line supervisors communicating the specific activities to the construction teams of both towers. a higher-level review was conducted during weekly meetings with yamasaki to discuss progress and minor design changes. in addition, the project’s finance department calculated financial status monthly. financials had to adhere closely to the spending plan and budget and the reports were included in the meeting minutes forwarded to the governors of new york and new jersey for monthly sign off. finally, daily meetings were conducted each morning in the war room. these meetings included levy, monti, four line supervisors, construction consultant tishman and construction representatives. the project had also formal weekly meetings to communicate with the construction, finance and renting departments. in addition, monthly verbal communication occurred at the board of commissioners meetings through austin tobin. and if anything major occurred, tozzoli insisted that he be notified within four hours. tools: the world trade department was one of the first users of the critical path method on a large scale. the wall charts were frequently updated to reduce the risk of delay. the formal management office was called the “war room”. it held the computer that organized the cpm (critical path method) printouts that were regularly updated and posted on the walls of the room. in addition to the monthly report created by the world trade department for the board of commissioners and project meeting minutes, there were dozens of regularly issued internal documents. the paper trail ensured all departments knew what the others were doing. the level of paperwork was immense, but well organized. a retrospective evaluation of the wtc project in retrospect, throughout the entire project, management demonstrated the right approach. it demonstrated that project leadership is the key. project leaders managed the project with a strategic, long-term perspective in mind. they did not just focus on finishing the project on time and budget, but were constantly concerned with the economic, environmental, social, and political success of the wtc. the strategy was clear and the projected competitive advantage was articulated and stressed to all parties. management also had the right vision. being described as the biggest construction project in the world and articulating the wtc as a symbol of world trade and peace, created high energy and motivated the team. the project was well organized for its level of complexity and stakeholder involvement. the different departments, contractors, boards, consultants, and committees, all played critical roles in communicating and creating commitment to this enormous effort. in addition, a significant amount of formal procedures and communication reports kept all contributors coordinated throughout. project leadership identified, anticipated and managed the project interface with the outer world in order to satisfy many influential stakeholders, including the city of new holzmann, olson, vendetti and shenhar project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201812 page number not for citation purposes york, the governors of new york and new jersey, and bondholders. before the project began, it was managed as a well-run political campaign. afterwards, it resembled a well-coordinated military operation. modern projects of today have a lot to learn from the world trade center experience. if you have the right leadership and the right team with the right management support, you have the basis for success. you must then identify your project’s specific attributes and select the right management style; and then be ready to invest in building the right strategy, the right spirit, the right organization, the right processes, and the right tools. the wtc project managers did not have all of the modern frameworks at hand, but using common sense led them to the right approach. may the wtc project inspire future generations of project managers and serve as a tribute to one of the best project management teams of all times. and may the tragic collapse of the towers on september 11, 2001 and the subsequent rebuilding effort symbolize that great project management will keep on living. in closing tozzoli’s rules of leadership during the interview with guy tozzoli, he outlined six rules that were central to his management style. these rules focus on visionary leadership, proper management style, teamwork, and respect. we close with these rules in tozzoli’s words. they can serve as a guide for the new generation of project managers: rule 1: “if you’ve been doing something the same ways for two years, then you’re doing it wrong. there has to be a better way.” rule 2: “don’t be afraid to act if you know you are right.” rule 3: “everything is the management of money.” rule 4: “you must absolutely, absolutely be somebody that they can trust; they being the tough guys on the other side that you have to deal with in any kind of a deal. they have to be able to trust the leader. integrity is the most important thing.” rule 5: “most great ideas are very simple. except they look ahead.” rule 6: “everybody has two arms, legs and a head. try to be as truthful as you can be with people.” references chan, a. p., scott, d., and chan, a. p. 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(1987): “critical factors in successful project implementation.” ieee transactions on engineering management. february, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 22-27. https://doi.org/10.1109/ tem.1987.6498856 the first world trade center project: a historical tribute to a great mega project project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201813 page number not for citation purposes https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9364(2004)130:1(153) https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9364(2004)130:1(153) https://doi.org/10.1109/tem.1987.6498856 https://doi.org/10.1109/tem.1987.6498856 shenhar, a.j. (2004). “strategic project leadership: toward a strategic approach to project management,” r&d management, vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 569-578. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14679310.2004.00363.x shenhar, a. j., d. dvir, o. levy, and a. maltz (2001). “project success – a multidimensional, strategic concept.” long range planning, 34, pp. 699-725. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0024-6301(01)00097-8 shenhar, a. j., and dvir, d. (2007). reinventing project management: the diamond approach to successful growth and innovation. harvard business press. ma holzmann, olson, vendetti and shenhar project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201814 page number not for citation purposes https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9310.2004.00363.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9310.2004.00363.x https://doi.org/10.1016/s0024-6301(01)00097-8 project management research and practice vol. 5, 2018 © 2018 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: cullen, c. 2018. loose, fragmented project arrangements – some implications for practitioners, project management research and practice, article id 5466. https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp. v5i0.5466 issn 2207-1415 | published by uts epress | http://epress. lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index. php/pmpr/index practitioner case (peer-reviewed) loose, fragmented project arrangements – some implications for practitioners christopher cullen centre for project management, kemmy business school, university of limerick, castletroy, ireland. christopher.cullen@ul.ie doi: https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5466 article history: received 23/03/2018; revised 29/07/2018; accepted 29/10/2018; published 30/01/2019 introduction the information age poses challenges for the contemporary project structure. conventional projects are designed according to a logic model that recognizes a specialization of task and function (e.g., design, develop, implement) with the necessary levels of authority and supervision being vested in the project manager position to realize the project goal. however, more and more such a logic model does not fully reflect the project reality as messy, ambiguous and fragmented (cicmil 2006). how does this suggested messiness affect the project structure and, as practitioners, are there implications concerning how we manage projects? these are themes that are explored in this paper. the paper is based on a pilot case study that was completed in 2012 as part of a dba programme carried out in dcu business school, dublin city university, ireland. project management (pm) research has highlighted the widespread use of project-based forms of organizing, suggesting the rapidly changing environments that organizations must contend with is a source of much of this popularity (soderlund 2008). mainstream literature influences our perception of what a project should be. traditionallypm researchers have adopted a common interpretation of the project describing it as temporary organization structure existing within a larger host organization structure (lundin and soderholm 1995; shenhar 2001; turner and muller 2003). the international project management association, in its latest version of the individual competency baseline (2015), describe it as a temporary structure that takes place within the established systems, structures and processes of a supporting or host organization (ipma icbv4 2015: 45). while such definitions are useful in setting an expectation of what a project should be, they do not always accurately reflect the reality of many projects that take place. declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 page number not for citation purposes https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ mailto:christopher.cullen@ul.ie https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5466 this paper aims to contribute to our understanding of the project by considering an alternative type of project taken from the world of practice but which appears to be overlooked within much of the existing pm research and previously referred to as looselycoupled transient (cullen and leavy 2017). the paper draws from two project experiences and discusses key implications for pm practitioners concerning the management of these projects. the projects are presented using management-related categories in a compare and contrast manner. drawing on theoretical insight,the key implications for pm practitioners and researchers are discussed. previous pm research observes that pm literature could be further developed by exploring the potential usefulness of theories that lie outside of the pm domain (soderlund 2004). reflecting on this observation, the potential usefulness of pfeffer and salincik’s (1978) resource dependency theory (rdt) is discussed. rdt is a theory of macro-organizational behavior and does not acknowledge the project organization as such. however, certain themes from this theory would appear to resonate with the type of project presented in this paper and would, therefore, merit a closer examination. these themes include interpreting the project organization as a collaborative framework as well as the limitations of the traditional command and control model of management. while both projects presented in this paper focus on a particular sector (information technology), the project experiences demonstrate that using a selective and informed approach to utilising concepts from theories not normally associated with pm(such as rdt) can provide potentially useful insights in a knowledge domain often described as conceptually and theoretically limited (shenhar and dvir 2007). consequently, this study will have relevance for any pm practitioner that implements projects through a process of collaboration with disparate, autonomous entities. research overview for clarity, presentation of the findings uses pm-related categories drawn from general management practice and devised by the researcher as follows: project overview; management of the project; goal setting; and project relationships on the project. the study is case-based in its approach and features typical projects in which the researcher was actively involved at the time. these are referred to as project a an east european project, and project b an african project. project a was an information technology (it) implementation project. the project sought to achieve the development of a portal (described as a functionally rich website) as well as many web-based services to be integrated into the portal. the project took place in the year 2011, and the role of the author in this project was project manager.project b was an information technology (it) planning and specification project. the project sought to achieve the planning, design, and specification of a data warehouse solution (i.e., the creation of a centralized data repository for management reporting purposes). the project took place in the year 2010, and the role of the author in this project was as a project team member. the research design was longitudinal. in the case of project a, research observation took place over the course of eight elapsed months. in the case of project b, research observation took place over the course of six elapsed months. management-related research has previously been criticised as being too prescriptive in its approach, whereas what can often be more effective is exploratory, inductive approaches to research that are simple and descriptive (mintzberg 1979). the research on which this paper is based was exploratory in nature and inductive in its approach. cullen project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20182 page number not for citation purposes table1 project characteristics project a project b purpose develop a website and webbased interactive services. provide a specification for a data warehouse. management & organisation team size of five individuals. sub-contracted project manager. project manager had no experience of working for the main contractor. project manager had no experience of working with team members. all but one position on the team was sub-contracted out. team size of four individuals. sub-contracted project manager. project manager had no experience of working for the main contractor. project manager had no experience of working with team members. all positions on the team were sub-contracted out. expected outcome a technical solution. knowledge transfer from project team to client staff. a solution specification. a solution implementation strategy. contextual specifics took place onsite, at client premises. project team had no previous experience of client. three team members were foreign to the environment. some team members had previous experience of working together. took place onsite, at client premises. project team had no previous experience of environment or client. all project members were foreign to the environment. team members had no previous experience of working together. 2.1 project overview project a the purpose of the project was to provide a website portal and many to-be-defined web services to be integrated into the portal. these were to include government-to-government web services, government to business web services and government to citizen web services. the project was awarded to a main contracting firm. the contracting firm had previously implemented similar it related projects. it employed over one hundred full-time employees and also employed freelance consultants to fulfill specialist roles that arise on some of its projects from time to time. as part of the delivery of this particular project, the firm subcontracted out all but one of the roles on the project. within this line of business, it is considered a standard operating practice for the firm to make use of freelance resources to fulfill specialist roles on projects. the client was a government agency. the client was primarily responsible for data administration and database management and record management at a loose, fragmented project arrangements – some implications for practitioners project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20183 page number not for citation purposes national level. as part of carrying out its regular activities, it was necessary for the client to design, develop and implement software solutions, either through internal resources or the involvement of third-party firms. project b the purpose of the project was to deliver the planning, design, and specification of a data warehouse solution for the country’s central bank. as an expected project outcome, it was anticipated that the client itself would then be in a position to start a build-out of the data warehouse solution. the project was awarded to a main contracting consultancy firm. the firm had previously implemented many it related projects within the region. its businessoperating model placed significant emphasis on the use of freelance consultants to fulfill specialist roles on all of its projects. the firm sub-contracted out all of the roles on this project to freelance experts. the project’s client was a central banking authority. its primary objective was formulating and implementing monetary policy aimed at maintaining price stability and enabling sustainable growth in the national economy. 2.2 management of the project project a one of the four project resources assigned to the project was the designated project manager responsible for resource management and project delivery. the project manager also acted as the main point of contact for the project’s stakeholders. the project manager had extensive previous experience of managing freelance resources in the delivery of project results. he had no prior experience of working with the client, the contracting firm or any members of the project team. also,the project manager had no input into the selection of individuals for roles on the project. the microsoft project© planning tool was used to develop a project implementation schedule, and standard office tools were used for reporting purposes. a draft project statement and project plan were prepared that took into consideration the project’s aims and objective. once approved by the client,the project statement and plan set out the direction for the project and detailed what and how specific project outcomes would be achieved. co-ordination of work among project team members was achieved through a combination of the project plan, a monthly status report prepared by the project manager as well as on-site project meetings. in the monthly status report, the project manager outlined the project tasks that had been completed by the team as well as the tasks expected to be completed by the project team the following month. combined with the team meetings that took place, this was the main arena in which priorities and project delivery goals were established for the project. project b one of the six project resources assigned to the project was the designated project manager responsible for resource management and project delivery. the project manager had no prior experience of working with the client, the contracting firm or any members of the project team. the project manager had no input into the selection of the individual experts who worked on the project. a microsoft©spreadsheet tool was used to develop a project plan, and schedule and standard microsoft©tools were used for reporting purposes. a draft project statement and project plan were prepared. co-ordination of work among project team members relied on a process of revising and updating the project plan. during mid to later cullen project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20184 page number not for citation purposes project stages, regular project meetings became the main arena in which priorities and project delivery goals were established for the project. 2.3 goal setting project a during the initial project planning meeting, it became evident that the terms of reference for the project were dated and would need to be revised. revised requirements were documented and incorporated into the project statement. a detailed plan was prepared by the project manager andreviewed by the client. despite the level of detail contained in the project plan, it was not used as a progress tracking baseline for the project. instead, coordination of tasks among project team members was done through a combination of a monthly status report as well as on-site project meetings with the project team members. team members would have prior knowledge of the expected dates and project outcome for an up-coming on-site mission. the monthly status report outlined project tasks that were previously completed by the team and the tasks expected to be completed next. the team meeting would normally take no more than twenty minutes and would focus on how specific outcomes were to be achieved. project team members were assigned activities according to the sub-systems that they were designated to work on and could to some extent work independently of one another. where this was not possible, team members were distributed to phases of a sub-system on a modular basis. this enabled the project’s tight schedule to be maintained. specifications of functionality to be delivered were kept to a minimum. this was possible as the experience and knowledge of team members led them to perceive that the portal and web services that were to be produced were intuitive. intuitive in this instance meant that team members had no difficulty in formulating the expected operation and functions of the website and web services. these functions were then elaborated on in some detail in documentation prepared for the client by the project team. the client staff did not have much to add to the operation and functioning of website and web services until after their initial build, at which stage they became more involved as part of a structured review process. team members would demonstrate various aspects of the portal and web services under development. during the project’s early stages, and up to the mid-point of the project timescale, interactions between team members were minimal. during the latter stages of the project, particularly the final third period of the project life cycle, communication between members of the project team started to grow in frequency, particularly as they started to rely on the expertise of each other in progressing with specific deliverable and meeting deadlines on the project. interactions tended to last no more than a matter of minutes and related mostly to specific technical issues experienced on the project. some interactions took the form of informal peer-to-peer reviews of each team member’s work on the project. the process of realising project outcomes and goal attainment was iterative. the office space allocated to the project team served as a natural environment to discuss solution functionality and issues. all team members were located within the same office and shared one large table. this setup facilitated immediate discussion and feedback on issues related to the project. particularly during the latter stages of the project, ideas would be discussed to and fro between project team members before any development work took place. loose, fragmented project arrangements – some implications for practitioners project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20185 page number not for citation purposes project b a detailed plan was prepared at the start of the project and documented using the microsoft excel© spreadsheet tool and reviewed by the client. as the project unfolded, the project plan was not used as a mechanism to track the activity and progress for the project. instead, coordination of tasks among project team members was loosely assigned, and the delivery of project outputs depended on significant individual efforts from some project team members. during the early stages of the project, the relevance of some of the project’s deliverables to the overall project outcome was questioned with one appearing to have no real merit, while another key design deliverable was omitted. a project status report and onsite project meetings became the mechanisms by which tasks for the project were planned and tracked. to assist in the delivery of the assignment, a number of the client’s mid-ranking managers were identified to participate in the project. they became known as the project champions and were selected based on their in-depth knowledge of different aspects of the client’s operations. in all, over fifty such individuals participated as project champions. a series of workshops were organized involving the project champions with the purpose of working through key requirements of the project’s solution (i.e., a data warehouse). towards the latter stages of the project, workshops lasted for three days and were held in an offsite location to allow the project champions to focus exclusively on this critical project related work. due to difficulties encountered through-out project delivery, the process of measuring results against the project plan came to be abandoned. formal presentations became a mechanism used by the client to demonstrate project progress. the formal presentations gave the client’s senior management team an opportunity to input into the direction the project should take and factors that should be prioritized, as well as providing them an opportunity to keep a close eye on the project delivery. the process of realising project outcomes and goal attainment could neither be described as being iterative nor once-off. the process of preparing a deliverable relied on the knowledge, understanding, and analysis of the individual expert concerned and was prepared independently of other team members. when deliverables were developed, they tended to follow a pattern of gradual adjustment toward the expectations of the client, and it normally took many revisions to a deliverable before it was considered acceptable by the client. 2.4 project relationships project a no face-to-face meetings took place between the main contractor and client either before, during or after the project. the project manager for the project acted as the firm’s special representative in this regard. one of the team members failed to show up for the first onsite project mission while another returned home after a matter of daysand failed to show up for subsequent on-site missions. despite numerous attempts by the project manager and main contractor, neither team member would participate in the project. the client became alarmed at this development so early in the project and requested over-sight of the process to replace the team members. three possible replacement candidates were sourced by the main contractor. an informal discussion between the client, the project manager, and the main contractor suggested that none of the candidates were suitable. ignoring this, the main contractor made a formal proposal based on the candidates identified which the client subsequently rejected. cullen project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20186 page number not for citation purposes the client requested the team make some corrections to some existing software with which they were experiencing issues. although the request was outside of the project scope, in an attempt to build goodwill with the client it was agreed that a senior team member with the necessary skill-set would provide ongoing assistance to the client. difficulties were experienced in obtaining the necessary programme source code from the client. the project team was expected to enhance this as part of the project goals. initially, no source code was made available, and no server platform for development was made available. eventually, a limited amount of source code was provided, along with a server platform for the project. on subsequent project missions, the server dedicated to the project was repeatedly taken offline by the client. because of on-going problems that were experienced, team members had to establish a limited but functioning technical work environment on using their resources in a limited amount of time. project b no face-to-face meetings took place between the main contractor and client either before, during or after the project. the client understood that all team members proposed by the main contractor would participate in onsite project missions. however, the main contractor disputed this and maintained only a small number of them would be made available for on-site missions. this point became an on-going issue throughout the project for the client who felt that the main contractor did not comply with the terms of the proposal and assign adequate resources to the project that were needed for its successful delivery. one of the team members failed to show up for the first on-site project mission while the project manager returned home after a matter of days and failed to show up for subsequent on-site missions. the main contractor tried to resolve this situation with both members. besides, a third member of the project team failed to show up for subsequent on-site missions. the main contractor was unsuccessful in efforts to get the absent team members to commit to the project, and the situation was not helped when the main contractor refused to engage with the client in the process of replacing the team members. while the project manager was on site, a draftproject statement and plan was circulated to team members. one of the team members was particularly critical of this work and made his views known directly to the main contractor. this annoyed the project manager to the point that a request was made to remove the individual from the project team. the main contractor refused this request. one team member had difficulty meeting a deliverable deadline and cited problems in trying to get timely feedback from the client as the main source of the problem. despite been given an extended deadline this also overran, and the team member failed to engage with the main contractor despite several attempts to do so. the client was furious with the content and quality of the deliverable when it was eventually submitted and refused to sign off on it until substantial improvements were made. however, the team member did not attempt to improve it and ignored repeated requests from the main contractor and the client to do so. a lack of project progress against the plan combined with ongoing personnel issues on the project prompted the client to issue formal correspondence with a threat to cancel the project. the client believed that the main contractor was in violation of the contract as: (i) experts assigned to the project were not being deployed on the project; (ii) deliverables when produced, overran their deadlines and in some cases had significant quality issues, and; (iii) without being informed of the development, the project manager had disappeared from loose, fragmented project arrangements – some implications for practitioners project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20187 page number not for citation purposes ftproject the project. besides, a member of the client’s management team sent a note to project team members, the main contractor and senior managers at the client organization that he believed the project was going to fail. toward the end of the project,the client requested that the main contractor meets with them to present the project deliverables to the board of directors and officially close-out the project. the initial request prompted no response, so the request was repeated. the main contractor declined the request suggesting that the project had overrun its budget, that there were insufficient funds available to allow them to travel and that because of this no one representing the main contractor or the project team would be made available. the response disappointed the client who felt it was a missed opportunity to make some amends for the poor project delivery by the main contractor and reinforced a sense of dissatisfaction with the overall project delivery. discussion this paper intended to explore a particular type of project that was common in practice although overlooked in mainstream pm research. an empirical examination of two project examples offers some limited, direct insight into these types of projects and unearths some potentially interesting themes that seem to deserve closer examination. a prominent theme to emerge is the type of project highlighted in each of the cases, which could be considered to be messy and fragmented as well as quite distinct from those that tend to predominate in the conventional pm literature. much of the current pm literature (lundin and soderholm 1995; turner and muller 2003; ipma icbv4 2015) view the project as a temporary endeavor, embedded within a larger parent organization and characterized by an identifiable objective, timescale, and budget. some researchers extend this interpretation by emphasizing the project’s social perspective (cicmil and hodgson 2006), viewing the project as a pattern of social interactions that takes place for a specific purpose and the project manager as a competent social actor. while this is a welcome extension of our interpretation, there remains a shared understanding that the project exists within a parent, hosted the organizational context. the following table attempts to summarise some of the notable differences between traditional, hosted projects and the project examples presented in this study. in both project examples presented above, project delivery was out-sourced to various independent, freelance entities and therefore the project could be considered to be much less tightly coupled to one particular organization for which they were being carried out. in both project examples, there was no history of the project team members having worked together and no expectation that participants would work together again in the future. team members were assigned to the project but not dedicated to the project, and team members were free to leave the project should they so choose. in both cases, the project goal was not found to be a sufficient foundation on which to build a unified, collaborative project team. the project organization could, therefore, be said to resemble a transient structure that was loosely-coupled to some freelance entities each with their interests and agendas about the project. the pm knowledge base can sometimes provide us with what are prescriptive approaches to managing projects, and while this can be suited to certain situations,it is inappropriate for many others (morris et al. 2006). such approaches can serve to undermine the practice of pm by reducing it to a set of well-defined methods with only a marginal role for practitioner cullen project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20188 page number not for citation purposes table 2 contrasting project characteristics traditional project project examples a & b • hosted within a parent organization. • resources are allocated and usually dedicated to the project. • guided by established procedures. • project manager has influence and discretion over resources legitimized through membership of the host organization. • influenced by routines and norms. • history of participants working/ interacting together, likelihood of same in the future. • resembles a loose, collaborative arrangement. • loose participation in the project, resources may not be dedicated. • no established collective routines or norms to draw from. • no track record of association or expectation of future work. • interdependence without clear overarching legitimized authority. insight and judgment. as a result, “essential knowledge, skills, and behaviors that overlap with pm are often considered as belonging to other areas of practice such as general management or human resource management” (crawford et al. 2006: 724). this contrasts with the actual practice of pm and,as outlined in projects a and b above, the need to respond to complexity and uncertainty, as well as accommodate diverse perspectives and motivations. the project situation presented above called for a broader review of the literature beyond the pm knowledge base,as it was felt that the situation encountered could not be adequately explained or addressed using the pmbok (project management institute, 2013), individual competency baseline(ipma icbv4 2015) or similar pm-centric material. this search of the literature led the researcher to pfeffer and salancik’s (1978) resource dependency theory (rdt). rdt was developed primarily to help study macro organizational behavior and inter-organizational relationships. it considers how environments can affect and constrain organizations and how organizations respond to uncertainties within their environment. while rdt does not give explicit consideration to the project setting, some of its ideas may be relevant to certain types of projects, such as the project examples in this paper. the following points can be attributed to pfeffer and salancik’s (1978) resource dependency theory: “rdt observes that the predominant view of organizations is one of a rational instrument for achieving a goal or set of goals and counters this perspective with its view of the organization existing as a coalition of groups and individuals, with varying interests and preferences, that come together to engage in exchanges”(pfeffer and salancik, 1978:23). “establishing a coalition large enough to ensure its survival is a critical activity for the organization. in order for this to take place, it is necessary for organizations to provide inducements for participants to participate in their coalition. in return for these inducements, the participants provide contributions to the organization” (pfeffer and salancik, 1978:24). “rdt suggests that the organization resembles a framework of exchange whereby inducements are provided and, in return, individuals agree to participate and provide loose, fragmented project arrangements – some implications for practitioners project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20189 page number not for citation purposes contributions to the organization. within this framework, exchanges of inducements and contributions are assessed and negotiated between parties. parties can then enter or leave the framework depending on their own assessment of the relative value to be gained by joining or leaving the framework”(pfeffer and salancik, 1978:25). seen through the lens of rdt the project examples provided in this paper could be said to resemble such a framework of exchange.within both examples, each project team member had their interest in particular aspects of the project. this loose project structure relied on the collaboration of all participants to be successful rather than the formal controls and procedures of an over-seeing or host organization. from the above project, examples there were instances of individuals leaving the project when it suited them. not only that but it appeared that the project manager in both examples had neither the supervisory power nor sanctions that could prevent members from leaving the project. this is suggestive that the collaboration that underpins the project structure in the examples presented above could only be secured on a voluntary basis from team members. unlike the conventional hosted project, this could not be either expected or commanded from team members by the project manager. interpreting the project as a collaborative framework of exchange has implications for how pm practitioners exercise governance on projects. traditional pm practitioner competencies are viewed as “entry tickets” to the domain of pm, and“traditional skills of planning, organizing and controlling are hygiene factors, which by themselves they do not lead to effective pm practice” (turner and muller 2003: 6). despite this, there is a dominance of pm research that focuses on traditional pm practitioner skills of planning, organizing, coordinating and controlling and these pm skills do not fully reflect the project reality (cicmil 2006). central to cicmil’s research is a concern that mainstream literature views project managers as “skillful technicians”(cicmil 2006: 30) and that this perspective marginalizes the potential of the pm practitioner. building on these arguments this paper suggests that effective pm governance means moving away from representations of the project as a form of hierarchical structure that pm practitioners are expected to plan and control. the limitations of traditional pm skills are brought into focus in both project examples as the project manager was seldom in complete control of all of the human and technical components needed for smooth and seamless project delivery.in both project examples, formal project planning was abandoned early on in the project. in project example, a, implementation of the necessary technical platform that was central to completing the project work was beyond the control of the project manager. in both project examples, the project manager had little direct control over project team members. previous research suggests that within the project context, there is normally insufficient time to clarify team member abilities and competencies and to engage in team building activities that would compensate for contextual instability (grabher 2002). in both cases, the project manager was expected to build and sustain the necessary level of team commitment throughout the project life cycle sufficient to maintain project momentum and give effect to the desired project outcomes. unlike the traditional hosted context, the project manager must achieve this in a context where there are practical limitations to his influence and control on the project. the project arrangement in the above examples resembles a network of peers with no apparent designated supervisory authority. how can the project manager ensure effective project control in such a context? rdt offers potential insight as to how the project manager could exercise control and influence in the absence of a formal supervisory function (cullen, cullen project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201810 page number not for citation purposes 2015). rdt contends that “managers do not control individuals, but instead can influencea fraction of an individual’s behavior. individuals do not invest all of their behaviors in any one organization; instead, their behavior is partially included within several groups. an individual’s inclusion in an organization is defined by the proportion of his behavior included in that structure, and different demands can be made on the individual’s behavior by different organizations. rdt argues that it is possible for an individual to be simultaneously part of more than one organization through different behaviors that take place at different times” (pfeffer and salancik, 1978). applying this idea to the above project examples, the project manager should recognize that he does not control the individual project team member. at best he will control only a portion of the behavior of a team member, while the individual team member controls other behaviors. thus, it is possible that the demands on team member’s behavior made by the project manager may at times be inconsistent or incompatible with demands on behavior made by another organization to whom the team member also belongs. rdt refers to this phenomenon as inter-role conflict, and this can represent a challenge for the project manager when managing project team members whose behavior is included in organizations outside the project organization (cullen, 2015). conclusion this paper has presented two live project examples that were based on a pilot case study competed in 2012 as part of a dba programme carried out in dcu business school, dublin city university, ireland. both of these projects were staffed by team members hired specifically for the project, with individuals having no prior history of working together, and with little likelihood of them working together again in the future after the project was completed. in this way, the project members were representative of a temporary, loose arrangement of participants with disparate interests and aims. project members left the project when it was perceived that there was no longer any advantage to be gained by remaining with it. this loose type of project arrangement presented in this paper, although common in practice would appear to be an outlier in much of the existing pm research. this prompted the researcher to conduct a broad review of literature that could shed potential light on the complexities of the situation highlighted in projects a and b. the researcher was drawn to ideas within pfeffer and salancik’s (1978) resource dependency theory that were considered potentially very useful to this research inquiry. the rdt alternative perspective of the organization existing as a coalition of groups and individuals, with varying interests and preferences, who come together to engage in exchanges would appear to resonate with the project examples provided in this paper. this opened up the possibility to explore the potential utility of rdt inspired ideas. the following table provides a summary of its implications for pm practitioners. previous pm research suggests that introducing more theories and concepts into pm will encourage more pm-related research and help establish the discipline within wider academia (shenhar and dvir 2007). it has also been suggested that a theory of projects cannot be built solely on empirical insight but also needs to be driven by theoretical insights from related domains(soderlund 2004). this paper suggests that such theoretical perspectives exist in other fields of research and that there may be utility in importing them into the project context. this paper has introduced the possibility of usefully applying elements of rdt that are outside the domain of pm, to both pm research and practice and suggests that some potential loose, fragmented project arrangements – some implications for practitioners project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201811 page number not for citation purposes rdt-inspired ideas could be usefully extracted to assist pm practitioners. however, this is an area of research that requires further development. there is scope to examine the utility of rdt-inspired ideas that are presented in this paper as well as other potential concepts that may exist in this and related theories and explore how they could be usefully applied to both pm practice and research alike. table 3 draw out of contrasting perspectives for pm practitioners. conventional pm perspective rdt inspired pm perspective • the project is a hierarchical structure. • resources are assigned and dedicated for the project duration or until they are not needed. • pm allocates resources to the project. • pm plans and controls the project. • a level of supervisory authority is inherent in the role. • the project is a collaborative framework of exchange. • resources may join and leave the framework and are not necessarily dedicated to it. • only a certain amount of behavior is invested in the project by team members. • the project manager influences rather than controls certain team member behaviors. pm research observes that actual pm practice is a valuable source of knowledge about how to manage projects (crawford et al. 2006) therefore a further trajectory of research development could consider the pm practice implications of these project arrangements to help further develop our knowledge base. many do not see pm as the discipline of managing projects but as the discipline of using a set of predefined techniques to deliver a project on time, within budget and to a predefined scope (morris et al. 2006). implicit in this distinction is whether pm is viewed as the ability to use techniques to allocate resources and execute a plan, or overlapping with complementary pm domains such as general management or human resource management to enhance pm practice. this paper suggests that effective pm practice requires going beyond professional pm-related knowledge and techniques and drawing from complementary domains to inform pm practice by giving more explicit consideration to the impact ofexternal factors and human behavior on managing projects. in both project examples, our attention is drawn to the socio-behavioral elements of managing projects. grabher (2002) points up that increasingly projects rely on an infrastructure that is societal or social and built around networks and participant firms. soderlund (2004) suggests that the socio-behavioral aspect of project work requires more explicit pm research consideration while cicmil and hodgson (2006) suggest more explicit consideration within pm research of the lived experience of those involved in projects. in the project examples above, a key challenge for the project manager is to build and sustain levels of participant collaboration throughout the project life cycle that are sufficient to maintain project momentum and give effect to desired project outcomes. the lived experience of the project manager suggests that this must be achieved in a context where there are practical limitations to pm influence and control on the project. this brings into perspective the sociobehavioral elements of pm. previous research suggests the contemporary project manager is a social architect who works at the intersection of organization and behavior-related elements. as a social architect, the project manager is responsible for developing a climate conducive to the active cullen project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201812 page number not for citation purposes participation of project team members relying on a range of technical as well as non-technical skills to do so (thamhain 2004). this description may have an added importance in this context. this socio-behavioral pm influenced trajectory may represent a potentially fruitful research trajectory to be considered as part of further research. about the author a project management practitioner and lecturer in the cpm in university of limerick. i earned my doctorate in project management from dcu in 2015 and my research interests include the socio-behavioura l aspects of project management as well as governance and project structures. references cicmil, s. 2006, ‘understanding project 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https://doi.org/10.1016/s0263-7863(02)00020-0 ..in text citation is 2003:6? cullen project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201814 page number not for citation purposes https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.47.3.394.9772 https://doi.org/10.1177/875697280703800210 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2004.05.011 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2004.05.011 https://doi.org/10.1142/s1363919608001911 https://doi.org/10.1142/s1363919608001911 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2004.04.005 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2004.04.005 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0263-7863(02)00020-0 project management research and practice vol. 5, 2018 © 2018 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: melender, h-l. and hilli, y. 2018. implementation of evidence-based practice in a development project on nurse students’ clinical education. project management research and practice, article id 6248. https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp. v5i0.6248 issn 2207-1415 | published by uts epress | http://epress. lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index. php/pmrp/index teaching case (peer-reviewed) implementation of evidence-based practice in a development project on nurse students’ clinical education hanna-leena melender1* and yvonne hilli2 ¹ phd, principal lecturer in nursing, vamk university of applied sciences, wolffintie 27-32, 65200 vaasa, finland. hanna-leena.melender@vamk.fi 2 phd, professor in clinical nursing, faculty of health and community, nord university, universitetsallén 11, 8026 bodö, norway. yvonne.hilli@nord.no *corresponding author: hanna-leena melender. hanna-leena.melender@vamk.fi doi: https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.6248 article history: received 17/08/2018; revised 05/11/2018; accepted 05/11/2018; published 30/01/2019 synopsis the evidence-based practice (ebp) movement started at the beginning of the 1970s in the field of medicine. the famous definition by sackett et al. (1997, p. 2) defined evidence-based medicine as ‘the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients.’ the idea of ebp was later introduced to other fields of professional practice in health and social care, as well as to the education of health professionals such as nursing education. the project named knowledge in development (kid) focused on the development of clinical preceptorship in the context of nursing. clinical preceptors are registered nurses and practical nurses who have the responsibilities of caring for patients and teaching nursing students at the same time. nursing teachers working in the kid project were enthusiastic to implement the evidence-based practice approach in the project work, by using different evidence bases. purpose the purpose of this article is to present how evidence-based practices in the project work were implemented and to describe the experiences of the project group members about the implementation of ebp. declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 page number not for citation purposes https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.6248 https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.6248 mailto:hanna-leena.melender@vamk.fi mailto:yvonne.hilli@nord.no mailto:hanna-leena.melender@vamk.fi https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.6248 project setting two universities of applied sciences, two vocational institutes, and four health-care organizations in western finland. year of the project 2009-2013 target readers primarily project practitioners, project managers and teachers on the healthcare sector, and secondarily other interested parties. lessons learned based on the experiences gained in this project, the use of an evidence-based practice approach in planning and implementing a development project in healthcare clinical and educational settings is recommended. competencies highlighted information literacy related theory the structure of different evidence bases presented by rycroft-malone et al. (2004), including research, clinical experience, patients, clients and carers, and local context and environment. keywords evidence-based practice, clinical education, development project, healthcare, nurse, nursing education, practitioner case, preceptorship introduction learning in clinical education forms an important part of nursing education (warne et al. 2010). in finland, out of the registered nurse program (bachelor of nursing), clinical education forms 90 ects/210 ects (ects, european credit transfer system = 27 hours of the student’s work). of the practical nurse program, the extent of clinical education forms at least 30 ecvet/180 ecvet (ecvet, european credit system for vocational education and training = 27 hours of the student’s work). in clinical education, the students are introduced to the value base and the activities of the social and health care services. the purpose is to improve the students’ ability to reflect upon theory in different practical situations (landmark et al. 2003) and (lambert & glacken 2005). in the context of clinical education, the role of the nursing teachers (faculty staff ) has changed in many countries,and it also differs between countries (warne et al. 2010). in finland, nursing teachers are eventually responsible for the implementation of both theoretical and clinical education (heinonen 2003). however practically, their share of the teaching in clinical settings is often very small, and the main part of the clinical teaching is carried out by clinical preceptors who, in most melender and hilli project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20182 page number not for citation purposes cases, are registered nurses for registered nurse students and practical nurses for practical nurse students. a clinical preceptor works as a subject matter expert and is responsible for the preceptorship of a single student whose preceptorship has been assigned to be her/his task. the clinical preceptor works in cooperation with the nursing teacher (häggman-laitila et al. 2007). according to cinahl headings, the term preceptorship refers to “a teaching/ learning method in which each student is assigned to a particular preceptor to experience day-to-day practice with a role model and resource person immediately available within the clinical setting.” also, for example, terms clinical supervision and student supervision are used in nursing literature in the context of nursing students’ clinical education (cinahl headings 2018). in the project, we chose the term ‘preceptorship,’ because the definition of it reflected the way how we defined the role of the nurses working in social and healthcare organizations, caring clients and patients, but also teaching nursing students in clinical context. as clinical preceptorship in practice has such an important role in nursing education, it is important to ensure its quality. in finland, no general recommendations have been published regarding, for example, the work experience needed by a nurse before starting to precept students. there was a need for both clinical preceptors and nursing teachers to change outdated and inappropriate approaches and to develop new practices to better meet the student learning needs in clinical education (saarikoski et al. 2009) when this development project (2009-2013), funded by the european union, on clinical preceptorship, started. as finland is a bilingual country, with both swedish and finnish as official languages, the project was originally named using the main language of the administrating university which is swedish. the swedish name ‘kunskap i utveckling’ means ‘knowledge in development’ (kid) in english. the development project (2009-2013)was established between two universities of applied sciences, two vocational institutes, and four health-care organizations in western finland. the aim of the project was to develop the preceptorship at five different units (in four organizations) within the health-care sector in western finland by implementing an action research approach. the units offered clinical education placements for both registered nurse students and practical nurse students, and qualified nurses acted as their preceptors. a unique preceptorship model was developed by each unit, to answer their specific needs. the nursing teachers (faculty members) involved in the project gave continuous pedagogical support to the preceptors during the development of the model. the models were tested by implementing them during one academic year followed by a quantitative and qualitative evaluation of the process. the implementation of the project as an action research study at its different phases, the context, and the models are reported in an earlier paper (hilli & melender 2015a). the evaluation results of the study are presented in another paper (hilli & melender 2015b). this article complements the earlier articles (hilli & melender 2015a) and (hilli & melender 2015b) on the project by presenting in detail how an evidence-based practice (ebp) approach was implemented in the project. it is important to view the basis of the practices implemented in a development project, because in development work, research and development shall be combined, in order to produce new or better services or means or methods of production (toikko & rantanen 2009; kankkunen & vehviläinen-julkunen 2013). blomquist et al. (2010) describe a framework of project-as-practice approach for the project management research. the authors define the word ‘practices’ as ‘the various traditions, norms, and rules or bodies of knowledge that state, explicitly or implicitly, how the practitioner should act in a certain situation’ (blomquist et al. 2010, p. 9). in this project, we consciously implementation of evidence-based practice in a development project on nurse students’ clinical education project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20183 page number not for citation purposes pondered over what would our specific activities be based on and strived at an ebp approach when implementing the project. moreover, the inspiration for this project was action research, based on a partnership between the researchers and participants, which was supposed to be educative, advance knowledge and explore the application of theory (williamson 2012). as ebp has been reported to ensure the quality of practices in health care (melnyk 2017), the idea of the project group was that ensuring that the practices implemented in the project were based on evidence, would ensure the quality of the project. the purpose of this article is to present how evidencebased practices in the project work were implemented and what were the experiences of the project group members about the implementation of ebp. grounds for the evidence-based practice approach in the project a british epidemiologist archie cochrane is most often acknowledged as the starter of the ebp movement. in 1972, he published a book where he “criticized the medical profession for not using appropriate evidence to guide and direct medical practice and called for medicine to produce an evidence base” (barker 2010). the medical profession responded to this challenge and created the cochrane centre for systematic reviews, opened in 1992 (barker 2010). at first, the discourse was limited to medicine, rather than health care. more recently, the principles of evidence-based medicine have been applied to other fields of professional practice in health and social care (pearson & graig 2002). in their now famous textbook, sackett et al. (1997) defined evidence-based medicine as ‘the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients’ (sackett et al. 1997, p. 2). according to deming (2009), ebp represents both an ideology and method. already in 1998, the centre for evidence-based nursing was founded at the university of york. it aimed to promote evidence-based nursing through research, development, and education (barker 2010). quite soon, after the introduction of ebp in clinical practice in health care, experts emphasized that learning ebp during the education of health professionals was crucial. this lead to curriculum revisions, efforts for clinical education reform and professional development programs (stevens 2013). moreover, some other disciplines have taken the concept of ‘evidence-based’ into use, and for example, concepts of ‘evidence-based teaching’ (mitchell 2014) and ‘evidence-based management’ (barends et al. 2014) have been introduced. when this project started, the teachers working within this project were familiar with the processes of both evidence-based teaching and teaching ebp in nursing education, and thus, we were attracted to take the ebp approach also into the implementation of our project. we adopted ideas about evidence-based program planning presented by neale et al. (2008), whose training manual was designed to actively involve participants in the learning process and emphasizes the evidence-based practi ce approach in program planning. later, these ideas were used in a text chapter about evidence-based project planning, published by the new partners initiative (npi 2012). in this latter publication, it is stated that the project life cycle follows a basic, logical sequence of steps that help an organization move from identifying a problem to developing solutions to implementing activities for evaluating results to restructuring solutions in response to evidence. different organizations will use different planning methods to suit their needs, but evidence can be used to inform decision-making at every stage of the life cycle (npi 2012, p. 123) melender and hilli project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20184 page number not for citation purposes when planning and implementing evidence-based practices during the action phase of the project, we chose the theoretical framework presented by rycroft-malone et al. (2004) who name evidence bases according to their source: research; clinical experience; patients, clients and carers; and local context and environment. this framework is focused on patient care, but we anticipated that it could be useful also in this project and decided to examine its usefulness. rycroft-malone et al. (2014) refer to higgs and jones (2000) and suggest that ‘… ‘evidence’ in evidence-based practice should be considered to be ‘knowledge derived from a variety of sources that have been subjected to testing and has found to be credible’ (rycroft-malone et al. 2014, p. 83). implementation of evidence-based practice approach in the project evidence gained from research research evidence was used in the planning phase of the project when the action research method was chosen. there was research evidence informing the project group about successful implementation of this method in the development of clinical education also in the eastern part of finland ( jokinen et al. 2008). in the first phase of the project, a cultural analysis was carried out at the pilot units. this method has been developed by berg (2003) in his pedagogical studies placed in school environments on different levels. all members of the project group familiarized with the method by reading the publication by berg (2003) before starting to collect and analyze the data for the cultural analysis. the data was collected by asking the clinical preceptors (nurses) to write a letter about how it was to be a preceptor of nursing students in their working units. the data were analyzed by content analysis. the results were then presented for the preceptors and used in the development work (hilli & melender 2015a). we also used the national research-based guidelines for preception in planning the project (heinonen 2003). the guidelines describe the responsibilities of both the faculties and the social and healthcare services in organizing and implementing the students’ clinical education. the project group, consisting of teachers of four faculties, ensured at first that the practices of the faculties related to the students’ clinical education were in line with the national guidelines. the guidelines were then delivered to the staff in all pilot units, and the contents of them were dealt with on different occasions.this was done in order to ensure that the practices of the work-places related to the students’ clinical education followed the national guidelines. when planning the activities implemented in the project, we conducted literature searches in relevant scientific databases (hartzell & fineout-overholt 2017). these were international databases cinahl, pubmed and eric, and a finnish database medic. the contents and methods selected for further education, seminars, workshops and continuing pedagogical support for the preceptors were based on that research evidence. for example, when the preceptors expressed their learning needs around some topic, the project group organized a workshop on the topic. regarding every topic, the best expert was chosen among the group members. this expert then made literature searches in the databases, and during the workshop, presented the evidence found. the discussion around the topic was then related to how to implement the existing research evidence in the role of a preceptor. the topic could be, for example, how to support students’ critical thinking. when implementing the activity of searching and using the best research evidence available, information literacy competencies were needed. according to the information implementation of evidence-based practice in a development project on nurse students’ clinical education project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20185 page number not for citation purposes literacy competency standards for higher education, ‘the information literate student determines the nature and extent of the information needed,’ ‘accesses needed information effectively and efficiently,’ ‘evaluates information and its sources critically and incorporates selected information into his or her knowledge base and value system.’ he or she ‘individually or as a member of a group, uses information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose’ and ‘understands many of the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use of information and accesses and uses information ethically and legally’ (information literacy competency standards for higher education 2000, p. 6-14). information literacy constitutes the basis for lifelong learning and is common to all disciplines, to all levels of education, as well as to all learning environments (information literacy competency standards for higher education 2000). we also produced evidence-based material about patient-centered clinical education for the preceptors. the project group members had found research evidence on that good learning outcomes had been gained through a patient-centered approach in students’ clinical education. this approach includes the idea that during a clinical education period, every student gets one or two own patients whose care she/he especially focuses on (lindahl et al. 2009). in order to promote patient-centered clinical education in the units, an algorithm on the subject was needed. the project manager set apart the task for one group member. she conducted literature searching in databases and found out that studies (ross & crumpler 2007) and (wells et al. 2007) had shown that using storyboards can be effective in the implementation of evidence-based nursing. based on this evidence, the algorithm was published in the form of a card fitting in hand and pocket of the staff uniform. the implementation of the use of this card was started in a workshop for the core groups by presenting and discussing the meaning and contents of it. it was then tested by preceptors who were willing to implement the patientcentered approach in their students’ clinical education. those who tested the card found it useful and easy to use, and thus the card became a supportive tool for preceptors. evidence gained from clinical experience knowledge derived from clinical experience is based on ‘practical know-how’ of the practitioners (rycroft-malone et al. 2004). this type of evidence was present in this project as knowledge gained through the cultural analysis (‘what works’). for example, it was found in the cultural analysis that preceptors considered it important that the students follow the same working schedule as their preceptors (hilli & melender 2015a). in developing preceptorship, this was kept as a basic idea, though developed in a way that the students would get one or two patients of their own whose care she/he especially would focus on (lindahl et al. 2009). another important thing to keep left was naming two preceptors for each student since many preceptors had part-time work. this well-functioning concept also allowed a shared responsibility (hilli & melender 2015a). moreover, this ‘practical know-how’ gained from the clinical experience was present in lively discussions during further education lectures, seminars, workshops and co-operative working between project group members and core group members on pilot units. evidence gained from patients, clients and carers knowledge gained from patients, clients and carers refer to the personal experience and knowledge of clients and patients (rycroft-malone et al. 2004). in this project, this source of knowledge was not directly used, because the project was not directly involved with patient care. however, indirectly, knowledge gained from patients, clients, and carers was present in many ways. for example, in the workshop dealing with the students’ clinical learning melender and hilli project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20186 page number not for citation purposes about ethical issues, a central topic was planning holistic care by human needs, using case descriptions. here, knowledge about the patient in the case was central. evidence gained from local context and environment when enhancing practices, the practitioners may make use of, for example, performance and audit data or knowledge about the organization’s culture and individuals inside it (rycroftmalone et al. 2004). in this project, we used knowledge about the cultures of the organizations gained by the cultural analysis (hilli & melender 2015a), in many ways. for example, as the culture analysis revealed that the preceptors felt that they did not get enough information about the background of the students (hilli & melender 2015a), we chose to amend one clinical education document by adding there space for the student to properly present herself/ himself. another example is that many preceptors informed us about their lack of time to precept (hilli & melender 2015a).we tried to facilitate the work communities in organizing the work shifts in a new way for preceptors so they would find time for preception. the preceptors were also encouraged to document the time spent with the students and hence make preceptorship visible as they experienced that it had been an invisible task earlier (hilli & melender 2015a). in implementing ebp, the prerequisites, resources, and values of the organization have to be considered (ministry for social and health care affairs 2009). one prerequisite for a high-quality preception is competence in preception which was enhanced continuously in the project. the most central resource issue was time to precept. in the project, we assisted the staff to allocate time for preception for example by suggesting new working time arrangements and by testing web-based technology (booth et al. 2009) and (falloon 2011). the webbased technology was tested in order to enhance the communication between the student, the teacher from the faculty and the clinical preceptor. the value base of preceptorship was discussed on many different occasions. the central questions were: on what value basis is the clinical preception implemented, how can the value basis be seen in everyday preception, and what impact does it have on the students’ learning and personal experience of the clinical work? an important thing, facilitating the use of evidence gained from local context and environment, was the fact that all project group members (nursing teachers) were also registered nurses and had working experience in a role of a nurse. so, they all spoke the same language as the clinical preceptors, because as nurses, they had also acted in the role of a clinical preceptor and knew the reality of caring for patients and precepting a student at the same time. reflective practice taylor says that healthcare professionals engaged in daily practice have the advantage of living their practice, in that they have opportunities to look every day at their practice to learn from it. when healthcare professionals reflect on what they do, they can make sense of their practice, and imagine and bring about changes. (taylor 2010, p. 88) during this project, from the beginning to the end, the members of the participating healthcare units were invited to reflect on their practices related to preceptorship. as this project was supposed to be based on the best evidence available, the project group members implementation of evidence-based practice in a development project on nurse students’ clinical education project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20187 page number not for citation purposes (nursing teachers) as well had to reflect on their practices and try to find the best evidence to support the procedures implemented in the project. taylor (2010) presents questions for healthcare professionals to support their reflection on their practices. although taylor’s examples are focused on patient care, the following questions were also usable in this project focused on clinical preceptorship: think of a clinical procedure you have undertaken for some time now that you suspect outmoded in some way. why do you continue to perform that procedure in the same way, even though you suspect it is outmoded? who needs to be convinced to change the procedure in your workplace? (taylor 2010, p. 112) when we replaced the expression ‘clinical procedure’ with the expression ‘clinical preception procedure’ we could support the reflection on if there were outdated approaches in preceptorship and if there was any need for the development of new practices to better meet the student learning needs in clinical education (saarikoski et al. 2009). common practitioner approaches acceptance saunders and vehviläinen-julkunen (2015) found in their integrative review, including 37 original studies, that nurses are quite largely familiar with the concept of ebp regardless of nationality, professional role, or practice environment. in the studies included in the review, nurses’ familiarity with ebp ranged from 42 % to 84%, and it was associated with nurses’ use of ebp and their primary role, as teachers, administrative nurses and head nurses were reported to be more familiar with ebp than clinical nurses. unfamiliarity with ebp has been associated with nurses’ level of education. nurses have reported that they value ebp for improving quality of care and patient outcomes. however, they have reported that their own ebp knowledge and skills are insufficient for employing ebp and they do not always use the best evidence in practice. the interesting thing is that having a role of a clinical preceptor was found to promote the use of ebp by nurses in the review by saunders and vehviläinen-julkunen (2015). when this project was started, the concept of ebp was mostly new for the clinical preceptors working at the participating pilot units. however, they were interested in learning about it, and the education about the topic was very fruitful. however, more education is needed for the clinical preceptors about ebp to ensure that all of them have the ebp competencies needed to be able to support the nursing students’ learning about ebp during the clinical education. resistance there are barriers to ebp, although the attitudes towards it would be positive. research has shown that main barriers have often been lack of resources, for example, lack of competencies and time, as well as a non-supportive organizational culture (khammarnia et al. 2015) and (melnyk et al. 2012). nurses are willing to implement ebp in their work, but they may find that it is not easy to access the best evidence. moreover, nurses may find that the best evidence is not available in a form that would be useful in clinical practice. that is why it is the most important that teachers and nurse leaders ensure that clinical nurses in frontline access the best evidence easily. (saunders & vehviläinen-julkunen 2015). in this project, the nursing teachers acting as project group members strived to diminish barriers related to the missing competencies, by educating the preceptors about ebp. we did not ask the preceptors if they melender and hilli project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20188 page number not for citation purposes felt that there were barriers to ebp in their organizations. however, we knew that there was lack of time for precepting the students overall, and it can be assumed that if the time for precepting would be organized, then the preceptors would get time for ebp as well because the students’ learning objectives include learning ebp during clinical education. discussion when planning and implementing evidence-based practices during the action phase of the project, we chose the theoretical framework presented by rycroft-malone et al. (2004). although this framework is originally focused on patient care, it proved to be, however, also useful in the implementation of this project. ebp was implemented by choosing the methods and contents of development by the best evidence available. conducting a fidelity assessment provides with information on the level of adherence to ebp practices (metz 2007). in order to collect this information, we asked about the preceptors’ current practices in a survey at the end of the project (hilli & melender 2015b). for learning more about the level of adherence to these ebp practices, it would have been useful to assess the fidelity at a later time point once again. thus lack of it is a limitation. however, already at the measurement point at the end of the project, we were able to find out which aspects need to be examined and developed further. in this development project, research and development were combined, in order to produce better services (toikko & rantanen 2009; kankkunen & vehviläinen-julkunen 2013) which means better clinical preception in health care for nursing and practical nursing students. we cannot claim that the use of an ebp approach would have directly affected the favorable results of the project because the evaluation of that would have demanded another kind of study design. however, what we can report is that we were able to use all kinds of evidence sources presented by rycroft-malone et al. (2004). based on the experiences gained in this project, the use of an evidence-based practice approach in planning and implementing a development project in healthcare clinical and educational settings is recommended. to be able to implement ebp, an individual needs a good knowledge base, good skills and a positive attitude towards ebp (salminen et al. 2010). moreover, access to current, userfriendly technology and computer systems as well as support from the managers are needed (tacia et al. 2015). because ebp represents both an ideology and method (deming 2009), in an evidence-based project planning and implementation, the project group members must also be committed with the idea of ebp and develop their skills in implementing the ebp method. teaching note target group master’s degree students on health care sector (who have an undergraduate bachelor of nursing or midwifery or corresponding degree and who have work experience gained in nursing or midwifery or corresponding vacancy/vacancies). this learning activity is planned to be workplace-related in a way that the students will prepare a plan for a project, which could be implemented on their workplaces. implementation of evidence-based practice in a development project on nurse students’ clinical education project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20189 page number not for citation purposes learning objectives and key issues 1. to deepen the understanding of the idea of evidence-based practice (ebp) 2. to deepen the understanding of the different evidence bases used in implementing ebp 3. to understand how ebp can be implemented in project management by using different evidence bases background reading (following publications which are included in the reference list) rycroft-malone et al. (2004) and taylor (2010, pp 5-41 and 79-123) related theory the structure of different evidence bases presented by rycroft-malone et al. (2004), including research, clinical experience, patients, clients and carers, and local context and environment. practitioner and/or research competencies highlighted information literacy teaching strategy the teaching strategy is based on the constructivist learning theory. in this theory, learning is understood as “an act of selecting new information and interpreting it based on one’s aims, perceptions, and expectations. the learner strives to understand new information grounded on his/her existing knowledge and constructs the knowledge through new information. this always happens in some situation and context.” (von wright 1996) phase 1: self-directed learning a. the students are instructed to read the article by rycroft-malone et al. (2004) and pages 5-41 and 79-123 in the book by taylor (2010). after reading the material, the students are instructed to reflect on the following questions: 1. what would ebp be related to your practice? 2. what promotes ebp in your practice? 3. are there any barriers to ebp within your practice and if there are any, who could assist in diminishing the barriers? 4. how could you network to promote ebp in your practice? 5. when you reflect on your practices, what would be a relevant topic for a new development project? (the topic may be related to the care of patients or clients or other issues related your practice.) b. the students are invited to fill in a questionnaire measuring their competencies related to ebp. such questionnaires are presented, for example, in leung’s, trevena’s and waters’s systematic review (2014). phase 2: contact learning the students form small groups which are instructed to discuss the questions the students were instructed to independently reflect over at the first self-directed learning phase. each small group then presents the main conclusions of the discussions during a general discussion within the whole student group. the purpose of the discussion is to share experiences and reflections melender and hilli project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201810 page number not for citation purposes in order to promote shared learning. each student will get feedback on his/her development project idea from the peer students and the teacher (the idea which they produced when reflecting question 5 at the first self-directed learning phase). the teacher presents the results of the measurement of the competencies related to ebp in the student group (the competencies were measured at the self-directed learning phase). the results are discussed in the group, and if the measurement showed deficiencies in the competencies, the group will make a plan on how the students could enhance their competencies related to ebp during the master’s education. the plan should be implemented as soon as possible during the education, and the role of the teacher is to assist the students to find existing learning activities available at the faculty (for example education on information literacy), and possibly organize new ones when needed. phase 3: self-directed learning the students are instructed to write an idea paper about the new development project related to their practice (the idea which they presented at the contact learning meeting). on the idea paper, the students are instructed to outline the purpose and the aims of the project as well as the evidence bases that will be used in the project. the students are encouraged to be innovative and produce ideas related to all evidence bases presented by rycroft-malone et al. (2004). the students are also instructed to turn back to the measurement of the competencies related to ebp and to self-evaluate if their personal competencies are good enough to be used in their project which uses different kinds of evidence bases. if they find deficiencies in their competencies, they will write a personal plan on how to enhance their competencies related to ebp. phase 4: contact learning the students present their idea papers in a seminar. each student invites his/her chief and/or at least one colleague from the workplace to participate in the seminar. each student will get feedback on their idea paper from the peer students, the representatives of working life and the teacher. because the students are supposed to learn how to implement ebp in a project, they should get feedback also about their ideas on the evidence bases that will be used in the implementation of the project. phase 5: self-directed learning based on their idea papers, the students are instructed to prepare a plan for a development project, which then could be implemented in their workplace. phase 6: contact learning the students present their project plans in a seminar. at least the same participants as at phase 4 will attend the seminar, giving feedback on the plans. phase 7: self-directed learning the development projects are implemented on workplaces. implementation of evidence-based practice in a development project on nurse students’ clinical education project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201811 page number not for citation purposes phase 8: contact learning the students present their project reports in a seminar. at least the same participants as at phase 4 and six will attend the seminar. regardless of how the aims of the project were met, the students are also instructed to report about the different evidence bases that were used in the implementation of the project. the use of the evidence bases is also evaluated by the teacher when grading, as well as how actively each student strived to develop their competencies related ebp. experience in using the case: we have not used this case, yet. about the authors hanna-leena melender (rnt, rm, msc, phd) is a principal lecturer at the school of health care and social services at vamk university of applied sciences, finland. her main teaching and research areas are learning of evidence based practice (ebp) and development of ebp in clinical settings. she was a project group member in the kid project 2009-2013. her other research interests concern quality of care of a childbearing woman and her family. yvonne hilli (rnt, phn, msc, phd) is a professor at the faculty of health and community at nord university, norway. she has been a nurse educator for over two decades with a special research interest in students’ learning during clinical education and preceptorship. she was project manager in the kid project 2009-2013, administered by novia university of applied sciences, finland. her other 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practice, vol. 5, 201815 page number not for citation purposes https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nna.0000262732.14123.a2 https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nna.0000262732.14123.a2 commentary idiosyncratic musings on studying cases prof. christophe bredillet école de gestion (school of management), université du québec à trois-rivières, 3351, boul. des forges, c.p. 500, trois-rivières (québec) g9a 5h7 corresponding author: christophe bredillet, christophe.bredillet@uqtr.ca doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5127  project management research and practice vol. 3 july-dec. 2016 © 2016 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: bredillet, c. 2016. idiosyncratic musings on studying cases. project management research and practice, 3, 5127. http://dx.doi. org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5127  published by uts epress | http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts. edu.au after much consideration and deliberation, i have selected the title above for this brief manuscript, mirroring the interactionist perspective suggested by weick (1979), and the related shift from organization to organizing. indeed, in contrast with the myriad of “making the case for case studies” texts i found while searching the library database, i believe that “studying cases” is a more appropriate term than “case studies” to convey the project management research and practice (pmrp) vision, which is the basic purpose of this article. i define studying, based on the merriam-webster definition, as engaging in: a literary or artistic production intended as a preliminary outline; an experimental interpretation, or an exploratory analysis of specific features or characteristics; a careful examination or analysis of a phenomenon, development, or question; a state of contemplation. studying a case – i will come back to the definition later – involves a reflexive process, and interacting dynamics of co-transformation and translation between the case, the student (the one who studies), and the relation between the student and what is studied. the use of case studies must resonate with both scholars and project practitioners. while it is widely acknowledged that “good” or “best” practice needs to be informed by theory and that theory, either conceptual or empirically based, should aim at making an impact on practice, the practice–theory gap is still prevalent. this gap and how to overcome it has been widely discussed among scholars and practitioners. if, however, we consider the publications offered in the project, programme, portfolio management (p3m) space, we have on the one hand classical research journals welcoming papers based on laws and hypothetico-deductive models or statistical generalizations (both exemplifying a prevalent logico-scientific thinking) and, on the other hand, magazines welcoming opinion-based or “fashion” and “hype” articles advocating claims lacking any scientific grounds or justifications. declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 (page number not for citation purposes) mailto:christophe.bredillet@uqtr.ca http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5127 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5127 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5127 http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au bredillet project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20162 (page number not for citation purposes) neither one nor the other type of publication is really suitable to address and/or offer managerial insights, in a rigorous way, with regard to the organizing context of p3m and its increasing volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (vuca), affecting organizations and the socio-economic environment, described as “chaordic” (hock 1995), within which they operate. between inapplicable generalizations and pure anecdotes, there is a need for qualitative accounts offering sound middle-range theories (merton 1949) and “petits récits” (lyotard 1984). these accounts (for example, case studies) aim at narrating organizations, collecting stories, or studying organizations as narration (czarniawska 1997, 1998). piaget aptly remarked, “intelligence organizes the world by organizing itself,” as quoted in von glaserfeld (1984, p. 24). following this reasoning, one way of viewing organizations as complex systems is to explore complex ways of thinking about organizations – as complex systems. as pertinently demonstrated by tsoukas & hatch (2001), a narrative approach to organizational complexity is highly relevant to make sense and support complex thinking about complex practice. quantitativists sometimes challenge the value of case study research and more generally qualitative accounts (patton & appelbaum 2003). however, say (1964, pp. xix–xx) mocks the naivety of the public toward statistics: sometimes, moreover, a display of figures and calculations imposes upon them; as if numerical calculations alone could prove anything, and as if any rule could be laid down, from which an inference could be drawn without the aid of sound reasoning. the mathematical method, with its seeming exactitude, can only seriously distort the analysis of qualitative human action by  stretching and oversimplifying the legitimate insights of economic principles.” (rothbard, 1997, p. 42-43) this is acknowledged by anderson (1997, p. 566): scientists tend to place too much focus on averages … [whereas] much of the real world is controlled as much by the “tails” of distributions as means or averages: by the exceptional, not the commonplace; by the catastrophe, not the steady drip … we need to free ourselves from “average” thinking. (anderson, 1997: 566 in andriani & mckelvey, 2007, p. 1221) in order to elucidate a pmrp vision, i provide initially, drawing on some of my previous writings, a snapshot of what i consider key aspects related to the value of studying cases. the specific context of project management research leads me to suggest a pluralistic approach to “live” the project “phenomena.” from there i propose that as part of social sciences, project management is non-paradigmatic and cannot therefore be captured by any hegemonic approach. however, project management, as a science that “matters,” must offer ways to bridge the theory–practice gap. ultimately, i suggest, “knowing as practicing” and practical wisdom (that is, phronesis) as strong grounds for a project management research mode of inquiry, leading to comprehend both scholars and practitioners as “praxitioners.” i follow by offering a summary of thoughts about case studies from some major authors. in doing so, i take the opportunity to offer a map of the case study landscape, and useful guidance for the reflexive scholars and practitioners willing to embrace the science and the art of studying cases. project management research in context for the past 60 years, organizations have increasingly been using projects and management of, by and for projects to achieve their strategic objectives (morris & jamieson 2004; morris & idiosyncratic musings on studying cases project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20163 (page number not for citation purposes) geraldi 2011). project management makes an important and significant contribution to value creation globally. however, the “glocal” context in which projects are performed shows increasing vuca affecting organisations and the socio-economic environment in which they operate (gareis 2005). two main dimensions are considered in research: uncertainty (and its two dimensions: volatility and ambiguity), and complexity (bredillet 2015). because action takes place over time, and because the future is unknowable, action is inherently uncertain (aristotle 1926, p. 1357a). acts involve time, irreversibility, indetermination and contingence, and uncertainty (sanderson 2012; knight 1921). “we simply do not know” (keynes 1937, pp. 113–14). management situations (here both practice and research) are complex systems in the way they involve interdependence and connections between actors, objects, and context. drawing on complexity science, andriani & mckelvey (2007, 2009) and mckelvey & boisot (2009) have demonstrated how the gaussian (atomistic ontology) and paretian (connectionist ontology) worlds are linked through scalable free patterns and power law distributed phenomena rooted. in this context, systems are fluctuating between edge or order and edge of chaos of the ashby space (ashby 1958). thus, the uncertainty and complexity leads to an increased variety of stimuli from the organizational and socio-economic environment (practice) to project management research (theory), and to adaptive tension between the variety of stimuli and the variety of response provided by research (and the converse). developing efficient and effective responses involves moving beyond the traditional dichotomy between modernism and postmodernism. indeed, many have questioned the rationalist, positivist, and quantitative tradition and paradigm supporting project management research and practice (bredillet 2010), and the lack of relevance to practice of the current conceptual base of project management, despite the sum of research, development of standards, best practices, and the related development of project management “bodies of knowledge” (winter et al. 2006). this questioning mirrors a similar enquiry within social sciences (for example, say 1964; tsoukas & cummings 1997; flyvbjerg 2001; boisot & mckelvey 2010), calling for new thinking. in order to get outside the rationalist “box,” toulmin (1990, p. 11) suggests a number of possible paths, summarising the thoughts of many authors: it can cling to the discredited research programme of the purely theoretical (i.e. “modern”) philosophy, which will end up by driving it out of business: it can look for new and less exclusively theoretical ways of working, and develop the methods needed for a more practical (“post-modern”) agenda; or it can return to its pre-17th century traditions, and try to recover the lost (“pre-modern”) topics that were side-tracked by descartes, but can be usefully taken up for the future. paradoxically, and interestingly, in their quest for so-called postmodernism, many authors build on “pre-modern” traditions such as the aristotelian one (for example, macintyre 1985; tsoukas & cummings 1997; flyvbjerg 2001; blomquist et al. 2010; lalonde et al. 2012). authors such as boisot & mckelvey (2010) suggest approaches to integrate the two traditions. on the one hand, classifications of phenomena governed by a tradition of natural sciences, rationality, universality, objective reality, and value-free decision-making (cicmil and hodgson 2006) exemplify the development of “standards” and “bodies of knowledge.” on the other hand, “the organizational reality, which is often messy, ambiguous, fragmented, and political in character” (alvesson & deetz 2000, p. 60) leads to the quest of verstehen, or “the intuitive quickness of enlightened understanding” (schütz 1964, p. 4). this can be related to the notion of relevance by bredillet project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20164 (page number not for citation purposes) feasibility (le moigne 2007, p. 117) and ingenium, being “an ‘intelligent’ action” or the “mental faculty which makes [it] possible to connect in a fast, suitable, and happy way the separate things,” as stated by le moigne (2007, p. 118, quoting vico 1708). in summary, this suggests considering a pluralistic perspective to look at “project” phenomena. non-paradigmatic nature of social sciences the question “has anyone found a paradigm out there?” has been raised by bredillet (2010, p. 6) and is particularly relevant with regard to pluralistic perspective. discussing paradigms in the social sciences, dogan (2001) addresses the question: “is scientific progress in the social sciences achieved mostly by steady accretion or mostly by abrupt jumps?” dogan (2001, p. 11023) then summarises kuhn’s viewpoint: for thomas kuhn, who devised the concept “paradigm,” there are no paradigmatic upheavals in the social sciences. for him the use of this term in these sciences is not justified. three arguments can be advanced against its polysemic use or abuse. in contrast with the universal truth in the natural sciences, contextual diversity and social change are two important parameters in all social sciences. in political science, sociology, and economics, progress is achieved by cumulative knowledge, by the adding of successive layers of sediments. the third argument is the pattern of mutual ignorance among great social scientists. in the social sciences, theoretical and methodological disagreements are beneficial to the advance of knowledge. flyvbjerg (2001) suggests that social sciences should focus on what he describes as a “nonparadigmatic” phronetic social science. schram (2004, pp. 432–33), commenting on flyvbjerg’s position, puts forward the use of “post-paradigmatic” science – “post” meaning carry on, but differently – emphasising “the aspiration to move beyond a situation where such a hegemonic approach is imposed on the discipline.” science that matters and the theory–practice gap the problem of “science that matters” (that is, science that makes an impact on society) and its relation to the theory–practice gap has been widely discussed (for example, sandberg & tsoukas 2011; van de ven & johnson 2006). in project management, a critical studies stream following the foucauldian perspective (hodgson & cicmil 2007), through the making projects critical workshops, and a phronetic perspective stream with a focus on megaprojects (flyvbjerg et al. 2012) have been developed. these studies consider a clear dichotomy between bottom-up social science (and related substantive/practical/ value rationality) and top-down natural science, and related formal/theoretical/scientific rationality (kondrat 1992, p. 237; schram 2004, p. 420), which in turn leads to a critical evaluation of the relation between theory and practice (blomquist et al. 2010, p. 10), and how to bridge the gap between these two. the central argument of this article is that managers are rarely reduced to being theoryapplying decision-makers and that managers only matter when there is uncertainty, with uncertainty being the defining characteristic of management practice. therefore, uncertainty should have a more explicit place in management theory and practice in order to address the gap (kraaijenbrink 2010, p. 2 and p. 15), and to address pluralistic contexts, involving “multiple objectives, diffuse power and knowledge-based work” (denis et al. 2007, p. 179) such as project organizing and temporary-based organizations. idiosyncratic musings on studying cases project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20165 (page number not for citation purposes) aram & salipante (2003) attempt to reconcile the debate between theory and practice by proposing that management scholars must adopt a style of reasoning that is characterized by high rigor and relevance. such initiatives involve collaboration between actors from diverse disciplines to conduct problem-focussed research in a specific context, which crosses epistemological lines and philosophical traditions (alvesson & sandberg 2014). expanding the work done by the research network rethinking project management, winter et al. (2006, pp. 641–42), bredillet (2013, pp. 66–68; 2015b, pp. 15–16), van de ven (2006, p. 805) with kondrat (1992, p. 238), and schön (1983, p. 49) suggest seven main possible directions in which project management theory in relation to practice needs to develop: 1. theory about practice (knowledge about practice), or theory that helps us to understand practice, albeit from a particular perspective, which does not necessarily have immediate practical application; 2. theory for practice (knowledge for practice), or concepts and approaches that do have practical application; 3. theory in practice (knowledge in practice), or practitioners as trained technicians versus practitioners as reflective practitioners. this is essentially a reference to how practitioners learn their craft, and how they actually practice their craft using relevant theory from the published literature on project management; 4. theory from practice, being bodies of knowledge and process-based standards that rely on covering laws and/or statistical generalizations (“most of ...”) through to performance-based standards or actionable practice guides; 5. knowledge from practice, reversing the classical perspective (knowledge for practice) and, beyond the above discussion about “knowledge and inquiry ‘for’ and ‘about’ and even ‘in’ practice,” recognizing that “what has been missing from our collective conversation concerning practice knowledge is an empirical study of practice knowledge itself;” 6. knowing in practice, or “our knowing is ‘in’ our action.” schön argues that the skilful practice shown by professionals does not consist of applying some a priori knowledge to a specific decision or action, but rather of a kind of knowing that is inherent in their action. as feldman & orlikowski (2011, p. 1243) put it: “these insights have led to an understanding of knowing in practice as the knowledgeability that is continually enacted through ongoing action. such an understanding rejects the traditional dualism set up between knowledge that exists ‘out there’ (encoded in external objects, routines, or systems) and knowledge that exists ‘in here’ (embedded in human brains, bodies, or communities);” and 7. theory as practice (knowing as practicing), or, in a given project, organizing pluralistic context from adaptive practice, doing the right things, and getting things done to questioning how we critically learn in a situation, develop reflexive praxis, and decide what is right. the logic of knowing in practice is fully realized through knowing as practicing, following recursive logic between “theorizing practice and practicing theory” and the fact that “theorizing practice is itself a practice” (feldman & orlikowski 2011, p. 1250). with regard to project management, some authors have taken two directions proposing, explicitly or not, various perspectives: for example, “making project critical” (hodgson 2002; cicmil & hodgson 2006; hodgson & cicmil 2007; cicmil et al. 2009), “phronetic research” (flyvbjerg et al. 2003; flyvbjerg 2004; flyvbjerg et al. 2012), “future-perfect” (pitsis et al. 2003), “multi-rationalities and cultures” (van marrewijk et al. 2008), “project-as-practice” bredillet project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20166 (page number not for citation purposes) (blomquist et al. 2010), and “pm practice/rethoric and pragmatist” (lalonde et al. 2012). a common characteristic of these perspectives is, to a certain extent depending on the authors, the acknowledgement of the concurrent and integrative advancement of knowledge in relation to empirical ground. moving a step further, a logical consequence of this dual objective is to recognize that the reflexive production and transfer of knowledge useful for the advancement of theory, technique and praxis involves a balanced and pluralistic view (knorr-cetina 1981b, p. 336; tsoukas & cummings 1997, p. 657), or “each form of knowledge being partial – a way of seeing is a way of not seeing” (van de ven & johnson 2006, p. 808). from the above, we can posit that connecting and mediating theory and practice requests a balanced style of reasoning, epistemic script, and mode of inquiry (for example, boxenbaum & rouleau 2011, p. 277). we argue that a style of reasoning, epistemic script, and mode of inquiry embedding practical wisdom is appropriate to project situations. indeed (tsoukas & cummings 1997, p. 665): …practical wisdom (phronesis) which deals with both universals and particulars. more precisely, phronesis is knowing what is good for human beings in general as well as having the ability to apply such knowledge to particular situations. thus, studying projects and their management involves recognizing a pluralistic view for knowledge (co-)production and transfer. the mode of inquiry should be grounded on a pluralistic balanced style of reasoning enabling “kaleidoscopic” (tsoukas & cummings 1997, p. 657), holographic (kondrat 1992, p. 242), or puzzle forms (bruner 1962, p. 93) perspective and combining theorizing as practising. scholars and practitioners the links and the gaps between practice and theory(ies), and their relation to knowledge production and transfer, and to the rigour and relevance argument, is strongly anchored in the role dichotomy between scholars and managers/workers (bredillet 2015, p. 47). “scholarly work and managerial work differ, however, in the context, processes, and purposes of their practices” (aram & salipante 2003, p. 1900; van de ven & johnson 2006, p. 806). in order to challenge the dominant mechanistic-cum-rationalistic assumptions, some authors suggest an alternative such as historical-cum-comparative thinking (tsoukas & cummings 1997, p. 673; knorr-cetina 1981, p. 336). tsoukas & cummings (1997, p. 657) state: we argue that reconnecting organizational and management research with systems of thought other than those traditionally associated with the “discipline,” and adopting a “kaleidoscopic” view of history, can enable researchers to think differently about key issues and inform future development. the assumptions about the roles, behaviours, and expectations of the people, as framed by the classical class dichotomy, involved in knowledge creation and transfer, is at the centre of the theory–practice relevance and rigour debate. kondrat (1992, p. 243) claims: the roots of both science and practice are to be found in the everyday processes and achievements of human beings who seek to manage their world and to orient their action [praxis] in relation to others in that world. while van de ven & johnson (2006, p. 803) stipulate: we agree with hodgkinson et al. (2001) and pettigrew (2001) that research needs to achieve the dual objectives of applied use and advancing fundamental understanding. idiosyncratic musings on studying cases project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20167 (page number not for citation purposes) in order to address this burning question of rigour and relevance, some authors have pleaded for a kind of junction or integration between the “scholars–experts–researchers” and “managers/workers–practitioners–participants.” these authors include social science practitioner warry (1992, p. 160), engaged scholars van de ven & johnson (2006, p. 803); objectivism-style reasoner pouliot (2007, p. 360), “practitioners in the context of project as-praxis” blomquist et al. (2010, p. 13), practitioner–researcher jarvis (1999), and researcher– practitioners lalonde et al. (2012, note 8, p. 429). i suggest we need to go further in-depth to fully grasp the importance of moving to consider one single class of actors in project situations. hacking (2002b, p. 10), while reflecting on classifications, posits that: the human and the social sciences do not differ from natural ones primarily because they deal in what are called social constructions, or because they require “verstehen” rather than explanation, prediction, and control. they differ because there is a dynamical interaction between the classifications developed in the social sciences, and the individuals or behaviour classified. hacking develops the idea of “interactive classifications” (2002) and “looping effects” (1995) about “how classifications affect us and how we create new classes anew” (2002, p. 12). as a consequence, moving from the two classes dichotomy of “scholars–experts–researchers” and “managers/workers–practitioners–participants” to a single class, “practitioners” (i suggest “praxitioner”), is all but neutral with regard to a pluralistic balanced style of reasoning (hacking 2002, p. 3) and to go beyond the theory–practice gap. undeniably, “praxitioner” relates to praxis (practice) and phronesis (practical wisdom), and to what stacey (2012) names the “reflexive practitioner,” in contrast with what schön (1983) calls the “reflective practitioner.” stacey (2012, p. 112) explains: “reflexive practices involve noticing and thinking about participation with others in the accomplishment of joint tasks […]. reflexivity is thinking about how we are thinking.” (bredillet et al., 2015, p. 13) by way of conclusion: the value of studying cases as written in the introduction, the use of case studies must resonate with both scholars and project practitioners. after the few considerations shared above, i can now offer a summary of thoughts about case studies from some major authors. i borrow the following mainly from two authors, flyvbjerg (2011) and thomas (2011). in doing so, i take the opportunity to offer a map of the case study landscape, and useful guidance for reflexive scholars and practitioners willing to embrace the science and art of studying cases. what we mean by “case study” thomas does an in-depth review of research on case studies by leading authors. after discussing the definition offered by simon (2009, p. 21) – “case study is an in-depth exploration from multiple perspectives of the complexity and uniqueness of a particular project, policy, institution, programme or system in a ‘real life’ context” – thomas (2011, p. 512) highlights “that case study should not be seen as a method in and of itself. rather, it is a design frame that may incorporate a number of methods.” quoting stake (2005, p. 443) – “case study is not a methodological choice but a choice of what is to be studied …by whatever methods we choose to study the case” – thomas (2011, p. 512) makes clear that “choice of method, then, does not define case study: analytical eclecticism is the key” and proposes that “a case study must comprise two elements: 1. a ‘practical, historical unity,’ which i shall call the subject of the case study; and 2. an analytical or theoretical frame, which i shall call the object of the study.” bredillet project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20168 (page number not for citation purposes) taking account of this, the definition of case study that thomas (2011, p. 513) adopts for the typology he develops is as follows: case studies are analyses of persons, events, decisions, periods, projects, policies, institutions, or other systems that are studied holistically by one or more methods. the case that is the subject of the inquiry, will be an instance of a class of phenomena that provides an analytical frame – an object – within which the study is conducted and which the case illuminates and explicates. overcoming five misunderstandings about case studies gerring (2004, p. 341) describes the well-known paradox of “the case study’s wide use and low regard ” and observes that the case study subsists in a “curious methodological limbo.” flyvbjerg (2011, p. 302) explains, “the reason is that the method is poorly understood,” and defines five main misunderstandings undermining the credibility and use of the case study method. he discusses them one by one, “and thereby clears the ground for the use of case study research in the social sciences that is based on understanding instead of misunderstanding.” the following summarizes flyvbjerg’s five key points, contrasting the general misunderstanding and case study method understanding, with a response offered for each. • general, theoretical knowledge is more valuable than concrete case knowledge. ○ however, predictive theories and universals cannot be found in the study of human affairs. concrete case knowledge is therefore more valuable than the vain search for predictive theories and universals. • one cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. ○ in contrast, one can often generalize on the basis of a single case, and the case study may be central to scientific development via generalization as supplement or alternative to other methods. but formal generalization is overvalued as a source of scientific development, whereas “the force of example” and transferability are underestimated. • the case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, that is, in the first stage of a total research process, while other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. ○ conversely, the case study is useful for both generating and testing hypotheses, but is not limited to these research activities alone. • the case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. ○ in fact, the case study contains no greater bias toward verification of the researcher’s preconceived notions than other methods of inquiry. on the contrary, experience indicates that the case study contains a greater bias toward falsification of preconceived notions than toward verification. • it is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies. ○ it is correct that summarizing case studies is often difficult, especially around case process. it is less correct around case outcomes. the problems in summarizing case studies, however, are due more often to the properties of the reality studied than to the case study as a research method. often it is not desirable to summarize and generalize case studies. good studies should be read as narratives in their entirety. finding a way through studying cases: a typology as said above, despite its popularity, studying case survives in a curious methodological limbo. thomas (2011, p. 511) adds: idiosyncratic musings on studying cases project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20169 (page number not for citation purposes) if “methodological limbo” exists it is not for lack of methodological discussion. the problem is perhaps that methodological discussion of case study has tended to focus on its epistemological status, its generalizing “power,” or on various aspects of study construction. less conspicuous, though, has been any synthesis of the discussion that might offer classificatory schemata for intending researchers. thomas (2011, pp. 515–18) further suggests a typology of case study around six main layers of criteria, summarized below. 1. subject: “the subject of the study, which is the case itself” is a “practical, historical unity.” 2. object: “the analytical or theoretical frame […] within which the case is viewed and which the case exemplifies.” 3. purpose: “the purpose is intimately connected with the object of the study. the understanding that is required – the explanation that is needed – will be related to the reason for doing the study, that is to say, the purpose.” 4. approach: “the different kinds of stance that may be taken about the object.” 5. methods: “after a decision about approach, there are choices to be made about the methods to be adopted. will the study be entirely interpretative in orientation? will it be an ethnography? will it use a combination of methods, possibly incorporating experimental, survey, or cross-sectional elements? will it involve documentary analysis? given the methodological pluralism noted earlier the choices here are abundant. they will, in turn, lead to questions about the operational process of the study – the means by which it is constructed and the means by which the object is understood and ref racted through the subject.” 6. process: “case inquirers are making decisions about the operational processes of their studies. for this, they need first to return to their subjects and to the boundary decisions made at the outset. there has to be an examination of the nature of the choices that were made at that time about the parameters that delimit the subject of the study. these may fall around a number of loci: the case may be defined by one or more of a range of boundary considerations: person, time period, place, event, institution, or any of a range of singular phenomena that can be studied in their complexity. the first consideration, though, concerns an important distinction that has been raised by stake (2005, p. 445) that will determine figure 1 typology of case study (thomas 2011, p. 518) bredillet project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201610 (page number not for citation purposes) the process of the case study, and […] whether there is to be a comparative element to the study: should it be single or multiple?” the representation of the typology does not involve decisions, and choices are made in sequence during the research process design. choices and decisions are made concurrently in considering the interrelations and reflexivity between criteria. as thomas (2011, pp. 511) states: “the typology reveals that there are numerous valid permutations of these dimensions and many trajectories, therefore, open to the case inquirer.” indeed, a typology supports a clear articulation and logic between the research question and purpose(s), the subject, the object, the choice of approach(es), the methodology(ies), and the choices and decisions about process. as thomas (2011, p. 518) highlights: “it is useful to explore all of these considerations alongside thought about subject, object, theory, and method.” i hope this brief text will encourage scholars and project practitioners to develop practical wisdom around studying cases, and that they will find in here some useful thoughts, clues, and guidelines for further reflexive activities. ordo ab chaos about the author professor christophe n. bredillet, phd, d.sc., is professor of organizational project management at université du québec à trois-rivières (uqtr). he is director of the dba program and of the university of quebec network of postgraduate (masters) programs in project management. he is vice-president and scientific director, société française pour l’avancement du management de projet (smap / ipma) and adjunct professor at queensland university of technology (qut) project management academy. he specializes in the fields of portfolio, program, and project management (p3m). from 2012 to 2015, he was the director of the qut project management academy. before joining qut, he was senior consultant at the world bank and from 1992 to 2010, he was the dean of postgraduate programs and professor of strategic management and p3m at esc lille. his main interests and research activities are in the field of philosophy of science and practice in p3m, including dynamic evolution of the field, bodies of knowledge, standards, and their link with capability development, capacity building, governance, and performance. he received the prestigious manfred saynish foundation for project management (mspm)—project management innovation award 2012 for his contribution to a philosophy of science with respect to complex project management and the ipma research achievement award 2016 for the outstanding contribution to project related knowledge through research. he can be contacted at  christophe.bredillet@uqtr.ca references alvesson, m. & deetz, s. 2000, doing critical management research, sage, london. alvesson, m. & sandberg, j. 2013, ‘has management studies lost its way? ideas for more imaginative and innovative research’, journal of management studies, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 128–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-6486.2012.01070.x anderson, p.w. 1997, ‘some thoughts about distribution in economics’, in w.b. arthur, s.n. durlauf & d.a. lane (eds), the economy as an evolving complex system ii, addisonwesley, reading, ma, pp. 565–67. mailto:christophe.bredillet@uqtr.ca http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2012.01070.x 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research and practice: perspectives from the nonprofit sector john lannon1, john n. walsh2 kemmy business school, university of limerick, limerick, v94 t9px, ireland corresponding author: john lannon, kemmy business school, university of limerick, limerick, v94 t9px, ireland. john.lannon@ul.ie doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5119 project management research and practice vol. 3 july-dec. 2016 © 2016 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: lannon, j. & walsh, j.n. 2016. reinvigorating project management research and practice: perspectives from the nonprofit sector. project management research and practice, 3, 5119. http://dx.doi. org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5119 published by uts epress | http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts. edu.au the genesis of this special issue was the conference delivering social good: managing projects in the non-profit sector held at the university of limerick, ireland, in october 2014. the diversity that exists within the broad nonprofit sector became apparent at this event, as did its increasing projectification, and the variety of organizational forms and models resulting from this trend. tools, techniques, processes, and practices inherited from the business world were described, as were methodologies adopted, adapted, and specifically designed for work in areas like international development, humanitarian assistance, and community settings. insights into the lived experiences of project managers in the nonprofit sector were also shared, as were a number of diverse conceptualizations of temporary organizations. inevitably, one of the themes of the conference was use of approaches developed in, and for, the business community. much work has been done on the transfer of organizational and managerial concepts from business to the nonprofit world (beck et al. 2008; tucker & parker 2013), and there is evidence that many nonprofit organizations (npos) are becoming more “businesslike” (maier et al. 2016). but, as peter drucker said in his book managing the non-profit organization: practices and principles, the npo exists to bring about a change in individuals or society, and the task of an npo manager is to convert this into specifics (drucker 2004). the adoption of business-oriented approaches and tools is seen as a means to improve performance in npos (carlos pinho et al. 2014), but consideration also needs to be given to the context in which they are being adopted, and to the sector’s interests and primary aims (myers & sacks 2003). 21 declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 (page number not for citation purposes) mailto:john.lannon@ul.ie http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5119 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5119 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5119 http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au lannon & walsh project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20162 (page number not for citation purposes) from the perspective of project management research and practice, one such problem is that nonprofit work is not always an economic and techno-scientific concern, but a “moral–ethical concern” (cicmil & o’laocha 2016, p. 547), particularly when it signifies the idea(l)s of social good and social action. the inclination toward “managerialist, technocratic, and instrumental” approaches (ika & hodgson 2014) presents dilemmas relating to the understanding of issues like success and failure, accountability, risk sharing, and agency (cicmil & o’laocha 2014). at a practical level, it can introduce overheads that are seen as wasteful of limited resources, or it can create tensions in collaborative spaces where organizations that are working together to affect social change adopt different approaches. nonetheless, in areas like international development such approaches are becoming the norm. most international assistance provided to developing countries is project-based (diallo & thuillier 2005; ika et al. 2010), with a progressive adoption of a wide range of project management tools now evident (golini et al. 2015). as in other parts of the nonprofit world, the need to demonstrate effective results and to share the same spaces as for-profit actors, both as collaborators and competitors (ryan 2002), has resulted in a more functionalist approach to management. this has led to an instrumental rationality that favours “theory for practice” over “theory of practice” (cicmil et al. 2006). while this is an important aspect of the management of projects, attention also needs to be given to the operation of power in any social setting, and to the multiplicity of perspectives that prevail in most nonprofit contexts. the practice of project management must also recognize the effect of the project on people, communities, organizations, the environment, power relations, and, in the case of projects that seek to bring about social change, on issues like equality, freedom, and prosperity (helgadóttir 2008). in general, there are not many studies of the nonprofit sector within the project management literature. of the little research that has been undertaken, most is in the area of international development (diallo & thuillier 2005; khang & moe 2008; ika et al. 2010; ika 2012; golini & landoni 2014; ika & hodgson 2014; golini et al. 2015; lannon et al. 2016). these projects share characteristics with conventional projects in that they deliver goods and services; they are limited, temporary, unique, and multidisciplinary; and they face time, cost, and quality constraints (lannon et al. 2016). but they also have a number of distinct characteristics. one is the lack of a defined and/or powerful customer, which means that project management needs to be proactive to beneficiary needs rather than being reactive. it also needs to be sufficiently flexible to be able to respond to project changes, while not losing sight of long-term goals. another characteristic of international development projects is the number and diversity of stakeholders typically involved. this requires the use of approaches that are inclusive of a wide range of divergent actors, and of tools that are conducive to involving and informing all stakeholders. another peculiarity relates to the environment itself, which is often difficult, complex, and risky for a variety of social, economic, and political reasons. to cope with this, the tools used must foster a systemic analysis of the context (golini & landoni 2014) and must help with the management of a wide variety of risks. because resources are scarce, efficient planning becomes paramount on international development projects, as does the avoidance of waste, and the favouring of transparency and accountability. traditional project management techniques that are best suited to projects with defined and quantified objectives, rather than longer-term social objectives, may not always be best suited to the needs of the communities intended to benefit from the project. according to curtis & poon (2009), methods based on “certainty, predictability, and linearity” are often used because they help management, and not because they are efficient in achieving reinvigorating project management research and practice project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20163 (page number not for citation purposes) development outcomes. having said that, non-governmental organizations (ngos) that are heading up international development projects tend to prefer simple techniques to structured and analytical methodologies (falgari et al. 2013), with project managers adopting tools progressively according to their experience and the organization for which they work. a number of methodologies have been designed and developed to meet the specific needs of the international development sector in particular. these include the logical framework (logframe), pmdpro (developed by pm4ngo, an organization devoted to training and disseminating project management knowledge among ngos), and pm4dev (designed specifically for development organizations) (golini et al. 2015; keleckaite & meiliene 2015). another part of the broad nonprofit world in which project management practices are widely adopted is humanitarian assistance: everything from short-term health care delivery to large-scale engineering benefits from project management practices. whether or not these are conducive to proper participation from local actors is questionable (krause 2014), but it is nonetheless the case that the logic of project management and its implication for bounding rationality is rarely challenged in the sector. researching projects and project management within an organizational context in considering how the impact of technocratic project management approaches on organizations might fruitfully be explored, it is instructive to examine the development of perceptions on the role of information technology and information systems on organizations. like the early project management research, early approaches to information systems research tended to be objectivist, assigning technology the role of an independent variable (orlikowski & robey 1991) and relying on research to identify the impacts (kling 1987). the overarching positivist perspective that existed in the information systems domain was unnecessarily restrictive, however, and resulted in a failure to recognize other research traditions. this placed restrictions on what and how phenomena were studied (orlikowski & baroudi 1991). project management research faces a similar challenge, as reliance on a functionalist, instrumental view of projects diminishes – potentially marginalizing the role of project managers, and indeed all project participants, as social and political actors – because it is based on an assumption of “rationality, universality, objectivity, and value-free decisionmaking” (cicmil & hodgson 2006), and the possibility of generalizing law-like predictions in knowledge. indeed, cicmil & hodgson (2006) argue that the extant project management literature is reliant on “the language of design, regularity, and control to propose models and prescriptions as a route to increasing the ability of humans to control complex worlds,” and that this is done to the exclusion of alternative ways of reasoning. in a similar vein, hodgson & cicmil (2007) talk about standards as creating and reifying objects, and the “marginalization of more reflexive forms of rationality and the suppression of autonomy.” this is reminiscent of early information systems research on the role of technology in reinforcing established forms of organizing, in supporting the intensification and fusion of existing control mechanisms, and in being capable of supporting integrated and flexible operations while enabling a “disciplinary matrix of knowledge and power” (orlikowski 1991). an interesting aspect of the management literature in relation to technology has been that of absence/presence (orlikowski 2010). in the economic analyses of technological innovation there is little or no discussion of technology (pinch & bijker 1984), with artefacts either lannon & walsh project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20164 (page number not for citation purposes) absent, black-boxed, abstracted, or reduced (orlikowki & iacono 2001). following on from the management research of the 1950s and 1960s, which saw technology as an exogenous force (woodward 1958; harvey 1968), proponents of contingency theory in the 1960s and 1970s continued to take a positivist view. in the context of such a dominant paradigm, it was important for researchers to avoid creating an orthodoxy that precluded other perspectives. orlikowski & baroudi (1991) identified three areas of concern in relation to widening the information systems research domain to include other perspectives. the first was ontological beliefs, and whether physical and social worlds are objective of humans or alternatively only exist through human action. the second was human rationality, or the intentionality associated with human action; and the third was social relations. here the key question being the extent to which they are intrinsically stable and ordered, or essentially dynamic and conflicting. all of these concerns bear scrutiny in the context of project management research and its relevance to practice. over time, the information systems field saw the emergence of a social-action perspective, in which mechanistic notions of cause and effect were considered less useful, as social situations were not viewed as governed by knowable causal relationships (hirschheim 1985). an emergent process perspective on technology was also evident. in this, ontological priority is given to human agency so that technology is seen as neither fixed nor neutral. instead, meanings and uses are shaped by the actions and interests of various social groups (barley 1986; markus & robey 1988; zuboff 1988; kling 1991; ciborra & lengel 1994). influenced by the socio-technical school (bijker, hughes & pinch 1987; bijker & laws 1992), as well as structuration theory (giddens 1984), technology was initially viewed as embodying inscribed and stabilized structures, but was later seen as embodying structures that are open to change at the start before becoming stabilized for use (orlikowski 2000). in arguing for a “practice lens,” orlikowski (2000) called for a change in perspective: rather than seeing knowledge as stable, she reconceptualizes it as “knowing in practice.” this necessitates a change from seeing technologies as embodying structures to seeing structures as emergent and dependent on the reflexivity of knowledgeable human actors. both information systems and project management have the ability to legitimize certain ways of working, with the ability to outline in detailed operational terms the procedures to accomplish tasks. while providing efficient processes and methodologies to complete complex tasks, the structural properties provided by both have the ability to constrain individual actions and agency. it is possible for the project management discipline to develop ever more precise and complex methodologies for more turbulent environments, or more adaptations for diverse economic sectors. to take such a trajectory would provide useful and worthy outcomes, but would ignore some wider questioning in the role and nature of project management. we therefore encourage project management researchers, practitioners, and trainers to expand the range and richness of future understandings by importing concepts and theories from other disciplines (including but not restricted to information systems), and by exploring project management’s use in nontraditional sectors (such as the nonprofit sector). insights provided by developments in the organization studies literature, into the situated and cultural nature of organizing, are also valuable. one way in which the field developed was in response the criticism that it had overlooked materiality (orlikowski 2007), either through a techno-centric perspective, producing functional technologically deterministic claims (barley 1988; kling 1991; suchman 1994) or through a human-centred perspective that has resulted, according to button (1993) and berg (1997), in the technology vanishing as a result of preoccupation with the social. consequently, alternative conceptualizations that reinvigorating project management research and practice project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20165 (page number not for citation purposes) challenged conventional distinctions emerged as a result of openness to ideas from sources such as actor-network theory, material sociology, and even physics. indeed, by drawing on such influences, orlikowski (2007) emphasized the sociomateriality of ongoing practices which, she argues, has the potential to sensitize researchers to sets of issues that have traditionally not been a focus of attention. after reviewing the organization studies literature, she further argues that the resultant insights are, to a large extent, limiting due to the discipline overlooking “the ways in which organizing is bound up with the material forms and spaces through which humans act and interact.” she calls for sociomateriality as a way of providing an alternative conceptualization, which challenges the assumption in the extant organizational literature that organizations, work, and technology should be conceptualized separately (orlikowski & scott 2008). at a macro level, some of the objectives of this development lead to the questioning of received views (cecez-kecmanovic et al. 2014) and sensitizing of researchers to a “different set of issues and influences” (orlikowski 2007), and “to broaden horizons and open up debate rather than to mark off turf or close down avenues of thought” (orlikowski & scott 2013). at a more operational level, the use of the sociomaterial perspective adds to the “palette of concepts in use” (orlikowski & scott 2008) and helps to develop an “alternative toolkit” from existing perspectives (scott & orlikowski 2014). while drawing on external theories sometimes leads to protracted theoretical discussions and debates, it also has the potential to bring assumptions to the surface and offer new avenues for research. in the project management discipline, as in information systems, material objects are central to the actuality of the underlying tasks. exploration of this theoretical stream therefore has the potential to reinvigorate the research agenda, and to provide new insights that can only be to the benefit of project management research and practice. the projectification of the nonprofit sector the nonprofit or “third” sector, as it is sometimes called, is a catch-all term for everything that doesn’t fit into the “primary” and “secondary” categories of the state and the market. it is characterized by voluntary participation, value-based motivation, and/or independence from more institutionalized power structures (corry 2010), and is generally viewed as consisting of a broad range of formal, private, nonprofit-distributing, self-governing, and voluntary organizations (salamon & anheier 1992). like many sectors, it has become increasingly projectified in recent years. in the public and market sectors, projects function as tools to separate certain activities within the organization (czibere 2014); in the nonprofit sector, the same is true, but there is an added dependence on earmarked funding that drives the way in which work is organized. whether it comes from government grants, philanthropic investment, or public donations, an ngo in receipt of funding must organize and report on the basis of income received for projects it has committed to undertake. ownership of such projects is often vested with the donor, while control (management) rests with the organization that receives the funding. the relationship between the two is based on the ability of the latter to deliver measured results and have impact. it brings the term “project” into daily use in organizational discourse, while leading to a variety of understandings of the formal practices and processes associated with it (maylor et al. 2006). as a case in point, the limerick conference on delivering social good heard how the reality today, for a domestic abuse service set up in the 1970s, is that funders are generally not prepared to look at the organization’s action plan in its totality. as a result, the focus lannon & walsh project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20166 (page number not for citation purposes) at operational level is on prioritizing specific projects, seeking funding to implement these, and then moving on to the next projects (angland 2014). this strategy is based on a combination of capital projects (for example, refurbishing a hall to develop a therapeutic/ educational centre), service delivery projects (including a review of existing services toward working with ex-residents), and organizational development projects (including an initiative to increase funding levels within the organization to enable it to carry out the capital and service delivery projects). as explained by angland (2014), responsibility for the management of service delivery and organizational development projects was delegated to the manager of the relevant department within the organization, while the management of overarching capital projects rested with the director of services, who also had responsibility for accessing funding for these projects. while needs continue to be identified, and projects to respond to these needs continue to be prioritized, the possibility of implementing these projects is determined primarily by the capacity of the organization to access appropriate funding. for the organization, this availability of funding, rather than the need for the project, very often dictates if and how the project will be undertaken. the increasing emphasis on projects in organizations right across the nonprofit spectrum has come about in parallel with the emergence of projectification as a phenomenon in other sectors. this is a process of change toward management by projects that is seen as offering flexible, less bureaucratic structures. the concept was introduced over 20 years ago by christophe midler, through his research into how industrial firms were implementing fundamental organizational changes in order to increase the efficiency of their product development processes (midler 1993, 1995). since then, the boundaries of what constitutes project work have been expanding, and the establishment of programs containing multiple projects, and of portfolios of programs, has become commonplace as a means of managing work (maylor et al. 2006). and like organizations in the private and public sectors, many npos have undergone significant organizational change in this regard in recent years. projectification and programmification (maylor et al. 2006) not only influence the operation of the organizations themselves, they also impact on society by forming a project-orientated social order (czibere 2014). the discursive societal processes through which projects and project-like circumstances are institutionalized (packendorff & lindgren 2014) are in evidence in international development, the delivery of support services, social entrepreneurship, sporting bodies, and a myriad of other nonprofit contexts. exploring these contexts through case studies and academic articles, as we do in this special issue, can help to inform practice across all sectors and illustrate some of the challenges that are now appearing in other project environments. learning from project management in the nonprofit sector the contributions to this special issue offer the potential to not only extend the application of discursive analysis of projects, but to also reverse the dominant flows of scholarly and practice-based knowledge between the business and nonprofit worlds. as we have argued earlier, engagement with external perspectives has the ability to open up new opportunities for research. in the project management discipline, the need to engage in learning between sectors and fields is already recognized (söderlund 2011; gauthier & ika 2012). so too are the opportunities for practitioners to benefit from examination of issues like participation and control, and from explorations of how real rather than reported value and success can be understood (lannon et al. 2016). reinvigorating project management research and practice project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20167 (page number not for citation purposes) project management has proved beneficial in circumstances in which complex and extraordinary business tasks are to be managed (cicmil et al. 2009). having reached maturity in this context it now needs to consider organizational and societal contexts in which: (i) stakeholder requirements are more complex, ambiguous, multiple, and potentially conflicting; (ii) there is more ambiguity around the aims and objectives, and around what are regarded as successful outcomes to the work; and (iii) projects built upon and extending work undertaken on earlier projects, and projects that lead to further phases of endeavour rather than being ends in and of themselves. there is also a need to widen the value of project management from a control mechanism to one that can take into account the notion of slack, and can accommodate negotiated rather than best practice (lannon et al. 2016). such challenges are particularly acute in the nonprofit sector, where the fundamental importance of relationships and agency as a means toward successful outcomes must be balanced with the results-driven imperatives that are increasingly becoming the determinants of success. the explorations of project management in nonprofit settings in this special issue bring these challenges into focus. the lead case study looks at concern worldwide (www.concern. net), an organization whose mission is “to help people living in extreme poverty achieve major improvements in their lives which last and spread without ongoing support from concern” (concern worldwide 2015). its projects focus on areas such as health, education, nutrition, and food security. in 2015, it had 2,660 project staff in the field, responding to 42 emergencies in 24 countries and providing support for 7.6 million people in 28 countries. the article looks at concern’s realigning agriculture to improve nutrition (rain) project in zambia. in it, maturri and pain note that ngo donor requirements tend to militate toward projects that are managed in a siloed way, as these are easier to administer. they also point out that there are lessons to be learned, as well as challenges for managing projects that bring various technical specialists together in a collaborative and coordinated rather than siloed manner. this case illustrates how the use of project management frameworks have the ability to significantly affect the way in which an npo is structured in response to needs from the external environment. given the application of a project management perspective, it is not surprising that some of the central issues raised are similar to for-profit organizations: for example, the need for centralized strategic leadership and internally strong leaders, and the need for plans and roles to be jointly developed and agreed among varied stakeholders. visser’s study of a large-scale collaborative project called the advocacy initiative examines a temporary, rather than permanent, organization that sought to reframe relationships with the state, involving many diverse civil society partners and policymakers. findings centre on building a sense of community among project partners; negotiating devolved ownership of a diverse program of work while maintaining overall coherence; and balancing inward focus while reaching out to engage external stakeholders, through building their confidence and capacity. as a temporary organization it followed the typical project phases (initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing), providing a structure within which to create a sense of coherence among the diverse stakeholder viewpoints. as in the concern case study, a project management perspective helped the advocacy initiative in dealing with a key challenge, that of overcoming existing silos. in the third case study in this issue, mckiernan et al. use trocaire as a case through which to adapt a results based management approach to the nonprofit sector, necessitated over the past decade as a result of pressure to show the effectiveness and results of aid. they consider how results are defined and managed throughout a program cycle. they examine trócaire’s www.concern.net www.concern.net lannon & walsh project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20168 (page number not for citation purposes) journey in adopting results based management, and identify the key success factors and positive results for the organization. the case studies confirm that project management can provide a valuable way of coping with the complexity of work and external requirements present in a nonprofit environment. however, they also demonstrate that, if used uncritically and if reenacted recursively and unreflectively over time, project management has the potential to result in the functional, instrumental view of the world which was alluded to by cimcil & hodgson (2006). having achieved the expected first-order effects from project management, practitioners and researchers therefore need to also be sensitive to second-order effects brought about by underlying assumptions that can be both subtle and unacknowledged. the article by reddington et al. echoes some of what is found in the preceding case studies, insofar as it is concerned with increasing levels of engagement in a community where there was a variety of stakeholders with multiple, often unstated agendas, and with the application of formal techniques in this environment. the way in which the various techniques were instantiated in practice was unique and showed that formal methods can be applied successfully through high levels of bottom-up rather than top-down participation. while cimcil & o’laocha (2014) argue that instrumental approaches present dilemmas, particularly in relation to agency, the reddington et al. study illustrates that the techniques can in fact become a means of developing agency among participants, rather than divesting them of it. rather than suppressing autonomy and leading to marginalization (hodgson & cicmil 2007), the formal methods were used as a way of moving participants from an initial position of “learned helplessness” by increasing their levels of reflexivity and agency. lacerda et al. use a case study to examine project portfolio management in an npo. they provide a comparative analysis of project portfolio management models based on a review of literature, and propose a model to identify how npos can best manage a portfolio of projects. six of their seven dimensions are derived from the project management literature, namely: strategic alignment, definition and allocation of resources, project classification, project evaluation, project selection and prioritization, and portfolio control. for each dimension the authors identify a number of possible elements, and then identify the elements that are relevant for their nonprofit context. the study is a good example of researchers seeking to adapt project management concepts to a new context. as such it provides a developmental trajectory for project management research that involves identifying which dimensions are universally applicable, and which concepts need to be modified and nuanced, in order to make project management more beneficial to a range of contexts and sectors. to draw again on the information systems analogy, the development of enterprise resource planning software balances standard core modules, applicable to any firm, with industry-specific adaptations and modifications enabling more nuanced research and practice. while such customizations make the software more relevant to individual firms, there is a need to critically consider the underlying assumptions and effects of such software at a broader societal level (walsham 2002). so too with project management, there is a need to not only adopt and adapt methodologies and techniques, but to also question their wider implications more deeply. bogacz-wojtanowska and jalocha look at projectification in the social economy from this broader perspective, by drawing on 36 case studies of existing social enterprises. their work provides an insight into how projectification, influenced by european union policies, changed the landscape for social enterprises in poland. they argue that projectification is now treated as a natural phenomenon across a wider range of human activity, with the principles and procedures of project thinking increasingly being imposed. they find that this reinvigorating project management research and practice project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20169 (page number not for citation purposes) positively influences the development of (european union funding related) sustainable social enterprises, with projects often seen by members as an instrument through which to start their activities. they also find that the firms they investigated did not submit to projectification pressure or domination from a project approach, again raising the issue of agency in a project environment. finally, ang et al. open up new avenues of inquiry through an investigation of how value constructs are identified in portfolios, using an in-depth case study of two interrelated organizations. in examining the complexity of multiple stakeholder value perspectives, they consider similar issues to those present in some of the other case studies (matturi and pain, visser). however, this article examines historical perspectives on the nature of an underlying concept of value in decision-making in project management contexts. the authors find that value, as described by various stakeholders in nonprofit scenarios, can be categorized under seven different value perspectives. this typology has the potential to change how managers understand what is an underlying concept in project management. the article exemplifies how, as we argued earlier, drawing on concepts and theories from other disciplines has the potential to reduce the reliance on an overarching orthodoxy, sensitizing both academics and practitioners to new phenomena that, over time, can lead to the development of alternative perspectives. these articles provide a range of examples of npos that have adopted project management methodologies, receiving benefits from the structure that imposes, and using the formal methods to overcome rather than reinforce marginalization and a lack of agency. there are also examples of adaption as well as adoption of project management principles. together the contributions not only seek to develop more nuanced, sector-specific operational models, but also consider wider implications such as the effects of projectification, as well as integrating external concepts in order to reexamine and theorize underlying project management concepts. looking forward the discipline of project management has enabled organizations to meet the challenge of complexity by rationally managing the coordination of interrelated activities to achieve a defined goal. projectification, also drawing on the notion of rationality, provides a level of control while offering flexible, less bureaucratic structures. but it also shapes the way people, organizations, and society understand and describe what they do, by imposing ways of working that are constraining as well as enabling. in this editorial, we have argued for both researchers and practitioners to look beyond what is already accepted in the discipline and to suggest possible avenues for future developments. one way of achieving this is to look outside project management research to developments in related domains. we chose information systems since, like project management, it not only has the ability to coordinate complex tasks through a reliance on structural methodologies, but also has the potential to constrain reflexivity and individual action, subordinating them to the requirements of a highly codified way of doing things. both domains were similar in their early stages, with research taking an initially positivist perspective, which resulted in the constraint of human action, as well as a marginalization of agency and reflexivity. in the information systems discipline, there was a move from functionalist deterministic claims to a view that gave more priority to human agency, with the meanings and uses of technology being neither fixed nor neutral but open to continual and emergent shaping within particular contexts and cultures: a move with similarities to lannon & walsh project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201610 (page number not for citation purposes) developments in project management. but while it is valuable such a move carries with it the risk, as in the information systems discipline, of emphasising the human and social, with the physical and material aspects of technologies being reduced or ignored. the sociomaterial perspective that was developed in response to this shows the natural development and changes in perspectives within a domain. in addition to the value of new perspectives in altering dominant paradigms and questioning assumptions, the types of issues raised by recent empirical work that draws on sociomateriality are of relevance to the project management discipline. indeed one of the first works to address the implications of sociomateriality, and its emphasis on the inextricability and inseparability of the social and the material, looked at how troubled software projects survive and result in working information systems (wagner et al. 2010). by framing strategies for project survival they shifted the discourse from best practice to negotiated practice. agency is seen as an enactment rather than what someone has (leonardi 2013). this was also examined by venters et al. (2014) in their study of digital coordination, leading them to examine how agencies (both human and non-human) for coordination are temporally embedded, identifying three coordination tensions. finally, researchers and educators should take the opportunity to examine how best to apply the techniques, methodologies, and lessons from the nonprofit sector in other contexts. some work has already been done in the area: for example, ssegawa & muzinda’s (2016) case study in which the results-based management approach was used to guide the delivery of a business project in botswana; or franks’s (2007) work on regeneration projects, which explores the similarities with “ill-structured” international development projects. in selecting papers for this special issue, we sought to move this developmental agenda for project management forward. the case studies and papers illustrate how project management principles and methodologies can be applied in varying ways to a relatively new domain, which we argue possesses unique characteristics: the nonprofit sector. they demonstrate the potential for successful application of managerialist and instrumental approaches, in contexts where the “social” is paramount, but they also indicate the need to question prevailing assumptions and to be mindful of the broader societal implications of adopting these approaches. about the authors john lannon is based at the centre for project management (cpm) in the university of limerick where he is programme director of the centre’s online msc in project and programme management. his primary research interest is in the behaviour and needs of organisations and movements that aim to deliver positive social change, with a focus on projects as a form of organising, the use of information communications technologies (icts), sharing and re-use of knowledge, stakeholder engagement, accountability and impact assessment. in recent years he has been involved in a number of initiatives with non-governmental organisations, looking at how best to address the challenges they face. before joining the academic world john worked in the it sector, first as a software designer and developer and then as a project manager mostly in the telecommunications and enterprise solutions sectors. john n. walsh is a lecturer in information management in the kemmy business school, university of limerick. he received his phd from brunel university for work that examined the effects of social practices on knowledge management repository re-use. his research reinvigorating project management research and practice project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201611 (page number not for citation purposes) interests focus on the socio-material and organisational effects of knowledge sharing in computer mediated environments. references angland, j. 2014, ‘project management approach in adapt domestic abuse services’, paper presented at delivering social good: managing projects in the non-profit sector, university of limerick, ireland, 20–21 october 2014. barley, s.c. 1986, ‘technology as an occasion for structuring: evidence from observations of ct scanners and the social order of radiology departments’, administrative science quarterly, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 78–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2392767 barley, s.r. 1988, ‘technology, power, and the social organization of work’, research in the sociology of organizations, vol. 6, pp. 33–80. beck, t.e., lengnick‐hall, c.a. & lengnick‐hall, m.l. 2008, ‘solutions out of context: examining the transfer of business concepts to nonprofit organizations’, nonprofit management and leadership, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 153–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/nml.213 berg, m. 1997, ‘of forms, containers, and the electronic medical record: some tools for a sociology of the formal’, science, technology, & human values, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 403–33. http://dx.doi. org/10.1177/016224399702200401 bijker, w.e., hughes, t.p. & pinch, t. 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graduate program, uninove universidade nove de julho, são paulo, brazil. corresponding author: cristina dai prá martens, professor, management graduate program, uninove universidade nove de julho, são paulo, brazil. cristinadpmartens@gmail.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5120 project management research and practice vol. 3 july-dec. 2016 © 2016 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: lacerda, f. m., martens, c. d. p. & freitas, h. m. r. 2016. a project portfolio management model adapted to non-profit organizations. project management research and practice, 3, 5120. http:// dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp. v3i0.5120 published by uts epress | http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts. edu.au synopsis as they strive toward greater professionalism in carrying out their activities, nonprofit organizations have begun paying attention to project management. the nonprofit sector has also begun to adopt strategic planning techniques, making the acceptance of project portfolio management methodology a natural consequence. this article aims to propose a project portfolio management model adapted to the context of nonprofit organizations. research design as research strategy we used the exploratory case study approach, adopting qualitative analysis. the data was collected through participant observation, document analysis, and in-depth interviews. in order to treat and triangulate the data, we applied the general strategy of case description and the analytical technique of pattern-matching. a project portfolio management conceptual model was proposed, based on the literature, with the following dimensions: strategic alignment, resources definition, project classification, project evaluation, project selection and prioritization, portfolio control, and resources allocation. we used this initial conceptual model to compare and analyze the procedures adopted in the case studied. relevance for practice and education in practical terms, the final proposed model includes elements that could be used as drivers for project portfolio management practices, as well as for developing strategy, mission, vision, and objectives in nonprofit organizations. 21 3 declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding this research had financial support from brazilian institutions: cnpq – national council for scientific and technological development, capes – coordination for the improvement of higher education personnel, and fap/uninove. 1 (page number not for citation purposes) mailto:cristinadpmartens@gmail.com http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5120 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5120 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5120 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5120 http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au lacerda, martens & de freitas project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20162 (page number not for citation purposes) main findings empiric analysis of the initial conceptual model allowed us to verify the applicability of the dimensions and suggest new elements, words, and nomenclatures, revealing an additional dimension called fund-raising. the model developed from the literature evolved into a proposed new model adapted to the context studied, comprising seven dimensions, six of which originated in the literature and one in the organizational practices identified by the study. keywords project portfolio management, project management, nonprofit organizations, third sector type empirical introduction despite the peculiarities inherent in the management models employed by for-profitoriented organizations, they can be relevant to the management of the emerging nonprofit sector (heinzen, rossetto & altoff 2013). academic efforts have come to understand the management characteristics and needs of organizations that compose the nonprofit sector (golini, kalchsmidt & landoni 2015; heinzen, rossetto & altoff 2013; fischer & mendonça 2002; soares & melo 2010), that is, nonprofit organizations (npos). npos have become interested in project management, insofar as many of them act through projects. however, the difficulty of interaction among scholars of the social field and authors of the project management methodology (ruggeri 2011), apparently due to an incompatibility of visions, concepts, and cultures (unger, rank & gemünden 2015), can contribute to the nondevelopment of this relationship. antunes, loos & miguel (2012, p. 58) have pointed out that “the implementation of a portfolio management process is a difficult task in an organization, both conceptually and operationally.” although the project portfolio management (ppm) knowledge area has been explored (unger, rank & gemünden 2015; antunes, loos & michael 2012; castro & carvalho 2010a; rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005), an analysis of ppm models identified in the literature led us to conclude that they have not been developed or replicated in npos. thus, the need arose to verify the applicability of these models within the context of these organizations, even if only one of the identified models has applicability to the nonprofit sector. within this context is the brazilian medical association (bma), which promotes projects for the study, discussion, improvement, and dissemination of issues around scientific and ethical standards, relating to the 53 nonprofit medical specialties recognized in brazil. by definition, associations are groups of people gathered in defense of common interests (corrion 2000). projects carried out by the bma focus on the training and professionalization of physicians, as well as on social issues and public health policies, among others. many bma projects depend on private and public financial resources. this study aimed to investigate ppm practices for npos, given that studies under this approach are considered incipient, especially in the bma. it seeks to answer the following a project portfolio management model adapted to non-profit organizations project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20163 (page number not for citation purposes) research question: how can an npo best manage its project portfolio? it has the objective of proposing a ppm conceptual model adapted to the context of npos. the results present a model that includes the ppm dimensions applicable to the sector. this study contributes to the knowledge of portfolio management practices in organizations, collaborating to meeting the application gap of ppm in npos (rocha et al. 2009; ruggeri 2011). following this introduction, subsequent sections discuss the literature on the subject and the research method, and then present an analysis of results, important situations for the model proposition, and closing remarks. literature review this section describes conceptual aspects of project management systems suited to the nonprofit context, and then discusses ppm and its dimensions. management systems in npos management in the nonprofit sector is a strategic issue related to efficient operation and effective performance in accomplishing missions and goals (moxham 2014; machado, francisconi & chaerki 2007; albuquerque 2006). in this sense, falconer (1999) identified four dimensions needed to develop management that can be generalized to the sector as a whole: stakeholder accountability, sustainability, service quality, and articulation capacity. among these dimensions we emphasize stakeholder accountability, which refers to the organization’s need for transparency and accountability in rendering accounts to its various stakeholders that hold a legitimate interest (moxham 2014; falconer 1999). there is also a need for greater professionalization of fund-raising activities, so that the npos can compete, avoid a decline in resources, and meet the requirements for project approval (santos et al. 2008). for these authors, the relationship with sponsors and partners should also be enhanced, and projects should be carried out with consideration of the interest of the funding body, while maintaining a relationship with the organization’s mission. however, even with multiple funding sources, many projects planned by npos are not carried out; they are rejected by financing institutions due to lack of specificity regarding the objectives, impacts, activities, results, and benefits of the project (santos et al. 2008). a study developed by borges & costa filho (2010) points out that npos have shown receptiveness to the new dynamics of management, guided by efficiency and focus on timely results. the authors also state that the adoption of a model is not just a strategic tool for these organizations, but a condition of existence and survival. because their function is of public interest, it is important that npos cultivate transparency regarding their project portfolio (marcovitch 1997), as well as results achieved and resources allocated (kaplan 2001; marcovitch 1997), which further enhance the effective and transparent implementation of their resources (moxham 2014; oliveira, ross & altimeyer 2005). in this sense, the following discussion considers ppm and dimensions related to the operational, tactical, and strategic levels of organizations. project and project portfolio management the concept of projects has evolved over time (antunes, loos & miguel 2012). today, a project is defined as a temporary endeavor and a process undertaken to reach a specific purpose under the constraints of time, budget, and other resources (project management institute, or lacerda, martens & de freitas project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20164 (page number not for citation purposes) pmi, 2008; kerzner 2006). the focus of project management is relatively new, being applicable to any timely initiative related to a specific goal. recent years have seen a rapid growth and acceptance of project management (kerzner 2006; antunes, loos & miguel 2012), and the tools, methodologies, and management approaches that make up the discipline have been applied to different areas, different purposes, and different cultures (pmi 2008; ruggeri 2011). more and more organizations are embracing project management, mainly as a means to better planning (kerzner 2006; ruggeri 2011). pmi-rio’s methodology (pmi – rio de janeiro 2008), the standard for project management in the nonprofit sector, proposes five steps for planning and managing a project: project proposal, fund-raising, project execution, project monitoring and control, and project closure. the fund-raising step, divided into the processes of planning fund-raising, conducting fund-raising, and signing agreement(s) with investor(s), makes clear the adaptation of the methodology for organizations in the nonprofit sector. project-oriented organizations must be careful to define the type and number of projects they can perform with available resources, which has led to the adoption of ppm methodology (kerzner 2006). ppm covers different stages of decision, so projects that add value to an organization can be selected, prioritized, and balanced (unger, rank & gemünden 2015; padovani, carvalho & muscat 2010). it is a continuous process of decision-making to select and keep the best initiatives (project mix), and carry out projects that are strategically aligned with the organization’s goals (unger, rank & gemünden 2015; gutiérrez & magnusson 2014; almeida & almeida 2013). antunes, loos & miguel (2012, p. 67) point out that, “the successful implementation of the portfolio management model depends on the choice of project selection criteria. each organization should define the importance of each criterion to its business despite the standard criteria extant in the literature.” in the conceptual framework proposed by castro & carvalho (2010b), the ppm activities are related to seven dimensions (figure 1). in figure 1, the strategic alignment dimension is highlighted as being implied in the conceptual framework. next, we approach each ppm dimension, based on the study by castro & carvalho (2010b). strategic alignment dimension when aligned with the organization’s strategies, a project portfolio contributes to the achievement of strategic goals and objectives (rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005; rocha et al. 2009). the definition of the decision criteria that will be used for decision-making may vary according to the type of project and type of organization (castro & carvalho 2010a). knowledge of business models, strategic elements, and project evaluation methodology is important in order to frame the projects and evaluate them properly (rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005). resources definition dimension this dimension seeks to select the number of projects, considering the resources available, and may use methods that enable analysis and balance between resource capacity and project demands (de maio, verganti & corso 1994; archer & ghasemzadeh 1999; cooper, edgett & kleinschmidt 2001; castro & carvalho 2010a). the aim is to minimize the error of committing to projects with limited availability of human, financial, and material resources (kerzner 2006). a project portfolio management model adapted to non-profit organizations project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20165 (page number not for citation purposes) project classification dimension organizations can classify their projects in different ways (castro & carvalho 2010a). projects must be grouped into categories according to their relevance to the business so that filters or criteria can be applied for evaluation, selection, prioritization, and balancing of the portfolio (pmi 2008; rocha et al. 2009; castro & carvalho 2010a). project evaluation dimension the use of project evaluation techniques depends on the needs of each organization, and may involve evaluating different attributes (castro & carvalho 2010a). in this dimension, a prioritized list of projects is established (rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005). some researchers add to this dimension, citing the criteria of qualitative and quantitative analysis to assist decision-making around strategic adequacy (ghasemzadeh & archer 1999; rabechini, maximian & martin 2005; kerzner 2006; rocha et al. 2009; castro & carvalho 2010a). project selection and prioritization dimension this aims at a balanced project portfolio, considering the mission, vision, and strategy of the organization (cooper, edgett & kleinschmidt 2001; pmi 2008; rocha et al. 2009). it prioritizes the projects in an orderly manner in each strategic or financial category, and establishes an organizational focus (pmi 2008; rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005). projects must be compared with each other, and their priority defined by their importance and strategic contribution (cooper, edgett & kleinschmidt 2001; rocha et al. 2009; castro & carvalho 2010a). the involvement of senior management is critical (kerzner 2006). figure 1  dimensions of ppm source: adapted from castro & carvalho (2010b) lacerda, martens & de freitas project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20166 (page number not for citation purposes) portfolio control dimension this seeks to periodically monitor, control, and review the portfolio to ensure alignment of projects with organizational strategy, as well as with available resources, in an efficient manner (de maio, verganti & corso 1994; archer & ghasemzadeh 1999; rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005; pmi 2008). portfolio management also contributes to the use of different project control tools (rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005; castro & carvalho 2010a). resources allocation dimension several projects share the same resources, and the matrix allocation of resources has become common practice (castro & carvalho 2010a). resources allocation enables the creation of a portfolio management plan, which includes developing rules for adding new projects, as these will join the competition for the organization’s resources (rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005). strategy and resources allocation should be closely linked (cooper, edgett & kleinschmidt 2001). the relationship of these seven dimensions with operational, tactical, and strategic levels means the dimensions can be applied to various organizational contexts, whether for purposes of profit or other ends, such as those of the public and nonprofit sectors. in the case of npos, the seven ppm dimensions (heinzen, rossetto & altoff 2013; rocha et al. 2009) can provide the necessary clarifications, and the establishment of agreements and consensus reached by adopting open communication and decentralized execution of activities (fischer & mendonça 2002), without losing strategic focus on performance, transparency, mission, and social objectives (gutiérrez & magnusson 2014; moxham 2014; smith & melo 2010). conceptual model for studying ppm in organizations the literature review conducted for this study allowed us to identify eight conceptual models of ppm (de maio, verganti & corso 1994; archer & ghasemzadeh 1999; cooper, edgett & kleinschmidt 2001; rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005; kerzner 2006; pmi 2008; rocha et al. 2009; castro & carvalho 2010a). the models were selected according to their availability in the literature, scope, and notoriety. analysis of these models revealed that only the one proposed by rocha et al. (2009) presents adaptation characteristics for the nonprofit sector. however, this model is directed to organizations that fund projects, not to those that execute them, highlighting a gap in the literature on ppm models applicable to a large portion of npos. in general, the other models are all directed to the context of for-profit economic organizations. to perform a comparative analysis of the models it was necessary to define standardized dimensions, and we adopted those used by castro & carvalho (2010b): strategic alignment, resources definition, project classification, project evaluation, project selection and prioritization, portfolio control, and resources allocation. finally, the models were analyzed and compared in terms of common dimensions (implicit, explicit, or not foreseen), thus providing a foundation for consolidating the ppm conceptual model, consisting of elements proposed by the authors of the models in each of the seven dimensions, as shown in table 1. table 1 was used as a conceptual model of ppm in conducting the empirical study, forming the basis of the script for the semi-structured interviews. the method and research techniques used in this study are presented next. a project portfolio management model adapted to non-profit organizations project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20167 (page number not for citation purposes) table 1 ppm conceptual model ppm dimensions elements strategic  alignment 1) strategy definition as a pre-condition; 2) strategic roadmap; 3) portfolio matrix; 4) strategic planning; 5) weighted criteria for categorization; 6) top management participation; 7) visibility (image). resources  definition 1) knowledge of available resources; 2) participation of executives and managers in the definition of the resources capacity. projects  classification 1) limitation of available resources under consideration; 2) project categories created; 3) projects and ideas identified through brainstorming and surveys (market, customers, suppliers and literature). projects  evaluation 1) relevance and risk assessment; 2) adhesion to strategic focus; 3) feasibility study; 4) criteria definition; 5) quantitative analysis criteria (roi, npv, irr, ecv, dcf, decision tree); 6) productivity rate; 7) qualitative analysis criteria (technical, costs, term, quality, safety, legality and economic); 8) scoring models, 9) alignment with the third sector; 10) market survey. project  selection and  prioritization 1) observation of complex interaction between projects for selection; 2) ad hoc selection techniques; 3) scoring models; 4) ahp method; 5) sensibility matrix and analysis; 6) operationalization of mission, vision and strategy; 7) commercial success probability; 8) technical success probability; 9) bubble chart; 10) success indicators; 11) establishment of a prioritized list of projects; 12) senior management involvement; 13) analysis of selection criteria (subjective, objective, qualitative or intuitive); 14) determination of each project’s cost; 15) urgency and seriousness. portfolio  control 1) in-depth project planning; 2) periodic project monitoring and control; 3) adjustment to users’ criteria; 4) adjustment criteria to strategic changes; 5) performance evaluation; 6) hr competences for portfolio success and performance; 7) project management methodology; 8) the project management should be delegated to lower levels. resources  allocation 1) consideration of resource restrictions concerning type and total of projects; 2) analysis between active projects and new products (inserted projects); 3) allocation conducted by functional areas and other stakeholders. source: authors, based on eight models identified in the literature lacerda, martens & de freitas project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20168 (page number not for citation purposes) research method we used an exploratory qualitative research design (henry 2009) and conducted a single case study (flyvbjerg 2006) in the brazilian medical association (bma), an npo that brings together medical professionals. bma operates in the service sector, implementing multiple scientific, social, and institutional projects through public, private, and institutional partnerships. this study focused on an association that brings together about 16,000 ophthalmologists, chosen for its status as a federal public utility entity, active management culture, and projects that reinforce commitment to its mission. for data collection, we adopted multiple evidence sources (eisenhardt 1989): in-depth, semi-structured interviews, with a script based on the conceptual model shown in table 1; three-month observation of the routines, as well as the internal an external processes of the ophthalmology association; analysis of documents (constitution, bylaws, and reports from the quality management system) and records on file (financial and personnel databases and flowcharts). we interviewed four professionals linked to the association: two were former presidents and two were service providers; all were knowledgeable about the management practices of the association being studied and were considered experts (hair et al. 2007) in the context of medical associations. interviews lasting between 40 and 60 minutes were conducted in august 2013. the seven ppm dimensions were briefly defined, and then the interviewees were asked questions such as: how does this develop/apply in the organization, and what prevents the organization from developing/applying it? during the interviews, additional questions were asked (when necessary) and keywords that identified the dimensions were noted. the interviews were transcribed, listened to again, and validated by the researchers, after which we proceeded to the analysis. in analyzing the results, we initially performed data reduction and presentation, the design and pursuit of conclusions through transcription and individual reading of the interviews, as well as the notes taken during observation, in order to identify the seven ppm dimensions. next, interview extracts about each dimension were consolidated using the content analysis method (lee, liebenau & degross 1997). we subsequently adopted the general strategy of case description and the analytical technique of suitability to the standard, including a careful reading of the speeches to verify how the ppm system was developed in the organization. finally, we compared the procedures adopted in the case studied with the ppm dimensions of the conceptual model. analysis of the data collected through participant observation and analysis of documents, records on file, and excerpts from interviews led us to identify seven ppm dimensions. the converging of evidence in a triangular mode allowed data validation (eisenhardt 1989). we sought to exemplify how in practice those elements are applied in the organization, and identify situations that deserved to be included in or excluded from the model proposition. finally, we addressed highlighted situations in order to subsidize the model proposition adapted to the context of an npo. analysis of the results the analysis of the case study followed the conceptual model of ppm in the following dimensions: strategic alignment, resources definition, project classification, project evaluation, project selection and prioritization, portfolio control, and resources allocation. a project portfolio management model adapted to non-profit organizations project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20169 (page number not for citation purposes) strategic alignment dimension to analyze this dimension, we considered the following elements: strategy definition as a precondition, strategic map, portfolio matrix, strategic planning, weighted criteria for categorization, senior management participation, and visibility (image) (de maio, verganti & corso 1994; archer & ghasemzadeh 1999; cooper, edgett & kleinschmidt 2001; rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005; kerzner 2006; pmi 2008; rocha et al. 2009; castro & carvalho 2010a). no formal, structured methodology is used by the organization to define its strategies and compose its project portfolio. an informal dynamic does exist in which proposed projects and the history of projects already carried out are assessed, before new projects are included in the portfolio for the following year. however, this practice can be completely changed under new management, that is, with the election of a new executive board (every two years). despite not having autonomy for decision-making, the project department is responsible for strategic planning of projects and defining the portfolio. an advisory company for the medical association’s communication and marketing activities has contributed to effective strategic planning. annual satisfaction surveys are conducted with associates, to direct the actions of the organization, and with sponsors, who evaluate their investments and the benefits that projects provide. one respondent pointed out that “visibility, a guaranteed institutional image [...]” is a kind of return that the sponsor expects from a project. research results have partly been used in the strategic planning of projects. the following elements were neither identified in the practices nor mentioned in the interviews: strategic map, portfolio matrix, and weighted criteria for categorization. furthermore, these elements have no applicability in the context of the organization because of the lack of stakeholder knowledge (rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005), or even of acceptance by the board due to a technical impossibility of analysis (ruggeri 2011). clarity of strategic priorities on the part of directors and collaborators is strongly related to the scientific question (training and continuing education of associated physicians), which is the organization’s core activity in accordance with its constitution and bylaws. it should be noted that, according to one interviewee, “this lack of strategic planning is common among medical societies, as they have the same profile and [it is unusual] that an organization works with strategic planning effectively.” the strategic alignment dimension of ppm presented applicability through four of the elements provided in the conceptual model, in the context of a medical association: strategy definition as a precondition, strategic planning, senior management participation, and visibility (image). resources definition dimension analysis of this dimension considered the following elements: available resources must be known, and executives and managers must participate in defining resource capacity (de maio, verganti & corso 1994; archer & ghasemzadeh 1999; cooper, edgett & kleinschmidt 2001; kerzner 2006; castro & carvalho 2010a). according to the respondents, the resources are known, and there is no participation of employees in defining the resource capacity (which is viewed as insufficient). but given their knowledge of the organization’s routines and accumulated experience in various administrations, employees can contribute to reducing the possibility of a potential problem. lacerda, martens & de freitas project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201610 (page number not for citation purposes) considering a new president takes a few months to fully understand the functioning of the organization, this transition period could otherwise (without the employees’ contribution) compromise the achievement of goals set for a two-year term. the resources definition dimension for ppm has shown applicability through both elements provided in the conceptual model, in the context of a medical association: available resources must be known, and executives and managers must participate in defining resource capacity (except for the criterion “managers”). project classification dimension the following elements were analyzed in this dimension: consideration of the limitation of resources available, creation of project categories, and identification of projects and ideas through brainstorming and surveys (of the market, customers, suppliers, and the literature) (de maio, verganti & corso 1994; kerzner 2006; pmi 2008; rocha et al. 2009; castro & carvalho 2010a). the lack of an official categorization, despite being bound by statute, and its definition of objectives defined in the campaign platforms of the presidents, can endanger the continuity of the projects, and particularly the allocation of resources. the grouping of projects into categories, according to their relevance to the medical association, would allow further analysis in the effective implementation of strategies, as well as their actual contribution to the commercial relations and expectations of members identified in the respective surveys. an initial evaluation of project ideas is conducted by the project department. brainstorming meetings between employees in this department, directors, and other stakeholders can define and formalize a categorization and ways of grouping the projects. knowledge of the technical literature (industry regulatory standards) provides a basis for the meetings, composed by a group with heterogeneous knowledge of the association (directors, employees, and advisors). this practice is informal, and shared between the project department and marketing area in the preparation and presentation of the portfolio to the directors. the project classification dimension of ppm presented applicability through two of the elements set out in the conceptual model, in the context of a medical association: creation of project categories, and identification of projects and ideas through brainstorming and surveys (of the market, customers, suppliers, and the literature) (except for the criterion “suppliers”). project evaluation dimension the analysis of this dimension took into consideration the following elements: relevance and risk assessment, adherence to strategic focus, feasibility study, criteria definition, quantitative analysis criteria (return on investment, net present value, internal rate of return, discounted cash flow, and decision tree), productivity index, qualitative analysis criteria (technical, cost, term, quality, safety, legality, human resources, and economic), scoring models, alignment with the third sector, and market research (de maio, verganti & corso 1994; archer & ghasemzadeh 1999; cooper, edgett & kleinschmidt 2001; rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005; kerzner 2006; pmi 2008; rocha et al. 2009; castro & carvalho 2010a). evaluation of projects according to strategic priorities is discussed with the executive board, but does not always take place. the list of candidate projects is prepared annually and includes information about the goals, deadlines, technical specifications, quality, and running costs. however, there is no interest in direct participation of other areas of the organization in the evaluation of these projects. they are mainly analyzed using the element of qualitative analysis a project portfolio management model adapted to non-profit organizations project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201611 (page number not for citation purposes) criteria, both in the evaluation of individual projects and in the annual definition of the project portfolio. a careful analysis of the feasibility study element indicates that its applicability also occurs through the qualitative analysis criteria element. this similarity also takes place with the criteria definition element, because it presents a more generic spelling. the use and applicability of any technique or methodology for quantitative analysis criteria have not been identified, nor for productivity index and scoring models. the human resources element had real importance in the evaluation and implementation of projects. however, the alignment with the third sector element proposed in the model created by rocha et al. (2009) has applicability to organizations that fund projects, but not in the context of who executes them – in this case, the bma. the project evaluation dimension for ppm presented applicability through six elements provided in the conceptual model, in the context of a medical association: relevance and risk assessment, adherence to strategic focus, feasibility study, criteria definition, qualitative analysis criteria, and market research. projects selection and prioritization dimension the following elements were taken into consideration for this analysis: complex interaction among selection projects, ad hoc selection techniques, scoring models, the analytic hierarchy process (ahp) method, sensibility matrix and analysis, mission/vision/strategy operationalization, commercial success probability, technical success probability, bubble chart, indicators of success, establishment of a prioritized list of projects, involvement of senior management, analysis of selection criteria (subjective, objective, quantitative, or intuitive), determination of the cost of each project, and urgency and seriousness (de maio, verganti & corso 1994; archer & ghasemzadeh 1999; cooper, edgett & kleinschmidt 2001; rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005; kerzner 2006; pmi 2008; rocha et al. 2009; castro & carvalho 2010a). the main criteria adopted for selecting projects is the appreciation that members attach to the association’s lines of action. based on the survey results, project expectations and priorities are assessed, as well as the need for investment in realization and communication. projects are not placed in strict categories (strategic, financial, or organizational focus), allowing further analysis. financial analysis is done only by project budgets. run-time is considered in the selection and final prioritization, but not consistently, since projects that are at risk of not being completed in the specified period (annually) are also prioritized. overall, for selection and prioritization the association considers the history of projects within portfolios, performing individual analysis of projects, but does not verify the complex interaction among projects. likewise, it does not adopt the following elements: ad hoc selection techniques, ahp method, sensibility matrix and analysis, or bubble chart. as in the project evaluation dimension, the scoring models element showed no applicability. on the other hand, likelihood of technical success and determination of the cost of each project were not identified, because they are already practiced in the project evaluation dimension as one of the qualitative analysis criteria. the analysis of selection criteria (subjective, objective, quantitative, or intuitive) element proposed by kerzner (2006) shows similarity with the qualitative analysis criteria element (if the “quantitative” criterion is excluded). on the other hand, no success indicator is defined for the projects. what is measured in the survey is the rate of satisfaction of the ophthalmologists in relation to the performance of the directors of the medical association. lacerda, martens & de freitas project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201612 (page number not for citation purposes) the urgency and seriousness element proposed in the model created by rocha et al. (2009) had no applicability in the case studied for two reasons: the priority projects for the portfolio destined for sponsors did not have these characteristics; and the purpose of this element is directed to both the analysis of the generating cause of the project, which can result in damage or injury (seriousness), and the time allocated to handle or solve this question (urgency). even if projects are deemed urgent and serious, they are performed with the association’s own resources, or in some specific cases through public partnerships. the project selection and prioritization dimension for ppm presented applicability through five of the elements provided in the conceptual model, in the context of a medical association: mission/vision/strategy operationalization, commercial success probability, establishment of a prioritized list of projects, involvement of senior management, analysis of selection criteria (subjective, objective, quantitative, or intuitive) (except for the criterion “quantitative”). portfolio control dimension the following elements were analyzed in this dimension: detailed planning of projects, periodic project monitoring and control, adjustment criteria for users, adjustment criteria targeted to strategic changes, performance evaluation, human resources competences for portfolio success and performance, project management methodology, and delegation of project management to lower levels (de maio, verganti & corso 1994; archer & ghasemzadeh 1999; cooper, edgett & kleinschmidt 2001; rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005; pmi 2008; castro & carvalho 2010a). in the sponsorship contract, projects are listed and detailed in part with some technical specifications, delivery forecasting, and benefits to the sponsor. one respondent stated that “[...] a project needs to be very consistent, very well prepared, and then the project must be well-run [...].” after negotiating and formalizing the project portfolio by signing commercial sponsorship agreements, no exclusions or inclusions of projects occur in the contracts. thus, adjustments to the portfolio are made without taking into account the stakeholders (sponsors), thereby leaving the adjustment criteria for users element without a practical application. projects are partially monitored and controlled by the projects department, through a schedule model defined by the quality management system, but there are no performance evaluations. according to one respondent, “[...] despite not having a methodology in this assessment, nor of project management, they have numbers, opinions, concrete facts [management reports] showing the success or not of each project.” another respondent emphasized the importance of project management. in his words, “projects should be managed and accounted for individually. that’s the best way to have financial and accounting control of the entity.” likewise, financial resources allocated to carry out each project are not reassessed or changed during the project. however, changes in technical specifications may occur (number of pages, paper weight, and so on for a printed publication) to match project costs to financial income. possible changes in the forecast delivery period and institutional partnerships are related to the organization’s strategic and/or political issues. the project portfolio is managed by the project department, with the effective participation of the board of directors in the operating process for their implementation, while other departments are rarely involved. however, the response of an interviewee reinforced the importance of the involvement of other departments, stating that “time and energy are wasted, a project portfolio management model adapted to non-profit organizations project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201613 (page number not for citation purposes) and there is a lot of reworking of things that would be unnecessary if there were in fact a much more transparent dialogue between the departments involved in each project.” the portfolio control dimension for ppm presented applicability in seven of the elements provided in the conceptual model, in the context of a medical association: detailed planning of projects, periodic project monitoring and control, adjustment criteria for users, performance evaluation, human resource competences for the portfolio success and performance, project management methodology, and delegation of project management to lower levels. resources allocation dimension the elements analyzed in this dimension were: consideration of resource constraints on the type and total of projects, analysis of active projects and new products (inserted projects), and allocation made by the functional areas and other stakeholders (de maio, verganti & corso 1994; archer & ghasemzadeh 1999; cooper, edgett & kleinschmidt 2001; rabechini, maximiano & martins 2005; kerzner 2006; pmi 2008; castro & carvalho 2010a). after defining and formalizing the portfolio through contracts with sponsors, projects are neither cancelled nor added. for this reason, funds are not reallocated and departments do not compete with each other for resources. therefore, in the case studied, political games and conflicts in allocation do not arise, as predicted by castro & carvalho (2010a). projects are centered in the project department and may involve, sporadically, other sectors or even other organizations in the execution. these criteria have already been addressed in previous dimensions. the resources allocation dimension for ppm presented applicability through one of the elements set out in the conceptual model, in the context of a medical association: consideration of resource constraints on the type and total of projects. ppm conceptual model for npos it was evidenced at various times in the course of the interviews, as well as in the literature on management for the nonprofit context (pmi-rio 2008; ruggeri 2011), that the phase of capturing financial resources requires professionalism (machado, francisconi & chaerki 2007; santos et al. 2008) and defined processes (golini, kalchsmidt & landoni 2015; falconer 1999; oliveira, ross & altimeyer 2005; pmi-rio 2008). project management methodology in the nonprofit sector provides a specific step to raise funds, which should be started after the projects proposal has been completed, as this is a process that requires coordinated action with various areas of the organization (pmi-rio 2008). this observation was also identified in several excerpts from interviews during analysis of the results, as well as the importance of the relationship with and knowledge of the activities and realities of the potential sponsor, which is also corroborated by pmi-rio (2008). nevertheless, the need for npo transparency and accountability in rendering accounts to various stakeholders (falconer 1999; pmi-rio 2008), especially to sponsors of projects, tends to be critical to the continuity of commercial relations. several interviewee responses reinforced this point, including, “the best form of financial control of projects is through ‘segregated accounts,’ which helps to account to anyone.” in view of these reflections, a new dimension for ppm called fund-raising has been proposed, in the context of the organization studied. the elements composing this dimension are the three processes defined by pmi-rio (2008) for fund-raising – planning fund-raising, conducting fund-raising, and signing agreements with investors – insofar lacerda, martens & de freitas project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201614 (page number not for citation purposes) as they interact with the knowledge areas of project management. another suggested element is stakeholder accountability, proposed by falconer (1999) for the development of management of npos. importantly, of the seven dimensions in the ppm conceptual model resulting from the literature, the resources allocation dimension presented applicability through just one of the elements that comprise it (consideration of resource constraints on the type and total of projects). therefore, the purpose of this dimension and its only element (as identified in the practices of the organization studied) were added to the resources definition dimension to create an adjusted dimension: definition and allocation of resources. new elements have also been proposed for the conceptual model, based on the need to formally apply best practices in the business relationship, to compose the new fund-raising dimension table 2 presents the proposition of the ppm conceptual model adapted to the context of the medical association. it arose from the conceptual model consolidated from eight models identified in the literature, and the applicability analysis of the seven dimensions that comprise it. the practices observed in the organization were also taken into consideration, as well as the highlighted situations. in addition, new elements, words, and nomenclatures have been suggested, including a new dimension (fund-raising). the constitution and bylaws of the association were taken as a reference for the application of ppm. to highlight both the legal and practical purposes of the statutes and bylaws of the medical association studied, these documents have been added to the proposed model. they are not considered as a dimension, but must be adopted as a guiding base when applied to the seven dimensions of ppm proposals. this approach seeks to minimize political influences, as well as possible misconceptions that new directors may have around portfolio management processes, due to a lack of knowledge of the activities inherent to the entity. using these documents as a reference in the process also helps to support the continuity of projects during management change (every two years). therefore, the ppm model proposed here consists of seven dimensions: that is, six dimensions originating in the comparative analysis of models identified in the literature, which were considered applicable to the medical association being studied; and a new dimension, fund-raising, that has been proposed based on the analysis of the case study. from the dimensions portrayed in the study conducted by castro & carvalho (2010b), used as the basis for this study, it was also possible to propose the process for analyzing the ppm adapted to the context of a medical association, as shown in figure 2. the fund-raising dimension should start after the final definition of the projects, since there are no portfolio changes during negotiations with potential sponsors. final considerations this study aimed to contribute to ppm within the context of npos, resulting in the proposal of a ppm conceptual model adapted to the specific context of this type of organization. the seven dimensions that make up the model are composed of elements that enable ppm in an npo. for the practice of npo management, this study collaborates by proposing a ppm model grounded in the literature, but which is adapted to the reality of this type of organization. therefore, it considers the guiding principles of ppm, the specific characteristics of the sector, and the environmental and cultural contexts of medical associations. by adopting their a project portfolio management model adapted to non-profit organizations project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201615 (page number not for citation purposes) table 2 project portfolio management model adapted to npos basis ppm dimensions elements s o c ia l s ta t u t e s a n d in t e r n a l r u l e s strategic  alignment 1) strategy definition as a precondition 2) strategic planning 3) senior management participation 4) visibility (image) 5) consultation with associates definition and  allocation of  resources 1) available resources must be known and limitations considered 2) executives and managers must participate in defining resource capacity project  classification 1) creation of project categories 2) identification of projects and ideas through brainstorming and surveys project  evaluation 1) relevance and risk assessment 2) adherence to strategic focus 3) feasibility study defining qualitative analysis criteria (technical, cost, term, quality, safety, legality, human resource, and economic) project  selection and  prioritization 1) operationalization of mission, vision, and strategy 2) commercial success probability 3) success indicators 4) establishment of a prioritized list of projects 5) senior management involvement 6) analysis of selection criteria (subjective, objective, or intuitive) portfolio  control 1) in-depth project planning 2) periodic project monitoring and control 3) adjustment criteria targeted to strategic and political changes 4) performance evaluation 5) human resource competences for portfolio success and performance 6) project management methodology 7) delegation of project management to lower levels fund-raising 1) fund-raising planning 2) fund-raising implementation 3) signing of agreements with investors 4) stakeholder accountability source: authors. lacerda, martens & de freitas project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201616 (page number not for citation purposes) statutes as a guiding basis for portfolio management, the model can contribute both to the implementation and definition of strategies. the proposed model offers elements for directors, managers, and advisors in the nonprofit sector, which can be used as drivers for ppm practices, as well as for the deployment of strategic actions, missions, visions, and goals. these associations have similarities to one another in terms of types of projects, financial fund-raising modes, governance of statutes, compliance with technical standards, and regular changes in boards of directors. as an academic contribution, this study aimed to investigate ppm practices – since the theoretical and empirical studies under this approach are considered incipient – in the npo context and especially in medical associations, and to propose a model adapted to this reality. the ppm conceptual model presented here also contributes to academic studies insofar as it brings together the characteristics of the main models identified in the literature. the study has some methodological limitations. regarding respondents, if more directors had participated they may have contributed with other information that could eventually lead to the analysis of other elements. another researcher could define a different way of presenting the results, and identify further additions or deletions of words and elements in the model proposition. however, through the triangulation of data, we sought to suppress potential conflicts of interest in directors who were interviewed, and in the analysis and interpretation of results by researchers. for future research, an empirical study of the medical association studied is recommended in order to verify the adherence of the proposed model, and the way it has developed and contributed to ppm. the research strategy that could be adopted for this study would be that of “research-action”. the model can also be tested in other medical organizations and different professional associations. in addition, quantitative studies could assess the dimensions and elements proposed in the ppm model that resulted from this study, to verify their applicability in other npos. figure 2  dimensions for the analysis of ppm adapted for npos source: authors, inspired by castro & carvalho (2010b) a project portfolio management model adapted to non-profit organizations project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201617 (page number not for citation purposes) about the authors fabrício martins lacerda, phd student, management graduate program, uninove  universidade nove de julho, são paulo, brazil. master in business administration with emphasis on project management, uninove. cristina dai prá martens, professor, management graduate program, uninove universidade nove de julho, são paulo, brazil. phd in business administration information systems and decision support at ppga/ea/ufrgs (2009). post-doctoral year at cerag/ upmf – université pierre mendès-france (grenoble, france – 2010). henrique m r de freitas, professor, management graduate program, uninove – universidade nove de julho, são paulo, brazil. phd in mis from upmf / esa (grenoble, france, 1990-1993), post-doctoral year at the university of baltimore (md, usa, 19971998), and the upmf (grenoble, france, 2003-2004) (2012). acknowledgments this research had financial support from brazilian institutions: cnpq – national council for scientific and technological development, capes – coordination for the improvement of higher education personnel, and fap/uninove. references albuquerque, a.c.c. 2006, terceiro setor: história e gestão de organizações, 2nd edn, summus, são paulo, p. 152. 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(ed.) 2008, metodologia de gerenciamento de projetos no terceiro setor: uma estratégia para a condução de projetos, project management institute – rio de janeiro, brasport, rio de janeiro, p. 175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0103-65132005000300011 http://dx.doi.org/10.5700/rege383 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pmj.21458 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pmj.21458 project management research and practice vol. 5, no. 2018 © 2018 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: k. anderson and j. lannon, 2018. project management performance assessment in the non-profit sector. project management research and practice, article id 5910. https://doi. org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5910 issn 2207-1415 | published by uts epress | http://epress. lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index. php/pmpr/index research article (peer-reviewed) project management performance assessment in the non-profit sector katherine anderson1, john lannon1* 1centre for project management, kemmy business school, kb2/14, university of limerick, limerick, ireland. katieanderson1017@gmail.com. john.lannon@ul.ie *corresponding author: john lannon. john.lannon@ul.ie doi: https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5910 article history: received 04/02/2018; revised 05/11/2018; accepted 05/11/2018; published 30/01/2019 synopsis as the non-profit sector becomes increasingly dependent on projects to achieve its strategic goals, the use of formal project management processes can demonstrate to stakeholders that an organisation is taking steps to improve its performance. however, the adoption of processes drawn from the for-profit sector without examining their effectiveness can have detrimental effects. to help address this, a new model for project management performance assessment in non-profit organisations is proposed. relevance for practice education the proposed non-profit project management performance assessment(nppmpa) model draws on aspects of the european foundation for quality management (efqm) business excellence model, a project management performance assessment model best suited to for-profit environments, and criteria identified as particular to non-profit organisations. it is intended to guide practice, and organisations are encouraged to tailor to suit their own particular needs. research design the research is based on a theoretical study and analysis of existing models and frameworks that are relevant to project management performance assessment. declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 page number not for citation purposes https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5910 https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5910 http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/pmpr/index http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/pmpr/index http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/pmpr/index mailto:katieanderson1017%40gmail.com?subject= http://john.lannon@ul.ie http://john.lannon@ul.ie https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5910 main findings the increasing dependency on projects, coupled with the adoption of private sector practices in the non-profit sector, points to a growing need for effective project management performance. existing performance management systems and quality management systems are unsuitable for the implementation, measurement, and improvement of project management practices in the sector, so a new model is proposed. themes such as continuous improvement and organisational capacity informed the development of this new model. research implications further empirical research is recommended to test the applicability of the proposed nppmpa model and to further refine it in order to maximise its usefulness as a tool for performance improvement. keywords non-profit organisations, project management, performance assessment faced with the challenge of using finite resources to achieve ambitious objectives, non-profit organisations often seek to use managerial behaviours and processes from the private sector to become more efficient or effective. as a result of engaging with “business-like management” (dart 2004:301), they often become “more business-like in their operations and attitudes” (p. 209). one of the management practices that is garnering increased attention is project management as it allows organisations to “apply knowledge, processes, skills, tools, and techniques that enhance the likelihood of success over a wide range of projects” (pmi 2013, p. 15). introducing formal project management processes into a non-profit organisation (npo) can demonstrate to stakeholders that the organisation is taking steps to improve its performance, as the use of advanced management tools is seen as linked to higher levels of organisational effectiveness (herman and renz 2008). nonetheless, a lack of resources and experience often leaves npos without a framework to implement and improve their project management within their unique context (ospina et al. 2002). it can also lead to the implementation of for-profit management processes without taking the proper steps to ensure they are effective (dabbs 1991; eisenberg 1997) or that the organisation is ready to implement them (ospina et al. 2002). this, in turn, can lead to inadequate project planning, poor stakeholder engagement, and ineffective or non-existent risk management strategies. this ultimately leads to low impact, and wasted time and money (kelecktaite and meiline 2015). it is essential therefore that npos take the time to assess their project management performance, and that they have appropriate means to do so. project management performance assessment frameworks already exist, but none have been developed specifically for the nonprofit sector. this paper addresses this gap by presenting a proposed model for a non-profit project management performance assessment. it focuses on community-serving npos that provide human services to a community, either nationally or locally. as such it excludes international development organisations and other npos with global operations, as well as member-serving organizations such as cooperatives, trade unions, industry associations, and sports clubs. the paper begins with a review of literature related to non-profit sector management, measurement, and improvement systems, before looking at project management measurement anderson and lannon project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20182 page number not for citation purposes and improvement systems. current systems are analysed for applicability to npos, relevant concepts and frameworks are explored, and criteria for a useful framework are identified. the new model for npo project management performance assessment is then proposed, followed by conclusions, limitations, and considerations for future research. performance and quality management the complementary terms performance management and performance measurement are often misused or used interchangeably (hatry 2002; mchargue 2003). performance measurement defines explicitly the organisation’s “primary objectives and how to measure achievement of these objectives” while performance management specifies “the processes that generate performance and, hence, a specification of how management decisions can control performance” (speckbacher 2003:268). both lead to performance improvement in a range of managerial areas including accountability, capacity, effectiveness, efficiency, and quality (cairns et al. 2005; kong 2008). key stakeholder satisfaction is seen as the most important measure of success in the nonprofit sector (kaplan 2001; neely et al. 2002). it is also recognised as a vital element of success in the project management literature (nicholas 1989; wateridge 1995; atkinson 1999; tukel and rom 2001; bryde 2003), and forms the basis for the definition of quality in the quality management literature (bsi 1995; oakland 2000; evans and lindsay 1996; bsi 2000). this makes a connection between quality in private organisations and npos in the same way that bryde (2003) “makes a link between quality, project performance, and pm performance” through the common focus of meeting stakeholder requirements (p. 203). nonetheless, quality management has been criticised for having language that is unclear and inappropriate for use in npos, even when it is specifically developed for the non-profit sector (mctiernan 1998). performance management systems (pms) measure an organisation’s achievement toward “performance indicators [that] quantify the efficiency and effectiveness of service-delivery methods” (fine and snyder 1999, p. 24), while quality management systems (qms) refers to approaches to performance improvement that have a focus on management and improving service quality through meeting stakeholder needs (cairns et al. 2005). pms’s have been shown to improve management functions, with moynihan and ingraham (2004) finding that “setting strategic direction and obtaining performance data allows leaders to judge the performance of existing management systems, and make decisions on the reorganisation of the systems for the purpose of closer coordination and greater effectiveness” (p. 430). bryde (2003) asserts that a stakeholder’s definition of quality in the project environment is affected by the project and by project management performance. however, while pms research can contribute to understanding how to measure and improve npo performance, qms’s are considered more relevant to this study because of their focus on improving management quality and their ability to help implement project management. projects and project management in non-profit organisations one of the main things that set non-profit work apart from for-profit endeavours is that it is not always an economical and techno-scientific concern, but a moral–ethical concern, particularly when it signifies the ideals of social good and social action (cicmil & o’laocha 2016).“the inclination toward managerialist, technocratic, and instrumental approaches often presents dilemmas relating to the understanding of issues like success and failure, project management performance assessment in the non-profit sector project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20183 page number not for citation purposes accountability, risk sharing, and agency” (lannon & walsh, 2016).nonetheless, there are similarities between projects undertaken in for-profit organisations and npos. projects are “a singularly executed endeavour with a certain scope, quality, and a financial frame, with a beginning and an end, of particular complexity and interdisciplinary in character” (renz 2007, p. 13). they can be used as a catalyst for change in an npo and can assist in furthering the organisation’s strategic plan. indeed because of a scarcity in resources or funding, projects are often the only way an npo can accomplish something meaningful. nowadays executive positions in npos are increasingly being filled by people who bring a familiarity with business disciplines (myers and sacks 2003; leroux and wright 2010). however, it is essential to bear in mind that staff and volunteers may not have the experience or mindset to embrace the science or principles of project management. improving project management quality in the private sector, performance is often assessed by employing qms’s that focus on managing processes (freeman and beale 1992; pmi 2013) and aim to ensure the quality of a product. qms’s have also proven useful for implementing and improving project management performance (kerzner 1994; bryde 2003). bryde (2008) concludes that there is theoretical justification for creating a project management performance model because it can increase the likelihood of success by contributing to overall project satisfaction, and can benefit an organisation by ensuring client needs are met. total quality management (tqm) is a management approach that creates a focus on process management and a culture of continuous improvement and enables organisations to reflect on their project performance to find ways of improving their outcomes in the future (stamatis 1994; raine 2006). tqm has been linked to project management (broetzmann et al. 1995; choi and eboch 1998; hides et al. 2000; bryde 2003), and is seen as a relevant, holistic approach to performance improvement (sun 2000; slack et al. 2010) due to its inclusion of social and technical aspects (bou-llusar et al. 2009). another tool designed to assess project management performance is bryde (2003)’s project management performance assessment (pmpa) model (figure 1). this is intended as “a framework for identifying the characteristics of high performing and low performing pm performance” (p. 245). the model was a response to the lack of project management performance models that reflected the emerging multi-dimensional, multi-stakeholder perspectives on projects and project success. it is based on the european foundation for quality management (efqm) business excellence model which is a tried and tested quality award model to assess the progress of an organisation (hillman 1994). it can also be used as a diagnostic model for self-assessment or management control (wongrassamee et al. 2003). figure 1: the pmpa model (bryde, 2003) anderson and lannon project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20184 page number not for citation purposes the efqm business excellence model (figure 2) has been shown to increase quality awareness (vernero et al. 2007) and bring awareness and understanding toward continuous improvement to stakeholders (george et al. 2003). it consists of five enabler criteria that focus on organisational operations, and four results criteria that represent achievements for stakeholders. the enabler criteria are“leadership; people; strategy; partnerships and resources; and processes, products, and services; and the results criteria are people, customer, society, and business results” (efqm 2013). figure 2: the efqm model (efqm,2013) the efqm model is typically used when implementing business excellence concepts and tqm (doeleman et al. 2014). it is seen as an advanced tqm approach due to the inclusion of additional business management aspects, which also makes it more complex (bayomariones et al. 2010; gutierrez et al. 2010).the model is considered to be the gold standard for organisational self-assessment, and several models have been based on it including bryde (2003)’s pmpa model. the main difference between the pmrp and efqm models is that the former is modified to focus on assessing project environments and uses key performance indicators (kpis) instead of the original efqm model’s four results areas. there have been some research studies that validate its credibility and versatility. qureshi et al. (2007) tested it in several sectors in pakistan, finding that “the deployment of the pmpa model has a positive and significant impact over pm performance” (p. 385). din et al. (2010) adapted bryde’s original pmpa for the construction sector, mainly through the addition of financial management activities. they found that there was synergy between qms’s and project management in project-oriented organisations. bryde’s study also included data from government agencies. performance measurement systems in the non-profit sector npos have traditionally used external auditors to evaluate their organisations. nonetheless, self-assessment is becoming more common (ellis and gregory 2008). these give people the opportunity to voice concerns that they usually could not or will not put forward in the regular decision-making process, which in turns opens the door for learning, creativity and new ideas (paton et al. 2000). using qms’s for self-assessment in an npo enables the organisation to create a dialogue that “may or may not be productive, depending on how skilfully it is conducted, whether enough time and effort is afforded to it, and how willing those involved project management performance assessment in the non-profit sector project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20185 page number not for citation purposes are to think afresh and engage with the issues that arise” (paton et al. 2000, p. 31). the objective of a self-assessment is to find ways to improve while recognising and maintaining what is already going well (hillman 1994, p. 29). logic models are another common tool used by npos to measure and evaluate their performance (carman and fredericks 2008). using these to articulate a programme’s performance story helps meet accountability requirements while reflecting on measurement outcomes can guide continuous improvement (mclaughlin and jordan 1999). logic models can help staff understand the organisation’s theory of change and see which outcomes should be measured and why (savaya and waysman 2005). management is increasingly integrating these models into their practices in order to encourage quality awareness, harmonise the expectations of stakeholders, and encourage employee involvement in the improvement process (rojas 2000; tutuncu and kucukusta 2007; vernero et al. 2007; davies 2008). there are three main parts to a logic model: inputs, outputs, and outcomes. inputs are what is invested in the organisation. outputs are the activities, or tasks, undertaken by the organisation and the participation of stakeholders, while outcomes measure shortterm learning and awareness, medium-term action, decisions and policies, and long-term consequences (taylor-powell et al. 2003). there are some other performance measurement tools and techniques already in use in the non-profit sector. many of these put a strong focus on clients, the organisational mission, and continuous improvement. one approach, best practice benchmarking, is used by npos to compare their practices and processes against other organisations in order to improve their performance. according to leroux and wright (2010), “benchmarking against industry standards is a particularly common way to measure performance in child welfare and behavioral health (mental health and substance abuse) fields in particular”. a large percentage (almost half ) of “social service agencies collect data on industry best practices or benchmarks” according to carman (2007), cited in leroux and wright (2010), while over half (55%) of disability service organizations report doing so. kaplan’s (2001) balanced scorecard has also been adopted by the non-profit sector. this focuses on measuring the performance of the organisation in areas such as value, learning, and growth. the notion of measuring progress against achieving the organisational mission and creating a greater client focus is essential for measuring non-profit success, but the balanced scorecard is so broad and vague that organisations without trained project management staff may not know what to measure or how to define project management success. neely et al. (2002) suggest the performance prism as a comprehensive, multi-dimensional framework to create a balanced overview of an organisation’s performance that can be integrated throughout the organisation. it takes a stakeholder-focused stance and features five unique and interconnected performance perspectives: stakeholder satisfaction, capabilities, strategies, stakeholder contribution and processes (kennerley and neely 2002; neely et al. 2002). the performance prism assists in the identification of kpis and performance drivers that reflect stakeholder wants and needs through the use of workshops. however, there is low implementation in the non-profit sector (adams et al. 2001), and it is unclear if it can assist in implementing project management there. the practical quality assurance system for small organisations (pqasso) is a popular general quality system in the uk voluntary and community sector that explores aspects of an npo’s management and operations but misses the cultural approach of the efqm model (paton et al. 2000; cairns et al. 2005).also, some npos use generic qms’s and pms’s anderson and lannon project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20186 page number not for citation purposes that are commonly used across all sectors. these include iso 9000, quality mark, and the excellence model. off the shelf, in-house, and subsector systems (often developed by a national infrastructure body, for example, the uk’s quality in alcohol and drug services) are also often used by npos, but none have been adapted and verified to the extent of the efqm model (cairns et al. 2005). these tools can be useful for non-profits seeking an overall assessment of their progress towards achieving their organisational mission, but they are too general to measure project management performance as none of them take into account the unique needs of implementing, measuring and improving project management. however, the trend towards the adoption by npos of private sector strategies for social sector success (kearns 2000) suggests that qms’s like the pmpa model is expected to help improve project management implementation. this and the fact that the concepts of tqm have been shown to be applicable in the context of the non-profit sector (kerzner 1994; bryde 2003) indicate that the pmpa model provides a valid basis for a project management performance assessment model for the non-profit service delivery sector. proposed non-profit project management performance assessment model the proposed non-profit project management performance assessment (nppmpa) model (figure 3) is based on the efqm model, the pmpa model, and other criteria identified as particular to npos. the model is made up of five enabler activities: project management leadership and board; project management internal stakeholders; project management policy, strategy, and mission; project management partnerships and resources; and project management life cycle process management. there are three results areas: client and society kpis; staff and volunteer kpis; and funder, partner and organisational kpis. in this model, the project management leadership and board enables the internal stakeholders to achieve the results through the other activities. after using the model, npos can reflect on their performance, create an improvement plan, and use the model again to test their progress. figure 3: the proposed nppmpa model project management performance assessment in the non-profit sector project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20187 page number not for citation purposes the model is multi-dimensional, flexible, and accounts for multiple stakeholder views. qms models should be tailored for context and have a clear purpose as they “can be and are used in quite different ways and for different internal purposes; within a single organisation the manner of and rationale for use may change over time or differ between subunits” (paton 2003, p. 27). the nppmpa model allows for modification, as different organisations may require different approaches. as micheli and kennerley (2005) note, performance measurement should be modified for different organisations and internal capabilities should be developed in order to be able to manage it over time better. npos operate within complicated environments with several competing stakeholders. these include donors, agencies, governments, the board of directors, volunteers and clients. some stakeholders provide resources and legitimacy to npos, and by their nature, the judgements of performance by some are seen as more credible and influential than others. at times excess of stakeholder input can make measuring performance more reactive than strategic, causing the process to be a drain on resources, especially if the stakeholder is requesting something the npo cannot, or feels it should not provide (radnor and mcguire 2004; balser and mcclusky 2005; moxham 2009). formal and informal mechanisms for managing stakeholder relationships can help npos respond to stakeholder pressures (ospina et al. 2002). thus they may benefit from conducting a stakeholder analysis to assess the roles of stakeholder groups and to assign weights to the results kpis accordingly. cairns et al.(2005) found that stakeholders should be involved from the early stages of developing and implementing a pms to help see the benefits and to understand how it will work within the organisational culture (sanger 2008). the organisation should “identify strategies to maximise the benefits associated with including various stakeholders [...] in the process of defining outcomes and developing” the system (carnochan et al. 2014, p. 1029). cultivating relationships and improving two-way communication channels with stakeholders is important (drucker 1990; ospina et al. 2002) and building trust is an important strategy for the creation of social capital (balser and mcclusky 2005). staff commitment to the organisational structure is more important than the type of structure adopted (kushner and poole 1996). fortunately, the “efqm model’s participative application approach promotes commitment to the arrangements and thereby the realisation of the intended improvements” (doeleman et al. 2014, p. 457). npos should also recognise their obligation to make decisions proactively to balance responding to stakeholder expectations with the organisation’s capacity, resources, and understanding of what is an appropriate activity (oliver 1991; romzek 1996). creating shared subjectivity of evaluation criteria through the continuous use and discussion of the evaluation process can increase constructiveness and benefits (tassie et al. 1996). this can be complicated by the interconnectedness of stakeholder groups, as they are rooted in environments where npos cannot always manage their communication (balser and mcclusky 2005). nonetheless, npos must guide stakeholder expectations with their mission, values, and capabilities in order to increase the chances of being seen as an effective organisation that is responsive to the public interest and stakeholder needs (balser and mcclusky 2005). nppmpa model enablers the first part of the proposed nppmpa model is the enabler criteria, which detail what the organisation does to obtain their results. in the efqm model, enablers “are those processes anderson and lannon project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20188 page number not for citation purposes and systems that need to be in place and managed to deliver total quality” (hillman 1994, p. 29), or in this context, high-quality project management. project management leadership and board the efqm model explains that leaders champion the implementation and awareness of tqm, adding that “they are flexible, enabling the organisation to anticipate and react in a timely manner to ensure the on-going success of the organisation” (efqm 2013, p. 4). bryde (2003) changed the original criteria of “leadership” to “pm leadership,” to reflect the need for leadership to encourage the development of project management and a projects culture in the organisation, and to promote the role of projects for managing business change. there is also a need to incorporate the role of the board of trustees into the leadership criteria due to their influence on the everyday management of operations and their role in constructing and reviewing strategies (al-tabbaa et al., 2011).for an improvement system to succeed, there had to be a top-down commitment, including the involvement of the board, to managing the organisation in a new way, beyond simply supporting its use (kaplan, 2001). otherwise, there is a risk that over time an organisation can become complacent and lose focus of their critical success factors and kpis. gutierrez et al. (2010) found that the various degrees of organisational development necessary to implement the efqm model made it complex to apply and thus required a stronger commitment than other quality systems. to be effective, management must have an intrinsic motivation for performance improvement (heras-saizarbitoria et al. 2011), and they must spark an interest in education and research within other internal stakeholders to tap their full potential (osseo-assare et al. 2005). by having a senior member of management be a “quality champion,” the organisation can establish the importance of the system so staff can see the value of its integration (cairns et al. 2005, p. 143) and also secure funds for building capacity (carnochan et al. 2014). kaplan (2001) highlighted a need to fully embrace the use of the system throughout the organisation, to align the activities of all individuals with achieving the overall strategic mission. in effective npos there is a strong, supportive relationship between the chief executive officer (ceo) and the board of trustees (knauft et al. 1991; herman and heimovics 1994). beyond inspiring internal stakeholders, the board should connect the organisation and its environment, representing them positively and communicating external stakeholder perceptions, views and beliefs back to the organisation (harlan and saidel 1994; mcclusky 2002). effective boards often have a significant impact on organisational decision-making in npos, but while this is generally positive, it can have its downsides. bryde (2003) noted that one of the challenges in his model was creating a balance between giving project managers individual freedom and allowing for high-level management controls that integrate pm with the overall strategies of the organisations. project management internal stakeholders internal stakeholders are people who contribute to the operations of the npo. these are primarily paid, staff and volunteers. these are more directly affected by changes in operations and organisational culture than board members. the efqm model says that outstanding organisations encourage fairness and equality while creating a mutually beneficial environment where people can develop and achieve their own goals in tandem with organisational goals. these organisations “care for, communicate, project management performance assessment in the non-profit sector project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20189 page number not for citation purposes reward and recognise, in a way that motivates people, builds commitment and enables them to use their skills and knowledge for the benefit of the organisation” (efqm 2013, p. 4). the pmpa model narrows in on the planning, management and rewarding of project staff in both the short-term (current) project view and the longer-term focus on developing their career and knowledge to benefit future projects (bryde 2003). al-tabbaa et al. (2011) concluded that the inclusion of the internal stakeholders in the efqm model was “justified because the tasks of the employees of npos are not as precisely defined or quantified as the employees of private organisations” (p. 604). project management policy, strategy, and mission the efqm model has a “strategy” criteria which encompass the implementation of an organisation’s mission and vision through the development and use of a stakeholder-centered strategy that utilises plans, processes, policies, and objectives. the pmpa model reflects the efqm model’s criterion of “policy and strategy” by using “pm policy and strategy” to focus on how project management is planned, deployed and developed in the organisation as policy (bryde 2003). making staff aware and accepting of project management is often a complex process that requires determination, reassessment, and realignment over time, but when it is implemented in a formal way it is perceived to be effective. furthermore, giffords and dina (2004) found that npos respond better to environmental changes when they incorporate a strategic planning approach to implementing quality improvement. npos are more concerned with how their initiatives have contributed to furthering strategic objectives than on simply attempting to reach milestones. measures should “be strategically-designed to encourage operating units to focus on the highest-leverage strategies” (sawhill and williamson 2001, p. 375). npos should focus on their mission by having a defined statement of strategy and by measuring performance based on progress made toward achieving it (kaplan 2001). by quantifying and measuring progress towards their strategic goals, organisations can create clearly defined methods and objectives to fulfil them and to establish a renewed focus on their overarching mission (kaplan 2001). adhering to the mission is considered best-practice for npos (drucker 1990), but competition can lead management to focus on providing quality services to maintain their reputation in the present moment instead of funnelling resources into activities that can further the organisational mission in the long run (leroux and goerdel 2009; leroux and wright 2010). consequently few npos have systems to determine if the organisation’s strategy for making an impact in line with their mission is working or not. project management partnerships and resources the pmpa model introduces the pm partnerships and resources criteria as a means to assess the quality of partnerships with project stakeholders and the processes that are in place for formally involving project stakeholders (bryde 2003). in the non-profit sector, project management partnerships and resources refer to the connections with other npos, as well as with government agencies and others that help to expand the organisational capacity of the npo and create monetary and non-monetary benefits through collaboration (arya and lin 2007). npos are increasingly engaging in collaborative arrangements with other organisations, which makes managing these external relationships vital (salamon and o’sullivan 2004; balser and mcclusky 2005). their organisational capacity is increased through successful anderson and lannon project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201810 page number not for citation purposes partnerships with other organisations and increasing organisational capacity is an important goal of measuring the performance of a successful organisation (sawhill and williamson 2001). project management life cycle processes finally, the pmpa model suggests that organisations use procedures, processes, and models to manage the life cycle of the project, finding that they resulted in organisation-wide benefits which may help them develop a tqm perspective. bryde (2003) also found that “there were situation in which life cycle models helped organisations develop a common project language, a culture of open communications with stakeholders and an understanding of the critical project-related business processes [...] in both the pre and post-implementation stages of the project life cycle” (p. 241). results the results criteria of the proposed model show what an organisation has achieved in comparison to their strategic goals.they reflect project management kpis and the degree to which they are managed through project management methods, the connection of project objective management and the realisation of project benefits, the measurement of stakeholder perceptions, and the creation of kpi management methods, with a focus on increasing organisational capacity. in the proposed nppmpa model, results reflect the impact that the enabling criteria have had on stakeholder satisfaction, in line with the stakeholder’s influence. npos face numerous challenges when attempting to measure success. kaplan (2001) suggests that npo success should measure how efficiently and effectively they fulfil the needs of their key stakeholders and believes that organisations should measure what they are trying to achieve. however, managers in the non-profit sector often choose units of measure they feel are important or that might be of interest to funders without taking into consideration the relevance of the units or the needs of other stakeholders (carnochan et al. 2014). qureshi et al. (2007) found that kpis have a significant impact on pm performance. the efqm model suggests that organisations develop their own kpis, list the outcomes for successful implementation of their strategy, articulate targets, separate results by stakeholder needs, discover underlying patterns in the results, and, when possible, benchmark against other organisations. however, determining critical success factors (csfs) and defining kpis for each factor can be a challenge for npos. there is likely to be a lack of clarity regarding what constitutes an excellent organisational performance, for example, a funder may be more interested in process-related performance (i.e., amount of clients served) while the organisation is driven by outcome-related performance (i.e., client satisfaction and progress) (carnochan et al. 2014). another challenge in adopting csfs in the non-profit sector is that their use and interpretation may vary. stakeholders often determine npo effectiveness based on the extent to which their expectations were met and how they are treated by the organisation (herman and renz 2008). bryde (2003) acknowledges a paradigm shift in the way pm success is approached, understanding that there are multiple dimensions to project success that is seen differently by different stakeholders and at different times. there is no universally accepted standard framework for assessing project success for organisations to subscribe to, nor should there be. as a case in point, when comparing the importance of commitment in the workplace, a project management performance assessment in the non-profit sector project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201811 page number not for citation purposes for-profit stakeholder could cite the value of job progression, business survival, and personal income, while a non-profit stakeholder would focus more on the value of volunteerism and generosity (rojas 2000). nonetheless, npo managers can proactively negate negative effects on performance by paying close attention to kpis (o’toole and meier 2010). evidence from other sectors has shown that clearly defining and updating these indicators has lasting value for an organisation (kennerley and neely 2002; kuwaiti 2004; wouters and sportel 2005). client and society kpis the efqm model’s first two results criteria are customer results, which expects organisations to “meet or exceed the needs and expectations of their customers,” and society results, which are meant to do the same for “relevant stakeholders within society” (efqm, 2013, p. 5). al-tabbaa et al.(2013) suggested “customer” criteria be changed to “beneficiaries and donors” and kaplan (2001) suggested that npos place the donor and recipient perspectives alongside each other, but recognise they are not the same stakeholder and will have different needs and views. the donor perspective is typically more concerned with organisational capacity, while clients and the greater society will seek improved service quality. client and customer kpis are important for measuring organisational performance and effectiveness, but their insight leaves room for false positives as someone can disclose a high level of satisfaction with their services despite a lack of improvement in their condition (morley et al. 2001; leroux and wright 2010). this is something that needs to be considered when choosing kpis. staff and volunteer kpis following on from the significant positive link between job satisfaction and the implementation of the efqm model, the proposed nppmpa model seeks to increase staff and volunteer capacity and improve their work environment. bryde suggested that organisations should measure the “level of recognition of the role of pm-related processes in increasing capability of pm staff and the existence and operation of processes for developing and evaluating pm staff ” (2003, p. 244). developing the pm capability of staff is necessary to ensure that a project’s human resources are at their maximum potential (riis and neergard 1994). npos can suffer a lack of buy-in from other stakeholders who may not see the system as meaningful or useful to their role in the organisation, especially when they are not involved in the implementation (cairnes et al. 2005). the proposed nppmpa model mitigates the potential negative effects of staff disillusion by encouraging their involvement in the development and implementation of the assessment. funder, partner, and organisational kpis npos receive pressures from government sponsors, other funders and individual donors to demonstrate that they have the capacity as an organisation to provide superior services (eisinger 2002, wing 2004). measuring performance and assessing service quality are ways to show that they are taking responsible and ethical steps to further the mission and public good (carman 2009; leroux and wright 2010), such as by increasing their organisational capacity through the development, implementation, and improvement of pm (carnochan et al. 2014). anderson and lannon project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201812 page number not for citation purposes npos often have conflicting views of success in comparison to their funders. also, different funders require different measures without consulting each other, creating a drain on resources for organisations who are already running on empty (moxham 2009). most funders seek measures of short-term quantitative data, which does not motivate npos to show the outcomes or impact of their services on their clients, which some scholars say is precisely what they should be measuring (osborne et al.1995, wainwright 2003; moxham 2009). implementing quality systems encourages npos to self-reflect as an organisation, and to learn and develop for continuous improvement (cairns et al. 2005). nonetheless, npos can struggle to apply the knowledge acquired from qms’s, often failing to create a coherent and meaningful action plan for improvement under uncertain and demanding environments. it is assumed that when organisations implement performance improvement systems, they will use that knowledge to make better strategic decisions, but if upper management is not committed to applying the information gathered then no benefits can be realised from its use at any level of the organisation (moynihan 2005). some npo managers see pms as a tool for strategic management, but others regard it as primarily important for marketing and promotion (leroux and wright 2010). others just view it as a distraction that drains already scarce resources. npos should use the results from an assessment to create an integrated action plan for further organisational improvement. this should then be repeated after a period and results compared. sanchez et al. (2006) found that organisations generally only found improvements in most efqm criteria after completing four self-evaluation cycles, especially in ‘processes, products, and services.’ similarly, doeleman et al. (2013) found that the efqm model needed 5-10 years for effective implementation. conclusion and next steps this research contributes to the increasing need to consider project management in the nonprofit sector by offering a proposed quality management model for implementing, measuring and improving project management in npos. the findings show that stakeholder satisfaction underpins understandings of quality in quality management, the non-profit sector, and project management literature. aligned with the increasing dependency on projects, as well as the adoption of private sector practices in the non-profit sector, there is a growing need for effective project management performance. existing pms’s and qms’s are unsuitable for the implementation, measurement, and improvement of project management practices in the sector, so a new model is proposed. themes such as continuous improvement and organisational capacity informed the development of this new model. this research is limited by a lack of qualitative and quantitative testing. this needs to be addressed through data collection across a sample of npos in order to test the applicability of the proposed nppmpa model and to further refine it in order to maximise its usefulness as a tool for performance improvement. sending questionnaires to organisations, as done in bryde’s (2003) original research study on the pmpa model and in the adaptations and validations that followed (qureshi et al. 2007; din et al. 2010), is seen as an appropriate approach. finally, it should be borne in mind that the manner in which an organisation conducts projects is affected by its organisational culture and this evolves. according to lynch-cerullo and cooney (2011), an organisational culture that encourages performance measurement does several things. it maintains a pursuit of quality instead of blame, views the pms as a tool for project management performance assessment in the non-profit sector project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201813 page number not for citation purposes learning, encourages staff to think critically, engages stakeholders when defining outcomes, and uses data frequently. leadership should make an effort to create an effective and appropriate pm culture within the organisation to aid its implementation. a shortage of human, financial and technological resources leaves many npos unable to cope with developing and managing complex multi-dimensional performance and management systems. npos should assess their readiness for organisational change against the potential benefits of implementing pm. modelling and measuring pm performance may be appropriate for the increasing number of npos that are project driven, but for others, it may not. references adams, c., neely, a.,and crowe, p. 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(2005) ‘the role of existing measures in developing and implementing performance measurement systems,’ international journal of operations and production management, 25(11) 1062‐82. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443570510626899 anderson and lannon project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201820 page number not for citation purposes https://doi.org/10.1108/01443570510626899 project management research and practice vol. 5, 2018 © 2018 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: redington, w., keely, d., & mantey, m. 2018. the story of a village: a case study in strategic planning at enyinndakurom, ankaful, central region, ghana. project management research and practice, article id 5465. https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp. v5i0.5465 issn 2207-1415 | published by uts epress | http://epress. lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index. php/pmrp/index research article (peer-reviewed) the story of a village: a case study in strategic planning at enyinndakurom, ankaful, central region, ghana wynette redington1*, dick keely2 and mark mantey3 1 bernal institute, univeristy of limerick, v94 t9px limerick, ireland. wynette.redington@ul.ie 2 future perfect ltd, 68 monaleen heights, castletroy, limerick, ireland. dickkeely@gmail.com 3 padre pio rehabilitation centre, c/o po box 766, cape coast, central region, ghana, west africa. kwasimantey@gmail.com *corresponding author: wynette redington. wynette.redington@ul.ie doi: https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5465 article history: received 21/03/2017; revised 23/07/2018; accepted 05/12/2018; published 30/01/2019 abstract the development of a strategic plan for an african village can seem a daunting task, especially if the village is one created from diverse beginnings and different cultural origins, where ethnicity, language, and custom are not homogenous. in this article, the authors explore the outcomes of the traditional top-down approach. they contrast this with a collaborative approach, bottom up, and propose the use of management strategies more commonly found in an industrial environment. deploying a case study approach the development and implementation of a strategic plan for a post-leprosy rehabilitation village near elmina in ghana, west africare described and evaluated. learned helplessness is often an outcome of intervention aid. by approaching a project with a top-down approach, the dependency of a community can become ingrained. however, a partnership approach with the villagers is hoped to engender a sense of ownership in the community, motivating optimism. the authors believe that the possibility of engagement with the village is greatly strengthened using a collaborative approach and that this is key to a successful outcome. the concept, strategy and initial results, as well as the ongoing sustainability of the strategy, are described. the underlying hypothesis is that by empowering an impoverished and disenfranchised community with tried and trusted, modern management methods, engagement, as well as success, can be achieved. declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding this project has been funded by misean cara 1 page number not for citation purposes https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5465 https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5465 http://wynette.redington@ul.ie mailto:dickkeely%40gmail.com?subject= mailto:kwasimantey%40gmail.com?subject= http://wynette.redington@ul.ie https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.5465 keywords strategic plan, key stakeholders, brain-storming; delphi technique, moscow; bottom-up; learned helplessness introduction enyinndakurom, the village in our story, adjacent to ankaful village, near cape coast in central region, ghana is an unusual village in that its raison d ’être is leprosy. more than 60% of the families living there have had one or more members undergo treatment for hansen’s disease at the ankaful leprosarium. this has resulted in a loss of social function, which has inhibited the growth of the village significantly. the village is poor but is probably not unduly so when compared to many other ghanaian villages. in some respects, it is better off regarding facilities in that it has clean running water, electricity, paved roads, and other amenities. a lack of self-belief and a deep-rooted concept of isolation is probably more significant in the air of “acquired helplessness” that is the public face of the village. seligman (1996, p. 7) discusses the concept of learned helplessness in his early work, stating that: “pessimism is an entrenched habit of mind that has sweeping and disastrous consequences: depressed mood, resignation, underachievement, and even unexpectedly poor physical health.” the problems encountered by the villagers are similar to those experienced by others in a disadvantaged community and present the same air of lack of hope and allied poverty. william easterly observed succinctly “poverty is a complicated tangle of political, social, historical, institutional, and technological factors” (easterly, 2006, p. 6). these concepts together with existing theory on poverty and international aid will be reviewed in section two to providing some understanding of the problems faced by the village. a brief description of the village itself will be given in section three. this will be followed by the methodology in which the issue is described and addressed, and the different management tools used in the process are specified. finally, the outcome of the process will be discussed. 1. existing theory the concept of learned helplessness (seligman, 1975) is a fundamental consideration in intervention as an aid in whatever form and helps the understanding of the inability of some to move beyond this state. schuman (1999) noted, “an individual who believes he has no control over the desired objective will be unlikely to make an effort to achieve that objective.” by introducing a sense of dependency within a person or a community, motivation to succeed can be impaired and become part of a cycle of helplessness. dixon and frolova (2011) found that “the existentialist explanation for this lack of will to take control of life is that those in existential poverty do not have an authentic and, thus, fulfilling, a way of life.“ inheriting, developing or having an ingrained concept of being poor existentially thereby losing hope for a better outcome is far worse than the fact of being financially poor. whether this frame of mind can be reset or not is key to “successful” aid or intervention. it is heartening to note that seligman (1995; 2006 p. 16) refined his thinking over the years and formulated a different approach to helplessness and depression in his work on learned optimism. in this, he offers approaches to change our thinking and not to accept the pessimistic outcomes we have believed previously. luthens, (2002) captures this outlook and states that “self-efficacy/confidence, hope, optimism, and resiliency are collectively referred to as positive psychological capital.” redington, keely and mantey project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20182 page number not for citation purposes ellerman (2005) addresses the issues raised by world bank aid in developing countries. in the section he calls “the indirect approach” he revisits mcgregor’s theory y, outlining a mechanism by which both sides can work together to formulate a solution that recognizes that a person “can achieve his own goals best by directing his efforts towards the objectives of the enterprise.” fundamental to his thinking is the idea that “when the doers have the will, there is a way; the best role for the helpers is to indirectly enable and expedite that way, not to try and substitute their will for that of the doers.” working within a community, building on their strengths, working with realistic and achievable outcomes may be more successful as a sustainable strategy. poverty and perception the poverty trap in africa is often defined by a shortage of productive capital, particularly in rural areas where a large percentage of the population lives. with all of these interconnecting sectors to tackle, it is not surprising that poverty has yet ceased to exist. intellectuals have concluded there are numerous sets of reasons and traps that perpetuate the poor from achieving growth. the effects and constraints of poverty are discussed by banerjee and duflo (2007), who comment on the difficulties and lack of opportunity for those caught in a poverty trap, with a lack of economic security to enable them to break out of this situation, or even to imagine that there could be a way out. this lack of self-belief is a deep-rooted constraint. sen (1999) states that “poverty must be seen as the deprivation of basic capabilities rather than merely a lowness of incomes, which is the standard criterion of identification of poverty.” traditionally the response to poverty is that financial aid is the sine qua non to help developing communities, i.e. that such groups can neither function nor prosper without aid. over time the concept of aid and its effectiveness gradually changed and the transformational effect of aid came into question. riddell (2014) asks the question “does foreign aid really work?” he notes that “the historical distinction between emergency aid and development is nowhere near as clear-cut as it was” but “that for every person who dies as a result of a natural disaster, 200 people die from diseases of poverty. “ changing views on aid intervention easterly (2008) discusses specific problems and tough solutions. riddell (2007; 2014) however poses new questions, asking whether these economies would have made more significant progress without any aid intervention. he emphasizes that all these questions have their importance and that all need to be addressed. “the strongest case for aid will be made if all three can be answered affirmatively; if aid projects achieve their immediate objectives and these can be sustained; if aid contributes to an aggregate fall in poverty levels, and to faster growth and sustained development; and if aid-giving rather than adding to the systemic problems which constrain a recipient’s long-term development prospects, helps to reduce them.” (riddell, 2004). mwenda, (2012), gives his different perspective on aid to africa: we need to reframe the challenge that is facing africa, from a challenge of despair to a challenge of hope. that is ‘worth creation.’ the challenge facing all those who are interested in africa is not the challenge of reducing poverty. it should be a challenge of creating wealth. this outlook fits well with the reframing of learned helplessness, fostering dependency, to a more positive and constructive outlook, that of collaboration to find a way forward. the story of a village: a case study in strategic planning at enyinndakurom, ankaful, central region, ghana project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20183 page number not for citation purposes the “one-size fits all” top-down strategy of pouring aid into developing countries is, at last, being questioned. as long ago as 1945, austrian economist and philosopher hayek argued against centralized planning and noted that there are different kinds of knowledge, finding that a top-down approach can overlook local knowledge, which can reduce the effectiveness of applied knowledge. lewis (2002), discusses the implication of cultural elements in the third sector (i.e. the voluntary or not-for-profit sector) and indicates a need for greater anthropological research. he observes that third sector management is an underdeveloped field and that it needs to engage with established and emerging themes within the wider organization theory. the perceived need for aid continues to have the appearance of a bottomless pit. one controversial spokesperson is ghanaian economist, ayittey (2006), who questions the undemocratic and illegitimate rulers in different african states and attributes many of the problems to a failure in governance. this view is shared by calderisi (2006) who blames some of the problems on the african nations’ internal structures, advocating a different approach and proposes looking to the countries themselves to find workable solutions. collier (2008) cites internal struggles and poor governance as part of the problem. he also suggests that rebellions are encouraged by natural resource wealth and that coups are encouraged by aid, and so looks to international laws and charters to help implement workable solutions. moyo (2010), questions the fundamental effectiveness of aid and attributes a lot of the failure of aid to market failure. reviewing her book, collier (2009) observes that cutting aid may not be the best strategy, rather than aid should “strengthen its potential for ‘governance conditionality’; aid agencies should insist on both transparent budgeting and free and fair elections.” another challenger, sachs, (the world post; 2009) also disagrees with moyo and issued the challenge (2005) of ending poverty and offers some statistics indicating positive change, as a step towards reducing poverty worldwide. this is refuted by easterley (2001, 2007 2014 who challenges the ideas proposed on the poverty trap indicating that the cited statistics do not fully report the facts, omitting the growth in some nations and the success stories that are overlooked in the pursuit of aid donations. he challenges the views of sachs, calling for aid agencies to be accountable for their actions. figure 1 (after easterly 2003) paints a stark contrast between economic growth and financial aid, which is an interesting graphic but is in itself limited in that it lacks real information. burnside and dollar (2000) reviewed the correlation between aid policy and growth and found that, on average, aid had little impact on growth but that it had a more positive impact on growth in good policy environments. again good governance appears to be essential. easterly (2003) refers to the classic samaritan’s dilemma, whereby the recipient believes that future poverty will call forth future aid. this top-down approach can indeed stifle innovation and development as well as economic growth, building a dependency and foster acquired helplessness. in an earlier paper easterly (2001) tests the concept of the “financing gap” model in which aid should be seen to improve investment and growth. this is based on two factors (i) that foreign aid should increase investment and (ii) investment needs to increase economic growth. riddell (2014) quantifies this stating “a sustained contribution of the aid of about 10% of gross domestic product (gdp) raises gdp levels by only about 1%.“ glennie (2008) evaluates the rise and fall of financial aid before and after the establishment of the millennium development goals in 2000 and notes “today’s aid is increasingly focused on short-term targets.” in many post-conflict situations, aid comes too soon according to collier redington, keely and mantey project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20184 page number not for citation purposes (2008), who looks at aid as a component of growth, as part of the slow work of building an economy. in an earlier paper (collier and dollar, 2002), collier states that “the poverty impact of aid could be roughly doubled if donors made use of research findings on the impact of aid in deciding their aid allocation.” williamson (2009) states “the top quarter of aid recipients… received 17 percent of their gdp in aid over those 42 years, yet also had near-zero per capita growth” and goes on to say that “foreign aid alters incentives for both governments and citizens.” figure 1 diagram (after easterly, 2003) showing a sharp decline in growth per capita against increasing aid as a percentage of gdp. can a bottom-up approach influence sustainable outcome hayek’s model of inclusion of local knowledge has shown that if local people are involved in their development, sustainable development can be achieved (allen and lachapelle, 2012; kretzman and mcknight, 1993). however, in past decades, different development aid agencies have historically tended to implement a top-down approach, which can exclude the involvement and participation of local people and in turn foster a “dependency syndrome.” lekorwe and mpabanga (2007) state that good management practice, clear thinking, efficient use of resources, good accountability and responsibility are all key to an improved and more sustainable model. this agrees well with sen (1999 ibid). in recent years ngo’s have begun to focus on improving their efficiencies as well as continuously promoting sustainable community development (nikkhah and bin redzuan 2010; silayo, 2010). jacobs and wilford (2007) discuss the approach of ngos to stated values such as “empowering the marginalized” and “participation” and find that it is not usually managed systematically. using a reasoned and structured approach would surely improve outcomes. being driven by the concept of purely acquiring financial aid is also seen to be limiting. de ree and nilessen (2009) state that the fundamental argument for aid donation is to improve economic conditions for growth. collier and hoeffler (1998; 2002; 2007) have examined the effect of aid in post-conflict situations and its effect on growth and go on to argue the story of a village: a case study in strategic planning at enyinndakurom, ankaful, central region, ghana project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20185 page number not for citation purposes that “increasing income per capita is expected to decrease the probability of conflict when economic alternatives for potential rebels to evolve and improve, while bearing in mind that about 40% of foreign aid transfers into military expenditure.” all of the above issues and concerns should temper the approach towards implementing improvement projects in developing countries. pouring money into “first world” top-down solutions is not the answer; neither is implementing quick-fix solutions for non-core issues. taking the time and effort to identify and understand the true high-priority issues and then to develop inclusive and comprehensive solutions for these issues offers the best probability of successful implementation and ongoing sustainability. a bottom-up approach using tried and tested project-management and strategic tools, while being mindful of the social landscape, can deliver outcomes where the needs of all key stakeholders are met for the long term. jarzabkowski (2004 p. 540) recognized the strength and weakness of this, contrasting the more entrenched possibilities of a traditional outlook with the possibility of change when this is addressed. jarzabkowski (ibid p. 537) notes that “the social nature of communities constitutes an adaptive learning opportunity. communities that have a largely stable membership, with limited external networks and few crises or problems, are liable to engage in a recursive practice, while the converse situation promotes the adaptive practice.” different researchers have begun to explore the issues raised by gaps, whereby organizational action can be determined by the local context and accepted the practice. vaaro and whittington (2012) outline different strategies based on sap (strategy as practice). they discuss how strategy-making (termed practices) is enabled and constrained by prevailing organizational and societal practices. in so doing, they strive to bridge the gap between (i) the approach of practice and (ii) sociological theories of practice, examining the links between social theories and strategic management, while observing that sap has not fully explored the broader societal or institutional context in which these activities take place. recognized strategy tools can be shaped “both by social and political dynamics between actors and by a strategy tool ’s design properties” (spee and jarzabkowski, 2009 p. 224). kemmis and mctaggart (2007) state that “participatory research is an alternative philosophy of social research” with emphasis on “shared ownership of research projects, community-based analysis of social problems and an orientation towards community action.” bergold and thomas (2012) find that it is “a demanding process, evolving when two spheres of action science and practice meet, interact and develop an understanding for each other.” this formulates the question again “can this approach work and where is the evidence?” projects such as the boma project in kenya show clearly that local engagement combined with management tools can work. it takes time and commitment, but it succeeds. the programme, rural entrepreneur access project (reap), introduced in 2005, uses a six-step process and combines grant aid with a long mentoring and training programme to empower women in local communities. its success speaks for itself. the perceived increasing reliance of the villagers and their extended families on the padre pio centre was seen as unsustainable but more importantly unhealthy for the long-term wellbeing of the village. could the collected wisdom of different research and experience be brought together to address the problems of a small village? could modern management tools engage sufficiently with the community to enable them to take control of their outcomes? redington, keely and mantey project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20186 page number not for citation purposes 2. background/case context the village of enyinndakurom is situated adjacent to the village of ankaful near the town of elmina in the central region of ghana. while not in itself a traditional village, it still adopts many of the local social mores. still, it is a village with a difference as it grew from a “squatters camp” from the 1950s, based in an old army camp adjacent to the ankaful leprosarium, where leprosy (hansen’s disease) sufferers lived while undergoing treatment. it is atypical as a village in that it is a somewhat artificial community rather than a group that grew naturally over time. the main language used in the village is akan (mainly twi and fante), but it is not the first language of many of the villagers. english is the lingua franca used mainly by the younger people, as it is taught in school. the uniting precept of the “village” was the stigma and suffering of leprosy, rather than the more organic growth of a traditional village. many came a great distance to the area, under great hardship, traveling from countries such as mali and togo, as well as different regions in ghana. the pprc is made up of (i) st. clare’s, long-term nursing care centre for leprosy sufferers, (ii) st. joseph’s family support centre for disadvantaged children (iii) st elizabeth’s family support centre for children with special needs and (iv) enyinndakurom. the first three units are located at the ahotokurom campus about 3.5 km from enyinndakurom, as the crow flies. funding for building new housing at enyinndakurom was obtained from the british national lotteries and charity board through ‘friends of ahotokurom’, a uk based charity. it became a “self-build” project, where tenants actively participated in the building of their new village, which now boasts 80 houses, a community center, some shops, a corn mill, and paved roads. it also has land available for small farm plots so that tenants can raise their food as well as some cash crops. the change in outlook at this time was marked by changing the name of the settlement from “camp” to enyinndakurom, meaning “a place beyond our dreams,” reflecting the hope for the future. almost twenty years later the landscape has changed in the village with a new generation of young people with new expectations of life. enyinndakurom, a village with a multi-cultural diverse community, with leprosy as a common thread, now needs to move past its acquired dependency and plan for the future. like any village there have been many success stories, with family members moving on with their lives, achieving their potential in different fields. many of the original “squatters” have died or are reaching old age, and so the profile of villagers has changed significantly. the extended family members come and go, with a primary remit of caring for the former leprosy sufferers in their later years. the padre pio rehabilitation centre offers financial support in the form of allowances to the leprosy survivors as well as help with medical problems. it also strives to support the community in various aspects of daily life. for several years, however, the perception of enyinndakurom as an entity was negative in that as the older village leaders died or became more feeble, there was no strong leadership to take over. the current elders had grown up in an atmosphere of acquired helplessness and depended, and at times, almost demanded services from the center. this contrasted with the enthusiasm of earlier years and more significantly colored the outlook of some of the next generation. following its most recent strategic plan, pprc is looking at its sustainability and sees a need to change its thinking and its approach. this is driven in part by financial change as funding support becomes more difficult in a harsh economic environment. this more strategic the story of a village: a case study in strategic planning at enyinndakurom, ankaful, central region, ghana project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20187 page number not for citation purposes outlook is in some ways a new departure for the centre as it has seen itself before this in the more traditional role of development – supporting needs as they were identified. now it acknowledges the need to plan for the future and to work with the village community to help them focus on moving towards greater independence and self-reliance. many of the young people in the village have successfully engaged with education and have looked outside the village to find jobs and settle down. others were less willing to engage, and this was the issue that appeared to be at the root of other problems experienced in the village. the disenfranchised villagers appear to be caught in the trap of acquired helplessness and are unwilling or unable to see a way forward. engaging with the villagers, clearly identifying their issues and working with them in a collaborative and participatory project rather than prescribing a solution seemed to offer the only possibility of success. key to the engagement with the village was the enduring relationship of one of the authors with both the village and its people and with the padre pio centre since its inception. such a fundamental knowledge, empathy understanding and ability to speak many of the required languages (english and akan) gave a unique opportunity to evaluate both a bottom-up, (as a local villager), and a topdown (as director of the centre), overview simultaneously. 3. methodology and its underlying precepts as noted by glennie (2008), global changes in the priorities of major donors towards goaloriented projects, which focus more on the short term at the expense of the long-term, have tended to curtail long-term planning and development. a fall in funding from long-term benefactors at the padre pio centre has meant that a more strategic, longer-term outlook was required. these global and local factors made it unavoidable for the pprc management team not to address long-term sustainability. the pprc mission statement underpins the desire to offer a haven while at the same time empowering people to be self-sufficient as much as possible and encouraged to take charge of their outcomes, building optimism and challenging the idea of dependency. the fundamental thinking was that a bottom-up approach was the best way to engage with the village so that they would feel ownership for both the issues and the outcomes, thus breaking the cycle of dependency. developing a strategic plan within the village context was seen as the best method, applying tested management techniques. in this manner, the villagers themselves would be asked to participate and to formulate their concerns. a perceived increasing population of young males with learned helplessness and a lack of willingness to engage within the village or to seek a life outside was seen as an issue. whether or not this was a perception or a reality needed to be identified. a yearly census for many years was revealing interesting information, and this proved invaluable. there is often a strong temptation, as soon as a list of issues and concerns has been drafted, to jump into solution-mode, i.e., start offering or even implementing the first world, quick-fix solutions to the most visible or vocal concerns. the precepts of participatory research were more appealing in that they would involve the villagers closely, be bottom-up rather than topdown, and at the same time allow the type of iterative process that would enable continuous refinement rather than a single fix. it also meant that the villagers themselves would identify what they saw as issues and concerns rather than those identified by others. the process could be more fluid, open, and responsive and this helped frame the scope of the project. ellerman’s (2005) 5-step expansion on mcgregor’s theory y fits well to the model with the concept of redington, keely and mantey project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20188 page number not for citation purposes the “helper” and the “doer,” in this instance the helper being the external agency and the doer being the villagers. the clear and defined steps in six sigma/dmaicr, described below, was seen as an objective approach, without preconceptions. photo 1 leprosy survivors – in st. clare’s nursing home six-sigma/dmaicr the six-sigma/dmaicr approach to problem-solving recommends strict adherence to the data-driven, problem-focused sequence of define-measure-analyse-improve-controlreport. it is acceptable however to start work on the next phase, as shown in figure 1 before the preceding phase is fully completed, e.g., starting ‘measure’ before ‘define’ is fully finished, using an iterative approach. it must always be borne in mind however that ‘improve’ is step-4 and should only be started after due-diligence is paid to the three preceding steps of define, measure and analyse. once a strategy was identified (outlined in table 1), steps were defined and a project plan was formulated. the goals were typical of any project “something that “will bring about change in some fashion,” or something, “that has a defined starting point (a) and reaches the desired goal (b).” time was a critical factor in that only a few weeks were available for the team to work together on site. the physical constraints involved in engaging with the village were considerable as consultation with all stakeholders had to happen within the same timeframe. communication was a challenge as english was not spoken by all villagers. the dmaicr sequence gave a clear and defined path to follow. figure 1b dmaicr sequence the story of a village: a case study in strategic planning at enyinndakurom, ankaful, central region, ghana project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20189 page number not for citation purposes table 1 main tools & techniques used – dmaicr sequence the main issue at this point is not about being fast or slow but about paying due-diligence to ensure that the key stakeholders understand and agree on the fundamental issues at stake. this approach has been used successfully to solve complex problems in the commercial and industrial world for more than twenty years. the moscow analysis, (brennan 2009), was used to define and manage the scope of the effort. scope management is a key part of successfully delivering improvement projects; projects with the poorly managed scope are more likely to fail. as the acronym, moscow, implies, activities are variously attributed to the categories of must-do, should-do, could-do, and won’t-do. stakeholder analysis, as outlined by freeman (1984) and further developed by mitchell et al. (1997), is crucial when a project involves a large number of disparate entities with different and possibly conflicting perspectives and agendas – often unstated. this was the case in enyinndakurom, which was far removed from a commercial project. the process required comprehensive stakeholder analysis, with due regard to pitfalls to be avoided, and is well described by ramirez (1999) and chevalier (2001). this approach was effective in broadening the process to capture and categorize all stakeholders irrespective of their perceived relevance to the project. as noted above, essential stakeholders are often overlooked or omitted as too much focus is placed on the most vocal or visible groups involved. this can lead to exclusion, disengagement and project disruption. the villagers of enyinndakurom are the primary stakeholders or beneficiaries but for the project to succeed it was important to engage appropriately with all of the stakeholders. the worst-case scenario, to be avoided if at all possible, is where one or more group of ‘stakeholders’ is omitted or overlooked. the group may then emerge to disrupt, delay or derail the project. in the case of enyinndakurom, there was a large number of stakeholders with multiple unstated agendas and perspectives. therefore, it was necessary to do a thorough analysis of the stakeholder situation. the primary aim was to identify and properly categorize all of the stakeholders and then engage them appropriately in helping to define and then solve the main problems. the strategic framework as outlined in figure 2 was used as the overall architecture for development of the ‘strategic plan’ for the village. throughout the process, the strategy development team was working towards the ultimate goal of a shortlist of agreed ‘improvement initiatives’ in keeping with richard rummelt’s assertion that “strategy is a total waste of time – unless it results in action” (rummelt, 2011). redington, keely and mantey project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201810 page number not for citation purposes figure 2 strategic framework silent brainstorming, also known as the ‘delphi technique,’ as developed by rand in the 1960s, was used to encourage each participant to identify and declare their best ideas on each question and to fully engage in the voting process (ooosthuizen, 2014). each numbered section in figure 2, was treated as a discrete silent-brainstorming session and the strategy development team worked through the entire framework in the given numerical order. the main advantages of the delphi-technique, as compared to traditional (non-silent) ‘brain-storming’ are that: 1. it is faster, more efficient and much more effective. 2. everyone gets heard (i.e., gives their inputs & votes) – no-one gets ignored, shouted down or offended. 3. there is a fast and efficient (democratic) voting process to evaluate and prioritize the total list of inputs and ideas. 4. the output from each session is a short, prioritized list of the most-relevant ideas – approximately 20% of the ideas get 80% of the votes (pareto principle) wasteful, and time-consuming debate and discussion are kept to a minimum. 5. it is ideal for a bottom approach in that it is demonstrably inclusive. the fact that the process quickly produces an agreed and prioritized short-list of points for each step is invaluable and could not be done in the available timeframe without the delphi technique. this prioritized output is very much in keeping with the ‘pareto principle’ (bunkley, 2008), whereby it has been shown that you must start by addressing the top ~20% of issues that typically cause ~80% of the problems; otherwise you waste a lot of time and effort and don’t solve the core problems. results as the village at enyinndakurom is one of the main outreach activities of the centre, its sustainability was identified as a significant issue in the pprc 2013 strategic plan. many core issues are identified in table 2. many of these can be directly or indirectly attributed to an environment of learned helplessness, where group decision-making, for example, is almost non-existent, reflected in the “lack of ability to address these issues.” the story of a village: a case study in strategic planning at enyinndakurom, ankaful, central region, ghana project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201811 page number not for citation purposes table 2 key issues and concerns identified probable challenges to the application include: 1. lack of a functioning traditional “elders” (leadership/management) structure 2. lack of a vocal platform, especially for younger people (communication) 3. lack of a decision-making process or forum 4. uncertain validity of status of different groups, e.g., former leprosy sufferers vs. relatives vs. non-relatives 5. energy and interest levels of different groups (motivation) 6. the education level of the participants (ability to read and write) 7. a large number of young people, especially single males 8. “quarrelsome” nature of many of the villagers photo 2 manual pedal cycle – enyinndakurom village from a census carried out in 2013, it was found that residents under 20 years of age accounted for slightly more than 50% of the population, while males under 20 accounted for approximately 30% (table 3 below). the presence of a large number of young single males in a village has been identified as a potential source of conflict (collier, 2008). moreover, the villagers themselves acknowledged their concerns about the young males as well as their reputation for being “quarrelsome.” redington, keely and mantey project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201812 page number not for citation purposes table 3 demographic analysis – census 2013 while the dmaicr approach was identified as the best way to proceed, the challenges outlined above had a significant influence on the choice of the specific tools used at each stage and the pace of the overall project. table 1 (earlier) gives a summary of the main tools and techniques used and approximately where they fitted into the dmaicr sequence. the various censuses (2009, 2012, 2013, 2014) and subsequent demographic analyses were invaluable in helping to better understand some of the underlying problems, by providing accurate and comprehensive data about: • the residents of the village – their age, sex, and employment status • their relationship to the main tenant – typically a ‘leprosy survivor.’ • the demographics and related trends in the village the 2013 village census, figure 3, showed that there was a 50:50 male to female ratio; 50% of the residents were in the 0-20 age group, and 72% in the 0-40 group and the relatively large number of young males (11-20) is apparent. the relationship between the current young male population and the original villagers is mixed; a proportion was born outside the village and came to the village under various guises. this shift in itself indicates a change in direction and following issues experienced by the village. figure 3 residents age-group analysis – census 2013 the story of a village: a case study in strategic planning at enyinndakurom, ankaful, central region, ghana project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201813 page number not for citation purposes in traditional ghanaian villages it is typical for important decisions to be made by the chief and his group of advisors (elders) – a group predominantly, if not exclusively, comprised of adult/elderly males. unfortunately, in this instance, most of the elderly males (leprosy survivors) had either died or were old and infirm and/or in nursing care, including the village chief. it was felt appropriate therefore to propose broadening the decision-making (and strategy-development) group to include people from different age groups – both males and females to ensure that all of the resident interest groups (stakeholders) would be well represented. this approach would break with tradition and therefore needed to be handled sensitively so that all stakeholders were satisfied with the approach and the outcomes. one factor that helped in the initial meetings with the elders and the villagers was that they were impressed with how much data gathering and analysis had been done to understand the village. this was not a quick-fix approach, was inclusive, and this played a significant part in building their trust. another factor that helped was the fact that one of the authors (dr. mantey) grew up in the village and was respected and trusted by the villagers. all the interactions with the villagers were conducted in english and akan (the local language) with dr. mantey acting as translator. the step-by-step ‘consultation’ process used is outlined in table 4. all of the ‘elder’ and village meetings were held at the enyinndakurom community centre. the village meetings were announced one day in advance by the gong-gong (similar to a town-crier – see photo 3), explaining the relevance of the meeting and inviting all to participate. despite the desirable participatory research approach, the selection of representatives was considered to be a potentially contentious area and was therefore formulated with caution. the typical ‘elders’ cohort, males in the 40+ age group, represented only 11% of the total resident population (table 3) and, as already stated, many of them were old and/or infirm. it was felt essential to involve the females (50% of the total) and the younger males (under-40 yrs. – 39% of the total) in planning the future of the village. table 4 step-by-step ‘consultation’ process used redington, keely and mantey project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201814 page number not for citation purposes photo 3 gong-gong calling villagers to a meeting as part of the consultation process table 3 and figure 3 were presented to the village meeting, and it was suggested that there should be balanced representation from all of the different age groups and both sexes. almost surprisingly, the villagers accepted this proposal without much debate. then it was suggested that the villagers should select the names of the village representatives for the various age/sex groups. after much discussion, the villagers were happy for the pprc to recommend a list of representatives, as they felt that there would be an excessive argument among the villagers about this matter and that it would take too long to get an agreement. it was agreed that a pprc draft list would be presented and reviewed at the next village meeting, one week later. a group of ten people was selected as representatives, with a further ten as substitutes, to participate in the development of a strategic plan. the pprc draft list was presented to the villagers at the follow-up meeting and duly approved with little or no debate. a series of strategy development meetings were arranged and a series of village meetings set up in tandem to inform and consult with (and to provide feedback to) all of the villagers after completion of each stage. although the process was intensive and time-consuming, it had a very positive effect on the village, and each meeting was met with enthusiasm. the villagers appeared to enjoy all the attention that they were getting. the strategy development sessions were held away from the village (at ahotokurom), and attendance by the village representatives was good, but participation was mixed – so it was fortunate that there were ten reserves, as these reserves had to be used frequently. there was a conscious decision, as mentioned above, to ensure that there was a good level of representation from the younger village residents. this was done at the risk of some possible disruptive behavior in the meetings, but as it turned out, there was minimal disruption. some of the more vocal young people seemed to lose confidence and became a lot less self-assured in the strategy development (silent-brainstorming) sessions. however, they appeared to benefit from the process and showed improved behavior and attitude outside the meetings and in subsequent sessions. they were also demonstrably pleased to have been included. an unexpected side benefit was that these younger people were being viewed as potential future leaders. the story of a village: a case study in strategic planning at enyinndakurom, ankaful, central region, ghana project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201815 page number not for citation purposes this technique proved very effective for the strategy development team. all of the participants, once they became familiar with the process, were open with their opinions and suggestions and worked well within the guidelines, although it did take some time for them to become accustomed to the idea of ‘silent’ brainstorming. they were pleased and almost surprised by the democratic and non-confrontational nature of the process and with the efficiency with which it produced agreed (non-disputed) results. this was done in a calm and agreeable atmosphere, which in itself generated confidence in the process. the overarching concern for the villagers was for the young people, particularly their current behavior and their prospects. investing time and energy in their young people emerged as the main goal of the entire community. at all levels, the importance of this demographic group was identified as vital to the future and the sustainability of the village. education was recognized as a major factor in this, both as a goal in itself and also in equipping the young people to become independent, to find jobs and to earn income to support the community. once the youth had achieved a reasonable level of education, the next goal was to enable them to find gainful employment. a recurring theme from the older people was their thankfulness for their lives despite their health issues and their previous social isolation and rejection. the younger people appeared surprised by the priority given by all involved in improving education and employment opportunities for them. all participants gave recognition and praise to the contribution made by the dmj sisters, and their many benefactors and supporters, to the well-being of the villagers. a detailed analysis was completed in late 2013 of all of the outputs from the strategy development team and the top five issues from this analysis, accounting for 82% of all of the votes, are shown in table 5. based on this it was agreed that the top three improvement initiatives to be focused on for 2014 would be youth & education, behaviour and leadership. table 5 top 5 issues it was hoped that this structured, inclusive approach would reduce the sense of dependency in the village and strengthen the motivation to become more self-reliant, to build on their strengths and to continue to look outward. discussion as stated by shuman (1999) “expectations of failure or success are often self-fulfilling prophecies.” building on the enthusiasm generated by the village meetings will be a slow process as well building confidence among the villagers that they can shape their future. the bottom-up approach certainly gave encouraging outcomes. a more objective view of the village was gathered from the data collected, from the overall stakeholder analysis, and the steps in the developed strategy. it was almost reassuring to see that the primary concern was the same as for many other communities, the ongoing wellbeing, and education of the young people. redington, keely and mantey project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201816 page number not for citation purposes overcoming “learned helplessness” is a stumbling block that requires patience and success is not something that appears overnight. it may take several generations to overcome some of the learned behaviors of the group. an inbuilt resilience within the community was visible. this contrasted with a sense of entitlement, evident in some of the younger people, reminiscent of their peers in other societies. the millennium development goal “target 1b: achieve decent employment for women, men, and young people” will, however, remain aspirational for the people of the village unless there is a longer-term investment in helping them to overcome their current dependency outlook. sanchez, palm, sachs, et al. (2007) expand on this goal describing it as being “community-based, with a participatory approach to planning, implementation, and monitoring that contextualizes the specific set of interventions for each village.” the historical context of the village makes it more difficult to overcome, but with a clearer picture of what is required, it becomes even more possible. in this respect, ‘leadership’ and ‘decision-making’ are still critical strategic issues for the village and need to be addressed. a step-by-step leadership improvement process has been developed, and it is planned that this will be implemented over the next few months. the continuing engagement of the women and the younger people in all future development work is a crucial part of the environment which influences social behavior, which in turn gives an improved sense of community and an atmosphere of security in the village. this is, however, one small project in one small village in ghana. it remains to be seen whether the work is done will have a last effect on the villagers. conclusion the boma project in kenya underpins the need for ongoing mentoring and support of a community such as the villagers in enyinndakurom. this is hardly surprising, but it is a factor that is often overlooked in managing change. coupled with the need for support is the environment of acquired helplessness, which in itself needs a change of mindset on the part of all involved. expectations can be escalated/inflated from previous experiences, from word of mouth and media coverage. all this can lead to disappointment and a loss of belief that the community can reach beyond its current level of poverty. however, the millennium goals offer real targets that can be achieved with the belief that the multifaceted nature of poverty can be overcome through targeted public-sector investments. although many agencies recommend a bottom-up approach with critical stakeholder engagement, there is insufficient evidence concerning case studies or successes. with more examples to learn from, the approach taken can be improved in every respect from ideas to engagement to participation. modern management methods can be used successfully to help impoverished and underdeveloped communities, and the way in which the situation is approached and the methods applied is the key to success – a top-down, solution-led approach is unlikely to be successful, while a bottom-up, problem-focused approach is much more likely to succeed. positive engagement and trust from the primary stakeholders is essential one of the disadvantages of the community at enyinndakurom is their lack of networking due to the hybrid circumstances of their village. however, this is something that will improve over time as the village becomes more established in its own right. the story of a village: a case study in strategic planning at enyinndakurom, ankaful, central region, ghana project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201817 page number not for citation purposes although the villagers were always willing and happy to receive ‘free-gifts’ (cash) what they needed was non-financial help to provide sustainable solutions to their core problems, e.g. leadership, decision-making, strategic-planning, job-seeking, career-advice, etc. this finding is in keeping with amartya sen’s assertion that “poverty must be seen as the deprivation of basic capabilities rather than merely a lowness of incomes…” about the authors wynette redington (bsc, msc, phd, ba) works as a research scientist at the bernal institute at the university of limerick. she has worked with the centre in ahotokurom for many years, involved in project management, sustainability and child protection. dick keely (bsc, msc, c.eng.) is a lean-six-sigma master black-belt and has worked as a management consultant for the past ten years. before that he worked as engineering/operations director for a number of us multinationals including dell, sun and seagate. he has worked with pprc for the past 9 years. mark mantey is director of the padre pio rehabilitation centre (pprc), ahotokurom, ghana. he was project manager on the rebuilding of enyinndakurom with funding from the british national lottery and charities board. mark graduated with ba and ma in public administration and completed his phd at the university of limerick in 2012. he also lectures on the sisters’ leadership and development initiative (sldi), for women religious in africa including ghana. references allen, r, and lachapelle, p r. 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(2013, p. 125) when they deliver construction projects. relevance for practice/education our findings indicate that client-side project managers should view their role differently from what has been traditionally accepted. the use of design thinking within the project management construct highlights that practitioners need to develop skills and tools that address, not just the compliance and control elements of project management, but also information gathering and problem-solving techniques. this change of perspective creates opportunities for project managers to broaden their skill set in order to be able to create further value in the construction process. research design our research uses a grounded theory methodology to explore the ‘lived experience’ of client-side project managers to determine if they utilize design thinking when managing construction projects. this is achieved by creating a framework from the work of hassi and declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 page number not for citation purposes https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.6147 https://doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v5i0.6147 http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/pmpr/index http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/pmpr/index http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/pmpr/index laakso (2011, p. 6), johansson-sköldberg et al. (2013, p. 125) and liedtka (2015, p. 928) to guide semi-structured interviews with a cohort of ten client-side project managers. main findings our research provides evidence of design thinking mentalities, thinking styles, practices and tools being utilized by client-side project managers when delivering construction projects. our findings also identify 15 project management tools used by client-side project managers when delivering construction projects and highlight that the practice of client-side project management should not be viewed exclusively as part of the ‘implementation’ process. research implications our results support existing research on client-side project management and expand the project management body of literature by demonstrating how client-side project managers employ design thinking to handle poorly-defined projects. keywords client-side project management; design thinking; poorly-defined projects. 1.0 introduction in 2006, the uk’s engineering and physical sciences research council commissioned the rethinking project management network to investigate future avenues for project management research. one of the network’s findings was the need for project management research to find new ways of conceptualizing the social processes of project management (winter et al. 2006, p. 639). at around the same time, researchers began to investigate how design thinking could be applied to social constructs outside the traditional design disciplines. this research indicated that the transition from design science to management science was possible. however, more empirical investigations were required ( johansson-sköldberg et al. 2013, p. 128) to overcome a “…paucity of peer-reviewed articles…” (calgren 2013, p. 24). our research seeks to address both the need for new conceptualizations regarding the practice of project management and the need for new empirical research into the applications of design thinking. this is achieved by investigating whether client-side project managers utilize design thinking when managing construction projects. this study utilized a grounded theory methodology and conducted semi-structured interviews with a purposive sample of ten practicing client-side project management consultants who were managing construction projects. we found the research participants adopted a wide range of design thinking mentalities, thinking styles, practices, and tools. this study augments and adds to the existing body of literature in many ways. firstly, by reinforcing and expanding usher and whitty (2017c, p. 10) findings regarding the use of design thinking by client-side project managers. secondly, by demonstrating how client-side project managers have informally adopted design thinking to manage construction projects. finally, our results provide a foundation for future investigation into the practice of client-side project management. usher and whitty project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20182 page number not for citation purposes 2.0 literature review the rethinking project management network project was tasked with “…enriching and extending the subject of project management beyond its current conceptual foundations…” (winter et al. 2006, p. 643). one of the findings of the network was a need for new ways of conceptualizing the social process of project management (winter et al. 2006, p. 639). our paper attempts to address this need by investigating the ‘social construct’ of client-side project management through the theoretical lens of design thinking. 2.1 client-side project management existing research on the practice of client-side project management appears to be limited, indicating a pressing need for research into this form of project management. research on this topic has, thus far, principally been conducted by walker and lloyd-walker (2014), usher (2014) and usher and whitty (2014; 2017a, 2017b; 2017c; 2017d). walker and lloyd-walker (2014, p. 566) research focussed on the ethical dilemmas faced by client-side project managers. usher’s (2014, p. 13) research challenges the traditional theoretical foundations of client-side project management and finds that the strategic management body of theory may provide a better foundation for the practice of client-side project management than production management. usher and whitty (2017b, p. 598) investigate how client-side project managers deal with unexpected events, and in doing so identify a new change typology called ‘drift-changes.’ usher and whitty (2017a, p. 5) also explore the relationship that exists between project success and client satisfaction within the project management construct. they find that client-side project managers create value in the construction process by coupling these two elements together to create ‘project management yinyang’ (usher & whitty 2017a, p.7 ). usher and whitty (2017d, p. 785) also developed ‘the final state convergence model.’ this model conceptualized the non-linearity and complexity that client-side project managers encounter in the construction process. perhaps most important for our research, usher and whitty (2017c, p. 2) explored how client-side project manager’s deal with paradoxes in the construction process. in doing, so they identified that client-side project managers appear to adopt some characteristics of design thinking. specifically, that client-side project managers plan multiple pathways for achieving their project’s outcome; they progress through a knowledge funnel, and they adopt ‘action-as-planning’ techniques to navigate poorly defined problems. in their findings, usher and whitty (2017c, p. 8) claim that client-side project managers adopt design thinking when managing construction projects. we believe usher and whitty’s (2017c, p. 8) findings are plausible, but far from conclusive. as such we have decided to investigate their claims more comprehensively. ben mahmoud-jouini et al. (2016, p. 145) highlight that both design thinking and project management are integrative approaches to problem-solving that can enhance organizational outcomes. however, research by thomas et al. (2002, p. 23) found that most senior managers consider the discipline of project management to have little value concerning problem framing and solving. morris (2013, p. 270) notes that this myopic perspective reduces project management to a compliance and control system which can only be used for delivering projects within predefined constraints, and does not necessarily ensure the integration of project deliverables with strategic benefits. the client-side project manager: a practitioner of design thinking project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20183 page number not for citation purposes in recent years, project management researchers have begun challenging the ‘implementation only’ view of project management. they claim that modern project management has evolved to manage the poorly-defined objectives and the environmental uncertainty inherent within complex, mega and wicked projects (morris 2013, p. 58; mccall & burge 2016, p. 200; cicmil et al. 2017, p. 676). lenfle et al. (2016, p. 385) highlight how these projects are (i) emerging and ambiguous; (ii) often have poorly defined objectives; (iii) need to explore new knowledge areas to achieve the project’s goals; and (iv) operate in mixed temporalities which focus concurrently on both short-term and long-term horizons. of particular interest to this study is the existing research which shows construction projects displaying many of the characteristics identified by lenfle et al. (2016, p. 382). specifically, that construction projects (i) can occur in emerging and ambiguous environments (fernandez-solis 2013, p. 22; usher and whitty 2017b, p. 592); (ii) often have poorly defined objectives due to a lack of uniformly agreed stakeholder expectations (usher and whitty 2017d, p. 783); and (iii) need to focus concurrently on short-term horizons when managing unexpected events (usher and whitty 2017b, p. 594), and long-term horizons to deliver the project’s outcome (usher 2014, p. 12). 2.2 design thinking the design thinking body of knowledge has developed around the two discourses (gaim & wåhlin 2016, p. 34). the design discourse focusses on the practices of professionally educated designers, and the management discourse focusses on how the same practices are applied to strategy and innovation ( johansson-sköldberg et al. 2013, p. 127). brown (2008, p. 86) states that design thinking is adopted by anyone who “…attempts to match people’s needs with what is technologically feasible and …convert [it] into customer value…”. cross (2011, p. 197) takes this description further by stating that design thinking is the ability to resolve ill-defined problems by adopting solution focused cognitive strategies, abductive reasoning and oppositional thinking. while (verganti 2009, p. 4) states that practitioners use design thinking to “…make sense out of things…”. adopting a ‘social constructionist’ perspective, hassi and laakso (2011, p. 6) have described design thinking as a framework of mentalities, thinking styles and practices. similarly, liedtka (2015, p. 930) and johansson-sköldberg et al. (2013, p. 132) have used this perspective when identifying a range of design thinking tools. our research also adopts the ‘social constructionist’ perspective. 2.2.1 mentalities hassi and laakso (2011, p. 8) define mentalities as “…the mental attitude with which problems are approached…”. they describe the design thinking mentalities as (i) experimental and explorative; (ii) ambiguity tolerant; (iii) optimistic; and (iv) future-oriented. an experimental and explorative mentality is one which is willing to risk failure by pushing capability, technological and organisational boundaries (fraser 2009, p. 64). design thinkers tend to see early failures, within acceptable risk levels, as the necessary price for discovering creative and innovative solutions (brown 2008, p. 87). fraser (2009, p. 64) notes that approaching problems with this mentality requires a tolerance for failure, blended with personal courage. usher and whitty project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20184 page number not for citation purposes design thinkers are ambiguity tolerant. rylander (2009, p. 11) highlights this is because ambiguity is a natural part of any design process. boland and collopy (2004, p. 76) note that design thinkers need to be comfortable with ambiguity in order to respond creatively to new challenges and opportunities. being ambiguity tolerant provides opportunities for dynamic interactions between seemingly incompatible components (smith & lewis 2016, p. 381) and allows design thinkers to resist the intellectual temptation for early resolution and closure (beech et al. 2004, p. 1315). design thinkers are optimistic. they assume that every problem has at least one potential solution (cooper et al. 2009, p. 53). gloppen (2009, p. 35) highlights this optimistic outlook means design thinkers enjoy finding solutions to problems and provides the disposition necessary to accept and embrace competing constraints. dunne and martin (2006, p. 513) argue that these constraints are welcomed by design thinkers because they increase both the challenges and the rewards associated with the final resolution. design thinkers are future-oriented. simon (1988, p. 67) described design thinking as creating a “…course of action aimed at changing the existing situation into preferred ones…”. it is this future-oriented mentality that allows design thinkers to develop hypotheses about the future and fuels the vision-driven process of intuition (martin 2009, chapter 3, section: ‘solving the paradox at rim’). 2.2.2 thinking styles the second dimension in hassi and laakso (2011, p. 6) design thinking framework is thinking styles. hassi and laakso (2011, p. 8) identified four cognitive activities that design thinkers use, and these are; (i) abductive reasoning; (ii) reflective reframing; (iii) holistic view; and (iv) integrative thinking. abductive reasoning allows design thinkers to find patterns based on previous practical experience (lawson 2005, p. 159). design thinkers manage vast amounts of information by utilizing a form of logic that blends ‘…past-data-driven analytical thinking…” with “… knowing-without-reasoning…” intuition (martin 2009, p. 6). this abductive logic allows design thinkers to identify patterns within a morass of seemingly unrelated data. reflective reframing has been described as the ability to see past the ‘immediate’ problem, to ensure that the ‘right’ problem is addressed (drews 2009, p. 41; lockwood 2010, p. 19). jordi (2011, p. 183) argues reflective reframing is necessary for “meaning-making.” for the design thinker, the ability to be able to identify, frame, and reframe a problem is crucial in ensuring the most appropriate solution is identified (beckman & barry 2007, p. 36). design thinking requires practitioners to be able to take a holistic view of problems (hassi & laakso 2011, p. 8). sato et al. (2010, p. 51) explain that this holistic view is necessary to ensure that design thinkers understand, not only the functional and technical requirements of the problem but also social challenges inherent within the problem’s construct. fraser (2009, p. 65) describes this holistic view as the ability to conceptualize a problem as a “…living organism rather than as a fixed model…”. this ability allows design thinkers to see potential solutions as interconnected networks between technical, business and human dimensions (dunne & martin 2006, p. 512; clark & smith 2008, p. 8; holloway 2009, p. 53). design thinkers utilize integrative thinking. brown (2008, p. 87) describes this as the ability to see all aspects of the problem in order to create novel solutions. smith and lewis (2011, p. 395) argue that integrative thinking stands in stark contrast to contingency thinking which asks “…under what conditions would a or b be more effective…”. instead, integrative thinking the client-side project manager: a practitioner of design thinking project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20185 page number not for citation purposes requires a ‘janusian’ approach (rothenberg 1971, p. 195) which acknowledges that multiple competing demands can be simultaneously true and irrevocably interrelated. 2.2.3 practices hassi and laakso (2011b, p. 6) outline five practices that indicate design thinking is being applied in any problem-solving context. these are: (i) a human-centered approach; (ii) thinking-by-doing; (iii) visualization; (iv) combining divergent and convergent approaches; and (v) a collaborative work style. plattner et al. (2010, introduction para 2.) highlight that by adopting a human-centered approach design thinkers ensure the resolution of technical difficulties are achieved in such a way as to satisfy the human need from which it first evolved. the practice of thinking-by-doing is a necessity when dealing with the ‘chance discoveries’ inherent in any form of problem-solving (plattner et al. 2010, section 5.1). the application of thinking-by-doing is closely aligned with the concept of the progressive elaboration of a project described in pmbok guide (2013, p. 74), and usher and whitty’s (2017c, p. 10) findings that client-side project managers adopt an ‘action-as-planning’ approach when faced with paradox and complexity. visualization is central to the design thinking process (eppler & kernbach 2016, p. 91). ewenstein and whyte (2007, p. 82) explain that the use of visualization tools such as pictures, diagrams, and boundary objects, allows multi-disciplinary groups to develop creative solutions. many authors have noted that the visualization process is vital for discovering and developing the creative solutions that design thinking is renowned for (dorst & cross 2001, p. 434; stempfle & badke-schaub 2002, p. 479; dorst 2011, p. 529). drews (2009, p. 40) explains that divergent thinking is required in order to be able to challenge pre-existing assumptions and to create multiple alternatives. boland and collopy (2004, chapter 1, section: the decision attitude) balance this by highlighting the importance of utilizing convergent thinking to synthesize solutions, create acceptance, and gain the endorsement of a preferred design solution. the concept of combining divergent and convergent thinking is closely aligned to usher and whitty’s (2017a, p. 19) findings regarding the management of success and satisfaction within the project management yinyang framework. researchers have noted the need design thinkers have for a collaborative work style. gloppen (2009, p. 42) argues that a collaborative work style is a necessity when facing complex problems as it allows the problem solver to gain new knowledge and perspectives from a range of different disciplines. boland and collopy (2004, chapter 27, section: interaction) and dunne and martin (2006, p. 519) make the interesting observation that design thinkers appear to be at their most creative when operating collaboratively. 2.2.4 tools liedtka (2015, p. 928) outlines a range of tools which design thinkers use and explains how these tools are used to generate multiple potential solutions. design thinkers then prototype and experiment with these to identify the solution that best fits the human, organizational, environmental, and technological constraints of the problem. johansson-sköldberg et al. (2013, p. 125) highlight that the real purpose of design thinking tools is to create a “…working hypothesis…” which allows problem framing, setting, and solution to occur concurrently. these hypotheses allow the design thinker to choose “… usher and whitty project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20186 page number not for citation purposes which contexts should dominate …” (wylant 2010, p. 228). table 1 synthesizes the work of hassi and laakso (2011a, p. 6), liedtka (2015, p. 928), and johansson-sköldberg et al. (2013, p. 125) to show a relationship between the design thinking practices and tools. table 1 design thinking practices and tools design thinking practices (hassi & laakso 2011, p. 6) design thinking tools (johansson-sköldberg et al. 2013, p. 125; liedtka 2015, p. 928) human-centered approach interviewing, ethnographic studies, observation, focus groups. thinking by doing journey mapping, hypotheses testing, field experiments. visualization prototyping, charts, graphs, storytelling, use of metaphor, analogies, ‘whiteboarding’ and sketching to capture ideas. combination of divergent and convergent approaches sense-making, hypotheses development, challenging assumptions. collaborative work style brainstorming, concept development, combined ideation. 3.0 research question ben mahmoud-jouini et al. (2016, p. 145) note that both project management and design thinking are integrative approaches that attempt to improve organisational outcomes. this comment is interesting when we consider thomas et al. (2002, p. 23) findings that senior organisational managers considered project management to have little value in problemframing and to solve. we argue that, as design thinking is a problem-solving cognitive activity, any evidence of the utilization of these mentalities, thinking styles, practices, and tools by client-side project managers would indicate that the discipline has moved beyond simple compliance and control tools. with this in mind, our paper investigates: do client-side project managers utilize design thinking when managing construction projects? 4.0 research methodology our research will explore the ‘lived experience’ of client-side project managers who are managing construction projects. to do this, we adopted a qualitative, ‘grounded theory’ methodology. this particular methodology was selected for two reasons. firstly, we considered the recommendations of easterby-smith et al. (2012, p. 49) who argue for the adoption of explorative and qualitative research methods when faced with a research field with limited prior empirical studies. based on the lack of empirical design thinking studies (calgren 2013, p. 24; johansson-sköldberg et al. 2013, p. 123) and our difficulty in finding peer-reviewed literature on client-side project management, a qualitative research methodology seemed appropriate. the client-side project manager: a practitioner of design thinking project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20187 page number not for citation purposes secondly, we considered the work of bryant and charmaz (2007, p. 31), edmondson and mcmanus (2007, p. 1155) and glaser (2014, p. 48). these authors recommend that a ‘grounded theory’ methodology be adopted when attempting to generate theory from social processes and ‘lived experiences.’ 4.1 research design our research investigates the ‘lived experience’ of client-side project managers by creating a framework from hassi and laakso (2011a, p. 6) design thinking mentalities, thinking styles and practices; and johansson-sköldberg et al. (2013, p. 125) and liedtka (2015, p. 928) design thinking tools. we used this framework for developing semi-structured interviews. these interviews were conducted with a purposively selected sample of ten client-side project managers within the australian construction environment. in selecting this sample size, we considered the work of algeo (2012, p. 5) who argued that a sample as small as five is sufficient to ensure validity within targeted, qualitative research such as ours. all of our research participants were male with between three and eighteen years’ experience as client-side project managers in the australian construction sector. at the time of conducting the interviews each of the research participants were managing multiple construction projects. the research participant’s clients included federal and state government departments and agencies (8 projects); institutional clients such as education or health (4 projects); and private organisations including not-for-profits and private developers (6 projects). the interviews were digitally recorded before being transcribed into a data analysis program (nvivo). all of the recordings, transcripts, and data analysis are retained on a password protected computer. the privacy of each research participant is maintained through the application of a re-identifiable code (pm01-pm10) during the transcription process. the data analysis was conducted by reducing the collected data into ‘thought units’ ranging from sentences to paragraphs using a process similar to that outlined by ashill et al. (2003, p. 437). these thought units were reviewed using hassi and laakso (2011a, p. 6) design thinking framework of mentalities, thinking styles and practices as the coding categories. once this was completed a second review of the collected data was undertaken using the design thinking tools framework synthesized from the works of liedtka (2015, p. 928) and johansson-sköldberg et al. (2013, p. 125) as the coding categories. 5.0 results our results will be presented in the form of abstracts from the research transcripts, using the re-identifiable code for each participant as the citation. our commentary will be added to provide additional clarity regarding the transcript abstracts. 5.1 design thinking mentalities the data was reviewed looking for evidence of the research participants approaching and addressing problems using the design thinking mentalities identified by hassi and laakso (2011, p. 6). these are: (i) experimental and explorative; (ii) ambiguity tolerant; (iii) optimistic; (iv) future-oriented. usher and whitty project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20188 page number not for citation purposes 5.1.1. experimental and explorative to test for an experimental and explorative mentality, the research participants were asked whether they were able to comprehensively plan their projects with the information they were provided at the commencement of their project. in total seven of the research participants (70%) referred to the projects as being a process of exploration. the research participants explained: “…every building is a one-off prototype…you make decisions as you walk down the road…” (pm10) “… the plan is to head towards where you want to go…you just head off in the right direction… (pm02). “…[the projects are] always unique. it’s necessary to have the original planning; to have some direction…[but that] initial plan can become almost completed irrelevant…it [the project] becomes something completely different…” (pm08). “...there is a range of outcomes that could be achieved …you don’t know at that stage [commencement] what the physical delivery looks like or includes…” (pm09). the data indicates the research participants thought of their projects as experimental (i.e. “prototypes”) and that the process for successfully delivering the project outcomes required an element of exploration. as pm02 succinctly puts it “…you just head off in the right direction…”. within the data, there were regular references to the research participants adapting their initial plans and an acceptance that the outcome could be “…completely different…” (pm08) to what was first envisaged. the responses indicate a constant reassessment of the likely project outcome. we saw in this evidence that the process that is both experimental and explorative. 5.1.2. ambiguity tolerant to test for ambiguity tolerance, the research participants were asked if they received all the inputs that they needed to plan the project when they commenced the construction process. all ten of the research participants (100%) indicated their role required them to progress despite gaps in critical project information. the research participant has told us: “…we need to have some level of flexibility…you have got to be ready to roll if and when things do change… the only thing you can be sure of is that things will change…” (pm02). “…there are a series of unknowns and things can change quickly…” (pm04) “… [delivering construction projects] can be quite a fluid process, constantly changing and you need to be flexible…there’s always something changing…” (pm08) “… what you should be doing as a client-side project manager is enabling [the stakeholders] to proceed in the midst of ambiguity…” (pm10) the data demonstrate that the research participants accept they will need to progress their projects despite incomplete information and a high probability that future information will impact their plans. interestingly, none of the research participants appeared concerned about this ambiguity. one research participant, pm06, indicated that the challenge created by this ambiguity and uncertainty was part of the attraction for him in making client-side project management his career “… [the ambiguity] is challenging…diverse, fun…that’s what makes it the client-side project manager: a practitioner of design thinking project management research and practice, vol. 5, 20189 page number not for citation purposes stimulating. no day is the same, that’s for sure…”. pm06’s response reinforces the findings of dunne and martin (2006, p. 513) who proposed that the challenges created by poorly defined problems are often welcomed by design thinkers because they add to the sense of satisfaction felt once a successful solution is identified. 5.1.3 optimistic to test for an optimistic mentality, the research participants were asked how they felt about having to manage their projects in the midst of incomplete information, ambiguity, and uncertainty. the research participants explained: “…you can only try your best to get where they [stakeholders] want to be…you just have to go for it…” (pm02). “…you have to have a positive outlook… [and] stay in an optimistic frame of mind…” (pm09) “…[ambiguity is a risk] to people who look at things as a threat, whereas…you need to be looking at them as an opportunity to see how you can exploit opportunities to get the right solution…[our role is to make stakeholder’s see] the impossible that can be possible…” (pm10) the data indicates the research participants approach the challenges associated with ambiguity with a positive mindset; confident in their abilities to manage whatever might occur throughout the construction process. we saw this as evidence of an optimistic mentality. 5.1.4 future-oriented to test for a future-oriented mentality, the research participants were asked how they managed risks. their responses demonstrate an ability to look beyond the present and focus on the project’s future outcomes. this future-oriented perspective allowed them to ‘foresee’ how present-day decisions would impact on their projects. “… [client-side project managers] have a role in keeping the project moving forward…we start to sideline unfeasible options reasonable quickly… you need to advise them [sponsors and stakeholders] on what the likely outcome is going to be of whatever issue they are facing…” (pm03) “…you are continually looking at what’s lying ahead…looking forward and then discussing that with them [sponsor and stakeholders] and then working out a plan together …” (pm09) “…you just have to keep everything moving forward…so you need to know what you need from them in advance …” (pm10) the phraseology utilized by the research participants was interesting. comments such as “…moving forward…” (pm03, pm07 & pm10) and “…looking forward…” (pm09) all indicate a future-oriented mentality. the data appears to indicate that the research participants were a group who are not content with ‘what is,’ but prefer to keep their focus on ‘what could be.’ 5.2 thinking styles hassi and laakso (2011, p.6) identified four thinking styles that design thinkers adopt. these are (i) abductive reasoning; (ii) reflective reframing; (iii) holistic view; and (iv) integrative thinking. usher and whitty project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201810 page number not for citation purposes the data was analyzed for evidence that demonstrated the research participants were utilizing these thinking styles. 5.2.1 abductive reasoning to test for abductive reasoning, we looked for evidence that the research participants were using a combination of experience and intuition to manage poorly defined problems. we asked the research participants how they managed their projects when faced with incomplete information. “…some of it is intuition, some of it is experience based…” (pm02) “… i think it’s something you learn from going through projects… i think its experience in the field that helps you know which way to go…” (pm06). “… i make recommendations [to the sponsor and stakeholders]… that’s part of our experience in assessing the details… [being able to] advise if there are implications to decisions that are made or changes and [knowing] how that can impact the project strategically…” (pm09) the data indicated that the research participants were utilizing a combination of intuition (pm02) and experience (pm06 & pm09). the use of both intuition and experience is a hallmark of abductive reasoning. 5.2.2 reflective reframing to test for reflective reframing, the research participants were asked how they filled the information gaps in their projects. the research participants told us: “… [a lot of the questions i ask are]…testing my assumptions as a client-side project manager…” (pm02). “… the most fundamental thing i found in project management is being able to ask the right question and to style the questions… [to] get them to define what they want to achieve, not how they want it to look…” (pm04). “… [we say] this is how we understand your words and your comments, can you please confirm this…” (pm06). “… what you need to do is to frame the argument; all the decision, all the information, in a certain way that…empowers them [sponsor and stakeholders] to make the decisions…” (pm10). the data demonstrated a pattern of gathering information, reframing it to highlight the gaps in the information, and then articulating and documenting this information in such a way so that stakeholders could either fill in the gaps or endorse the research participant’s understanding. we saw these responses as evidence of reflective reframing. 5.2.3 holistic view to test for a holistic view, the research participants were asked how they perceived their role in the construction process. the research respondents explained: “… [a client-side project manager must have] oversight and understanding of the strategy, finances…all of the works, and the staff… of the wider political issues…the client-side project the client-side project manager: a practitioner of design thinking project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201811 page number not for citation purposes manager must be across the business… cost, time, facility benefit… and then marry this back to the original project benefit…” (pm03). “…the client-side project manager generally provides a more strategic oversight because they’re looking beyond just building [the facility]. they’re looking at through-life support, maintenance, and the broader factors…” (pm04). “… [the client-side project manager must be] mindful of their decisions on the business side of things…to keep the project within the micro-positioning …” (pm10) the responses indicated that the research participants perceived their role from a holistic view. they were not just concerned with the successful delivery of a facility but felt obligated to understand and provide direction on how the project’s outcomes would achieve the sponsoring organisation’s strategic goals. 5.2.4 integrative thinking to test for integrative thinking, the research participants were asked whether they felt the elements of the construction process were an interrelated system or discrete elements. “… [you have] the users, the client, the contractor… [we need to] be seen trying to balance everybody…” (pm01) “… stakeholders will have different requirements, quite often they will need to be balanced… ”(pm02) “… [all the project elements] are interrelated and they can have knock-on effects…” (pm05). “…certainly a lot … are related to other aspects, and it’s not just an isolated outcome…” (pm09). “… [the client-side project manager] is the central cog…when you think that you could have a thousand people, some on the other side of the world, who buy-in to this delivery… there are cogs connected to cogs…my job is to keep all the other cogs moving, and moving together…” (pm10). the data indicates that the research participants viewed the construction process as a series of interconnected elements and decisions. comments such as “…balancing…” (pm01 & pm02) indicate the research participants saw an interconnectedness in the divergent perspectives of the project stakeholders. pm10’s comments regarding the client-side project manager being the central “…cog…” provides a clear mental image of integrative thinking. 5.3 practices design thinking is a cognitive strategy utilized to solve poorly defined problems. in order to identify and develop creative solutions, design thinkers adopt certain practices. hassi and laakso (2011, p. 6) identified five practices adopted by design thinkers, and these are; (i) a human-centered approach; (ii) thinking-by-doing; (iii) visualization; (iv) combining divergent and convergent approaches; and (v) a collaborative work style. 5.3.1 human-centred approach to test for a human-centered approach, we asked the research participants what they considered was their primary role in the construction process. we anticipated the data would usher and whitty project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201812 page number not for citation purposes show a strong bias towards technical and contractual elements. however, the data revealed some surprising responses. “…my role is all about people management. it’s an influencing role…” (pm01) “…it’s expectation management, that’s what it comes down too…” (pm02). “…project management is about facilitation, and that’s all about communication. if everyone knows what’s going on if everyone knows what they need to know…everything is a lot smoother…” (pm06) “…the role needs negotiation skills…regular meetings…explaining… communicating… trying to get everyone on the same page…so it’s very much those people skills…” (pm09). interestingly, the data indicates a strong bias towards a human-centered approach to the construction process by the research participants. they explained how “…people management…” (pm01), “…expectation management …” (pm02) and “…people skills…” (pm09) play a central role in the client-side project management of construction projects. we saw this as evidence that a human-centered approach was being adopted. 5.3.2 thinking-by-doing to test for thinking-by-doing, the research participants were asked how they managed to move their projects forward in light of information gaps. the research participants explained: “…the statement that helps me with some complex projects is ‘fix it as you go.’ plan what you’ve got…progress as best you can at the start and then reorient and start working through it again…” (pm02) “…you develop a plan of how you intend to do the project…and then it’s a matter of adapting that plan and updating the plan, keeping everybody informed…” (pm09) “…you make decisions as you walk down the road…so you just sort of plan it as you go…” (pm10) the data demonstrates the research participants were adopting a thinking – by doing approach. this supports the findings of usher and whitty (2017c, p. 10) regarding client-side project manager’s bias towards an ‘action-as-planning’ approach to managing paradoxes in construction projects. 5.3.3 visualisation to test for the practice of visualisation, the research participants were asked what tools they used to explain complex issues to their sponsor and stakeholders. “…i do love a really good diagrammatical representation…” (pm02) “…i used a gantt chart to illustrate that another path was necessary, it didn’t create the path. that was created after…” (pm03). “…time will be a form of graphical program showing all the various stages and the breakdown of those stages – what depends on what elements and how the critical path flows…” (pm09). “…the budget document, preparation of a time-based program. just to show visually how we got through things…” (pm10) the client-side project manager: a practitioner of design thinking project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201813 page number not for citation purposes the research participants indicated that they regularly use visualization tools to explore the potential project pathways, to explain the interconnectedness of activities, and to demonstrate the flow-on effects of particular decisions. 5.3.4 combining divergent and convergent approaches to test for the practice of divergent and convergent approaches, the research participants were asked a range of questions about how they validated assumptions and how they managed different stakeholder expectations. the participants told us: adopting a divergent approach: when discussing a review of a business case at the commencement of a project “…i presented the case to the steering committee… [and asked] do you need this [facility]? what is the benefit?...” (pm03) “… you need to generate a bit of conflict in the organization to find the real need, which is based on a series of assumptions, facts, and constraints…” (pm04) when discussing whether stakeholders have a unified vision of the project outcome pm07 noted, “…they think they know what they want…but that’s often created by strong personalities with a particular preference…[i have to] interrogate that by questioning in detail what they think they want…start to chip away…[then i find] there are a lot of questions that haven’t been considered…” adopting a convergent approach “… [i build consensus] by allowing them [sponsor and stakeholders] to revalidate their decisions and assumptions…” (pm06) “…they all have a slightly blinkered view…but the client-side project manager has to integrate these blinkered views with the next person’s…” (pm10) these responses indicated both divergent and convergent approaches being adopted by the research participants. the divergent approach was used to challenge preconceived ideas, biases, and group-think in order to interrogate the issues, drivers, requirements, and constraints of the project. the convergent approach was used to bring different perceptions together in order to unify understanding of the project’s requirements and manage the stakeholder’s expectations regarding the outcomes of the project. 5.3.5 collaborative work style to test for a collaborative work style, the research participants were asked: (a) how they gathered information at the commencement of the project scoping process; (b) how they managed challenges throughout the construction process, and (c) how they aligned disparate sponsor and stakeholder expectations. the respondents told us: “…a good project manager will be flexible…and adaptable and be willing to listen…and get advice on what could and should be done…[to make sure] all the players are involved…” (pm04) usher and whitty project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201814 page number not for citation purposes “…[delivering any project is about]…a group of people, teaming up towards the delivery of the same facility…that means consulting with them…” (pm06) “…there is a lot of consultation and collaboration…[to] ensure they [sponsor and stakeholders] retain ownership…” (pm09) “…there is always a lot of collective knowledge that should be used to make decisions…” (pm10) the responses demonstrate the research participants were adopting a collaborative working style. the research participants described themselves as being part of a team with a common goal (pm06) which requires “…consulting and collaboration…” (pm09) to achieve a successful outcome. pm10 seems to summarise the comments of the other research participants when talking about the “…collective knowledge…” that needs to be accessed in order to make decisions during the project. 5.4 tools the data was reviewed searching for any indication that the research participants were adopting design thinking tools. our analysis identified 15 different tools that the research participants used during the construction process. the tools are listed in table 2. table 2 tools research participants used during the construction process the identified client-side project management tools were reviewed against the design thinking tools already documented by liedtka (2015, p. 928) and johansson-sköldberg et al. (2013, p. 125). this review interrogated the data looking at how the research participants described the way they used the client-side project management tools and assessed whether these aligned with the identified design thinking tools. table 3 demonstrates how each of the identified tools aligns with the design thinking tools identified by liedtka (2015, p. 928) and johansson-sköldberg et al. (2013, p. 125). the client-side project manager: a practitioner of design thinking project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201815 page number not for citation purposes table 3 design thinking tools vs. client-side construction project management tools as table 3 demonstrates, the design thinking tools used most regularly by the research participants were ‘sense-making’ (14), ‘challenging assumptions’(14); ‘storytelling’ (13), and ‘journey mapping’ (12). interestingly, contracts (‘con’) did not correlate to any of the design thinking tools outlined by either liedtka (2015, p. 928) or johansson-sköldberg et al. (2013, p. 125). we suspect this is because contracts prescribe what is expected, what is monitored, how progress will be assessed and how parties are required to behave. hence, contracts are not ‘problem-solving’ tools they are compliance and control tools. 6.0 discussion we will now discuss the results of this research regarding the research question and how these results contribute to the literature. 6.1 design thinking in project management our research posed the question: do client-side project managers utilize design thinking when managing construction projects? this research adopted hassi and laakso (2011, p. 6) design thinking frameworks as our method of analysis. their framework has three dimensions; (i) design thinking mentalities; (ii) design thinking thinking styles; and (iii) design thinking practices. besides, our research also investigated whether client-side project managers in the construction sector utilize the design thinking tools outlined by liedtka (2015, p. 928) and johansson-sköldberg et al. (2013, p. 125). usher and whitty project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201816 page number not for citation purposes 6.1.1 design thinking mentalities the results indicate that the client-side project managers involved in this research adopted all four of the design thinking mentalities outlined by hassi and laakso (2011, p. 6). the research participants demonstrated an experimental and explorative mentality in the way they approached their projects as one-off prototypes. they progressed their projects despite understanding the project’s outcome might be considerably different from the one that was originally envisaged by themselves, the sponsor, and the stakeholders. in progressing their projects forward, the research participants proved to be decidedly ambiguity tolerant. all the research participants indicated they could progress their projects despite the ambiguity created by gaps in critical project information. the data indicated that client-side project managers are optimistic. they were confident in their ability to manage all aspects of their projects to a successful outcome. this was in spite of having to contend with incomplete information and in the understanding that unexpected challenges could impact their ability to deliver the project successfully. finally, client-side project managers appear to have a robust future-oriented mentality. when faced with information gaps, unforeseen challenges, and in the knowledge that unexpected events may hinder their progress, they overcome obstacles by focusing on the future outcomes to be achieved, not the difficulty immediately in front of them. 6.1.2 design thinking thinking styles our findings indicate that client-side project managers utilize all of the thinking styles outlined in hassi and laakso’s (2011, p. 6) design thinking framework. the research participants indicated they draw on both intuition and experience when planning the progress of their projects, recommending options, or determining the potential impact of risks. this indicates the application of abductive reasoning. the research participants spoke of using reflective reframing to help them understand the sponsor’s and stakeholder’s expectations. they also utilized reflective reframing when attempting to understand the sponsoring organisation’s drivers or to test and validate assumptions upon which critical decisions had been made. the research participants took a holistic view concerning their role on projects. they described how they saw their projects in strategic terms. they felt responsible, not just for the construction of a facility, but for understanding how this facility would operate throughout the whole of its life and how it would fulfill the broader objectives and drivers of the sponsoring organization. finally, the research participants saw themselves as part of a much bigger process. they described their role as balancing the strategic needs of the business with the project outcomes and the sponsor and stakeholder’s expectations. they demonstrated integrative thinking when consolidating different expectations of the project sponsor, stakeholder and project teams together to create a unified vision of the project outcomes. 6.1.3 design thinking practices the findings of this research demonstrate the research participants adopted all five of the design thinking practices outlined in hassi and laakso’s (2011, p. 6) framework. despite our assumptions to the contrary, the research participants exhibited a highly human-centered approach to managing their construction projects. they repeatedly described the client-side project manager: a practitioner of design thinking project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201817 page number not for citation purposes their role as ‘people management’ and spoke of how they need to manage the fears, concerns, and expectations of the sponsor and stakeholders. the research participants showed a strong bias towards thinking-by-doing as the tool for managing complex or poorly-defined project scope and risks. they appeared to treat their programming (i.e., gantt charts) as hypotheses to be tested rather than formal plans to be adhered to. the research participants regularly mentioned changing their programs and plans as new information came to light or as unforeseen events impacted on their proposed project plans. the visualisation was regularly used by the research participants in order to communicate with their sponsors and stakeholders. the data highlighted how the research participants would use project management artefacts such as gantt charts and reports to help tell the story of the project, to help the sponsor and stakeholders make sense of the project and its environment, and to create confidence that the project outcomes were achievable. the data indicated that the research participants combined divergent and convergent approaches to progress their projects. at different times throughout the construction process, the research participants would alternatively “…generate conflict…” (pm04) in order to identify or challenge pre-existing assumptions and bias; or “…integrate…” (pm10) differing opinions in order to create a consensus and gain a unified endorsement to progress. finally, the data demonstrated that the research participants adopted a collaborative work style to access the “…collective knowledge…” (pm10) that resides within the sponsor, stakeholders and project team. 6.1.4 design thinking tools our research identified 15 specific client-side project management tools that the research participants utilized to manage their construction projects. except for ‘contract,’ these project management tools were able to be categorized according to the design thinking tools previously identified by liedtka (2015, p. 928) and johansson-sköldberg et al. (2013, p. 125). based on the data, we surmised that the contracts are not utilized as a problem-solving tool, but instead are a tool developed for monitoring and controlling the project. 6.2 client-side project management the results of this study augment and expand the limited body of literature regarding clientside project management. our research has augmented the existing literature by providing support to usher and whitty (2017c, p. 10) claims that client-side project managers may utilize design thinking and that these practitioners adopt an ‘action-as-planning’ approach in construction projects. our research has added to the body of literature by demonstrating that client-side project managers display all the characteristics of design thinking mentalities, thinking styles and practices as identified by hassi and laakso (2011, p. 6) and that they utilize a broad range of the design thinking tools identified by liedtka (2015, p. 928) and johansson-sköldberg et al. (2013, p. 125). the contribution our research has made to the client-side project management literature is summarized in table 4. usher and whitty project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201818 page number not for citation purposes table 4 the contribution of this study to client-side project management literature key point supported added utilization of design thinking (usher and whitty 2017c, p.11). * utilization of ‘action-as-planning’ techniques in construction projects (usher and whitty 2017c, p10). * adoption of design thinking mentalities * adoption of design thinking thinking styles * adoption of design thinking practices * utilization of design thinking tools * 7.0 conclusions our research finds that client-side project managers utilise design thinking when delivering construction projects. our research provides clear evidence of all of hassi and laakso’s (2011, p. 6) design thinking mentalities, thinking styles and practices being utilized by client-side project managers when delivering construction projects. furthermore, our research found a strong correlation between liedtka’s (2015, p. 928) and johansson-sköldberg et al. (2013, p. 125) design thinking tools and the tools utilised by these practitioners. combined, these findings strongly indicate that design thinking is being utilised by client-side project managers when they are delivering construction projects. our findings highlight that the practice of client-side project management should not be viewed exclusively as part of the ‘implementation’ process. as such, our research shows that client-side project management has more to offer in the construction process than merely the delivery of compliance and control systems. 7.1 limitations of this research the main limitation we identified in our research is the generalizability of our findings. our research was conducted in a specific social construct with a small group of research participants. although the sample size does not affect the validity of the research findings, we concede that it may impact on the generalizability of the results. this could be overcome by conducting future research with a larger sample size. we also note that our research was conducted with a group of consultant client-side project managers. we believe the findings of this research could be enhanced by undertaking similar research with a more diverse range of construction sector project managers. 7.2 implications for research and practice our study has implications for project management research. our research demonstrates a clear link between design thinking theory and project management theory and has provided some empirical evidence into the use of design thinking in a project management construct. however, more research still needs to be conducted, particularly into how design thinking mentalities, thinking styles, practices and tools are applied within different project management constructs. the client-side project manager: a practitioner of design thinking project management research and practice, vol. 5, 201819 page number not for citation purposes the findings of this research have implications for the practice of project management. our research indicates that project managers should view their role differently from what has been traditionally accepted. design thinking is first and foremost, a problem-solving activity. the use of design thinking within the project management construct highlights that practitioners need to develop skills and tools that address, not just the compliance and control elements of project management, but also information gathering and problem-solving techniques. this change of perspective creates opportunities for project managers to broaden their skill set in order to be able to create further value in the construction process. about the authors greg usher is a doctoral candidate at the university of southern queensland. he is the national general manager for building and properties at rps (australia asia pacific). his main research area is project management. he has published a number of articles in academic journals including international journal of project management, international journal of managing projects in business and project management research and practice. dr whitty previously lectured in project management, electronics, and computer science at the university of queensland australia. since 2009, he has been associate professor of project management at the university of southern queensland. his role includes leading and developing project and program management research. he is an expert in the application of social evolutionary principles relating to project management and contributes to the literature on philosophy and complexity in project and organisational management. references a guide to the project management body of knowledge (pmbok guide), 2013, 5th edn., project management institute, newtown square, pa. https://doi.org/10.1002/pmj.21345 algeo, c 2012, ‘action research in project management: an examination of australian project managers’, in 5th international conference of education, 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corresponding author: beata jałocha, assistant professor, institute of public affairs, faculty of management and social communication, jagiellonian university, lojasiewicza 4, 30-348 kraków, poland. beata.jalocha@uj.edu.pl doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5043 project management research and practice vol. 3 july-dec. 2016 © 2016 by the author(s). this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 international (cc by 4.0) license (https:// creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: bogaczwojtanowska, e. & jałocha, b. 2016. the bright side of social economy sector’s projectification: a study of successful social enterprises. project management research and practice, 3, 5043. http:// dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp. v3i0.5043 published by uts epress | http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts. edu.au synopsis the main goal of social enterprises is doing business for socially useful purposes. achieving objectives, both social and economic, requires modern project management instruments and methods. the whole social economy sector, both in poland and in europe, is strongly influenced by projectification process, making it one of our research goals to find out which factors are critical to the process of creating durable social enterprises from projects. we wanted to understand how projectification, influenced strongly by european union policies, changes the landscape of social enterprises in poland and helps them achieve success. research design our research was conducted in the years 2010 to 2013, in polish social enterprises. research was of a qualitative character: each social enterprise selected for the study constituted a separate case study. research results concerning the projectification of social enterprises presented herein were obtained from a qualitative analysis of 28 case studies. main findings factors that frequently determine the development of a stable or successful social enterprise from a project structure are: (i) common aim; (ii) previous cooperation of a founding group; and, (iii) leadership and business experience of employees. based on their research, the authors also argue that projects are a kind of a trampoline for social enterprises, allowing them to develop in the first, difficult stage of activity. later, in most 1 2 declaration of conflicting interest the author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. funding the author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 1 (page number not for citation purposes) mailto:beata.jalocha@uj.edu.pl http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5043 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5043 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5043 http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/pmrp.v3i0.5043 http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au http://pmrp.epress.lib.uts.edu.au bogacz-wojtanowska & jałocha project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20162 (page number not for citation purposes) cases, organizations are not interested in project management professionalization. in times of galloping projectification, therefore, we still find organizations that benefit from the process and are not subjected completely to its negative effects. relevance for research and education practical implications arising from our research can help social enterprises to pursue further development and professionalization of their activities. by presenting key determining factors in the development of a stable or successful social enterprise from a project structure, the paper provides practical guidance in developing strategies to achieve successful development of social enterprises. educators can also use the results as a case study for students pursuing programs in project management or in nongovernmental organization management. keywords social economy, social enterprises, projectification, social enterprises project management introduction in europe, we are witnessing a growth in the social economy sector, that is, in socioeconomic organizations that belong neither to the traditional for-profit sector (market economy) nor to the public sector (government) (deforuny 2001; young 2007). they rather act at the interface of civil society and markets ( jäger 2010). the main goal of these organizations, called social enterprises or social businesses, is doing business for socially useful purposes. these initiatives may take the form of traditional non-governmental organizations (ngos), like foundations and associations, as well as new kinds of organizations such as social cooperatives, partnerships, and funds. social economy is situated between the public and business spheres of administration, and combines both social and profit-oriented objectives. social entrepreneurship is unquestionably a desirable feature of social economy, understood as reaching planned economic objectives with the use of available resources. another feature is to involve excluded persons and use their creativity, thereby solving social problems such as structural unemployment and disadvantage among social minorities, as well as strengthening democratic processes, bottom-up social initiatives, and so on. achieving both social and economic objectives requires modern management instruments and methods. all of the above-mentioned organizations and ventures achieve their local, social, and ethical missions and goals using methods adopted from the business sector (defourny, hulgard & pestoff 2014). one of these methods is project management. the whole social economy sector, both in poland and in europe, is strongly influenced by projectification process: that is, a lot of activities are performed in the form of projects. for last 10 years, projectification of the social non-governmental sector as well as the economy sector in poland has been reinforced by the european union’s (eu’s) funding stream: hundreds of co-funded projects have been implemented, aimed at increasing the level of development and improving the condition of social economy. some of these projects have the bright side of social economy sector’s projectification project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20163 (page number not for citation purposes) resulted in the creation of durable, dynamically operating social enterprises, and some of them did not produce any long-term results. in the case of successful projects, we can observe an unusual effect of projectification process: creation of permanent structures, or sustainable social economy organizations. although we can identify examples of interesting research on the impact of project work on ngos (brière et al. 2015); golini, kalchschmidt & landoni 2015) and on critical success factors in non-governmental projects (khang & moe 2008), there is a gap we would like to address in this paper: research on project management best practice in social enterprises. thus, the main research question we will investigate in the paper is: what are the factors that lead to the creation of durable social enterprises from projects? this paper uses a set of qualitative data drawn from broader research on the social economy sector conducted in poland, in the years 2009 to 2014, by researchers from the institute of public affairs. for the purpose of this article, we analyzed multiple case studies, including 28 case studies of existing social enterprises. in addition to our main research goal, we want to understand how projectification, influenced strongly by eu policies, changes the landscape of social enterprises in poland and helps them achieve success. projectification project management has long been seen as a niche practice, a kind of supplement to everyday, repeatable activities conducted by organizations. over the last couple of years, the situation has changed significantly and a project management approach has started to dominate many organizations, regardless of sector or industry. one can even refer to “grandiosification” of projects as a superior alternative to ineffective, rigid, boring bureaucracies (gill 2002; grabher 2002; packendorff & lindgren 2014), in both the practical world and scientific discourse. projectification as a process involving an increasing number of tasks executed in the form of projects, gradually replacing long-term, repeatable activities, is an issue more and more often subject to scientific reflection (midler 1995; aubry & lenfle 2012; jałocha 2012; packendorff & lindgren 2014; godenhjelm, lundin & sjöblom 2015; fred 2015). while project management has been growing more prevalent, projectification has been evolving to cover broader and broader areas of human activity. initially, projectification was identified at an organization level (midler 1995); however, it soon became apparent that projectification also covered the activities of individuals and whole societies. it has been argued that projectification should be redefined to refer to all these levels: societal projectification, organizational projectification, and personal projectification (kuura 2011; maylor et al. 2006). although projectification is commonly admired for enabling work flexibility and increasing work effectiveness, there are critical voices. problems created by projectification have been pointed out in many papers by researchers dealing with critical project studies, an area developed by the making projects critical movement, which has raised for scientific discussion issues such as power, ethics, moral responsibility, and the dysfunctions of project rationality (hodgson & cicmil 2006, 2007; lindgren & packendorff 2006; ika & hodgson 2014: packendorff et al. 2014). lingren & packendorff (2006) contrast the common belief that projects free us from bureaucracy and symbolise innovation, decisiveness, and entrepreneurship, with a thesis that projects entail other restrictions. persons involved in project activity become even more controlled by, among other things, time, place, and ways of thinking. bogacz-wojtanowska & jałocha project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20164 (page number not for citation purposes) referring to a panopticon metaphor created by michel faucault, lingren & packendorff state that project work is a kind of a prison, or another way to disciple people in organizations. hodgson & cicmil (2006) are of similar opinion and believe that in a way projectification colonizes all aspects of our lives, by imposing on us principles and procedures of project thinking. projectification can be understood in a narrow and a broad sense (packendorff & lindgren 2014). in the narrow sense, projectification is a kind of organizational restructuring with a view to improving project activities. as described by packendorff & lindgren (2014, p. 10), it “is usually based on an instrumental and structural notion of the project form as an organizational solution to certain types of tasks.” by contrast, the broad and most common understanding of projectification observes the reasons for and consequences of improving project activities, referring to cultural and social influences. packendorff & lindgren underline the fact that the broad sense is not the same as the notion of societal projectification, as defined by maylor et al. (2006), but rather a “different theoretical view in which formal structural units are seen as institutionalised social constructions and not as stable entities” (packendorff & lindgren 2014, p. 12). another critical viewpoint believes projectification invites excessive bureaucracy, and causes a lack of trust and a lack of persistence in project activities, threatening beneficial outcomes. as packendorff & lindgren (2014) write, referring to chiapello & fairclough (2002): “being successful in a projectified society is closely linked to being available, flexible, and connected, while sacrificing lifelong plans, stable conditions, and social predictability.” to a large extent, we agree with the critical attitude to projectification process that researchers of the making projects critical movement represent. at the same time, we observe that in certain situations, for example in social enterprises, projectification can indirectly entail positive changes (establish stable structures and connect people for the common good) and organizations can use it without fully subjecting to its processes. social enterprises social economy and social entrepreneurship are already the subjects of extensive literature, in europe, canada, and latin america in particular, where we have witnessed an increase in the quality and quantity of writing over the last 20 years. these two decades represent the third development stage of social economy in the world, with previous stages taking place at the beginning of the 19th century and toward the middle of the 20th century (demoustier & rousseliere 2005). social enterprises, in not belonging to a traditional business sector or to a public sector (deforuny 2001; young 2007), are considered organizations operating at the interface of a broadly understood social sector and markets ( jäger 2010). running a business or applying management methods characteristic in traditional enterprises are often emphasized in achieving socially useful objectives, in particular local, social, and ethical objectives (defourny, hulgard & pestoff 2014). social enterprises are usually defined as types of organizational activity undertaken for social interest, executed with business strategies (zappala 2001, pp. 41–8). it is worth underlining that contemporary understanding of social economy is not limited to formal organizations (social cooperatives, nonprofit companies, ngos, and so on), but also refers to informal entities (cooperatives, associations, and groups in which specific economic goods are exchanged within a certain collective, objective-oriented activity). despite the fact that a majority of researchers excludes public organizations from the social economy sphere the bright side of social economy sector’s projectification project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20165 (page number not for citation purposes) (defourny 2001), the public sector, especially in europe, is generally considered a facilitator of social enterprise. it does this by eliminating legal regulations that hinder the development of social enterprises, imposing standards of operation, establishing financial incentives, and providing institutional and programme support for this type of initiative (gray, healy & crofts 2003, p. 149). thus, many public projects, in the eu in particular and at a regional level especially, are aimed at various social groups in order to support the incubation and initiation of new social enterprises. in public discourse, social economy is sometimes called alternative economy, in which non-financial exchange and ethical trade take place and enterprises operate for local community (amin 2009, pp. 4–5). furthermore, it is also sometimes called solidarity economy (in france, canada, and brazil in particular), a term that reflects the thinking of academics and politicians who consider social enterprise a recipe for global financial crisis, a way to economically activate local and regional communities (lechat 2009, p. 159). solidarity economy is based on collective, internal, and inter-organizational solutions, and horizontal and non-hierarchical networks in which harmony, cooperation, social value, active citizenship, individual worth, and collective worth constitute value. solidarity economy focusses on non-market activity and is strongly related with informal social economy entities (mendell 2009, p. 179). in poland, certain characteristics of social economy development are binding. it is believed that “new” social enterprises, established after the social and economic changes that occurred in the country in 1989, have completely different objectives and structures from so-called “old” or “traditional” social enterprises, originating in the 19th century. what identified a social enterprise in poland in the 19th century was its patriotic, grassroots, and independent character, which was connected with the development of the peasants’ movement (rymsza 2008). these organizations focussed their activities on specific areas such as philanthropy, patriotism, or self-help (hubrich et al. 2012). today, traditional social economy in poland includes rural, worker, and housing cooperatives and credit unions. social cooperatives, social enterprises, social integration centers, vocational rehabilitation facilities, and therapy workshops are considered new social economy. the origin of this divided perception lies in the polish third sector: only the new social economy is an object of public policy and financial support. in particular, values and principles on which social economy should be based are essential, that is, it should be of non-political, local and community character. it is worth noting that polish experiences and the development of different forms of enterprise are typical for europe and established within the emes approach (emergence des entreprises sociales en europe) (defourny 2001), which contrasts with the one binding approach in the united states (kerlin 2006). the emes approach underlines the dichotomous character of social enterprises, which achieve both economic objectives (as regular enterprises) and social objectives. projects in the social sector managerialism is presented in the subject literature as one of the basic assumptions of social entrepreneurship (mauksch 2012). project management is a symptom of managerialism adapted by both the public sector and non-governmental sector. it is one of the main forms of executing activities used by ngos, and has been used by them for many years (lindenberg 2001). bogacz-wojtanowska & jałocha project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20166 (page number not for citation purposes) in the case of ngos, project management is typical for several reasons. funds obtained externally are usually temporary and secured to fulfill a goal. moreover, contracts concluded on performance of public tasks take the form of projects, as do tenders announced by grantgiving foundations. very frequently demands are made that, in order for a social enterprise to come into existence and become stable and successful, it must establish and implement an entrepreneurship scheme (bryson, gibbons & shaye 2001; sarpong & davies 2014). do social enterprises, therefore, consider project management to be their business model? literature on project management in the social sector largely refers to a narrow understanding of projectification process: research authors most frequently focus on aspects of projectification that relate to project management methods and techniques used in the non-governmental sector. due to the distinctiveness of objectives and plurality of stakeholders across the social sector, projects are very diverse. social sector organizations are also distinctive in terms of the project management standards, methods and techniques they adopt as optimal. various standards can even appear within one organization, depending on a client’s requirements or the expectations of different funding organizations. similarly, some project management methods and techniques are used more frequently and willingly (for example, work breakdown structure), and others less (for example, project evaluation technique). according to golini, kalchschmidt & landoni (2015), these differences depend on the type of the industry and project maturity of a given organization. it is commonly assumed that the level of project maturity (defined as the ability of an organization to execute project management processes, as well as documenting, measuring, controlling, and continuously developing them) influences the general result of the organization and its management success. research demonstrates that maturity levels found in particular industries might be diverse, and depend on whether project management is a new practice in a given industry or a practice commonly used for many years (grant & pennypacker 2006). golini, kalchschmidt & landoni (2015) also show that in ngos some instruments are used more willingly than others. they indicate that ngos adapt simple techniques more willingly than more complex methods of project management. by estimating the level of project maturity of researched ngos, they suggest that willingness is related to the type and development of instruments used. furthermore, golini, kalchschmidt & landoni prove that developing knowledge about project management can enable ngos to obtain higher effectiveness, and they suggest that effective use of project management instruments is not dependent on the size of an ngo, since project management can benefit both small and big organizations. unfortunately, literature about project management does not refer to project management processes in social enterprises. it is difficult, therefore, to generalize on the characteristics of these processes. later in this paper, we analyze research results and try to identify trends in project management in polish social enterprises. financing social projects in the eu eu funds are one of the main sources supporting non-governmental and social projects aimed at developing human resources and levelling civilization differences in eu states. they are distributed through the agency of mega-programmes, such as the human capital operational programme. frequently, social sector organizations become beneficiaries of such programmes, and resources dedicated solely to the development of social enterprises have the bright side of social economy sector’s projectification project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20167 (page number not for citation purposes) been allocated in the current eu programming period (2014–20), including €90 million (in the form of projects) to the development of european social enterprises within the social entrepreneurship fund initiative (european funding network). among opinions on the impact that eu funds have on the development of social enterprises in east-central europe, there are critical viewpoints. this criticism mainly concerns organizations becoming dependent on obtaining grants, as well as the availability of these grants for bigger and stronger organizations. one of the important arguments, especially in the context of projectification, is that funding arrangements encourage social enterprises to think in a project-oriented and, thus, short-term way, which undermines the stability and balanced development of these enterprises. further criticism cites excessive focus in eu-funded projects on administrative aims, rather than on social impact. however, these voices are rare. criticism concerning projects funded with eu resources is lost in so-called grand narratives, established for the purposes of eu apparatus. these grand narratives are opinions popularized largely by bodies and institutions involved in distributing and spending eu resources. they mainly describe the benefits of stimulating social enterprises with eu resources, including the development of citizen society and social innovations (for example, the european funding network). taking into consideration the difficulty social entrepreneurs often face searching for resources to finance their businesses, these narratives bring hope and are attractive. they do not, however, refer to the organizational, social, and personal costs involved in adopting project management practices to execute eu-funded activities. thus, in the context of projectification processes across the whole sector, it is worth considering how social enterprises deal with restrictions imposed by project-oriented forms of operation. research methodology research conducted within a project titled “integrated support system of social economy”1 formed the basis for our deductions in this paper, with partial results from the research providing our reference material. the project’s basic aim was to identify sustainability factors in social enterprises operating in poland, that is, organizational features and phenomena in their environment that could contribute to their development, sustainability, and success. in particular, it was interesting to identify their ability to execute economic and social objectives and, as a result, establish organizational recommendations and system constructions that could enable the public sector to support them. the research was conducted in the years 2010 to 2013, and was divided into three stages. in the first stage, realised at the turn of 2010/2011, 36 entities were selected to take part. the objective of stage one was to characterize these social enterprises: their roots, social capital, and legal environment. the second stage, realised in the first half of 2012, involved eight entities and covered organizational and managerial issues, as well as sustainability and success factors in social enterprises. 1 research was conducted by the institute of public affairs (a co-author of this paper participated in the research, which is elaborated on later in the text) within a project titled “integrated support system of social economy” under human capital operational programme, priority i. employment and social integration, measure 1.2: system support to institutions of social assistance and integration. the project was co-financed with european union resources under the european social fund and conducted in the years 2009 to 2014. bogacz-wojtanowska & jałocha project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20168 (page number not for citation purposes) the third and last stage, whose partial results are presented in this paper, was realised in the second half of 2013. it involved 28 entities and concentrated on competitiveness factors in social enterprises and their operation in a local environment. it also considered factors that influenced the way the entities were established, including: • belonging to the so-called new social economy; • having various social objectives, which generally cover three main types: integration (increasing employability), local development (activating local resources, increasing quality of life in communities), and social services (addressing a deficit in the local environment); • performing their economic activity in various areas (including service, as well as production); and • having different organizational forms, comprising social cooperatives (18), occupational workshops (1), ngos conducting business activity (1 foundation, 5 associations), nonprofit companies (2), and church organizations conducting business activity (1). research was of a qualitative character: each social enterprise selected for the project constituted a separate case study. case study is a research strategy focussed on understanding processes happening within a particular case study arrangement (eisenhardt 1989). case studies can be based on a single case or numerous cases, and involve various levels of analysis (yin 1984). this research strategy usually employs various methods of collecting data, such as interviews, observations, and analysis of archives, and the data that is collected can be of a quantitative or qualitative character. to collect data in each case study, the following three research methods were used: • in-depth interviews with leaders, managers, representatives, employees, and external stakeholders of the social enterprises, according to a prepared scenario; • short participant observations, carried out during visits to the organizations according to prepared criteria; and • analysis of organizational documents obtained during site visits (financial statements and balance sheets, business plans, work regulations and so on, and the organization’s portfolio and website). using these methods, 10 trained researchers from the institute of public affairs collected data according to determined procedures and research instruments. next, the researchers analyzed the material they had collected, in compliance with project guidelines. researchers then created reports based on their findings, establishing case studies for all 28 entities selected for stage three of the project (one research report for each social enterprise). triangulation of research methods helped to ensure the validity of research findings, with experienced researchers monitoring all procedures, and verifying data quality and reliability. research results concerning the projectification of social enterprises presented in this paper were obtained from a qualitative analysis of the 28 case studies. after reading the research material, our attention was drawn to the fact that the majority of these social enterprises started their activities as projects, most frequently financed indirectly with eu resources. this feature was very interesting to us, and we decided to submit it to more in-depth consideration. in general, we searched for particular regularities in the 28 case studies. we also attempted to explain problems with distinguishing and conducting projects in these social enterprises, the bright side of social economy sector’s projectification project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 20169 (page number not for citation purposes) as well as establishing stable organizations from projects. the analysis on which we base our conclusions in this paper involved searching for cross-case patterns. in particular, our qualitative analysis involved: • carrying out a preliminary reading of all 28 case studies, together with level-oriented categorisation and comparison of data. this allowed us to define the notion of social enterprise success, and establish definitions for sustainability/stability and downfall/ stagnation in social enterprise; • classifying all 28 case studies as successful, sustainable/stable or in downfall/ stagnating social enterprises; • selecting 16 case studies in which projects constituted an essential element in establishing the social enterprises, as well as their ongoing operation; • analyzing these 16 social enterprises, establishing categories and sizes of project activity, and grouping them into two main types based on similarities and differences; • manually coding the case studies prepared by researchers from the institute of public affairs (containing quotes from managers and leaders), highlighting words, phrases, sentences, and whole paragraphs that referenced projects and success factors in social enterprises; • assigning organizational categories to the social enterprises during “data destilation” (tesch 1990), including their legal form, development stage, social goals, and type of business activity; • reducing the categorized research materials and subjecting them to cross-case analysis; and finally • int roducing certain generalizations of explanatory character, which do not claim any rights to universality. before our findings are presented in detail, key categories referenced above – social enterprise success, sustainability/stability, and downfall/stagnation – need fuller explanation. this will allow us to relate projectification to each social enterprise’s situation at the time of the research. of course, our categories draw on conventional characteristics, since it is impossible to explicitly determine the difference between the success and sustainability/ stability of an enterprise. an enterprise that has achieved success is one whose leaders decide it is successful and start offering new services or products, and increasing the number of employed staff. it is also financially stable and invests financial surplus in new business undertakings. furthermore, its competitive area is continuously growing and its services are not only local. there were seven social enterprises of the success type among the 28 entities selected for stage three of the project. an enterprise displaying sustainability is one whose leaders notice a certain stability in its activities. it has a set number of clients, allowing it to preserve liquidity and stay in the market (with possible, permanent support resulting from achieving social objectives, such as occupational workshops). the majority (20) of the social enterprises in stage three had relative organizational sustainability. and finally, an enterprise at a downfall stage is one that has lost its clients and liquidity, and/or depends on a parent organization, does not employ paid staff, and its leaders believe will cease activity in the near future. there were three enterprises that had these characteristics. bogacz-wojtanowska & jałocha project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201610 (page number not for citation purposes) in addition to categorising all 28 social enterprises according to their stage of development, we submitted a subgroup of 16 social enterprises to detailed analysis. table 1 presents their basic organizational characteristics. statements presented below are fragments of original answers given by leaders of social enterprises, during in-depth interviews with them. the role of projects in social enterprises researched by us, “breakthroughs” were identified – also called “milestones” by some leaders – which represented the beginnings of stable development. interviewees indicated that projects which enabled them to start up or develop their enterprises offered such breakthroughs. this observation was confirmed by the fact that, in many cases, the projects had an “organization establishing” role, that is, they constituted an impulse or source for establishing a stable organization. for example: the year 2004 was a breakthrough. first, solidarity project was established in a social centre, where the mayor wondered together with the director what to do in order to minimize the unemployment in the commune. […] they decided that they would buy chickens and ducks and give them away to people. they would buy seeds for people to cultivate. […] later, there had been no act on cooperatives yet, but the mayor thought of a social cooperative. (enterprise a) in addition, there was a characteristic external projectification that led to each enterprise being established: an essential role was played by the networks and actions of local activists, who organized and co-established the project on the grounds of existing networks. usually, the projects used and activated local social and economic resources. for example: our history begins […] with the decision to give the city of wroclaw a title of the european capital of culture 2016. on the roll of this event, urban cultural institution impart – wroclaw 2016 together with the british council entered into partnership within the project future city jobs, within which workshops for local activists, entrepreneurs, persons connected with culture and art, and broadly understood local leaders were held. (enterprise n) social enterprises that start operating without support in the form of a project, as with enterprises a and n above, are significantly hindered at the outset. they must source and allocate relevant resources before executing activities, which would have been much easier with the project support. there are no situations when enterprises use all available resources distributed with the use of projects only as to increase their revenues. for different reasons these organizations engage in projects, but these reasons must be always important and related with the enterprise’s social objectives, e.g. with social integration. in some sense and in a rather unaware manner it writes down in a conception of organization portfolio management – a strategic selection of these initiatives that support the enterprise’s development. we are trying to obtain these resources that sometimes occur and conduct ideas that are society-oriented. it is not like that, that we take just whatever, because we must be certain that we are truly able to provide something a service or a project. we consult everything, we know what is going on and have contact with the commune. i think that we operate thanks to a good contact with the commune and that we do the things we do. we would certainly lose, if it was different and if we only dealt with services and did that just as any other company would. (enterprise a) the bright side of social economy sector’s projectification project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201611 (page number not for citation purposes) t ab le 1 c h ar ac te ri st ic s of a n al yz ed s oc ia l en te rp ri se s a n al yz ed so ci al en te rp ri se d ev el op m en t st ag e l eg al fo rm a s co p e of u n d er ta ke n b u si n es s ac ti vi ty a s co p e of u n d er ta ke n s oc ia l ac ti vi ty ( so ci al ob je ct iv es ) a su st ai n ab il it y so ci al co op er at iv e ed u ca ti on , c on st ru ct io n lo gi st ic s, p ol yg ra p h y em p lo ym en t, a ct iv it y fo r th e b en efi t of lo ca l co m m u n it y b su st ai n ab il it y so ci al co op er at iv e ca re s er vi ce s, of fi ce s u p p li es d is tr ib u ti on re in te gr at io n o f d is ab le d w om en w h o su ff er ed fr om c an ce r, h el p fo r th e el d er ly a n d t h e d is ab le d c su st ai n ab il it y so ci al co op er at iv e p ro d u ct io n a n d s al e of p el le t em p lo ym en t of p er so n s at p re -r et ir em en t ag e an d w it h d is ab il it ie s d su st ai n ab il it y as so ci at io n p ro d u ct io n o f ec ol og ic al a li m en ta ry ar ti cl es , a n im al b re ed in g h el p in g p er so n s w it h h iv /a id s a n d d is ab le d p er so n e su st ai n ab il it y so ci al co op er at iv e cl ea n in g an d r en ov at io n / co n st ru ct io n s er vi ce s re n ti n g fa ci li ti es em p lo yi n g an d s u p p or ti n g ex cl u d ed p er so n s f su cc es s as so ci at io n th em at ic w or ks h op s, in te gr at io n st ay s, r u ra l s p a , r en ta l of r oo m s an d a cc om m od at io n fa ci li ti es , l oc al p ro d u ct s ac ti va ti on o f lo ca l en vi ro n m en t an d c re at io n o f w or kp la ce s on t h e gr ou n d s of c u lt u ra l h er it ag e of t h e re gi on , a s w el l as g en er al c u lt u ra l h er it ag e p ro te ct io n o f th e re gi on t ab le 1 c on ti n u es o n t h e n ex t p ag e bogacz-wojtanowska & jałocha project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201612 (page number not for citation purposes) a n al yz ed so ci al en te rp ri se d ev el op m en t st ag e l eg al fo rm a s co p e of u n d er ta ke n b u si n es s ac ti vi ty a s co p e of u n d er ta ke n s oc ia l ac ti vi ty ( so ci al ob je ct iv es ) g su cc es s so ci al co op er at iv e in te gr at io n o f ch il d ca re fa ci li ti es h el p fo r ch il d re n in d if fi cu lt l if e si tu at io n s h d ow n fa ll li m it ed l ia b il it y co m p an y ca te ri n g re in tr od u ct io n t o th e la b ou r m ar ke t p er so n s w it h c er ti fi ed p sy ch ic d is ab il it y, a s w el l as ac ti ve p ro m ot io n o f so ci al e n tr ep re n eu rs h ip i su st ai n ab il it y so ci al co op er at iv e re n ov at io n /r oo fi n g w or ks p ro fe ss io n al a ct iv at io n o f th e u n em p lo ye d j su st ai n ab il it y so ci al co op er at iv e ca te ri n g (b is tr o) em p lo ym en t, p ro m ot io n o f h ea lt h y fo od k su cc es s so ci al co op er at iv e ca te ri n g (r es ta u ra n t) p ro m ot io n o f h ea lt h y ap p ro ac h es t o li fe , a n d su p p or t fo r lo ca l fa rm er s in c u lt iv at io n u si n g n at u ra l m et h od s l su st ai n ab il it y so ci al co op er at iv e gr ap h ic d es ig n , p h ot og ra p h y, m u lt im ed ia , a n d a d ve rt is in g se rv ic es p ro fe ss io n al a n d s oc ia l re in te gr at io n , l oc al d ev el op m en t, c re at io n o f va lu es t ab le 1 (c on ti nu ed ) t ab le 1 c on ti n u es o n t h e n ex t p ag e the bright side of social economy sector’s projectification project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201613 (page number not for citation purposes) a n al yz ed so ci al en te rp ri se d ev el op m en t st ag e l eg al fo rm a s co p e of u n d er ta ke n b u si n es s ac ti vi ty a s co p e of u n d er ta ke n s oc ia l ac ti vi ty ( so ci al ob je ct iv es ) m su st ai n ab il it y so ci al co op er at iv e h ou se ke ep in g, g ar d en in g re in tr od u ct io n o f p er so n s th re at en ed w it h ex cl u si on in to t h e m ar ke t, e n ab li n g so ci al ac ti va ti on a n d in te gr at io n , a n d r es to re d re la ti on s in t h e lo ca l co m m u n it y n su cc es s so ci al co op er at iv e im ag e an d t ra in in g se rv ic es , 3 d p ro je ct s an d p ri n tou ts , s cr ee n p ri n ti n g w or ks h op s, s ew in g cu lt u ra l se rv ic es o su st ai n ab il it y ch u rc h or ga n is at io n ca te ri n g so ci al a n d p ro fe ss io n al in te gr at io n , o p er at io n of a s oc ia l in te gr at io n c lu b p su cc es s oc cu p at io n al w or ks h op cr af t ac ti va ti on a n d r ei n te gr at io n o f p er so n s w it h au ti sm s ou rc e: o w n st ud y on t he g ro un ds o f r es ea rc h. t ab le 1 (c on ti nu ed ) bogacz-wojtanowska & jałocha project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201614 (page number not for citation purposes) projects are also used as an instrument to motivate employees, which results from the fact that researched enterprises use in managing people practices of the third sector. this was pointed to by the leaders by underlining difficulties with leaving social-based thinking with domineering friendly and membership relations. projects also offer a way to increase the innovativeness of an enterprise, enabling the enterprise to execute tasks that it could not have otherwise afforded due to a lack of resources. these tasks are often unique, innovative. developmental factors: initial project to social enterprise common objectives and previous cooperation despite the fact that our case study analysis explicitly implies that project performance is a catalyst for developing social enterprise, in most cases enterprise leaders indicated that the success of a social enterprise does not depend on the initial project but on the motivation and idea for common business. in addition, research reveals that developing knowledge about project management in social enterprise does not always lead to greater organizational effectiveness, as the subject literature indicates with ngos (golini, kalchschmidt & landoni 2015). enterprise leaders suggest that artificially forced social entrepreneurship, as is the case with projects financed by the eu – which might involve gathering together a group of persons who have not met before and expecting them to cooperate, for example, on starting up a social cooperative – does not determine success, as illustrated in the following example: frequently, support programmes aimed at establishing founding groups do not fulfill their role in the fullest because they reach recipients in a proper way. it is much easier to work with a group that reported its willingness to set up a cooperative itself rather than with the one that was a bit artificially gathered during classes within some kind of a project. (enterprise c) often after receiving this kind of forced support via external projects, frequently implemented with eu resources, an enterprise does not manage well in the market and stagnates, possibly searching for better support. whereas projects aimed at social enterprises are usually set up to help disfavoured groups, and the project focus is on encouraging those who are not typically entrepreneurial and active. research demonstrates that the optimal situation for positively influencing the development of a sustainable social enterprise is when a group of persons (a so-called founding group) with a common, clearly set aim and idea for business applies for participation in a project. if founding group members already know each other there is greater opportunity for optimal use of individual competencies, as well as a kind of a synergy resulting from combining their abilities: since the founding group knew themselves earlier [...] and had diverse professional experience – including, among others, a dietician, a cook, a manager, an environment protection engineer, and a social activist – they decided to open a vegetarian–vegan bar. thus, everyone could feel accomplished thanks to their common activity. furthermore, on the grounds of market and environment observation, they decided that this facility would respond to increasing need for a diet based on healthy food. (enterprise k) leadership: different, but necessary as our research implies, one of the most important factors influencing the success and stability of an enterprise is leadership. enterprise leaders agreed that, apart from a common the bright side of social economy sector’s projectification project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201615 (page number not for citation purposes) business vision, leadership is the most important factor determining the success of a social enterprise. yet there is no one style of leadership: in our case studies we identified a full spectrum of attitudes and expectation, top-down leadership to scattered, participative leadership. another interesting observation was that cooperatives, despite being entities with an assumed democratic character, often embrace a classic leadership style based on the presence of a strong leader, as explained below: in a cooperative there must always be a leader who must be accepted by the rest of the members. he or she must supervise everything. one frequently hears about cooperatives that have great ideas, but they do not start off because people fight over who should be the leader. it is very important to determine at the beginning who is responsible for what. (enterprise a) shared, democratic leadership requires, according to enterprise leaders, more effort, but is considered the optimal form, reflecting ideas and objectives of a social enterprise: it is not that obvious that everything is perfect. however, a certain collective was established, got to know themselves, and despite certain arguments, as usually happens with democratic structures where there is no pyramid, everybody co-decides; they are able to cowork, cooperate, and support themselves. (enterprise n) individual competency another factor identified by us, allowing stable social enterprise to develop, is the business competencies of employees, including skills related to project and project portfolio management. our analysis indicates that a lack of competency is one of the main sources of downfall or stagnation in social enterprise. an enterprise cannot be led without employees who possess the skills needed to secure a place in the competitive market. basically, projects were conducted in each enterprise, and the need for relevant competencies to conduct and manage those projects was underlined. what was interesting, however, was that experience in project work was not enough: some founders of social enterprises, usually those founders originating from the third sector, often had project competencies but lacked entrepreneurship experience, as in the following example: [enterprise h] gathered activists, persons of ethos dedicated to the idea of helping the weak and levelling the odds, yet, although these persons had experience with project work, this environment was missing others with experience in conducting a business activity, entrepreneurial people. the president of [enterprise h] did not hide that he lacks such experience and, moreover, he did not want to manage an enterprise for ideological reasons: “[…] it is extremely difficult for me to change my mind-set to other priorities, to other ways of thinking that each penny must be earned and that this is normal, ethical.” (enterprise h) when members of a social enterprise do not have any particular business skills, organizational problems appear. drive, involvement and a sense of mission can allow an enterprise to strive through the toughest times, but a lack of managerial competence is felt. if there is at least one person with the necessary competency, managerial problems can be avoided, as in the example below: [...] she has great experience. for a long time she had been a chief accountant in a cooperative of the disabled. as far as i know, she was a member of the supervisory board. she is well skilled in management. we learn a lot from her. (enterprise b) bogacz-wojtanowska & jałocha project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201616 (page number not for citation purposes) it is worth underlining that because persons who become employees of social enterprises are often excluded, they usually do not have competencies in management. it is not, however, important that all members of an enterprise acquire such skills; it is enough for one individual or a couple of persons to have the capacity to transform a project into an enterprise. throughout the process everyone, including excluded persons without business experience, can learn and become important players in an enterprise. for example: the oldest employee, and at the same time a member of the management board, [originally] went to gardening workshops organized by cis due to being unemployed for over ten years (when he lived off collecting waste paper and scrap). there was a time when he lost his apartment and became homeless. then he turned up at cis and decided to join a social cooperative that was in the process of establishment within gardening workshops. joining the cooperative was a chance for employment he could not have found, despite trying. currently, the employee is satisfied both with the relation he has with other employees, the respect, the possibility to use his own skills, and the remuneration, which, as he says, is enough for a living. (enterprise m) conclusion projectification includes all areas of organizational activity, and impacts the social sector by introducing a way of distributing financial resources to enable the development of social enterprises. this impact, in the case of the social enterprises researched by us, seems to have had a rather positive, organization-establishing character. by comparison, projectification in the public sector, in particular with initiatives driven by eu programmes, also entails several restrictions and causes pathology. social enterprises seem to benefit from the boon of projectification and avoid thoughtlessly adopting project management as the best and only method of conducting activities. social enterprises researched by us treated projects as instruments, that is, as a means to obtain external funds and start up their activities. furthermore, as opposed to the common belief that project maturity contributes to the success of an organization and striving for an increase in maturity should be an aim itself, social enterprises cope well by rejecting project management as the main method of conducting activities. our research did not show a correlation between success and a high level of project maturity. it turns out projects are a kind of a trampoline for social enterprises, allowing them to develop in the first, difficult stage of activity and, later, most organizations are not interested in project management professionalization. this finding probably reflects the areas of activity undertaken by social enterprises in our case studies and, in most cases, their lack of interest in diversification into more innovative services and products. projects that entail external funding, predominantly from the eu resources are, therefore, undertaken to obtain funds, but this is not understood to be the main form of task realisation by social enterprises. therefore, it seems that social enterprises benefit from projectification process and, at the same time, are not subject to transformation into project-oriented organizations. furthermore, projects in the social sector are used to build networks for social enterprises. we can state that social enterprises researched by us do not submit to projectification pressure, using the project approach rather than being dominated by it. undoubtedly, a bright, positive side of projectification is the fact that projects are accepted as commonplace and resources to start up social enterprises are readily available, making it possible to realise social initiatives. projects and related financial resources constitute a the bright side of social economy sector’s projectification project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201617 (page number not for citation purposes) trampoline for the excluded, for the unemployed, for persons without any perspectives to start up their own social enterprise. it is clearly possible to distinguish two versions of establishing a social enterprise through the agency of a project called, by us, an “initiation project”. in the first version, an initiative to start up a social enterprise comes from the public sector and, thus, the new enterprise can count on favour and support from, among others, eu resources. in the second version, an enterprise is set up through the resourcefulness of private persons, who take advantage of money flowing in their environment from projects conducted by an ngo. usually, in the second scenario, the enterprise remains “under the care” of the ngo. both versions can lead to establishing permanent organizational structures, but in poland the initiation projects are usually incubators, or starting points for social enterprise. factors most frequently cited as determining the development of a successful or stable social enterprise from a project structure are as follows: • common aim and previous cooperation of a founding group; • leadership; and • business experience of employees. our research proved that conducting post-initiative projects is sometimes important for successful social enterprises. in particular, post-initiative projects enable enterprises to extend their offer, and introduce innovative products or services. social enterprises that offer less innovative products and services (for example, cleaning, renovation works, and catering) are usually not interested in realising new projects, instead preferring to focus on their core delivery. research shows that even though projects are extremely important at the starting point for social enterprises, they are not a preferred method of conducting activities at the point of achieving a stable level of activity. this happens for two reasons. firstly, it is much easier to obtain project support to start up an enterprise than to finance objective-oriented, specialist projects designed to benefit enterprises that have already achieved a level of stability. secondly, the majority of projects that can be realised by social enterprises impact the social sphere, that is, they realise social and not business aims (bogacz-wojtanowska 2015). social projects are used only by social enterprises that are ngos and, thus, they can use a series of projects aimed at the third sector. it allows them to calmly develop business, even during a weak economic situation, and to maintain jobs and achieve social aims. project support that is potentially available to those that were successful in the market, including financial resources available for other enterprises. as of then it means exploring the market, to which, it seems, only some social enterprises in poland are prepared. compared with typical ngos, which largely base their activity on projects and act on the ground conducting project portfolios, social enterprises researched by us more often focussed on operative activity. in the case of ngos that are also social enterprises, the notion of an economic activity can constitute an intentional attempt to escape the projectification that comes from the public sector, characterized by gradual governmentalization. third sector governmentalization processes observed in the world since the eighties (lipsky & smith 1989) result from cooperation with the public sector, and mean a gradual loss of independence and transformation into quasi-ngos. such phenomena are also observed in the polish third sector. due to the fact that the research was of a qualitative character, was conducted on a small number of polish social enterprises, and was not of a longitudinal character, there would be value in bogacz-wojtanowska & jałocha project management research and practice, vol. 3 july-dec. 201618 (page number not for citation purposes) continuing the investigation on a wider group of organizations operating in a variety of countries. nevertheless, the research undoubtedly allows us to state that in a time of galloping projectification we still find organizations that benefit from this process and are not subjected completely to its negative effects – organizations in which social objectives remain much more important than modern trends in management and a human is always more important than a method. about the authors ewa bogacz-wojtanowska, phd, is an organizational and management researcher, associate professor at the institute of public affairs, jagiellonian university in cracow, poland. her professional interests are nonprofit and social enterprise management, cooperation among public and non-governmental organization and civil society. beata jałocha, phd, is an assistant professor at the institute of public affairs, jagiellonian university in cracow, poland. her main research interests are projectification, project management in public and non-governmental sectors, critical participatory action research. references amin, a. 2009, ‘locating the social economy’, in a. amin (ed.), social economy: international perspectives on economic solidarity, zed books, london & new york, pp. 3–21. aubry, m. & lenfle, s. 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